THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
FROM THE LIBRARY
OF
ELI SOBEL
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOB
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
BY
ALBERT BARENESS, PH. D., LL. D.,
PROFESSOR IN SHOWN UNIVERSITY.
t
REVISED STANDARD EDITION.
NEW YORK .: CINCINNATI : CHICAGO:
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY.
COPYRIGHT, 1864, l8J<i W8L.
Bt 1). APPhETON AND COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1892,
BY ALBERT HAKKNESS.
HAKK LAT. GRAM
\V. P. 1 6
SRLfi
URL
PREFACE
TO THE HE VIS ED EDITION.
THE last quarter of a century has revealed many im-
portant facts in the development of language. During
this period philological research has thrown new light
upon Latin forms and inflections, upon the laws of pho-
netic change, upon the use of cases, moods, and tenses,
and upon the origin and history of numerous construc-
tions. The student of Latin grammar is now entitled to
the full benefit of the important practical results which
these labors in the field of linguistic study have brought
within the proper sphere of the school. In securing this
advantage, however, care must be taken not to divert the
attention of the learner from the one object before him
the attainment of a full and accurate knowledge of the
language.
The volume now offered to the public has been pre-
pared in view of these facts. It is the result of a thor-
ough and complete revision of the author's Latin Gr&m-
mar published in 1864. To a large extent, indeed, it is
a new and independent work ; yet the paradigms, rules
of construction, and in general all parts intended for
recitation, have been only slightly changed. The aim of
the work in its present form is threefold.
1. It is designed to present a clear, simple, and con-
venient outline of Latin grammar for the beginner. It
Jy PREFACE.
accordingly contains, in large type, a systematic arrange-
ment of the leading facts and laws of the language, ex-
hibiting not only grammatical forms and constructions,
but also those vital principles which underlie, control,
and explain them. The laws of construction are put in
the form of definite rules, and illustrated by carefully
selected examples. To secure convenience of reference,
and to give completeness and vividness to the general
outline, these rules, after having been separately dis-
cussed, are collected in a body at the close of the Syntax.
Topics which require the fullest illustration are first pre-
sented in their completeness in general outline, before
the separate points are explained in detail. Thus a single
page often foreshadows the leading features of an ex-
tended discussion, imparting, it is believed, a completeness
and vividness to the impression of the learner impossible
under any other treatment.
2. It is intended to be an adequate and trustworthy
grammar for the advanced student. By brevity and con-
ciseness of phraseology, and by compactness in the ar-
rangement of forms and topics, an ample collection of
the most important grammatical facts, intended for refer-
ence, has been compressed within the limits of a con-
venient manual. Care has been taken to explain and
illustrate, with the requisite fullness, all difficult and in-
tricate subjects. The Subjunctive Mood and the Indirect
Discourse have received special attention.
3. In a series of foot-notes it aims to bring within the
reach of the student some of the more important results
of recent linguistic research. Brief explanations are
given of the working of phonetic laws, of the nature of
inflection, of the origin of special idioms, and of various
facts in the growth of language. But the distinguishing
feature of this part of the work consists in the abundant
PREFACE. V
references which are made to some of the latest aud best
authorities upon the numerous linguistic questions natur-
ally suggested by the study of Latin grammar. 1
An attempt has been made to indicate, as far as
practicable, the natural quantity of vowels before two
consonants or a double consonant. 2
With this brief statement of its design and plan, this
volume is now respectfully committed to the hands of
classical teachers.
In conclusion the author is happy to express his
grateful acknowledgments to the numerous friends who
have favored him with valuable suggestions.
1 See page xv. It is hardly necessary to add that an acquaintance with the authori-
ties here cited is by no means to be regarded as an indispensable qualification for the
work of classical instruction. The references are intended especially for those who
adopt the historical method in the study of language.
2 See page 4, foot-note 4 ; also page 9, note 3.
BROWN UNIVERSITY, PROVIDENCE, R. L,
July, 1881.
CONTENTS
PART Fl RST.
ORTHOGRAPHY. >JMrt
Alphabet 1
Roman Method of Pronunciation 3
English Method 5
Continental Method 8
Quantity 8
Accentuation 9
Phonetic Changes 10
L Changes in Vowels . . 11
II. Changes in Consonants 16
PA RT SECON D.
ETYMOLOGY.
CHAPTER I.
NOUNS.
Gender 21
Person, Number, and Case 22
Declension 23
First Declension ........... 24
Greek Nouns 26
Second Declension 26
Greek Nouns 29
Third Declension 30
Class I. Consonant-Stems 30
Stems in a Labial 30
Stems in a Dental 31
Stems in a Guttural 32
Stems in a Liquid or a Nasal 33
Stems in S 34
Class II. I-Stems 36
Special Paradigms ......... 39
Greek Nouns 40
Synopsis of the Third Declension . . . . . .41
Gender 46
Fourth Declension . . . 48
Viii CONTENTS.
MM
Fifth Declension 80
General Table of Gender 61
Declension of Compound Nouns 62
Irregular Nouns 63
I. Indeclinable . 63
II. Defective 68
III. Heteroclites 66
IV. Heterogeneous 56
CHAPTER II.
ADJECTIVES.
First and Second Deciena^ons ....... 57
Third Declension .... .... 59
Irregular Adjectives ... ... 62
Comparison 63
I. Terminational Comparison 68
II. Adverbial Comparison 66
Numerals 66
CHAPTER III.
PRONOUNS.
I. Personal Pronouns 70
II. Possessive Pronouns 71
III. Demonstrative Pronouns 72
IV. Relative Pronouns 74
V. Interrogative Pronouns . . . . . . . .75
VI. Indefinite Pronouns . 76
Table of Correlatives 77
CHAPTER IV.
VERBS.
Voices, Moods , 78
Tenses ............. 80
Numbers, Persons ,.... 81
Infinitive, Gerund, Supine .. , . . .81
Participle 82
Conjugation .... 82
Paradigms of Verbs . 84
Comparative View of Conjugations 102
Verbs in 15: Conjugation ifi 106
Verbal Inflections . . . 108
Synopsis of Conjugation . . . . . . . . 110
Deponent Verbs . , . . 1 14
Periphrastic Conjugation . . . . . . . . 114
Peculiarities in Conjugation 115
Analysis of Verbal Endings 117
I. Tense-signs 117
II. Mood-signs 117
III. Personal Endings . . . . , , .118
CONTENTS. i x
PASS
Formation of Stems 119
I. Present Stem 119
II. Perfect Stems 121
III. Supine Stem 122
Classification of Verbs 122
First Conjugation 122
Second Conjugation 124
Third Conjugation 127
Fourth Conjugation 134
Irregular Verbs 135
Defective . 141
Impersonal 143
CHAPTER V.
PARTICLES.
idverbs 144
Table of Correlatives 147
Comparison 149
Prepositions 149
Conjunctions 160
Interjections 162
CHAPTER VI.
FORMATION OF WORDS.
I. Roots, Stems, Suffixes 162
Primary Suffixes 166
II. Derivation of Words 168
Derivative Nouns 158
Derivative Adjectives 165
Derivative Verbs 169
III. Composition of Words 172
Compound Nouns 173
Compound Adjectives 174
Compound Verbs . 176
PART THIRD.
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER I.
SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.
I. Classification of Sentences 179
II. Elements of Sentences . , . , - . . .182
X CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
SYNTAX OF NOUNS.
PAGE
I. Agreement of Nouns 184
Predicate Nouns 184
Appositives 185
II. General View of Cases 186
III. Nominative, Vocative 187
I. Nominative 187
II. Vocative 188
IV. Accusative 189
I. Direct Object 189
Two Accusatives 191
II. Accusative in an Adverbial Sense .... 193
Accusative of Specification 193
Accusative of Time and Space . . . 194
Accusative of Limit 195
III. Accusative in Exclamations 196
V. Dative 196
Dative with Verbs Indirect Object . . . 197
Dative with Special Verbs 199
Dative with Compounds . . . . . 201
Dative of Possessor 202
Dative of Apparent Agent . ... 202
Ethical Dative .203
Two Datives 204
Dative with Adjectives 204
Dative with Nouns and Adverbs .... 205
VI. Genitive 206
Genitive with Nouns 206
Genitive with Adjectives . . . . . .210
Predicate Genitive 212
Genitive with Special Verbs 213
Accusative and Genitive 215
VII. Ablative 217
I. Ablative Proper 218
Ablative of Place from which 218
Ablative of Separation, Source, Cause . . 218
Ablative with Comparatives 222
II. Instrumental Ablative . . . . . . 223
Ablative of Accompaniment 223
Ablative of Means 224
Ablative in Special Constructions .... 225
Ablative of Price 226
Ablative of Difference 226
Ablative of Specification 227
III. Locative Ablative 227
Ablative of Place 227
Ablative of Time 229
Ablative Absolute 231
VIII. Cases with Prepositions 232
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER III.
SYNTAX OP ADJECTIVES. PAO E
Agreement of Adjectives . . ^ 239
Use of Adjectives 241
CHAPTER IV.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
Agreement of Pronouns 244
Use of Pronouns 246
Personal, Possessive . 246
Reflexive .247
Demonstrative 248
Relative 251
Interrogative 252
Indefinite 252
CHAPTER V.
SYNTAX OF VERBS.
I. Agreement of Verbs Use of Voices 254
1 1. Indicative and its Tenses . . . . . . 257
Tenses of Indicative 257
Use of Indicative . . . 262
III. General View of the Subjunctive and its Tenses . . 264
IV. Subjunctive in Principal Clauses 265
Subjunctive of Desire 265
Potential Subjunctive 266
V. Imperative and its Tenses ....... 268
VI. Moods in Subordinate Clauses 269
I. Tenses of Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses . . 269
II. Subjunctive in Clauses of Purpose . 273
III. Subjunctive in Clauses of Result 276
IV. Moods in Conditional Sentences .... 280
V. Moods in Concessive Clauses 287
VI. Moods in Causal Clauses 289
VII. Moods in Temporal Clauses 291
VIII. Indirect Discourse 296
Moods and Tenses in Indirect Discourse . . . 296
Persons and Pronouns in Indirect Discourse . 299
Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse . . 299
Indirect Clauses 301
VII. Infinitive Substantive Clauses ...... 306
I. Infinitive 306
Infinitive with Verbs 306
Accusative and Infinitive with Verbs . . . 308
Subject of Infinitive 310
Tenses of Infinitive 311
Infinitive in Special Constructions . . . .313
II. Substantive Clauses 314
CONTENTS.
VIII. Gerunds, Gerundives, Supines, and Participles . . 314
I. Gerunds 314
II. Gerundives 316
III. Supines 317
IV. Participles . . . 318
CHAPTER VI.
SYNTAX OF PARTICLES.
Adverbs 320
Conjunctions 321
Interjections 324
CHAPTER VII.
Rules of Syntax 324
CHAPTER VIII.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES.
Arrangement of Words 333
Arrangement of Clauses 336
PART FOURTH.
PROSODY
CHAPTER I.
QUANTITY.
I. General Rules of Quantity 338
II. Quantity in Final Syllables 339
III. Quantity in Increments 342
Increments of Declension 342
Increments of Conjugation 344
IV. Quantity of Derivative Endings 344
V. Quantity of Stem-Syllables 346
CHAPTER II.
VERSIFICATION.
I. General View of the Subject 349
Feet .350
Verses 351
Figures of Prosody 353
CONTENTS. xni
PAGE
II. Varieties of Verse 354
I. Dactylic Hexameter 354
II. Other Dactylic Verses 358
III. Trochaic Verse 359
IV. Iambic Verse 360
V. Ionic Verse 361
VI. Logaoedic Verse 362
III. Versification of the Principal Latin Poets .... 364
Vergil, Juvenal, Ovid, Horace 364
Lyric Metres of Horace ....... 364
Index to Lyric Metres of Horace ..... 368
Catullus, Martial, Seneca, Plautus Terence. . . . 368
APPENDIX.
I. Figures of Speech . 370
II. Latin Language and Literature 374
III. Roman Calendar 376
IV. Roman Money, Weights, and Measures 378
V. Roman Names 380
Abbreviations 380
VI. Vowels before Two Consonants or a Double Consonant 381
Index of Verbs 383
General Index 390
TITLES OF WOEKS CITED
f THE FOOT-NOTES OF THIS GRAMMAR
Ada Soefetatis PMlologae Lipsiensis. Lipsiae, 1870-1888.
ALLEX, F. D. Remnants oj Early Latin. Boston, 1880.
BOPP, F. Vergleichende Grammatik. Berlin, 3d ed., 1870.
BOUTKBWKK, R., und TEGGE, AUG. Die altsprachliche Orthoepie und dit
Praxit. Berlin, 1878.
BRAKBACH, W. Hulfsbuchlein fur lateinische Rtchtschreibung. Leipzig, 8d
ed., 1887.
BRAMBACH, W. Die Nengestaltung der lateinischen Orthographic. Leipzig,
1868.
Biu:<iii ANN, K. Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik. Strassburg, 1886.
BflCHELER, F. Grundriss der lateinischen Declination. Leipzig, 1866; Bonn,
1879.
BONGKR, C. Die lateinische Quantit&t in positwnslanyen Silken. Strassburg,
1881.
CHRIST, W. MetriJc der Griechtn und Romer. Leipzig, 1874.
CORSSEN, W. Aussprache^ VocaMemus, und Betonung der lattinisehen
Spracht. Leipzig, 2d ed., 1868.
CORSSEN, W. KrUische Beitrage. Leipzig, 1868.
CURTIDS, G. Zur Chronologie der wdo-germanisclien Sprach/ortchung. Leip-
zig, 2d ed., 1873.
CTTBTITJS, G. Dot Verbvm der grieohisohen Sprache. Leipzig, 2d ed., 1880.
DKLBKCCK, B. Ablativ, Locate, Inttrumentalis. Berlin, 1867.
DELBHCOK, B. Der Gebrauch dts Gonjvnctivt und Optative vm Sanskrit und
Griechischen. Halle, 1871.
DELBRCOK, B. Mnleitung in das Sprachetudium. Leipzig, 1880.
DRAEOER, A. Hietorische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache. Leipzig, 2d ed.,
1881.
ELLIS, A. J. Quantitative Pronunciation of Latin. London, 1874.
FOKRSTER, W. Sestimmung der lateinischen Quantitdt aus dem Roman-
ischen. Rheinisches Museum, xxxiii., pp. 291-299. Frankfurt am Main.
HARTUKO, J. A. Die Casus, ihre Bildung und Bedeutung. Erlangen, 1881.
HOFFMANN, E. Die Construction der lateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Wien, 1873.
HOLZWBISSIO, FR. Localistische Catustheorie. Leipzig, 1877.
HffBsoHMANN, H. Zvr Casuskhre. Munchen, 1875.
JOLLY, J. Geschichte des Jnjinitivs im Indo-germanischen. Muncnen, 1873.
KuHir, A. ZtiUchrift fur cergleichende Sprachforsehung. Berlin. 1861-1888
TITLES OF WORKS CITED.
R. Ausfuhrliche Grammatik der lateinischen Sprache. Haimovei;
1879.
, E. Die Syntax von Quom. Breslau, 1870.
MARX, A. Die Aussprache der lateinischen Vocale in positionslangen Silben.
Berlin, 1888.
MKBGUET, H. Lateinitche Formenbildung. Berlin, 1870.
METER, G. Griechische Grammatik. Leipzig, 2d ed., 1886.
MCLLER, L. Orthographiae et Prosodiae Latinae Summarium. Lipsiae, 1878.
MOLLER, L. De Be Metrica Poetarum Latinorum libri VII. Lipsiae, 1861.
MUXLEB, MAX. The Science of Language. New York, 2d ed., 1868.
MUNBO, H. A. J. The Pronunciation of Latin. Cambridge, 1874.
NAGELSBAOH, C. F. Lateinische StiUstik. Nurnberg, 6th ed., 1876.
OBTHOFF, H. Zur Geschiohte det Perfects im, Indo-germanischen. Strassburg,
1884.
PAPILLON, T. L. A Manual of Comparative Philology. Oxford, 3d ed., 1887.
PEILE, J. Greek and Latin Etymology. London, 2d ed., 1872.
PENKA, K. Die Nominalfiexion der Indo-germanischen Sprachen. Wien,
1878.
PBISOIANUS, C. Institutionum Grammaticarum libri XVIII. Lipsiae, 1855.
RAMSAY, W. Latin Prosody. London, 6th ed., 1887.
RITSOHL, FB. Uhsere heutige Austpraehe des Latein. Rheinisches Museum,
xxxi., pp. 481-492.
ROBY, H. J. A Grammar of the Latin Language. London, 2d ed., 1886.
RUMPEL, TH. Die Casuslehre. HaUe, 4th ed., 1876.
SOHLBIOHEB, AUG. Compendium der vergUichenden Grammatik. Weimar,
1866.
SCHMIDT, J. H. H. Leitfaden in der Rhythmik und Metrik der clatsischen
Sprachen. Leipzig, 1869. A translation by Professor White. Boston,
1878.
SCHMJTZ, W. Seitrage sur lateinischen Sprachkunde. Leipsig, 1877.
SCHOLL, F. Veterum Grammaticorum de Acoentu Linguae Latinae Teetimo-
nia. Acta Societatis Philologae Lipsiensis, vi., pp. 71-215.
SEELMANH, E. Die Aussprache des Latein. Heilbronu, 1885.
SIEVERS, E. Grundzuge der Phonetik. Leipzig, 3d ed., 1885.
SPENGEL, A. Plautus, Kritik, Prosodie, Metrik. Gottingen, 1865.
BTOLZ, F. Lateinische Grammatik. Handbuch der classischen Altertums-
wissenschaft von I. Muller. Nordlingen, 1885.
Transactions of the American Philological Association. Hartford, 1869-1888.
VANICEK, A. Etymologieches Worterbuch der lateinischen Sprache. Leipzig.
1881.
VANICEK, A. Griechisch-lateinisches etymologisches Worterbuch. Leipzig,1877.
WHITNBY, W. I). The Life and Growth of Language. New York, 1875.
WIQOERT, J. Studien zur lateinischen Orthoepie. Stargard, 1880.
WOBDSWOBTU, J. Fragment* and Specimens of Ear fa T-aii 1 " Oxford, 1874
LATIN GRAMMAB.
1. LATIN" GRAMMAB treats of the principles of the Latin
language. It comprises four parts :
I. ORTHOGRAPHY, which treats of the letters and sounds
of the language.
II. ETYMOLOGY, which treats of the classification, inflec-
tion, and derivation of words.
III. SYNTAX, which treats of the construction of sen-
tences.
IV. PROSODY, which treats of quantity and versification.
PART FIRST.
OETHOGRAPHY.
ALPHABET.
2. The Latin alphabet is the same as the English with
the omission of w. 1
1 The Romans derived their alphabet from the Greek colony at Comae. In Its origi-
nal form it contained twenty-one letters : A, B, 0, D, E, F, H, L, K, L, M, N, O, P,
Q, K, 8, T, U, X, Z. C was a modification of the Greek gamma, and F of the digam-
ina. (j was the Greek koppa, which early disappeared from the Greek alphabet. <? had
the sound afterward denoted by g ; K, the sound afterward denoted by c. Z early dis-
appeared from the Latin alphabet, but wan subsequently restored, though only in foreign
words. Throughout the classical period only capital letters were used. On the Alphabet,
see Whitney, pp. 59-70 : Papillon, pp 23-48: Wordsworth, pp. &-10 ; Eoby, I., pp. 21-2;
Sievere, pp. 24-10E ; Corssen, I., pp. 1-846 ; Kuhner, I., pp. S&-49.
2
2 ALPHABET.
1. C In the fourth century B. o. supplied the place both of C and of ff.
2. <?, introduced in the third century B. c., was formed from C by simply
changing the lower part of that letter.
3. Even in the classical period the original form C was retained in ab-
breviations of proper names beginning with G. Thus C. stands for G&im,
On. for Gnaeus. See 649.
4. J, y, modifications of /, i, introduced in the seventeenth century of our
era to distinguish the consonant /, * from the vowel /, i, are rejected by many
recent editors, but retained by others. 1
5. The letters u and z>, originally designated by the character F,* are now
used in the best editions, the former as a vowel, the latter as a consonant.
6. In classical Latin, k is seldom used, and y and z occur only in foreign
words, chiefly in those derived from the Greek.
3. Letters are divided according to the position of the
vocal organs at the time of utterance into two general
classes, vowels and consonants,* and these classes are again
divided into various subdivisions, as seen in the following
CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS.
L VOWELS.
1. OPEN TOWEL*
2. MEDIAL VOWELS
3. CLOSE VOWELS*
1 Throughout the classical period, /, used both as a vowel and as a consonant, sup-
plied the place of 7, i and J, j. As practical convenience has, however, already sanc-
tioned the use of i, u, and *, characters unknown to the ancient Romans, may it not also
Justify the use of J, j In educational works, especially as the Romans themselves at-
tempted to find a suitable modification of 7 to designate this consonant ?
* Originally V, used both as a vowel and as a consonant, supplied the place of U, u
and V, , but it was subsequently modified to U.
3 If the vocal organs are sufficiently open to allow an uninterrupted flow of vocal
sound, a vowel is produced, otherwise a consonant ; but the least open vowels are scarcely
distinguishable from the most open consonants. Thus i, sounded fully according to the
ancient pronunciation as ee, is a vowel ; but, combined with a vowel in the same syllable,
it becomes a consonant with the sound of y: e'-l (d'-ee, vowel), S'-jua (a'-yua, conso
nant, almost identical in sound with d'-ee-us).
* In pronouncing the open vowel a as in father, the vocal organs are fully open. By
gradually contracting them at one point and another we produce in succession the medial
vowels, the close vowels, the semivowels, the nasals, the aspirate, the fricatives, an<*.
finally the mutes, in pronouncing which the closure of the vocal organs becomes complete
6 ls a medial vowel between the open a and the close i, o a medial vowel between
the open a and the close u ; i is a palatal vowel, u a labial ; y was introduced from the
Greek. The vowel scale, here presented in the form of a triangle, may be represented at
line, with a in the middle, with i at the palatal extreme, and with u at the labial extreme
1 e a o a
ROMAN METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION. 8
H. CONSONANTS.
GUTTURALS. DENTALS. LABIALS.
1. SEMIVOWELS, sonant , . . i or j = ^ v = w
2. NASALS, sonant .... n ' n m
3. ASPIRATE, surd .... h
4. FRICATIVES, comprising
1. Liquids, sonant ... 1, r
2. Spirants, surd ... f
fc. MUTES, comprising
1. Sonant Mutes ... g d b
2. <Src? .Jfwtes c, k, q t p
NOTB 1. Observe that the consonants are divided,
I. According to the ORGANS chiefly employed in their production, into
1. Gutturals throat letters, also called Palatals ;
2. Dentals teeth letters, also called Linguals ;
3. Labials lip letters.
II. According to the MANNER in which they are uttered, into
1. Sonants, or voiced letters ;
2. Surds, or voiceless letters*
NOTE 2. X= cs, 3 and z = ds, are double consonants, formed by the union
of a mute with the spirant K.
4. DIPHTHONGS are formed by the union of two vowels
in one syllable.
NOTB. The most common diphthongs are ae t oe t au, and eu. Ei, oi,
and ui are rare. 4
ROMAN METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION.*
5. VOWELS. The vowel sounds are the following :
1 With the sound of n in concord, linger. It occurs before gutturals : congrffwus,
meeting 1 .
a The distinction between a sonant and a urd will be appreciated by observing the
difference between the sonant b and its corresponding surd p in such words as bad, pad.
B Is vocalized, p is not.
' X often represents the union of g and *, but in such cases g is probably first assimi-
lated toe; see 3O, 33, 1.
4 Proper diphthongs were formed originally by the union of an open or medial vowel,
a, , or o, with a close vowel, i or u, as ai, ei, oi, av, eu, ou. An improper diphthong
was also formed by the union of the two close vowels, as ui. For the weakening of these
original diphthongs, sec 23. note.
b In this country three distinct methods are recognized in the pronunciation of Latin.
They are generally known as the Roman, the Enr/lMi, and the Continental Methods.
The researches of Corssen and others have revealed laws of phonetic change of great
value in tracing the history of Latin wwds. Accordingly, whatever method of pronun-
ciation may be adopted for actual use in the class-room, the pupil should sooner or
later be made familiar with the leading features of the Roman Method, which is at least
n approximation to the ancient pronunciation of the language.
ROMAN METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION.
LONG.
S like d in father : d'-rls. 1
9 u e " prey:' 3'-di.
I " ? " machine : 2 I'-rl.
5 " o " old: o'-rfls.
SHOBT.
a like a in Cuba : 3 a -met,
e " e " net: re'-^ef.
i " i " cigar: vi'-det.
o " o " obey: mo' -net.
u " w" rule:* a'-n5. u " w " full: sw'-miw.
1. A short vowel in a long syllable is pronounced short : sunt,* u as in
m, su'^nus. But see 16, note 2.
2. Y, found only in Greek words, is in sound intermediate between tht
Latin i and , similar to the French u and tne German u , Ny-sa
3. I preceded by an accented a, e, o, or #, and followed by another vowei,
is a semivowel with the sound of y in yet (7) : A-cha-w, ^A-ka'-ya).
4. U 5 in #, and generally in gu and su before a vowel, has the sound of
w : qw (kwe), lin'-gua (lin'-gwa), sud'-sit (swa'-sit).
6. DIPHTHONGS. In diphthongs each vowel retains its
own sound :
ae (for ai) like the English ay (jes) : rnin: sae."
au like ow in how : cau'-sa.
oe (for oi) like oi in coin : foe'-dus.
1. Ei as in veil, eu with the sounu, >" " and u combined, and oi~*o,
occur in a few words : dein? neu -ter, protu.
7. CONSONANTS. Most of the consonants are pro-
nounced nearly as in English, but the following require
special notice :
o like k in king: cg'-fes (kay-lace), cl'-vl (kS-wS).
g " g " get : re'-gunt, re'-ffis, ge'-nus.
1 The Latin vowels marked with the sign ~ are long in quantity, \. e., in the dura-
tion of the sound (16) ; those not marked are short in quantity ; see 16, note 8.
9 Or e like a In made, I like e in m#, and u like oo in moon.
* The short vowels can be only imperfectly represented by English equivalents. In
theory they have the same sounds as the corresponding long vowels, but occupy only
half as much time in utterance.
4 Observe the difference between the length or quantity of the vowel and the length
or quantity of the syllable. Here the vowel u is short, but the syllable mint is long;
see 16, 1. In syllables long irrespective of the length of the vowels contained in them, it
is often difficult and sometimes absolutely impossible to determine the natural quantity
of the vowels ; but it is thought advisable to treat vowels as short in all situations where
there are not good reasons for believing them to be long.
5 This is sometimes called the parasitic u, as having been developed in many in-
stances by the preceding consonant, and as being dependent upon it. See Papillon, p
50; Peile, p. 3S3; Corssen, I., pp. 69, TO, and 85.
Combining the sounds of a and i.
7 When pronounced as monosyllables in poetry (6O8, III.) ; otherwise as dissyllable*
ie'-in, pro'-in.
ENGLISH METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION. ft
J like y in yet : fa' -stum (yoo-stum), ja'-cet.
8 " a " son: sa'-cer, so'-ror, A'-si-a.
t " t " time : ti'-mor, to' -tits, Oc'4i-0.
v " w " we : va'-dum, vi'-d, vi'-ti-um}
NOTE. Before and t. b has the sound of p : urbs, subt-Ur, pronounced urpt.. tup'-
ttr.* Ch has the sound of A : cho'-rus (ko'-rns).
8. SYLLABLES. In dividing words into syllables,
1. Make as many syllables as there are vowels and diphthongs: md'-re,
per-xu&'-de, men'-sae.
2. Join to each vowel as many of the consonants which precede it
one or more as can be conveniently pronounced at the beginning of a
word or syllable: 3 pa'-ter, pa'-trgs, ye -ne-rl, do'-mi-nus, nS'-stit, si'-stis,
clau'-stra, mSn'-sa, bel'-lum, tem'-plum, imp'-tus. But
8. Compound words must be separated into their component parts, if
the first of these parts ends in a consonant : a6'-es, ob-l'-re.
ENGLISH METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION.*
9. VOWELS. Vowels generally have their long or short
English sounds.*
10. LONG SOUNDS. Vowels have their long English
sounds a as in fate, e in mete, i in pine, o in note, u in
tube, y in type in the following situations :
1. In final syllables ending in a vowel :
8e, si, ser'-vi, ser'-vo, cor'-nu, mi'-sy.
2. In all syllables, before a vowel or diphthong :
De'-us, de-o'-i-um, de'-ae, di-e'-i, ni'-M-lnm. 6
1 There is some uncertainty in regard to the Bound of v. Corssen gives It at the
beginning of a word the sound of the English r, in all other situations the sound of to.
J On Atsimilation in Sound in this and similar cases, see p. 17, foot-note 1.
3 By some grammarians any combination of consonants which can begin either a
Latin or a Greek word is always joined to the following vowel, as o'-mnis, i'-pse. Roby,
jn the contrary, thinks that the Romans pronounced with each vowel as many of the fol-
lowing consonants as could be readily combined with it.
4 Scholars in different countries generally pronounce Latin substantially as they pro-
nounce their own languages. Accordingly in England and in this country the English
Method has in general prevailed, though of late the Roman pronunciation has gained
favor in many quarters.
* These sounds in Latin, as in English, are somewhat modified by the consonants
which accompany them. Thus, before r, when final, or followed by another consonant,
, i, and u are scarcely distinguishable, while a and o are pronounced as in /r, for.
Between qu and dr, or rt, a approaches the sound of o : quar'tu^ as in quarter.
In these rules no account is taken of the aspirate // . hence the first i in nihilum is
treated ai a vowel before another vowel; for the same reason, eh, ph, and th are treat*)
M single mutes; thus th in Athon and Otliryx.
6 ENGLISH METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION.
3. In penultimate' syllables before a single consonant,
or before a mute followed by a liquid :
Pa'-ter, pa'-tres, ho-no'-ris, A'-thos, O'-thrys.
4. In unaccented syllables, not final, before a single con>
sonant, or before a mute followed by a liquid :
Do-lo'-ris, cor'-po-ri, con'-su-lis, a-gric -o-la.
1) A unaccented, except before consonants in final syllables (11, 1), hai
the sound of a final in America: men'-sa, a-cu'-tus, a-ma'-mus?
2) I and y unaccented, in any syllable except the first and last, gener-
ally have the short sound : nob'-i-lis (nob'-e-lis), Am'-y-cus (Am'-e-cus).
3) I preceded by an accented a, e, o, or y, and followed by another
vowel, is a semivowel 3 with the sound of y in yet: A-cha'-ia (A-ka'-ya),
Pom-pe '~ius (Pem-pe'-yus), La-to -ia (La-to'-ya), Har-py'-ia (Har-py'-ya).
4) U has the short sound before bl, and the other vowels before gl
and tl: Pttb-lic'-o-la, Ag-la' -o-phon, At' -las.
6) U 4 in qu, and generally in gu and su before a vowel, has the sound
of w : qui (kwi), qua ; lin'-gua (lin'-gwa), liri-guis ; sua'-de-o (swa'-de-o).
6) COMPOUND WORDS. When the first part of a compound is entire
and ends in a consonant, any vowel before such consonant has generally
the short sound : a in ab'-es, e in red' -it, i in in' -it, o in ob'-it, prod'-est. But
those final syllables which, as exceptions, have the long sound before a
consonant (11, 1), retain that sound in compounds: post'-quarn, hos'-ee.
E'-ti-am and quo'-ni-am are generally pronounced as simple words. 5
11. SHORT SOUNDS. Vowels have their short English
sounds a as in fat, e in met, i in pin, o in not, u in tub,
y in myth in the following situations :
1. In final syllables ending in a consonant :
A' -mat, a' -met, rex'-it, sol, con'-sul, Te'-thys ; except post, es final, and os
final in plural cases: res, di'-es, hos, a'gros.
2. In all syllables before x, or any two consonants except
a mute followed by a liquid (10, 3 and 4) :
Rex'-it, bel'Jum, rex-e'-runt, bel-lo'-rum.
1 Penultimate, the last syllable but one.
* Some give the same sound to a final in monosyllables : da, qua ; while others give
tt the long sound according to 10, 1.
* Sometimes written j.
4 This is sometimes called the parasitic u, as having been developed in many instances
by the preceding consonant and as being dependent upon it. See Paplllou, p. 50; I'eilo,
P. 888; Corssen, I., pp. 69, 70, and 86.
* Ktiam U compounded of tt and Jaw; quoniam, of(/uom yawn, cum, and jam
ENGLISH METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION. 7
3. In all accented syllables, not penultimate, before one
or more consonants :
Dom'-i-nus, pat'-ri-bus. But
1) A, e, or o before a single consonant (or a mute and a liquid), fol-
lowed by e, i, or y before another vowel, has the long sound : a'-ci-es,
a'-cri-a, me'-re-o, do'-ce-o.
2) U, in any syllable not final, before a single consonant or a mute and
a liquid, except bl, has the long sound : Pu'-ni-cus, sa-lu'-bri-tas.
3) Compounds ; see 10, 6).
12. DIPHTHONGS. Diphthongs are pronounced as fol-
lows :
Ae like e : Cae'-sar, Daed'-a-lus}
Oe likec: Oe'-ta, Oed'-i-pus. 1
Au as in author: au'-rum.
Eu as in neuter: neu'-ter.
1. Ei and oi are seldom diphthongs, but when so used they are pro-
nounced as in height, coin : hei, proin ; see Synaeresis, 608, III.
2. Ui, as a diphthong with the long sound of i, occurs in cm t hui t huic.
13. CONSONANTS. The consonants are pronounced in
general as in English. Thus
I. C and Q are soft (like * and .;') before e, i, y, ae, and oe, and hard in
other situations : ce'-do (se'-do), ci'-vis, Cy'-rus, cae'-do, coe'-pi, a'-ge (a'-je),
a'-gi; ca'-do (ka'-do), co'-go, cum, Oa'-des. But
1. has the sound of sh
1) Before i preceded by an accented syllable and followed by a vowel:
no'-ci-U8 (so'-she-us) ;
2) Before eu and yo preceded by an accented syllable : ca-du'-ce-us (ca-
du'-she-us), Sic'-y-on (Sish'-y-on).
2. Ch is hard like k : cho'-rm (ko'-rus), Chi'-os (Ki'-os).
3. ff has the soft sound before g soft : ag'-ger.
II. S, T, and X are generally pronounced as in the English words son,
time, expect : sa'-cer, ti'-mor, rex'-i (rek'-si). But
1. 5, T, and X are aspirated before i preceded by an accented syllable and
followed by a vowel and t taking the sound of sh, and x that of ksh : Al'-
n-um (Al'-she-um), ar'-ti-um (ar'-she-um), anx'-i-us (ank'-she-us). But
1) T loses the aspirate (1) after *, <, or as: Os'-ti-a, At'-ti-uB, mioe'-ti-o; (2) In old
Infinitives In ier: flee' -ti-er ; (8) generally In proper names in tion (tyori): PM-Us'-
ti-on, Am-phic'-ty-on.
1 The diphthong has the long sound in Cae'-tar and Oe'-ta, according to 10, 8. but
the xfiort sound in Daed'-a-lus (Ded'-a-lus) and Oed'-i-pus (Ed'-l-pus), according lu
11, 3, aa ' would be thus pronounced in the aainc situations.
g CONTINENTAL METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION.
2. 5 is pronounced like z
1) At the end of a word, after e, at, av, b, m, n, r : spes, praes. a,
mons, pars ;
2) In a few words after the analogy of the corresponding English words : Ctie'-saf.
Caesar; cau'-sa, cause; mu'-sa, muse; nu'-er, miser, miserable, etc.
3. X at the beginning of a word has the sound of z : Xari-thus.
14. SYLLABLES. In dividing words into syllables
1. Make as many syllables as there are vowels and diphthongs : mo -re,
per-sua'-de, men'-sae.
2. Distribute the consonants so as to give the proper sound to each
vowel and diphthong, as determined by previous rules (10-12): pa'-ter,
pa'4res, a-gro'-rum, au-di'-vi ; gen'-e-ri, dom'-i-nus ; bel'-lum, pat'-ri-bus ;
emp'-tus, tern! -plum; rex'-i, anx'-i-us ; post'-quam, hos'-ce. 1
CONTINENTAL METHOD OF PRONUNCIATION. 1
15. For the Continental Method, as adopted in this
country, take
1. The Roman pronunciation of the vowels and diphthongs ; see 5 and 6.
2. The English pronunciation of the consonants; 8 see 13.
3. The Roman division of words into syllables ; see 8.
QUANTITY.
16. Syllables are in quantity or length either long, short,
or common. 4
I. LONG. A syllable is long in quantity
1. If it contains a diphthong or a long vowel : Jiaec, res.*
1 Observe that compound words are separated Into their component parts, if the first
of these parts ends in a consonant (1O, 4, 6), as post'-quam ; that in other cases, after a
vowel with a long sound, consonants are joined to the following syllable, as in the first
four examples, pa'-ter, etc., and that, after a vowel with a short sound, a single conso-
nant Is joined to such vowel, as in gen'-e-ri and dom'-i-nux; that two consonants are
separated, as in bel'-lum, etc. ; that of three or four consonants, the last, or, if a mute and
a liquid, the last two, are joined to the following syllable, as in emp'-tw, etc., but that
the double consonant a: is joined to the preceding vowel, as in rex'-i, anx'-i-us.
9 Strictly speaking, there is no Continental Method, as every nation on the Continent
of Europe has its own method.
3 Though the pronunciation of the consonants varies somewhat in different insti
tutions.
4 Common i e., sometimes long and sometimes short. For rules of quantity $-
Prosody. Two or three leading facts are here given for the convenience of the learner
See note 8 below.
ACCENTUATION. 9
2. If its vowel is followed by x or z, or any two
consonants, except a mute and a liquid : ' dux, rex,
sunt*
II. SHORT. A syllable is short, if its vowel is followed
by another vowel, by a diphthong, or by the aspirate h :
di'-es, vi'-ae, ni'-hil.
III. COMMON. A syllable is common, if its vowel, natu-
rally short, is followed by a mute and a liquid : a'-grl.
NOTE 1. Vowels are also in quantity either long, short, or common ; but
the quantity of the vowel does not always coincide with the quantity of the
syllable. 3
NOTK 2. Vowels are long before ns, nf, gn, ym, and generally before j ';
oon'-sul, in-fe-lix, reg'-num, seg-men'-tum, hu'-jus.*
NOTE 8. The signs ", * are used to mark the quantity of vowels, the first
denoting that the vowel over which it is placed is long, the second that it is
common, i. e., sometimes long and sometimes short: a-md'-bd. All vowele
not marked are to be treated as short. 8
NOTB 4. Diphthongs are always long.
ACCENTUATION. 4
17. Words of two syllables are always accented on the
first : men'-sa.
NOTE. Monosyllables are also accented.
18. Words of more than two syllables are accented on
1 That is. In the order here given, with the mute before the liquid ; if the liquid pre-
cedes, the syllable is long.
* Observe that the vowel in such syllables may be either long or short. Thus it it
long in rftr, but short in dux and mint.
3 Thus in long syllables the vowels may be either long or short, as in r&r, dux, sunt;
see foot-note 4, p. 4. But in short syllables the vowels are also short.
4 See Schmitz, pp. 8-33, also p. 56; Kuhner, I., p. 1-37; also H. A. J. Munro's pam-
phlet on the Pronunciation of Latin, pp. 24-26.
6 See p. 4, foot-note 4. In many works short vowels are marked with the sign ":
Fitfui.
With the ancient Romans accent probably related not to force or stress of voice, as
with us, but to munioal pitch. It was also distinguished as acute or cireun\fleto. Thus
all monosyllables and all words in which the vowel of the penult is long and the final
syllable short were said to have ttte circumflex accent, while nil other accented words
were said to have the acute. The distinction is of no practical value in pronunciation.
On the general subject of Accent, see Ellis, pp. 8-10 ; Koby, I., pp. 98-100 ; Kuhner, I.
p. 148; Corssen. II.. pp. S06-808
10 PHONETIC CHANGES.
the Penult, 1 if that is long in quantity,* otherwise on th*
Antepenult: 1 ho-no'-ris, con'-su-lis.
1. Certain words which have lost a syllable retain the accent of the
full form. Thus
1) Genitives in I for & and vocatives in I for ie: in-ge'-nl for in-ge'-ni-i,
Jtfer-cu'-rl for Mer-cu'-ri-e.
2) Certain words which have lost a final e : il-foc' for il-ll'-cf, il-Idc for
if-l&'-ce, is-tlc for is-fi'-ce, etc. ; bo-ndri for bo-ncl'-ne, il-ldri for il-la'-ne,
tan-ton' for tan-to '-ne, au-dtiri for au-dls'-ne, e-duc' for S-du'-ce. 3
NOTE 1. Prepositions standing before their cases are treated as Proclitics i. e., ar
so closely united in pronunciation with the following word as to have no accent of their
own : gubju'-di-ce. in-ter re'-ges.
NOTE 2. Penults common in quantity take the accent when used as long.
2. Compounds are accented like simple words ; but
1) The enclitics, que, ce, ne, ce, met, etc., throw back their accents upon
the last syllable of the word to which they are appended : ho'-mi-ne'-quef
mtn-sa'-quef e-go'-met.
2) Faeid, compounded with other words than prepositions, retains its own
accent: ca^te-fa'-cit.*
3. A secondary or subordinate accent is placed on the second or third
syllable before the primary accent on the second, if that is the first syllable
of the word, or is long in quantity, otherwise on the third : mo'-nu-e-runt^
mo'-nu-e.-rd'-mitsf in-stau'-ra-ve'-runt.
NOTE. A few long words admit two secondary or subordinate accents : ho'-no-r\f-
i cen-tis' -si-mus.*
PHONETIC CHANGES.
19. Latin words have undergone important changes in accord-
ance with phonetic laws.'
1 The penult is the last syllable but one ; the antepenult, the last but two.
3 Thus the quantity of the syllable, not of the vowel, determines the place of the ac-
cent: regeri-tis, accented on the penult, because that syllable is long, though its vowel
is short; see 16, 1., 2.
3 According to Priscian, certain contracted words, as ve#-trds' for ves-trd'-tis, or with
the circumflex accent, ves-tr&s for ve-trd-tis, Sam-nls for Sam-ni-tis, also retained the
accent of the full form ; but it is not deemed advisable to multiply exceptions in a schoo'i
grammar. See Priscian, IV., 22.
4 By the English method, hom'-i-ne'-que, cal'-e-fa'-dt.
' A word accented upon the penult thus loses its own accent before an enclitic :
men'-sa, men^ga'-que.
By the English method, mon'-u-e'-runt, mon'-u-e-rd'-mug, hon'-o-rif'-i-cen-tif'
ti-mu.
T In the history of the ancient languages of the Indo-European family, to which the
Latin, Greek, and English alike belong, the general direction of phonetic change has been
from the extremes of the alphabetic scale i. e., from the open a at one extreme and
PHONETIC CHANGES.
I. CHANOKS IN VOWELS
20. Vowels are often lengthened :
1. In compensation for the dropping of consonants :
Servoms, 1 semd$, slaves ; regeme, rfgis- kings ; potnd^ p&n$, I place ;
pdla, a spade.
2. In the inflection of verbs :
Lego, Ugi,* I read, I have read ; ed6, ?di, I eat, I have eaten ; fugi6, fugl-
I flee, I have fled.
NOTE 1. Sometimes vowels are changed, as well as lengthened : ago, egl, I drive,
I have driven; faci6,fcl, I make, I have made; see 255, II.
NOTE 2. Different forms from the same stem or root sometimes show a variable
vowel : duois, ducis, of a leader, you lead; regfe, regis, you rule, of a king ; tegd, toga.,
I cover, a covering, the toga. 3 See also 22, 1.
21 . Vowels are often shortened : 4
1. Regularly in final syllables before m and t :
Erdm, eramf I was ; moneam, moneam, let me advise ; audidm, audiam,
let me hear; erdt t erat, he was; amat, amat, he loves; monet, monet, he
advises; sit, sit, may he be ; audit, audit, he hears.
2. Often in other final syllables. Thus
1) Final a 8 is shortened (1) in the Plural of Neuter nouns and adjec-
tives, 1 and (2) in the Nominative and Vocative Singular of Feminine ''
nouns and adjectives of the first declension :
from the close mutes at the other toward the middle of the scale, where the vowels and
consonants meet; see 3. Accordingly, in Latin words we shall not iinfrequently find e
or o, or even i or M, occupying the place of a primitive a ; and we shall sometimes find a
Uquid or a fricat ive occupying the place of a primitive mute. See Whitney, p. 68:
Papillon, p. 49; Peile, pp. 199 and 812.
1 O short in tervonu is lengthened in tervdt to compensate for the loss of;//, and
a short in pagla, la lengthened in pdla to compensate for the loss of ;/.
> The short vowel of the present tense is here lengthened in the perfect ; see 255, II
* In ducit, duois, and in regit, regis, the variation is simply in the quantity of tht
vowel, but in tegd, toga, it affects the vowel itself, appearing us c iu teyO and o in toga.
Sometimes a single vowel appears in one form while a diphthong appears in another
fi<le, faith, foedus, treaty.
4 See Corssen, II., p. 486 Mq.
* In all these examples, the form with the long vowel In the final syllable Is the earliei
form, and, in general, is found nnly In inscriptions and in the early poets, as Plautus.
Knnius, etc.; while the form with the short vowel belongs to the classical period.
* Corssen regards numerals In -gintd, as trl-gintd, quadrA-gintd, etc., as Plural
Neuters, and A as the original ending. He recognizes also the Neuter Plural of the pro-
noun with A in ant-ea, po*t-ed, inter-ed, praeter-ed, ante-hd-c, praeter-hd-c. Bee
Corssen, II., p. 465 For a different explanation, see 3O4, IV., N. 2.
7 In masculine nouns of the first declension a final was short in the Nominative even
In early Latin : xerlfxt, a scribe. But most stems in <( weakened a too, and thus passed
tato the second declension.
12 PHONETIC CHANGES.
Templd, templa, temples ; genera, genera, kinds ; gravid, gravia, heavy;
m&sa, musa, muse ; bond, bona, good.
2) In ar, 5r, and al final, & and are regularly shortened :
JSegdr, regar, let me be ruled ; audidr, audiar, let me be heard ; audidr,
audior, I am heard; honor, honor, honor; orator, orator, orator; moneor,
moneor, I am advised; animdle, animal (27), animal, an animal.
3) Final e, I, and 6 are sometimes shortened :
ene, bene, well ; nGbe, nube, with a cloud ; nisi, nisi, unless ; ill, ibl,
chere ; led, led, a lion ; ego, ego, I.
22. Vowels are often weakened, i. e., are often changed to
weaker vowels. 1
The order of the vowels, from the strongest to the weakest, is as follows :
a, o, u, e, i
Thus a is changed to o . . . u . . . e . . . i
o to u . . . e . . . i
u to e . . . i.
e to i
NOTE. The change from a through o to u is usually arrested at u, while a
is often changed directly through e to i without passing through o or .
1. Vowels are often weakened in consequence of the lengthening of
words by inflection, composition, etc. :
Carmen,* carmenis, carminis, a song, of a song ; friictus, fructubus, fruc-
tibus, fruit, with fruits ; farid, con-facw, con-ficid, I make, I accomplish ;
factus, In-factus, In-fectus, made, not made; damnd, con-damnd, condem-
no, I doom, I condemn ; tened, con-teneo, con-tineo, I hold, I contain ; cadd,
ca-cad-ii ce-cid-i, I fall, I have fallen ; tuba, tuba-cen, tubi-cen, a flute, a flute-
player.
1 See Corssen, II., pp. 1-486. The process by which vowels are shortened (21), weak-
ened, or dropped (27\ and by which diphthongs are weakened to single vowels, and con-
"onants assimilated, or otherwise changed, is generally known as PHONETIC DECAY. It
may result from indistinct articulation, or from an effort to secure ease of utterance. For
a difficult sound, or combination of sounds, it substitutes one which requires less physica'
effort.
11 But w, e, and i differ so slightly in strength that they appear at times to be simply
interchanged.
3 That is, the open a is changed either to the close through the medial o, as seen
ou the right side of the following vowel-triangle, or to the close i through the medial e,
la seen on the loft side :
Open vowel o.
Medial vowels o
Close vowels i u
* The syllable men was originally man. The original a haa been weakened to e in
tarmtn and to t In
PHONETIC CHANGES. 13
2. Vowels are often weakened without any such special cause : *
Puerom, puerum, a boy ; filios, filiv-s, son ; sont t sunt, they are ; regont,
regunt) they rule, decumw, decimus, tenth; maxunws, mdximus, greatest;
tegitvmus, I'egitimus, lawful ; aestumo, aegtimd, I estimate.
23. Two successive vowels are sometimes contracted:
1. Into a DIPHTHONG : mensft-l, mensai, mensae, tables ; see 4.
2. More frequently into a LONG VOWEL. In this case the second vowel
generally disappears. Thus e and i often disappear after a, e, and o :
Amdverat, amaerafi, amdrat, he had loved; amdvisse, amaisse, amdsse, to
have loved , fleeerunt, fleerunt, fierunt, they have wept ; novisse, noisse, nosse.
to know ; servoi, sereo, for the slave.
NOTE. iue proper diphthongs of early Latin were changed or weak-
<ned as follows :
ai ' generally into ae ; sometimes into or L
oi generally into oe ; sometimes into u or L
ei generally into I ; sometimes unchanged,
au sometimes into 6 or u ; generally unchanged.
eu generally into u ; rarely unchanged.
ou regularly into u.
Aidilis, aedllis, an aedile ; Komai, R&mae, at Rome ; amaimus, am&mus^
let us love; in-caedit, in-tidit, he cuts into; mensaw, mentis, with tables;
foidus, foedus, treaty ; coira, coera, cura, care ; loidos, loedus, ludusf play ;
puerois, pueris, for the boys ; ceivis, civw, citizen ; lautus, lotus,* elegant ,
ex-claud$, ex-cludS^ I shut out ; doucit, ducit, he leads ; jow, jus,* right.
24. Vowels are sometimes changed through the influence of the
consonants which follow them. Thus
1 That Is, by the ordinary process of phonetic decay, a process which in many words
has changed an original a of the parent language to or o in Latin, and in some words
to i or u. Corssen cites upward of four hundred Latin words in which he supposes a
primitive a to have been weakened to o, e, or /. Even the long vowels are sometimes
weakened. Compare the following forms, in which the Sanskrit retains the vowel of the
parent language.
SANSKKIT.
LATIW.
ENGLISH.
SANSKRIT.
LATIN.
EKOLIBR.
sapta,
septem,
erre.
padas,
pedus,
/.
nava,
novem,
nint.
navas,
novus,
new.
daca,
decem.
ten.
Ttt,
vfix,
voice.
mata,
mater,
mother.
vacas,
v6ds,
of a roiae.
sadas,
sedes,
seat.
vacant,
vocem.
voice.
1 The forms <i>, oi, ei, au, eu, and ou are all found In early Latin, as in inscription*;
but in the classical period ai had been already changed to ae, oi to oe, and ou to Q.
3 Loidox. the earliest form, became loedun by weakening in to oe, and o to u (Z'i, 2);
then loectus became Ittdux by weakening oe to ff.
* Lautw, the earlier, is also the more approved form.
As eu and ou were both weakened to ft, it is not easy to give trustworthy example*
of the weakening of <;< to fl.
14 PHONETIC CHANGES,
1. E ia the favorite vowel before r, x, or two or more consonants :
Oimsis, cineris (31), of ashes ; judix, judex, judge ; iwlitis, mllets,
of a soldier, a soldier.
NOTE. E final is also a favorite vowel : servo, serve, O slave ; morieris,
morieri, monere, 3 you are advised ; mari, mare, sea.
2. I is the favorite vowel before n, s, and t :
ffomonis, hominis, of a man ; pulver or pulvis,* dust ; salutes, salutw, oi
safety ; verot&s, veritds, truth ; genetor, genitor, father.
3. U is the favorite vowel before / and m, especially when followed by
another consonant :
Epistola, epistula, letter; volt, quit, he wishes ; facilitd*, faciltds (37),
facultds, faculty ; monementum, monumentwn, monument ; colomna, colum*
na, column.
25. ASSIMILATION. A vowel is often assimilated by a follow-
ing vowel. Thus
1. A vowel before another vowel is often partially 8 assimilated. / is thus
changed to e before a, o, or u : ia, ea, this ; id, ed, I go ; iunt, eunt, they go ;
iadem, eadem, same ; divus, dlus (36, 4), dew, god.
NOTE. When the first vowel is thus adapted to the second, the assimilation is said to
be regressive, but sometimes the second yowel is adapted to the first, and then the as-
similation ia progressive. Thus the ending id (21, 2), instead of becoming ea as above,
may become U: luxurid (perhaps for luxuriat\ luasuriet, luxury; mdterid, mdteries*
material.
8. A vowel may be completely assimilated by the vowel of the following
syllable from which it is separated by a consonant. Thus
1) E is assimilated to i : mehl, mihi, for me ; tebi, tibi, for you ; sebi, titA,
for himself; nehil, nihil, nothing.
2) U is assimilated to *' . consuUwn, c&nsiliwin, counsel ; exsulium, ex-
silium, exile.
3) Other vowels are sometimes assimilated; o to e : bone, bene, bene (21, 2),
well ; e to u : tegurium, tugurium, hut ; e to d : s^cors, socors, stupid.
26. DISSIMILATION. A vowel is often changed by dissimilation,
1 Cinisfo, from dnis, becomes cineris by changing to r between two vowels, mak-
ing ciniris (31, 1), and by then changing i to e before r.
* Observe that the vowel which appears as i in mllitis before t, takes the form of
In rhllets before ts, as also in miles for mllets.
3 JfonSris becomes manure by dropping (36, 5), and changing final i to .
4 Observe that the form in r has e, while that in s has i.
6 That is, it is made like it, adapted to it, but does not become identical with it
Thus i before a may be changed to , but not to a.
Thus from nouns in id of the first declension were developed nearly all noun* In i?.t
of the fifth.
PHONETIC CHANGES. 15
L e., by being made unlike the following vowel : il, el, these ; ns,
eis, for these. 1
NOTK. The combination ii is sometimes avoided by the use of e in place of the sec-
ond i : pietdt instead ofpiitds, piety ; societds, society ; varietds, variety.
27. Vowels are often dropped in the middle or at the end of
words, sometimes even at the beginning :
Tempulum,templwm, temple; vinculum, vinclum, band ; benigenus, benlg-
tius,* benignant ; amafi, amo, I love ; temploa, templa, temples ; animate, ani-
mal* an animal ; ti-ne, sin, if not ; dice, die, say ; esum, sum, I am ; esitmus,
wmus, we are.
NOTE. After a word ending in a vowel or in m, est, he is, often drops the initial e,
and becomes attached to the preceding word : res optuma est, res optumast, the thing
is best; optumwn et, optumumst, it is best ; doml txt, dotnlat, he is at home. In the
game way es, thou art, is sometimes attached to the preceding word, when that word
ends in a vowel : homo es, ftomf/x, you are a man. For the loss of a final 8 from the pre-
ceding word, see 36, 5, 1), note.
II. INTERCHANGE OP VOWELS AND CONSONANTS.
28. The vowel i and the consonant i also written j are some
times interchanged :
Altior,* higher; maior or major, greater ; ipslus, of himself; Situ or $ra* v
of him.
29. The vowel u and the consonant u generally written v are
often interchanged :
Col-ui,* I have cultivated ; vocd-m,* I have called ; ndvita, ndvta, nauta,
Bailor; voli'tus, volutus, rolled; lavtus, lautus or lotus, 9 washed; movtus,
moutus, mdbus,* moved.
NOTE. The Liquids and Nasals are sometimes so fully vocalized as to develop vowels
1 The combination uu was also avoided in early Latin either by retaining the second
vowel In the form of o, instead of weakening it to u, or by changing qu to c : equos,
afterward equua,* horse; qttom, or cum, afterward, though not properly in classical
times, quwn, when. Observe that when o becomes u, a preceding qu become* c : quom,
cum ; Idi/iintiix. locQtiM, having spoken. See Brambach, p. 5.
a See 1 6, note 2.
3 Observe that after e is dropped, ft is shortened in the final syllable : animal, ani-
mal ; see 21, 2.
4 In the comparative ending ior. as seen in ultior. i Is a vowel, but in the same end-
ing, as seen in mtiior, major, it is a consonant, and in this grammar is generally written .;'.
/ thus becomes j between two vowels; see 2, 4, foot-note. So in the genitive ending
I'M*, i is sometimes a vowel and sometimes a consonant.
The ending which appears as ul In col-ul becomes vl In vocd-vl. U becomes v
between two vowels.
If a vowel precedes the r thus changed to M, a contraction takes place a-u becom-
ing ait, rarely 6, o-u becoming o, and u-u becoming t7 : lavlun, lautiui, lotus, washed
tuvtrttw, mou<u/t, motVM, moved; juvtut,yuutu%,jntu%. assisted.
10 PHONETIC CHANGES.
before them. 1 Thus agr (for agrus) becomes ager,* field ; tier (for dcrts), deer,* sharp ;
regm, regent, king; sm- (for -*/), sum, I am; ;ii (for emit), sunt, they are.
III. CHANGES in CONSONANTS.
30. A Guttural o, g, 3 q (qu), or h 4 before s generally unites
with it and forms x:
Duct, dux, leader ; pace, pax, peace ; regs, recsf rex, king ; Ugs, tea,, l&t,
law ; coqusi, cocsif coxl, 1 have cooked ; trahsi, tracsi, traxi, I have drawn.
NOTB 1. V for gv In vlvd, I live, is treated as a guttural : vivft, vtesl, vuel, I have
Bred.
Nora 2. For the Dropping of the Qwttural before 8, see 36, 8.
31. S is often changed to r:
1. Generally so when it stands between two vowels : fldses,fi&res, flowers ;
fftaa, jura, rights ; mensdsum, mensarum, of tables ; agro&um, agrorum, of
fields; esam, eram, I was; esamus, eramus, we vier&\fuesv.nt,fuerunt, they
have been ; fuesit,fuerit, he will have been ; amdset, am&ret, be would love ;
regisis, regeris^ you are ruled.
NOTE. This phonetic law, in full force during the formative period of the language,
subsequently became inoperative.
2. Sometimes before m, n, or v : casmen, carmen, song; veke&rvw, veternus,
old; Tiodiesnus, hodiernus, of this day ; Minesva* Minerva, the goddess Minerva.
32. D is sometimes changed to 1 :
Dacrima, lacrima, tear ; dinyua, lingua, language ; odere, ollre, to emit an
odor.
NOTE 1.D final sometimes stands in the place of an original t: id, 9 this; istud,
that: illud, that; quo A, quid, what, which?
NOTE 2. Dv at the beginning of a word (1) sometimes becomes b : drtettum, bettum,
war; dvis, bit, twice; (2) sometimes drops d: dvigintl, viginti, twenty ; and (8) some-
times drops v : dvis, din, inseparable particle (308), in two, asunder.
33. PABTIAL ASSIMILATION. A consonant is often partially 1 *
assimilated by a following consonant. Thus -
1 This occurs between consonants and at the end of words after consonants.
* The ending us or is is dropped (36, 5, 2), note), and r final vocalized to er; m
oecomes em in regem, and urn in sum ; n becomes un in xunt.
8 Sometimes gu : easstingusl, etzstmcal, exetintcfl, I have extinguished.
4 For an original gh.
The process seems to be that the guttural before s first becomes c, and then unttet
with s and forms x : thus in coqutfi, qu becomes c.
* Hence, In many Latin words, r between two vowels represents an original .
7 Observe that i before * becomes e before r; see 24.
8 For Men-es-va, men weakened to min, see 22, 1.
For it, istut, etc. D stands for t also in the old Ablative in d : praeddd for prat-
ddt, afterward praedd, with booty; magfatratud for magistratiit, magistrdtu, from
the magistracy.
to Tiurt it, It 10 ndapted or accommodated to it, but does not become the same letter
PHONETIC CHANGES. 17
1. Before the surd 8 or t, a sonant b or g is generally changed to its
corresponding surd, p ' or o :
Scribei) tcripai, I have written ; scnbtus, scriptus, written ; regsi, recsi, rex*
(SO), I have ruled ; r'egtus, r'ectus, ruled. See also 35, 3, note.
NOTE. Qu, h for ffh, and for gc are also changed to c before s and t : coqusit. 1 *
focsit, coxit, he has cooked ; coqutut, coctiis, cooked ; trahsit* tnicxit, 3 traa-it, he hag
drawn ; traMus, tractits, drawn ; vlvsit,* vicsit, vlxit, he has lived ; vlvtUrus, vlct&run,
about to live.
2. Before a sonant 1, m, n, or r, a surd o, p, or t is generally changed
to its corresponding sonant, g, b, or d :
Neclego, neglegd, I neglect ; sec-mentum, segmentum, a cutting; popuUcusf
puplicus, piiblicus* public ; quadra? quadra, a square ; quatrdgintd, quadra-
yintd, forty.
3. Before a Labial p or b, n is generally changed to m : 8
JnperS, imperd, 1 command; inperdtor, imperdtor, commander; inbelUt,
vmbellis, unwarlike.
KOTE. Before n, a Labial p or 6 is changed to m in a few words : topnut, tomnus,
sleep ; Habnium, Samntum, the country of the Samnites.
4. M is changed to n
1) Regularly before a Denial Mute:
Ewndem, eundem, the same ; eorumdem,, edrundem, of the same ; quemdam,
quendam, a certain one; taint us, tantiu, so great; quamtus, quantus, how
great, as great.
2) Often before a Guttural Mute :
ffum-ce, hunc, this ; num-ce, nuncf now ; prvm-cepti, prlnceps, first , num-
quam or nunqvam, 9 never ; quamquam or quanquarn, although.
1 But ft Is generally retained (1) before in nouns in bs: wr6, not urpa, city, and in
aft*, from ; and (2) before 8 and t in ob, on account of, and nib, under, in compounds and
derivatives: ob-en><in*, observant; ob-tftsus, obtuse; mtb-tcrlbfi. I subscribe: siib-ter,
under. In these cases, however, b takes the Round of p, so that assimilation takes place
in pronunciation, though not in icriting. It is probable also that in some other conso-
nants assimilation was observed even when omitted in writing: inprimifi and im-
primlti, both pronounced imprimis. See Roby, I., p. Ivii. ; M num. p. 10.
2 Qu, also written qv, is not a syllable ; nor is u or In this combination either a
rowel or a consonant, but simply a parasitic sound developed by q, which is never found
without it.
For traghsit; h is dropped, and (/ assimilated to c.
For gr.lgtgtt ; the first g and the second n are dropped : vlgstt, vlcrit, vltHt.
From populus, the people.
P is changed to b, and o is weakened to u ; see 2)8.
From quattuor, four.
That is, the dental n becomes the labial m.
" Or " placed between two forms denotes that both are in good ue : nwmqitai* ft
In other cases the last is the only approved form : nunc, prlnceo*.
8
18 PHONETIC CHANGES.
None 1. Before the ending 1 -que, m is generally retained : ' quloumque, whoever,
funnqtte, every one ; nam que, for indeed.
NOTB 2.Quom-iam or quom-jam becomes quoniam, since.
34. A consonant is often completely assimilated by a following
consonant. Thus
1. T or d is often assimilated before n or s :
Petna, penna, feather ; mercedndrius, mercenndrius, mercenary ; concutsit.
concussit, lie has shaken.
NOTE. M before is sometimes assimilated, and sometimes develops p :
premsit, pressit, he has pressed ; sumsit, sUmpsit, he has taken.
2. D, n, or r is often assimilated before 1 :
Sedula, sedla (27), sella, seat; unulus, unlus (87), uttus, any; puerula,
puerla, puella^ girl.
3. B, g, or n is often assimilated before m :
Sub-moved or sum-moved, I remove ; supmvs, summ/ut, highest ; flagma,
flamma, flame ; inmotus or immdtus, unmoved.
NOTE. For ASSIMILATION in Prepositions in Composition, see 344, 5.
35. DISSIMILATION. The meeting of consonants too closely re-
lated and the recurrence of the same consonant in successive syllables
are sometimes avoided by changing one of the consonants. Thus
1. Caduleus becomes caemleus, azure ; medl-dies, merldies, midday.
2. Certain suffixes of derivation have two forms, one with r to be use '
after ?, and one with I to be used after r : 8 dris, alls ; burum, brum, 3 bu
lum ; 3 curum, crum, culum :
Populdris^ popular; regdlis,* kingly; delubrum, shrine; tribulvm, thresh-
ing-sledge ; sepulcrum, sepulchre ; periculum, peril.
8. A Dental Mute d or t may unite with a following t in two ways:
1) Dt or tt before r may become st :
Bodtrum, rostrum, a beak ; equettris, equestris, equestrian.
2) Dt or tt before a vowel may become SB or s : 6
Fodtus, fossus, dug ; mdtut, insw, seen ; plaudtus, plausut, praised ; met-
tue, messus, reaped ; v&ttus, versus, turned.
* Bat probably with the sound otn; see p. 17, foot-note 1.
a Thia distinction is, however, not always observed. The form with 2, probably
weakened from that with r, became the favorite form, nd was generally used if / did
ot preoedu.
* From tr~rnin HX formed (1) brum by dropping u, and (2) bulum by weakening r
k>tO L ID tb* wiiio way orum and culum, are formed from curum.
* In populdrili Arts is used because I precedes; but in regalia, alit is used becaus*
r fweced&. When neither I nor r precedes, the weakened form dlis is used.
* I& regard to the exact process by which dt or tt becomes ss or , there is a divenit;
jf opinion among philologians. See FaptUon, p. 75 ; Boby, p. 62: CorsBen, L, i>. 'Mi
*ote, D. 188, 1ST; Otfhuff, p HO.
PHONETIC CHANGES. ft
SOTB. Lfft may become It; ' rgt, rs; ' lit, la; 9 and rrt, rs: 9 mulptus, mvltus,
milked; tpargtw, tparsus, scattered; fa lltus, falsus, false; verrtvs, veryut, swept
36. OMISSION. Consonants are sometimes dropped. Thus
1. Some words which originally began with two consonants have dropped
the first :
Cldmentumf lamentum, lamentation; gnatus, ndtus, born; gndtus, 4 ndtus,
known ; dvlgintl, vigintt, twenty ; sfalUt,fallit, he deceives.
. 2. A Dental Mute d or t before a is generally dropped : *
Lapids, lapis, stone ; aetats, aetds, age ; mttets, miles, soldier ; claudsi,
clausi, I have closed.
NOTE. D is occasionally dropped before other consonants : hod-ce, /tool, hoc, thta ;
quod-drcd, quocvrca,* for which reason : ad-gnosc6, dgndscd, I recognize.
3. A Guttural Mute o, g, or q (qu) is generally dropped
1) Between a Liquid and s :
Mulcsit, mulsit, he has appeased; fulggit^fulsit^ it has lightened.
2) Between a Liquid and t :
Fulctus, fuUus, propped ; tarctut, tcurbus, repaired.
3) Between a Liquid and m :
Fulgmen,fulmen, lightning ; torqunientum, torm<*ti/m, engine for hurling
missiles.
NOTE 1. A Guttural Mute is occasionally dropped in other situations. 7
Thus
1. C before m and ci before n : luomen, Himen, light; lucma, Ifina, moon.
2. C between n and d ort: qwlnctus, qulntus, fifth; qulncdecim, qu'indecim, fif-
teen.
8. G before m or n : Ktiigmen. ewlmen (ISO, 1), a swarm ; jugmentum^jumentum,
beast of burden : magmilt, mavult, he prefers ; bregviK, brems, short
Nont 2. X is sometimes dropped : seotd ecim, tedecim (20, 1), sixteen ; eeaenl, senl,
six each ; tfxuln, tetela. ti'la. a web ; axula, axla, din, wing.
NOTB 8. A^,' r, and * are sometimes dropped : in-gnotus, ignfituH, unknown ; for-
montut, formosut, beautiful; quotient, 1 * quoties, how often; deciens, deciet, 10 tec
1 '/' is changed to , and g is dropped.
a T is changed to , and one I is dropped in lit, and one r in rrt.
* Compare clamO, I cry out.
4 Seen in l-gndtut, Igrwtwt, unknown.
* Probably first assimilated and then dropped : lapidn, laptw, lapis. But the dental
is omctimes astmilatel and retained : rf<lxi, cetsl, I have yielded : concuttit, concut-
it, be has shaken.
* O lengthened in compensation ; see 2O, 1.
7 Swtiut becomes Sestiwt, a proper name; geoKenil, stiicentl, six hundred; and
mi.rtuK. mlttut, mixed, by dropping the mute contained in the double consonant v.
* G has also been dropped in did for agio, I say ; nwjor for magior, greater, etc.
* In numerals nt is sometimes dropped : ducentnl, ditcinl, two hundred each; vl-
ffant-timux or vlcent-simw, vlgMmti* or vlciirimut, twentieth.
10 So in all numeral adverbs in i'2n, &n. The approved ending in most numeral
20 PHONETIC CHANGES.
times ; muUer-bris, mulUbris, womanly ; prdrsa, pr6sa, prose ; isdem, Idem, same
jUs-dex., j&dex, judge; audlsne, audlne, audln, do you hear? vlsne, vine, vln, d
you wish ?
4. A Semivowel j or v, also written i or u is often dropped :
Bi-jugae, biugae, bigae, chariot with two horses ; quadri-jugae, quadrigae,
chariot with four horses ; con-junctus, co-junctus, cunctus, the whole ; abjieio
or abicw, 1 I throw away ; divitior, diitior, ditior, richer ; nevolS, neolS, nol&, I
*m unwilling ; amaverat, amaerat, amdrat, he had loved. 2
NOTE. Separate words are sometimes united after the loss of v .- J vis, silt, sis, i.
you wish ; 8l vultis, iullis, sultis, if you wish.
5. Final consonants are often dropped. Thus
1) Final a is often dropped : 3
Mon&ris, monere (24, 1, note), you are advised; illus, illu, ille, that; istus,
istu, iste, that of yours ; ipsus, ipsu, ipse, self, he ; parricidos,* parricida, par-
ricide; magis or mage, more ; am*, sive, whether, lit., if you wish.
NOTE. In the early poets es, thou art, and est, he is, after having dropped the initial
, sometimes become attached to the preceding word, which has lost its final : verittu
es, rei-itu's, you feared ; t<- input eat, tempust, it is time ; virtus eat, viriust, it is virtue.
Bee 87, note.
2) A final d or t is often dropped :
Cord, cor, heart ; praeddd, praedaf with booty ; intrad, intrd, within ; ,/a
divined,* facilli/ne, most easily ; verieruntj verieru, veriere, they have come ;
rSxerunt, rexere, they have ruled.
NOTE. Sometimes both a vowel and a consonant disappear at the end of a word :
puerus, pue>\ boy (51, 2, 4)); deinde or dein. thereupon ; nihilum or nihil, nothing.
3) A final n 8 is generally dropped in the Nominative Singular from
sterns in on:
Ledn, le&, lion ; praeddn, praedfi, robber ; homon, komS, man.
tdverbs is ><~s, but in those formed from indefinite numerals, as tot, yuot, it is i?n*
totiens, quotitns.
1 This is the approved form in verbs compounded otjacio and monosyllabic preposi-
tions; but abioio is pronounced as if written abjicif) or dft-iido, 1. e., =ji, pronounced
ye by the Roman method. The syllable db thus remains long.
5 Several adverbial forms were produced by the loss of v with the attendant changes :
"evomus, reorsus, rttrsus, back ; subsvorfium, susvwsum, sitorsum, sUrsum, from be
low, on high.
* In early inscriptions proper names in os, afterward w, occur without the as often
s with it : Roscios, Rascio ; Gabinios, Gabinio.
4 This form actually occurs in early Latin.
* The Ablative singular euded anciently in d, originally t. Many prepositions and
dverbs in d and e are ablatives in origin, and accordingly ended in d.
* Written with one I, afterward with two.
* Here final t was first dropped, then n, having become final, also disappeared, and it
ht>t final u was weakened to e ; see 24, 1, note.
* ID early inscriptions final m is often dropped.
ETYMOLOGY. 21
PART SECOND.
ETYMOLOGY.
37. ETYMOLOGY treats of the classification, inflection
and derivation of words.
38. The Parts of Speech are Nouns, Adjectives, Pro-
nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and
Interjections.
CHAPTER I.
NOUNS.
39. A Noun or Substantive is a name, as of a person,
place, or thing : Cicero, Cicero ; Roma, Rome ; domut,
house.
1 . A PROPER NOUN is a proper name, as of a person or place : Cicerd ,
Roma.
2. A COMMON Not \ is a name common to all the members of a class
of objects : vir, man ; equus, horse. Common nouns include
1) Collective Nouns, designating a collection of objects : populus,
people ; exercitus, army.
2) Abstract Noumt, designating properties or qualities : virtus, virtue ;
jQstitia, justice.
8) Material Nouns, designating materials as such : aurum, gold j
tignum, wood ; aqua, water.
40. Nouns have Gender, Number, Person, and Case.
I. GENDER.
41. There are three genders' Masculine, Feminine, and
Neuter.
NOTE. In some nouns gender is determined by signification ; in others, by endings.
1 In English, Gender denotes neat. Accordingly, masculine nouns denote males ;
feminine nouns,/wa/<>*; and neuter nouns, objects which are neither male nor female.
In Latin, however, this natural distinction of gender is applied only to the names ol
males and .females : while, in all other nouns, gender depends upon an artificial di
Unction according to grammatical rules.
32 PERSON AND NUMBER. CASS&
42. GENERAL RULES FOR GENDER.
I. MASCULINES.
1. Names of Males: Cicero; vir, man ; rex, king.
2. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months: Rhenus^
Rhine ; Notus, south wind ; Mdrtius, March.
II. FEMININES.
1. Names of Females : mulier, woman ; leaena, lioness.
2. Names of Countries, Towns, Islands, and Trees .-
Oraecia, Greece ; Roma, Rome ; Delos, Delos ; pirus, pear-
tree.
NOTE. Indeclinable noons, 1 infinitives, and all clauses used as nouns are neuter:
alpha, the letter a. 2 See also 532.
43. REMARKS ON GENDER.
1. EXCEPTIONS. The endings 3 of nouns sometimes give them a gender
at variance with these rules. Thus, some names of rivers, countries, towns,
islands, trees, and animals take the gender of their endings ; see 53, 1.
2. MASCULINE OR FEMININE. A few personal appellatives applicable to
both sexes and a few names of animals are sometimes masculine and some-
times feminine, but when used without distinct reference to sex they are
generally masculine : clvis, citizen (man or woman) ; bos, ox, cow.
8. EPICENE NOUNS apply only to the inferior animals. They are used
for both sexes, but have only one gender, and that is usually determined
by their endings : dnser, goose, masculine ; aqutta, eagle, feminine.
n. PERSON AND NUMBER.
44. The Latin, like the English, has three persons and
two numbers. The first person denotes the speaker ; the
second, the person spoken to ; the third, the person spoken
of. The singular number denotes one, the plural more
than one.
HI. CASES. 4
45. The Latin has six cases :
1 Except names of persons.
"See 128,1.
3 Gender as determined by the endings of nouns will be noticed in connection with
the several declensions.
4 The ease of a noun shows the relation which that noun sustains to other words; as.
John's book. Here the poxnesxire caie (John's) shows that John sustains to the book
the relation of posxestor.
DECLENSION. 38
NAMES. KNGLISH EQUIVALENTS.
Nominative, Nominative.
Genitive, Possessive, or Objective with of.
Dative, Objective with to or for.
Accusative, Objective.
Vocative, Nominative Independent.
Ablative, Objective with from, with, by, in.
1. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative
are called the Oblique Cases.
2. LOCATIVE. The Latin has also a few remnants of another case,
called the Locative, denoting the place in which.
DECLENSION.
46. STEM AND SUFFIXES. The process by which the
several cases of a word are formed is called Declension. It
consists in the addition of certain suffixes to one common
base called the stem.
1. MEANING. Accordingly, each case-form contains two distinct ele-
ments the stem, 1 which gives the general meaning of the word, and the
cane-suffix, which shows the relation of that meaning to some other word.
Thus, in rig-is, of a king, the general idea, king, is denoted by the stem
riff ; the relation of, by the suffix is.
2. CASES ALIKE. But certain cases are not distinguished in form.
1) The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative in Neuters arc alike, and
in the plural end in a.
2) The Nominative and Vocative are alike, except in the singular of
nouns in us of the second declension (51 ). 2
3) The Dative and Ablative Plural are alike.
3. CHARACTERISTIC. The last letter of the stem is called the STEM-
CHARACTERISTIC, or the STEM-ENDING.
47. FIVE DECLENSIONS. In Latin there are five de-
clensions, distinguished from each other by the stem-char-
acteristics or by the endings of the Genitive Singular, as
follows :
1 Moreover, in many words the stem Itself Is derived from a more primitive form
called a Root For the distinction between root* and gt?m y and for the manner in
*Wch the Utter are formed from the former, sea 313-318.
J Aoid In tome nouns of Greek origin.
24 FIRST DECLENSION.
CHARACTERISTICS. GENITIVE ENDIKGS.
DEC. I. a ae
II. o 1
III. i or a consonant is
IV u us
V. S Si
Nora 1. The five declensions are only five varieties of one general system of inflec
tion, as the case-suffixes are nearly identical in all nouns.
NOTE 2. But these case-suffixes appear distinct and unchanged only in nouns with
consonant-stems, while in all others they are seen only in combination with the charac-
teristic, i. e., with the final vowel of the stem.
NOTE 8. The ending produced by the union of the cast-suffix with the churae
ttristic vowel may for convenience be called a CASE-ENDING.
FIRST DECLENSION: A NOUNS.
48. Nouns of the first declension end in
a and e feminine ; Us and es masculine. 1
Nouns in a are declined as follows :
SINGULAR.
EXAHFLK.
MBANINfi. 1
"ASE-ENBTWS
Nom. mSnsa,
a table, 9
a 3
Oen. mgnsae,
of a table,
ae
Dot. mSnsae,
to, for a table,
ae
Ace. mensam,
a table,
am
Voc. mSnsa,
table,
a
AU. mSnsft,
from, vnth, by a table, 4
a
PLURAL.
Nom. mSnsae,
tables,
ae
Gen. mSnsarum,
of tables,
arum
Dot. mensls,
to, for tables,
I
Ace. mensas.
tables,
as
Voc. mSnsae,
tables,
ae
Abl. mensls,
from, vnth, by tables. 4
Is
1 That is, nouns of this declension in a and f are feminine, and those in as and f# are
masculine.
2 The Nom. mensa may be translated a table, table, or the table ; see 48, 6.
3 These case-Gndinys will serve as a practical guide to the learner in distinguishing
the different cases. The two elements which originally composed them have undergone
various changes, and in certain cases the one or the other has nearly or quite disappeared.
Thus the suffix has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular, and appears
only as e in four other case-forms, while the characteristic a has disappeared in the ending
U, contracted from a-is, in the Dative and Ablative Plural ; see 23, 2, note.
4 Still other prepositions, as in, on, at, are sometimes used in translating the Ablative,
FIRST DECLENSION. 25
1. STEM. In nouns of the first declension, the stem ends in a.
2. In the PARADIGM, observe that the stem is mensd, and that the sev-
eral cases are distinguished from each other by their case-endings.
3. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. Like mensa decline :
Ala, wing ; aqua, water ; cavsa, cause ; fortHna, fortune.
4. LOCATIVE. Names of towns and a very few other words have a
Locative Singular 1 in ae, denoting the place in which (45, 2), and are
declined in the singular * number as follows :
Nom. Roma, Rome, militia, war, 3
Gen. Romae, of Home, militiae, of war,
Dot. Romae, for Rome* militiae, for war,
Ace. Romam, Rome, mllitiam, war,
Voc. Roma, Rome, militia, war,
All. Roma, from Rome* militia, from war,
Loc. RSmae, at Rome. militiae, in war.
6. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 1. A few nouns in a are masculine by
signification : agricola, husbandman ; see 42, 1. 2. Hadria, Adriatic Sea,
is masculine ; sometimes also damma, deer, and talpa, mole.
6. ARTICLE. The Latin has no article: corona, crown, a crown, the
crown ; ala, wing, a wing, the wing.
49. IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS. The following occur: 4
1. as in the Genitive of familia, in composition with pater, mater,
flfiits, and f ilia : paterfamilias, father of a family.
2. 81, an old form for the Genitive ending ae, in the poets : 5 mtlttl, af-
terward aulae, of a hall.
3. urn ' in the Genitive Plural : Dardanidum for Dardaniddrum, of
the descendants of Dardanus.
4. abus in the Dative and Ablative Plural, especially in dea, goddess,
&ndfllia, daughter, to distinguish them from the same cases of dew, god,
and/Iftws, son: deabus for dels, to goddesses.
1 In the Plural of all nouns the Locative meaning is denoted by the Ablative : Athenit,
t Athens. Whether, however, the form Athfnis is in origin a Locative, an Ablative, 01
neither, is a disputed question. See Bopp, I., pp. 484 seq. ; Schleicher, pp. 686, 587;
Penka, p. 194; Delbruck, p. 27; Merguet, pp. 116, 117; Wordsworth, p. 59. In most
nouns the Locative meaning is denoted by the Ablative in both numbers.
3 The Plural when used is like the Pluntl of merino.
3 For the other prepositions which may be used in translating the Dative and the
Ablative, see 45. Militia, war, warfare, military service.
1 To these nitint be added for early Latin a in the Norn, and Voc. Sing, and ad in
he Abl. Sing.; see 21, 2, 1), and 36, 5, 2).
* Also in inscriptions as the ending of the Genitive, Dative, and Locative.
Contracted from a- urn like the Greek 4-wf, u>v, u shortened before m ; see 58O, | J.
26 8XCOND DECLENSION.
Non. Nouns in ia sometimes have is for iis in the I)atiy and Ablative Plural
gratis for gratils, from gratia, favor, kindness.
50. GREEK NOUNS. Nouns of this declension in e, 3s,
and os are of Greek origin, and are declined as follows :
Epitome, epitome.
Aeneas, Aeneas.
Pyrites, pyrites.
SINGULAR.
Nom. epitomfi
Aeneas
pyrites
Gen. epitomes
Aeneae
pyrftae
Dot. epitomae
Aengae
pyrttae
Ace. epitomeii
Aeneam, an
pyrlten
Voc. epitome
A en oft
pyrite, a
Abl. epitomC
Aenea
pyrite, a
PLURAL.
Nom. epitomae
pyrftae
Gen. epi torn arum
pyiitariim
Dot. epitomls
pyritls
Ace. epitomfts
pyritas
Voc. epitomae
pyritae
Abl. epitomls
pyritls
NOTE 1. In the Plural and in the Dative Singular, Greek nouns are declined flkf
mensa.
NOTE 2. In nouns in e and eg, the stem-ending a is changed to e in certain cases.
NOTE 3. Many Greek nouns assume the Latin ending a, and are declined like menscu
Many in e have also a form in a : epitome, epitoma^ epitome.
SECOND DECLENSION: O NOUNS.
51. Nouns of the second declension end in
er, ir, us, and os ' masculine ; um, and on neuter.
Nouns in er, ir, us, and um are declined as follows :
Servus,' slave. Puer, boy. Ager, field. Templum, temple
SINGULAR.
Nom. serviis 8 puer ager templum
Gen. servl puerl agrl templl
Dot. serv5 puerd agr6 templ6
Ace. servum puemm agrum templum
Voc. serve puer ager templnm
Abl. servo puero agro templo
1 Sometimes <>*.
* Sometimes written servos ; see 52, 1.
* lo the Roman and in the Continental pronunciation, quantity furnishes a safe guide
SJSGONJ) DECLENSION. 37
PLURAL.
Nom. servl puerl agrl templn
Gen. servorum puerOrum agrorum templdrum
Dot. servls puerls agrls templls
Ace. servos pueros agrds templa
Voc. servl puerl agrl templa
Abl. servls puerls agrls templls
1. STEM. In nouns of the second declension, the stem ends in o
2. In the PARADIGMS, observe
1) That the stems are servo, puero, agro, and templn.
2) That the characteristic o becomes u in the endings us and um, nd e
hi sefje^ that it disappears by contraction in the endings a, a I, and is (for o-a,
0-4, and o-w), 3 and is dropped in the forms puer and ager.
3) That the case-endings, including the characteristic o (47, N. 2), are as
follows :
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
MABO.
NBHT
MASC.
NUT.
Nom. us*
um
Nom. I
a
Gm. I
I
Gen. drum
drum
Dot. 6
Dot. is
Is
Ace. um
um
Ace. Os
a
Voe. e
tun
Voc. I
a
Abl. 6
Abl. Is
is
4) That puer and ager differ in declension from serous in dropping the
endings vs and e in the Nominative and Vocative : Nom. puer for pmrus,
Voc. puer for puere.
5) That e in ager is developed by the final r.*
6) That ttmplum, as a neuter noun, has the Nominative, Accusative, and
Vocative alike, ending in the plural in a ; see 46, 2, 1).
3. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. Like SERVUS : dominus, master. Like
PCER : ffener, son-in-law. Like AGER : macfiater, master. Like TEMPLUM
bellum, war.
to the sounds of the vowels ; see 5. In the English method, on the contrary, the quan-
tity of the vowels Is entirely disregarded, except as it affects the accent of the word.
Thus, a in ager is short in quantity, but long in sound (1O, 8), while i in ert>?, puer'is,
agrl*, and Itntplit is long in quantity but short in sound (11, 1). Accordingly, in this
method, the sounds of the vowels must be determined by the rules given in 9, 1O
trid 11. Moreover, the learner must not forget that when the quantity of the vowel ii
tnown, the quantity of the syllable, as used in poetry, is readily determined by article 16
) See 22 and 24, 1, note.
8 Shortened from <7 ,- see 21, 2, 1).
* See 23, note, and 27.
4 The endings of the Nom. and Voe. Sing, are wanting in nouns in r.
See 29. note.
28 SECOND DECLENSION.
4. NOUNS IN er AND ir. Most nouns in er are declined like offer, but
the following in er and ir are declined likepuer:
1) Nouns in ir : vir, tin, man.
2) Compounds infer and. ger : armiger, armigerl, armor-bearer; tfignifer.
ngniferl, standard-bearer.
8) Adulter, adulterer ; CeltiberJ Celtiberian ; gener, son-in-law ; Iber,*
Spaniard ; Liber, Bacchus ; llberl, children ; Muldber, 1 Vulcan ; presbyter
elder ; socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening.
5. Nouns in ius generally contract il in the Genitive Singular and ie
in the Vocative Singular into I without change of accent : Claudl for
Claudil, of Claudius,/?/? for fllil, of a son; Mrrcu'rl for Mercu'rie, Mer-
cury, fill for fllie, son. 8 In the Genitive Singular of nouns in ium the
same contraction takes place: inge'nl for inge'ntl, of talent; see 18, 1.
6. DEUS is thus declined : Sing, dc us, del, deo, deum, dcus, deo : Plur. N.
and V. del, dil, dl; 3 G. deorum, deum ; D. and A. dels, dils, dls; 3 Ace. deos.
7. NEUTERS IN us. The three neuter nouns in us, 4 pelagus, sea, virus, poi-
son, and vidgw, the common people, are declined in the singular as follows :
Nom.,Ace., Voc. pelagus virus vulgus 8
Cfen. pelagl vW vulgl
Dot., Abl. pelagO , vlrO vulgo
NOTE. Pelagus is a Greek noun (54, N. 2), and in general is used only in the singu-
lar, though pelage, occurs as an Ace. Plur. Virus and vulgus are used only in the
singular. Vulgus has a masculine Ace., vulgum, in addition to the neuter form rulgux.
8. LOCATIVE. Names of towns and a few other words have a Locative
Singular 6 in I, denoting the place in which (45, 2), and are declined in the
singular ' number as follows :
Nom. Ephesiis, Ephesus, bellnm, war,
Gen. EphesI, of Ephcsw, belli, of war,
Dat. Ephesft, for Ephesus, bellft, *or war,
Ace. Ephesum, Ephesus, bellmn, war,
Voc. Ephese, Ephesus, belliim, war,
Abl. EphesO, from Ephcsus, bello, from, by war,
Loc. EphesI, at Ephesus. belli, in war.
1 Celtiber and Iber have e long in the Gen., and Xwlciber sometimes drops e.
a Nouns in eius sometimes contract fie in the Voc. Sing, into fi ; Pompe.'i or Pom
pel, Pompey.
3 Dl and dis are the approved forms, but del, dil and df,7s, dils also occur.
4 Originally s-stemx which by the loss of s in the oblique cases have become o-steins',
ee 63, I., 1, foot-note.
* Also written volgut.
' In the Plural the Locative meaning is denoted by the Ablative : Gabii*, at Gbii
see 48, 4, foot-note.
1 The Plural, when used, is like the Plural of termia, jruer, etc
SECOND DECLENSION. 29
52. IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS. The following occur ; *
1. os and om, old endings for ws and um, sometimes used after v and
u : * servos for servus, servom for servum ; mortuos for mortuus, dead.
2. us for e in the Vocative of deus, god ; rare in other words.
3. tun in the Genitive Plural, especially common in a few words de-
noting money, weight, and measure: talentum for talentorum, of talents;
also in a few other words : deum for deorum ; llberum for liberorurn ;
Arglvum for Argivorum.
NOTE. The ending urn. occurs also in the Genitive Plural of many other words,
especially in poetry. For the quantity of u, s'tee p. -25, toot-note 6.
53. GENDER. Nouns in er, ir, us, and os are masculine, those in um
and on are neuter ; except
1. The Feminines : (1) See 4)8, II., but observe that many names ol
countries, towns, island*, and trees follow the gender of their endings. (2)
Most names of gems and ships are feminine : also alvus, belly ; carbasus, sail ;
coins, distaff; humus, ground; vannus, sieve. (3) A few Greek feminines.
2. The Neuters :pelay us, sea; virus, poison; vulgus, common people.
For declension, see 61, 7.
54. GREEK NOUNS. Nouns of this declension in os, os,
and on are of Greek origin, and are declined in the singu-
lar as follows :
Delos, P.,* Delos. ALdrogeos, Androgeos. Dion, Uiwrn.
Nom. Deloa Androgeos Ilion
Gen. D61I AndrogeO, I Tlil
Dot. D6lo Androgeo Tli5
.-!'. !>f-lon Androgeon, d Ilion
Voc. D6le Androgeos Ilion
Abl. DSlo Androgeo Tlio
NOTB 1. The Plural of nouns in os and on is generally regular, but certain Greek
endings occur, as oe in the Nominative Plural, and <~m in the Genitive.
NOTE 2. Most Greek nouns generally assume the Latin forms In us and um, and arc
declined like rrw and tempktm. Many In 01 or on have also a form in v* or um.
NOTE 3. For Greek nouns In ens, see 68 and 68, 1.
NOTE t.1'anthftfs has Voc. Panthii. For pelagut, see 51, 7, note.
1 To these must be added for early Latin: 1) <~>d in Abl. Sing., and d in Nom., Ace.,
and Voc. of the Neut. Plur. ; sec 36, 5, 2), and 21, 2, 1); 2) oe in Gen. Sing. ; oe, e, la,
eis, and in in Nom. Plur. : poploe=popv.\l; ploirumf =pluriuri ; virfs= viri; leibereis or
Wfw7=HberI.
1 Some recent editors have adopted cos, uo. rom and uom, for nut, uus, vum and
w*m, but the wisdom of such a course is at toast questionable See Brambach, p. 8.
* M. stands for motculine. F. tot feminine, and N. for neuter.
30 THIRD DECLENSION.
THIRD DECLENSION : CONSONANT AND I NOUNS.
55. Nouns of the third declension end in
a, e, 1, 6, y, c, 1, n, r, s, t, and x.
56. Nouns of this declension may be divided into two
classes :
I. Nouns whose stem ends in a Consonant.
II. Nouns whose stem ends in I. '
CLASS I. CONSONANT STEMS.
57. STEMS ENDING IN A LABIAL: B OB P.
Princeps, M.,' a leader, chief.
SINGULAR. CASE-SmrrXM
Nom. prfnceps, a leader, s
Gen. prfncipis, of a leader, is
Dot. prfncipl, to, for a leader, I
Ace. prmcipem, a leader, em
Voc. prlnceps, leader, s
Abl. principe, from, with, by a leader , e
PLURAL.
Nom. pnncipfcs, leaders, es
Gen. principum, of leaders, um
Dot. principifous, to, for leaders, ibus
Ace. prfncipCs, leaders, es
Voc. principfis, O leaders, es
Abl. i>nnri|ii bus, f>'om, with, by leaders. ibus
1. STEM AND CASE-SUFFIXES. In this Paradigm observe
1) That the stem is princep, modified before an addition*! syllable co
frrincip ; see 82, 1, and 57, 2.
2) That the case-suffixes appear distinct and separate from the stem ; 3 see
46, 1, and 47, note 2.
2. YARIAKE VOWEL. In the final syllable of dissyllabic consonant
stems, short e or i generally takes the form of e in the Nominative and
Vocative Singular and that of t in all the other cases. Thus princep.\
1 For Gender, see 99-115.
See foot-note 3, p. 29.
* Thus, prvncep-H, princip-is, etc. In the first and second declensions, on the con-
trary, the suffix can not be separated from the final vowel of the stem in such forms at
mensls, pueri, agrlt, etc.
THIRD DECLENSION.
31
prlncipis, 1 and judex, judicis (59), alike have e in the Nominative and
Vocative Singular and i in all the other cases, though in princeps the
original form of the radical vowel is e, and in judex, i. For a similar
change in the vowel of the stem, see miles, mllitis (58), and carmen, car
minis 1 (60). See also opus, operis (61).
8. In monosyllables in bs the stem ends in i ; see urbs, 64.
4. 'For the LOCATIVE IN THE THIKD DECLENSION, see 66, 4.
5. For SYNOPSIS OF DECLENSION, see 87, 89.
58. STEMS ENDING
Lapis, M., stone.
IN A DENTAL : D OR T.
Aetas, P., age. Miles, M., soldier.
SINGULAR.
Nom.
lapis
aetas
miles
Gen.
lapidis
aetatis
mllitis
Dot.
lapidl
aetfitl
militl
Ace.
lapidem
aetateni
militem
Voc.
lapis
aetft*
miles
AU.
lapide
aetate
iniliie
PLURAL.
Nom,
lapidfis
aetatfiH
IlllliU'S
Gen.
lapidum
aetatum
IHllit Illll
Dot.
lapidibus
aetatibus
militibns
Ace.
lapidCs
aetat
!IlllitS
Voc.
lapides
aetatCs
mTlitfiN
AU.
lapidibns
ilms
mTlitibus
Nep6s,
M., grandson.
Virtus, P., virtue.
Caput, N., head.
SINGULAR.
Nom.
nepOs
virtus
caput
Gen.
nepotls
virtiitia
capitis
Dal.
nepotl
virtutl
capitl
Ace.
nepotem
virtutem
caput
Voc.
nepos
virtus
caput
Abl.
nepote
virtQte
capite
PLURAL.
Nom.
nepotfia
virtuts
capita.
Gen.
nepotum
virtutwm
'.M pit HIM
Dai.
i lui-
virtutibus
capitibus
Sec 23, 1.
See 82, 1, foot-uot*.
THIRD DECLENSION.
Ace. nepOtCs
Voe. nepotes
Abl. nepotibiis
virtutCs
virtutCs
virtutilm*
capita
capita
capitibws
1. STEMS AND CASE-SUFFIXES. In these Paradigms observe
1) That the stems are lapid, aetdt, mllit, nepot, virtut, and caput.
2) That milt* has the variable vowel, e, i, and caput, u, i ; see 57, 2.
8) That the dental d or t is dropped before s : lapis for lapids, aetds for
aetdts, miles for milets, virtus for virtats ; see 36, 2.
4) That the case-suffixes, except in the neuter, caput (46, 2), are the same
as those given above ; see 57.
5) That the neuter, caput, has no case-suffix in the Nominative, Accusa-
tive, and Vocative Singular, a in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative
Plural, and the suffixes of masculine and feminine nouns in the other cases.
2. NEUTER STEMS IN at drop t in the Nominative Singular and end in a :
Nom., poema, Geu.,poematis ; Stem, poemat. These nouns sometimes have
is for ibus hi the Dative and Ablative Plural : poemafai for poematibuts.
3. For SYNOPSIS OF DECLENSION, see 69, 78-84.
59. STEMS ENDING IN A GUTTURAL : O OR G.
Rex, M., Judex, M. & F., Radix, F., Dux, M. &F.,
king. judge. root. leader.
SINGULAR.
Nom. rSx
judex
radix
dux
Gen. regis
judicis
radicis
duels
Dal. regl
judicl
radicl
duel
Ace. regem
judicem
radiceiu
ducem
Voc. rex
judex
radix
dux
Abl. rege
judice
radlce
duce
PLURAL.
Nom. reges
jfi<lires
radices
duces
Gen. regum
judicum
radicum
ii in
Dot. regibus
judicibus
radicibus
ducibus
Ace. reges
judicCs
radices
du (<-
Voc. reges
judicCs
radices
duces
Abl. re gibus
judicibus
radicibus
ducibus
1. STEMS AND OASE-SUFFIXES. In the Paradigms observe
1) That the stenis are reg,judic, rddic, and due ; judic with the variable
vowel, i, e ; see 57, 2.
2) That the case-suffixes are those given in 57.
3) That B in the Nominative and Vocative Singular unites with c or </ of
the stem and forms ./ / see 30.
2. For SYNOPSIS OF DECLENSION, see NOUNS IN x, 91-9&
THIRD DECLENSION.
6O. STEMS ENDING IN L, M, N, OR R.
33
361, M.,
Consul, M.,
Passer, M.,
Pater, M N
sun.
consul.
sparrow.
father.
SINGULAR
Nom. s6l
consul
passer
pater
Gen. soils
consults
passeris
patris
Dat. soli
consull
passerl
patil
Ace. solem
consulem
passerem
patrem
Foe. sol
consul
passer
pater
Abl. sdle
consule
passere
patre
PLURAL.
Nom. solfis '
consults
passeres
patrCs
Gen.
consulum
passemm
patrum
Dat. solibus
cOnsulibits
passerlbns
patribus
Ace. -
consults
passer^s
patvCs
Foe. 8616s
cSnsulCs
passerCs
patrgs
Abl. s5libus
cOnsulibus
passeribus
patribuw
Pastor, M.,
Le5, M.,
VirgO, F,,
Carmen, N.,
shepherd.
lion.
maiden.
song.
SINGULAR.
Nom. pastor
le
virgS
carmen
Gen. pftstOrls
leonis
yirginis
carminis
It'll. pa-tori
leOnl
virginl
carminl
Ace. pastorem
leonem
virginem
carmen
Foe. pastor
left
virgo
carmen
Abl. pitstOrc
leoue
virgine
oarmin e
PLURAL.
Nom. past5rCs
Ie0ns
virginCs
carmina
'!'n. pastOrum
IcolUllll
virginum
carininum
l)"i. pastorlbus
ilm-.
virginilniH
carminibuN
Ace. pastures
leOnCs
virginfis
carmina
Foe. pftstorCs
IcOnCs
virginCs
carmina
\>>L past5rlbus
leOnlbus
virginibus
carminibufe
1. STEMS AND CASE-SUFFIXES. In the
Paradigms observe
1) That the stems
are t6l, contul, passer, patrf pdt&r,
le&n, virgon, and
tarmen.
> Many monosyllables want the Gen. Plur. ; see 133, 6.
a TTiat is, the stem is pair when followed by a vowel ; but when r becomes final, ft
velopg e before it, and patr becomes pater ; see 29, note.
THIRD DECLENSION.
2) That virgb (virgon) has the variable vowel, o, i, and carmen, e, i.
8) That in the Nominative and Vocative Singular s, the usual case-suffix
for masculine and feminine nouns, is omitted, and that in those cases the stem
pastor shortens o, while leon and virgon drop n ; see 21, 2, 2), and 36, 5, 3).
2. HIEMS, the only stem in m, takes s in the Nominative and Vocative
Singular. Also sanguis (for sanguins), blood, and Salamls (for Salamlnv),
Salamis, which drop n before */ see 36, 3, note 3.
3. PASSER, PATER. Most nouns in er are declined like passer, but those
jn ter, and a few others, are declined like pater ; see 77, 2.
4. LE6, ViRo8. Most nouns in o are declined like led, but those in dc
and g^>, with a few others, are declined like -virgO ; see 72, with exceptions.
5. FOUR STEMS IN or change o to u ; see 77, 4.
6. For the LOCATIVE IN THE THIRD DECLENSION, see 66, 4.
7. For SYNOPSIS OF DECLENSION, see 72, 75-77.
61. STEMS ENDING IN s.
Flos, M.,
flower.
Jus, N.,
right.
Opus,
work.
Corpus, N.
body.
Nom. flSa
jus
Gen. florig
juris
Dot. florl
jurl
Ace. florem
jus
Voc. fl6s
jus
Abl flore
jure
corpus
corpori*
corporl
corpus
corpus
corpore
Nom. florCs
jura
opera
corpora
Gen. flomm
inn
opernm
corporum
Dot. ndribus
juribus
operibus
corporibus
Ace. florfts
jura
opera
corpora
Voc. florfis
jura
opera
corpora
All. ilfii-ibus
juribus
operibus
corporibus
1. STEMS AND CASE-SUFFIXES. In the Paradigms observe
1) That the stems &rv fids, jus, opos* and corpos.
2) That opus has the variable vowel, e, u, and corpus, o, u.
3) That s of the stem becomes r between two vowels : flot, floris (foi
fosis) ; see 31, 1.
4) That the Nom. and Voc. Sing, omit the case-suffix ; see 6O, 1, 8).
*. For SYNOPSIS OF DECLENSION, see 79, 80, 82-84.
1 Opoi> occurs In early Latin. In os, from the Primary Suffix as (32O), o was weak-
ened to u in the Nom., Ace., and Voc. Sing, of opus and corpus, while in all the othei
CMe-formt it was weakened *.o < in opun. but retained unchanged in airjiut ,' see %2.
THIRD DECLENSION.
CLASS II. I STEMS.
62. STEMS ENDING IN I. Nouns in is and s, not
increasing in the Genitive. 1
Tussis, F., Turris, F., Ignis, M., Hostis, M. & F. , Nubes, 2 F.,
cough.
tower. fire. enemy.
cloud.
SINGULAR.
Nom. tussis
turris
Ignis
hostis
nubCs
Gen. tussis
turris
ignis
hostis
nubis
Dal. tussl
turrl
Ignl
hostl
nubl
Ace. tussim
i in em
Ignem
hostent
nubem
!'". tussis
turris
Ignis
hostis
nubs
Abl. tussl
turrl, e
Ignl, e
hoste
nube
PLURAL.
Nom. tussCs
turrCs
IgnCs
hostCs
nubfis
Gen. ilium
turrium
Ignium
hostiunt
nfibium
Dot. ni--ilus
turribus
_ ilm.
hostibus
nubibus
Ace. t ii -. Is
turrCs, Is
Igns, Is
hosts, Is
nubCs, Is
Foe tussfis
turrCs
IgnCs
hostCs
uubs
A/>/ i iln>
turribus
Iguibits
hostibus
nubibus
I. PARADIGMS. Observe
1. That the stems are tussi, turn, igni, koM, and nuln. 3
2. That the caee-endings, including the characteristic i, which disappears
in certain cases, are as follows :
SINfil'LAK. PLURAL.
Nom. is, 6s 6s
Gen. is
Dot.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
i
em
s
1, e
mm
ibus
CP, IS
68
ibus
1 That Is, having as many syllables In the Nora. Sing, as in the Oen Sing.
5 Observe (1) that tutsix, turris, Ignis, and hostix differ in declension only in the Ace.
and Abl. Sing., twtsin showing tho final i of the stem in both those cases, turrif some-
times in both, ignis sometimes in the Abl., not in the Aoc., ho&tt in neither (2) that nfibes
differs from the other four in taking ft instead of i* in the Nom. and Voc. Sing.
3 Nouns in IK. Gen. w, are best treated as i-stetns, although some of them were
originally -stems (61). Thus, originally the stem of n'~ib'~8 was itself nf/bfs, but t was
finally treated as the Nom. suffix, and the word was accordingly declined like the large
class of t-nonns mentioned under 62, V. The origin of i-stems is obscure. A few cor-
respond to t-stems in the cognate tongues, as igniit, nrix, turrit ; a few are weakened
from a-stems or o-stems, as /orig, a door, Or. Ovpa, imfterimbrin, rain-storm, Or.
o/u.j3pos; some are formed from g-stems, at niilii't, just mentioned. Upon the general
subject of i-stems, see Koby, pp. 186-149 ; Schleicher, pp. 884, 482, 458 ; Oorssen. I. 281,
671, 788 seq. ; II. 227 ; Merguet, pp. 36-40, 51, 67. 95 etc.
36 THIRD DECLENSION.
IL Like Ttrssis Ace. im, ABL. I are declined
1. Buris, plough-tail ; ravis, hoarseness ; sitis, thirst.
2. In the Singular: (1) Names of rivers and places in is not increasing in
the Genitive: Tiberis, Hispalis ; see 582. (2) Greek nouns in is, Gen. t,
and some others.
III. Like TURRIS Ace. im, em, ABL. I, e are declined
Clavis, key ; febris, fever ; messis, harvest ; navis, ship ; puppic, stern ;
restis, rope ; securis^ axe ; sementis, sowing ; strigilis, strigil.
1. Araris, or Arar (for Araris), 1 the Saone, and Liger (for Ligeris),*- the
Loire, have Ace. im, em, Abl. i, e.
IV. Like IGNIS Ace. em, ABL. I, e are declined
Amnis, river ; anguis, serpent ; avis, bird ; bilis, bile ; civis, citizen ;
cldssis, fleet ; collis, hill ; fims, end ; orbis, circle ; postis, post ; unguis, nail,
and a few others.
NOTE 1. Adjectives in er (for ris) and those in is have the Ablative in i (153,
154). Accordingly, when such adjectives are used substantively, the 2 is generally re-
tained : September, Septembr'i, September; * familiar is, familiar i, friend. But adjec-
tives used as proper names have e : Juvenalie, Juvendle, Juvenal.
NOTE 2.Iml>er (for imbris), storm ; ve*per (for vtaperis), evening, and a few others
sometimes have the Ablative in I.
V. Like HOSTIS Ace. em, ABL. e at'e declined all nouns in is, Gen.
is, not provided for under II., III., and IV. 8
VL Like NUBES are declined all nouns in es, Gen. is. 4
63. STEMS ENDING IN I. Neuters in e, al, and ar.
Mare, sea. Animal, animal. Calcar, spwr.
SINGULAR.
Nom. marc animal calcar e
Gen. marls anim&lis calcarig is
Dot. marl animall calcarl I
Ace. mare animal calcar e
Voc. mare animal calcar e
Abl. marl* animall calcarl I
1 The shortening of Araris to Arar and of Ligeris to Lager is similar to the short-
ning ofpuerus topuer ; see 51, 2, 4) ; 36, 5, 2), note.
2 Names of months are adjectives used snbstantively. Originally mentis, month, was
understood.
3 Except cam's and juvenis, which are consonant-stems, but have assumed i in the
Nom. Sing. In the plural they have um in the Gen and is in the Ace. Apis, mentis.
and volvicris often have um for ium in the Gen.
4 Except struts and wites, which generally have um in Gen. PI., and tedet, which h
um or ium. Compet, Gen. edis, has also Ium.
See 2 below.
1 The dash here implies that the case-ending is sometimes wanting.
THIRD DECLENSION.
37
PLURAL.
Nom. maria
animalia
calcaria
ia
Gen. inailuiii
animaliuin
calcarinm
ium
Dat. inai-ibiis*
iiniinfilibus
ralciiribu*
ibus
Ace. maria
animalia
calcaria
ia
Voc. maria
animalia
calcaria
ia
Abl. liiiiribiis
iinimfilibiis
calcSrilms
ibus
1. PARADIGMS. Observe
1) That the stem-ending i is changed to e in the Nominative, Accusative,
and Vocative Singular of mare, and dropped in the same cases of animal (for
animale) and calear (for calc&re) ; see 24, 1, note ; 27 ; 21, 2, 2).
2j That the case-endings include the characteristic i.
2. The following have e in the Ablative Singular: (1) Names of towns
in e ; Praeneste. (2) Generally rete, net, and in poetry sometimes mart.
NOTE. Neuters In ar, with a short in the Genitive, are consonant-stems : nectar,
nectarit, nectar; also sal, salt, and/dr, corn.
64. STEMS ENDING IN I. Nouns in a and x generally
preceded by a consonant.
Cligns, M. & F.
client.
, Urbs, F.,
city.
Arx, P.,
citadel.
Mus, 1 M.,
mouse.
SINGULAR.
Nom. clit-im
urbs
arx 3
mils
Gen. clientis *
urbis
arcis
muris 4
Dat. clientl
urbl
arc!
murl
Ace. clientm
urbem
arcem
murem
Voc. '-lien*
urbs
arx
IIIUS
Abl. cliente
urbe
arce
mure
PLURAL.
Nom. clients*
urbSs
areSs
murSs
Gen. clientinm
ium
in in
mini n ill
Dat. clientilms
ilus
arcibus
HIM rib us
Arc. clients*, Is
- I*
arcSs, Is
inQrSs, I*
Voc. clients*
urbSs
arcS*
murSs
Abl. clientibui*
ibus
arcibus
HIMI ibus
1 Cliins Is for clientis, wb for urli*, arx lor arcix, and mf/s for m"8i8 : see 30, 6,
i), not*. M>~t*. originally an -steiii. Greek /uC?, became an j-stetn in Latin by assuming i.
8 The vowel e is here short before nt, but long before * , see 10. note 2. Indeed, it
seems probable that nt and nd shorten a preceding vowel, as n* lengthens it. See Mul
ler, p. 27; Ritschl, Rhein. Museum, xxxi., p. 488.
3 Xin ane=c. c belonging to the stem, and n being the Nom. suffix.
4 Muri* It for / /'* ; changed to / between two row^la . sea 31. I
38 THIRD DECLENSION.
1. PARADIGMS. Observe
1) That the steins are cUenti, tirbi, am, and m&ri.
2) That these nouns are declined in the singular precisely like consonant
stems, and in the plural precisely like all other masculine and feminine
t-stems. 1
2. This class of *-stems includes
1) Most nouns in ns and rs:* cHens, clientis, client; cokors, cohortis,
johort.
2) Monosyllables in s and x preceded by a consonant, 3 and a few in i
and x preceded by a vowel : * urbs, city ; arx, citadel ; iis, strife ; oc,
night.
3) Names of nations in as and Is, or, if plural, in dies and Ites : Arpinds,
"?. Arpln&tes, an Arpinatian, the Arpinates ; Samnis, pi. Samnltes, the
Samnites.
4) Optimates, the aristocracy ; Penates, the household gods, and occasion-
ally other nouns in as.
NOTE I. Card, flesh, has a form in is, carnis (for carinis), from which are formed
ca/mi, carnium, etc.
NOTE 2. Pars, port, sometimes has purtiin in the Accusative.
Nora 8.RU8, country, tors, lot, yupelfac, furniture, and a few other words some-
times have the Ablative in i.
65. SUMMARY OF I-STEMS. To l-sfcems belong
1. All nouns in is and is which do not increase in the Genitive ;
see 62. Here belong also
1) Names of months in her (for bris) : September, October, etc. : see 62, N. 1.
2) The following nouns in her and ter (for bris and trie) : imber, -storm ;
linter, boat; uter t leathern sack; venter, belly; generally also Insuber, an
Insubrian.
2. Neuters in e, al (for ale) and ar (for are) ; see 63 ; also 63,
2, note.
3. Many nouns in s and x especially (1) nouns in ns and rs.
and (2) monosyllables in s and x preceded by a consonant ; set
64, 2.
' Nouns thus declined are most conveniently treated as -nouns, though the stem
appears to end in a consonant in the Sing., and in / in the Plur. In some of these nouns
the stem has lost its final i in the Sing., while in others it ended originally in a con-
*onant, but afterward assumed i in the Plur., at least in certain cases ; see 62, I., foot-
note.
* Some of these often have um in poetry and sometimes even in prose, as parent,
parent, generally has.
* Except (ops) opts and the Greek nouns, grflps. lynx, sphinx.
* Namely, fautr. glis, ll, mat, nix, noas, on (ossis), v~tt, generally /raws and mti*.
THIRD DECLENSION.
39
66. SPECIAL PARADIGMS.
StlS, M. & F.,
Bos, M. &
F., Nix, P.,
Senex, M.,
Vis, F.,
awine.
oar, cow.
*/wra.
old man.
force.
SINGULAR.
Worn. BUS
bos'
nix
senex
vis
Gen. suis
bovis
nivis
senis
vis 2
Dat. sul
bovl
nivl
senl
vl s
Ace. .-iiem
bovem
nivem
senem
vim
Foe. BUS
boa
nix
senex
vis
.1W. sue
bove
nive
sene
vl
Norn.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
niv iiiin
nivitms
nivibusi
niiiiii
viribiis
vlrs
vnibiis
PLURAL.
bovs nives senCs
( bovum
( boii in
\ holm- '
I bubiis '
sues bovs
8u6s lni\-*s ni\ 's senCs
suibns ( bObus
subus / bubus
1. The STEMS are su ; bov ; nig (nix = nigs), niv, nivi ; s senec, sen; vl
(sing.), vlri (for vlsi, plur.); 4 see 31, 1.
2. Sus, and GRUS, crane, the only u stems in this declension, are de-
clined alike, except in the Dative and Ablative Plural, where grw is
regular: gruibw.
3. JUPPITER, Jupiter, is thus declined: Juppiter, Jovis, Jovl, Jovern,
Juppiter, Jove. STEMS. Juppiter and Jov.
4. LOCATIVE. Many names of towns have a Locative Singular in I or e
denoting the place in which (45, 2). Thus :
iVbm. Karthago, Carthage,
Gen. Karthaginis, of Carthage,
Dat. KarthaginI, for Carthage,
Ace. Karthaginem, Carthage,
Voc. Karthago, Carthage,
Abl. Karthagiue, from Carthage,
Loc. KarthaginI or e, at Carthage.
1 Bd = bovs, bous ; bfibus, bubus = bovlbus, boubus.
* The Gen. and Dat. Sing. vis, vl are rare.
* For niyri, from which nig is formed by first dropping i and then v; see 27, 3ft
5, note 1.
4 Vi is formed from v'iti by first dropping i and then i.
Tlbur,
Tibur,
Tlburis,
of Tibur,
Tlburl,
for Tibur,
Tlbur,
Tibur,
Tlbur,
Tibur,
Tlbure,
from Tibur,
Tlburl or c,
at Tibur.
40 GREEK NOUN&
67. CASE-SUFFIXES AND CASE-ENDINGS.'
SINGULAR.
CONSONANT STEMS. I-BTEMS.
MAso. AND FBM. Niter. MABO. AND FBM. NBUT.
Nom. s, a * is, 6s, s e, s
Gen. is is is is
Dot. Ill I
' Ace. em im, em e,
Voc. s is, 6s, B e,
AU. e e I,e 1
PLURAL.
Nom, 6s a 6s is
Gen. urn ma ium ium
7>a#. ibus ibus ibus ibv
./'(-. 6s a 6s, Is ia
Voc. 5s a 6s ia
Abl. ibus ibus ibus ibus
NOTE. The following irregular case-endings occur : *
1. , for l , in the Dat. Sing. : 4 aers for aerl.
9. His, for ?s, in the Ace. Plur. : c'weis for cfols, Gives.
8. For GREEK ENDINGS, see 68.
GREEK NOUNS.
68. Most Greek nouns of the third declension are en-
tirely regular, but a few retain certain peculiarities of the
Greek. The following are examples :
Lampas, F.,
Phryx, M. & P.,
Herds, M.,
torch.
Phrygian.
hero.
SINGULAR.
Nom. lampas
Phryx
herOs
Gen. lampadis, os
Phrygis, os
lioroiw
Dat. lampadl, i
Phrygl, i
herd, i
Ace. lampadem, a
Phrygem, a
heroem, a
Voc. lampas
Phryx
heros
Abl. lampade
Phryge
h6r6e
1 On the distinction between Case-Suffixes and Case-Endings, see 46, 1, and 47, note 8.
1 The dash denotes that the case-ending is wanting.
1 To these should be added for early Latin i) us and en in the Gen. Sing. : homtnu*
=. hominis; salutes = salfttis; 2) Id and e in the Abl. Sing. : corwentionld, = corwen-
Hone; patre = patre ; 3) 7 and eis in the Nom. Plur. of i-nouns : Jlneis, firiix fitiet.
On the Cote- Endings of the Third Declension in early Latin, see Wordsworth, pp
M-73; Kuhner, I., pp. 178-179.
4 This e is generally long.
SYNOPSIS Of THE TURD DECLENSION.
41
ffom. lampadCs, e
Gen. lampadum
Dat. liimpudiluiw
Ace. lampades, as
I'oc. lampads, es
Abl. lampadilms
Pericles, M M
Pericles.
Nbm. Pericles
Gen. Pencils, I
Dat. Pencil, i
PLURAL.
Phryges, es
Phrygnm
Phrygiimp
Phryges, as
Phryges, eg
Phrygilms
Paris, M., Did6, p.,
Paris. Dido.
SINGULAR. 1
Paris DldO
Paridis, os Dldus, onis
ParidI, i DldO, Onl, 5ni
, es
hSrOum
Aec. Periclem, ea, en}.., .' DldO, Gnem
M'ariin, in
, as
heroes, es
hSroilms
Orpheus, M.,
Orpheus.
Orpheus *
Orph-eos, el, I
Orph-el, ei, I, eO
Orphea, cum
Voc. PericlCs, es, 6
Abl. Pericle
Pan DldO Orpheu
Paride Dido, One Orphe
1. Observe that these PARADIGMS fluctuate in certain cases (1) between
the Latin and the Greek forms : lampadis, o* ; lam/padem^ a ; heroes, as: (2)
between different declensions: PERICLKS, between Dec. I., Ikriclen, Perirlf,
Dec. II., Pericl/i (Gen.), and Dec. III., Periclis, etc. : ORPHEUS, between Dec.
II., Orphei, Orphed, etc., and Dec. III., Orpheos, etc.
2. NOUNS IN y have Gen. yos^ ys, Ace. ym, yn : Othri/g, OtJiryoft, OtJirym,
Othryn.
3. The VOCATIVE SINGULAR drops (1) In nouns in **, y, and in proper
names in d, Gen. antin : Atlas, AtlA : (2) generally in nouns in w, and
sometimes in other words : Pari.
4. In the GENITIVE PLURAL, the ending dn occurs in a few titles of books :
JfetamorphftKfS (title of a poem), Metamorpho*et>n .
5. In the DATIVE AND ABLATIVE PLURAL the ending ', before vowels *,
occurs in poetry : Troaden, Troarin.
6. A few neuters used only in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative
have 08 in the Singular and i in the Plural : WK-&W, mefe, song.
SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
I. NOUNS ENDING IN A VOWEL.
69. Nouns in a : 3 Genitive in atis : Stem in at :
poema, poem, poCmatis, poemat.
1 The Plural is of course generally wanting; see 130, 2.
3 Eu ia a diphthong in the Nom. and Voc. ; ei sometimes a diphthong in the Quo
ml Dat.
1 These are of Greek oririn
42 SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
70. Nouns in e : Genitive in is : Stem in i :
mare, sea, maria, mari.
71 . Nouns in I : l Genitive in is : Stem in i :
sinapl, mustard, sinapis, sinapi.
NOTE. Many nouns in I are indeclinable. Compounds of meli have itit in the Genl
tivc : oxymell, ofymelitin, oxymel.
72. Nouns in 6 or 6 : Genitive in onis : Stem in 5n :
Ie6, lion, leOnis, leon.
EXCEPTIONS. Genitive in
1. onis: most national names: Macedo, Macedonis, Macedonian.
2. inis : s Apollo ; homo, man ; nemo, nobody ; turbo, whirlwind ; and
nouns in do and go : grandb, grandinis, hail ; viryo,
virginis, maiden ; except harpagb, Onis ; ligo, Onis i
praedo, Onis, also comedo, cUdo, mango, spado, ftnedo, ud$.
3. nis : caro, carnis (for carinis *), flesh ; see 64, 2, note 1.
4. enis: Anio, Anienis, river Anio; Nerio, Nerilnis.
6. us : a few Greek feminines : Dido, Dldus ; see 68.
73. Nouns in y ! : Gen. in yis (yos, ys) : Stem in y :
misy, copperas, misyis (yos, ys), misy.
IE. NOUNS ENDING IN A MUTE OB LIQUID.
74. Nouns in c : alec, aUcis, pickle ; lac, lactis* milk.
75. Nouns in 1 : Genitive in lis : Stem in 1 :
sol, sun, sOlis, s6l.
NOTE. Fel,fl!is, gall; md, mtlllt, honey ; sal, sails, salt. On neuters in a', see 63.
76. Nouns in n: Genitive in nis : Stem in n :
paean, paean, paeanis, paean.
flumen, stream, fluminis, flumen, in.
NOTK 1. Nouns in en have the variable radical vowel e, i; see 60, 1, 2).
NOTE 2. There are a few Greek words in on, Gen. in onis, ontis. St. in on. ont '
afdon, aedonis, nightingale ; Xenophon, Xenophsmtis, Xenophon.
77. Nouns in r : Genitive in ris : Stem in r :
career, prison, careens, career.
1. Nouns in ar, ar : (1) fir, G. aris, St. or! : Idr, Idris, house ; (2) par.
paris, pair ; far, f arris, corn ; hepar, tepatis, liver. For ar, G. arts, and ar
G aris, see 63.
2. Nouns in ter : Gen. in tris : pater, patris, father ; except later, later is.
tile; tier,itineris,w&y; Juppittr,Jovis; and Greek nouns: crater, crateris, bowl
1 These are of Greek origin.
1 Stem in on, in, or emi, ini, ni ; see 60, 1, 2).
* Nouns in y are of Greek origin, and are often indeclinable.
* The only nouns in c.
SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 43
Nor*. Imber and names of months in her have bria in the Genitive ; imber, imbrit,
shower; September, Septembris, September; see 62, IV., notes 1 and 2.
3. Nouns m or : G. oris, St. or : pastor, pdstoris, shepherd ; but a few
have G. oris, St. or : arbor, arboris, tree ; aequor, sea ; marmor, marble.
But cor, cordis, heart.
4. Four in ur : G. oris, St. or : ebur, ivory ; femur, thigh ; jecur, liver ;
robur, strength ; but femur has alsofeminis, and jecur, jecinoris, jecineri*,
and jocineria.
78. Nouns in ut : Genitive in itis : Stem in ut, it :
caput, head, capitis, caput, it.
III. NOUNS ENDING IN S.
79. Nouns in as : Genitive in atis : Stem in at :
aetas, age, aetatis, aetat.
EXCEPTIONS. Genitive in
1. aria: mSs, maris, a male; stem, mas, mari; see 31, 1.
2. asis -. vas, vasis, vessel. 1
3. assis : as, assis, an as (a coin).
4. antia : only masculine Greek nouns : adamas, antis, adamant.
NOT*. Anas, duck, and neuter Greek nouns in as have atis : anas, anatts. Vat,
surety, Areas, Arcadian, and feminine Greek nouns hi as hare adit: vas, vadis,
lampat, lampadis?
80. Nouns in es : Genitive in is : Stem in i : 3
nubes, cloud, nubis, nubi.
EXCEPTIONS. Genitive in
1 . edia : hires, heredis, heir ; merces, reward.
2. edis : pes, pedis, foot, and its compounds : compes, edis, a fetter.
3. eria : Cere*, Cereris. 4
4. etia : quies, rest, with compounds, inquiSs, requies, and a few Greek
words: lebes, tapes.
6. etia : abies, fir-tree ; aries, ram ; paries, wall.
NOT*. Bet, bttsit, two-thirds ; , aerte,* copper ; praet, praedit, surety.
81 . Nouns in ea : Genitive in itis : Stem in et, it :
miles, soldier, militia, mllet, it.
EXCEPTIONS. Genitive in
1. etia : interpret, interpreter ; seaett, crop ; teges, covering.
2. idia : obses, hostage ; praeses, president ; see 57, 2.
1 Vat is the only stem In n which does not change t to r between two vowels; tee
61, 1,8).
'' Greek nouns sometimes have ados for adit.
* But see 64, 1.
Bee 61, 1, 8).
44 UrNOPMM 0*' THE TH1HD DECLENSION.
82. Nouns in la : Genitive in la : Stem in i :
avis, bird, avis, avi.
EXCEPTIONS. Genitive in
1. eria : cinis, cineris, 1 ashes ; cucumis, cucumber ; pulvis, dust ; vomit,
ploughshare.
2. idis : capis, cup ; cassis, helmet ; cuspis, spear ; lapis, stone ; pro-
mulsis, antepast, and a few Greek * words : as tyrannis,
idis, tyranny. Sometimes Ibis, and tigris.
3. inis : pollis or pollen, flour ; sanguis, blood.
NOTE. Gils, gllris, dormouse ; Us, litis, strife ; semis, gemissis, half an aa ; />!,
Dltis ; Quir'is, Quirltis ; Sarnnis, SamnUis.
83. Nouus in 6s : Genitive in oria : Stem in 5s :
mds, custom, mOris, mos.
EXCEPTIONS. Genitive in
1. 6tis: cos, cotis, whetstone; dos, dowry; nepos, grandson; sacerdos,
priest ; and a few Greek words.
2. 5dis : cQslds, custodis, guardian ; see 36, 2.
3. oia : a few masculine Greek nouns : herds, hero ; Minds, Tros.
NOTE. Arbos or arbor, arboris, tree ; o, ossis, bone ; bos, bovis, ox ; see 66.
84. Nouns in TIB, Gen. in uria or utis : stem in us or ut.
1. firis : crus, leg; jus, right ; jus, soup ; mus, mouse ; pus, pus ; riis,
country ; tus (thus), incense ; tettus, earth.
2. utis : juventus, youth ; salus, safety ; senectus, old age ; servitus,
servitude ; virtus, virtue ; see 36, 2.
EXCEPTIONS. Genitive in
1. ndia: incus, anvil; palm, marsh; subscug, dovetail.
2. uie : grus, gruis, crane ; sus, swine.
3. untis : a few Greek names of places : Trapezus, untis.
4. odis : Greek compounds in pus : tripus, tripodis, tripod.
NOTB. Fraus,fraudi, fraud; lau, laud-is, praise; see 64, 2, 2), foot-note. For
Greek nouns in evs, see 68.
85. Nouns in ua : Gen. in eris or oris : stem in os.
1. eris: laius, lateris, side : stem, latos* So also: acm,foedus,fnnus,
genus, glomus, munus, olus, onus, opus, pondus, rudus, scelus, sitlux, tUcus,
veUus, Venus, viscus, vulnus.
2. oris : corpus, corporis, body : stem, corpos.* So also decus, dedecus,
1 Stem oinin, ciner for cine* with variable vowel A e ; see 24, 1 ; 31, 1 ; and 57, 2.
1 Greek nonns sometimes have idol or even io for idix ; Salami* baa Salaminfo ;
Simois, Simofnti*.
> Bee 61, 1, foot-note.
SYNOPSIS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 45
faeitau, faenus, frigus, lepus, lltus, nemos, pecttts, pecus, penus, pignus, ster-
ms, tempos, tergus.
NOT*. Pecut, pecudis, a head of cattle; Ligus, Ligurit, Ligurian ; see 31.
86. Nouns in ys : J Genitive in yis, yos, ys : Stem in y :
Othrys, Othryos, Othry.
87. Nouns in bs : Genitive in bis : Stem in bi : 5
urbs, city, urbis, urbi. <
88. Nouns in ms : Genitive in mis : Stem in m :
hiems, winter, hiemis, hiem.
89. Nouns in eps : Genitive in ipia : Stem in ep, ip.
prlnceps, prince, principis, prlncep, ip.
NOTE. But aucepx, aucupis, fowler. Other nouns in ps retain the stem-vowel
unchanged; merops, meropis, bee-eater, ffryps, griffin, has grfphis.
90. Nouns in s after 1, n, or r : Gen. in tis : Stem in ti :
puls, broth, pultis, pulti.
mens, mind, mentis, menti. 8
ars, art, artis, arti.
Norn. Frfmt, frondis, leaf; giant, glandis, acorn ; jiiffldnt, juglandi*, walnut;
ee64, 2.
IV. NOUNS ENDING IN X.
9 1 . Nouns in Sx : Genitive in acis : Stem in ac :
pax, peace, pacis, pac.
Nor*. Fax, fads, torch; to also a few Greek nouns. Astyanaa, acti; so a few
Greek names of men.
92. Nouns in ex : Genitive in ecis or egis : Stem in Sc, eg :
1 . ecis : flfez, pickle ; vervSx, wether.
2. egis : lex, law ; rex, king, and their compounds.
93. Nouns in ex : Genitive in ids : Stem in ic, eo :
jfldex, judge, judicis, jfldie, ec.
EXCEPTIONS. Genitive in
1 . ecis : nex, murder ; fenitsex, mower ; ( prex), precis, prayer.
2. egis : grey,, flock ; aquilcx, water-inspector.
3. igis: remex, rfmigii, rower; see 24, 1.
NOTE. Faex, faefi*, lees ; seni-ar, senis, old man (66) ; tupetlfa; tupellectilit,
furniture.
94. Nouns in Ix : Genitive in Icis : Stem in Ic :
radix, root, radlcis, radio.
1 These are of Greek origin ; a few of them have ydit; cMamp, qMamydi*, cloak.
1 Dissyllables have the stem In f>.
1 Dissyllables In n have the stem In t.
46 GENDER IN THIRD DECLENSION.
95. Nouns in ix : Genitive in icis : Stem in ic :
calix, cup, calicis, calic.
NOTE. Nix, nivis (66), snow; strife, strigis, screech-owl; a few Gallic names also
have the Genitive in i gis : Dumnorix, Orgetorix.
96. Nouns in 5x or ox : vox, vdcis, voice ; nox, noctis, night.
NOTE. There are also a few national names in ox, Gen. in ocis or ogis : Cappa-
dox, Cappadocis; Allobrox, Allobrogte.
97. Nouns in ux : Genitive in ucis : Stem in uo :
dux, leader, ducis, due.
NOTE 1. Lux, lucis, light; Pollux, Pollucis, Pollux; frux,friigi8, fruit.
NOTE 2. Greek nouns in yx and yx are variously declined: Eryx, Erycis,'Eryx;
bombyx, botnbygis, silkworm ; Styx, Stygis, Styx ; coccyx, coccygis, cuckoo ; onyx,
onychis, onyx.
98. Nouns in x after n or r : Genitive in cis : Stem in ci :
arx, citadel, arcis, arci.
NOTE 1. Conjwnx or conjuae, conjugis, spouse.
NOTE 2. Most nouns in x preceded by n are of Greek origin : lynx, Ityncit, lynx ;
phalanx, phalangis, phalanx.
GENDER IN THIRD DECLENSION.
99. Nouns in the third declension ending in
6, or, 6s, er, and in es and es increasing in the Genitive, 1
are masculine : sermd, discourse; dolor, pain; mos, custom;
agger, mound ; pes, Genitive pedis, foot.
1 00. Nouns in are masculine, except the Feminines, viz, :
1. Nouns in 6, Gen. inis, except cardb, ordd, turbo, mase., cupldd and
margd, masc. or fern.
2. Card, flesh, and the Greek Argo, echo, echo.
3. Most abstract and collective nouns in id : ratio, reason ; contio, an
101. Nouns in OR are masculine, except
1. The Feminine: arbor, tree.
2. The Neuters : ador, spelt ; aequor, sea ; cor, heart ; marmor, marble.
1 02. Nouns in OS are masculine, except
1. The Feminines : arbos, tree; cos, whetstone ; dos, dowry ; eos, dawn.
2. Tb.e Neuter : os, mouth.
NOTB. 0, bone, and a few Greek words in os are neuter: chaos, chaos.
1 03. Nouns in ER are masculine, except
1 That is, having more syllables in the Genitive than in the Nominative.
GENDER IN THIRD DECLENSION. 47
1. The Feminine : linter, boat (sometimes masc.).
2. The Neuters: (1) cadaver, corpse; iter, way; tuber, tumor; ubcr,
udder ; ver, spring ; verber, scourge ; (2) botanical names in er,
Gen. eris : acer, maple-tree ; papaver, poppy.
104. Nouns in ES and ES increasing in the Genitive are masculine,
except
1. The Feminines : compes, fetter; merces, reward; merges, sheaf;
quies, rest (with its compounds) ; seges, crop ; teges, mat ; some-
times ales, bird, and quadrupes, quadruped.
2. The Neuter : aes, copper.
105. Nouns of the third declension ending in
as, as, is, ys, x, in es not increasing in the Genitive, and
in s preceded by a consonant,
are feminine : * aetds, age ; ndvis, ship ; chlamys, cloak ;
pax, peace ; nules, cloud ; ur bs, city.
1 06. Nouns in AS and AS are feminine, except
1. The Masculines : as, an as (a coin), vas, surety, and Greek nouns in
as, Gen. antis.
2. The Neuters : vas, vessel, and Greek nouns in as, Gen. atis.
1 07. Nouns in IS and YS are feminine, except the Masculines, viz. :
1. Nouns in alls, ollis, cis, mis, nis, guis, quis : ndtalis, birthday;
Ignis, fire ; sanguis, blood. But a few of these are occasionally
feminine : canis, amnis, cinis, finis, anguis, torquis.
2. Axis, axle ; buris, plough-tail ; callis, path ; l ensis, sword ; lapis,
stone ; mlnsis, month ; orbis, circle ; postis, post ; pulvis, dust ;
sentis, brier ; torris, brand ; vectis, lever ; and a few others.
8. Names of mountains in ys : Othrys.
1 08. Nouns in X are feminine, except the Masculines, viz. :
1. Greek masculines: corax, raven; thorax, cuirass.
1. Nouns in ex and nmt ; except the feminines : faex, for/ex, nex, (prex)
supellex.
3. Calix, cup ; fornix, arch ; phoenix, phoenix ; tr&dux, vine-layer, and
a few nouns in yx.
4. Sometimes : calx, heel ; calx, lime ; lynx, lynx.
109. Nouns in ES not increasing in the Genitive are feminine, except
the Masculines, viz. :
1 Nouns whose gender is determined by Signification (42) may be exceptions to
these rules for gender aa determined by Ending*. Callit is sometimes j'eminin.
48 FOURTH DECLENSION.
AAnades, cimeter ; sometimes palumbSs, dove ; and vepres, thorn-bush.
NOTE. For Greek nouns in <>, see 111, note.
110. Nouns in S PRECEDED BY A CONSONANT are feminine, except the
Masculines, viz. :
1. Dens, tooth; fons, fountain; mons, mountain ; pdns, bridge ; gener-
ally adeps, fat, and rudens, cable.
2. Some nouns in ns, originally adjectives or participles with a masc'ii-
line noun understood : oriens (sol), east ; confluens (amnis), con-
fluence ; tridens (raster), trident ; quadrans (as), quarter.
8. Chalybs, steel ; hydrops, dropsy, and a few other Greek words.
4. Sometimes : forceps, forceps ; serpens, serpent ; stirps, stock. Ani-
mdns, animal, is masculine, feminine, or neuter.
111. Nouns of the third declension ending in
a> e> i> Y, c, 1, n, t, ar, ar, ur, us, and us
are neuter : ' poema, poem ; mare, sea ; lac, milk ; animal,
animal ; carmen, song ; caput, head ; corpus, body.
NOTE. A few Greek nouns in ex are also neuter : cacoethes, desire, passion.
112. Nouns in L, AR, and AR are neuter, except the Masculines, viz. :
Muffil, mullet; sal, 1 salt ; sol, sun; lar, hearth ; solar, trout.
113. Nouns in N are neuter, except
1. The Masculines : pecten, comb ; ren, kidney ; lien, spleen ; and
Greek masculines in an, en, In, 5n : paean, paean ; canon, rule.
2. The feminines : aedon, nightingale ; alcyon (halcyon), kingfisher ;
Icon, image ; sindon, muslin.
114. Nouns in UR are neuter, except the Masculines, viz. :
Furfur, bran ; turtur, turtle-dove ; vultur, vulture.
115. Nouns in US and US are neuter, except
1. The Masculines : lepus, hare ; mus, mouse; and Greek nouns in pus.
3. The Feminines : tellus, earth ; /raws, fraud ; laus, praise ; and nouns
in us, Gen. utis or udis : virtus, virtue ; palm, marsh.
FOURTH DECLENSION : U NOUNS.
116. Nouns of the fourth declension end in
us masculine; u neuter.
They are declined as follows :
1 See foot-note, page 47. Sal is sometimes neuter in the singular.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
49
Frfictus, fruit.
Nom. fructus
Gen. fructfts
f ructiil, tt l
fructum
fructus
frQctft
Dai.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl
Nom. frQctfts
Gen. frQctitum
Dot. friictibus
Ace. fructus
Voc. fructus
Abl. fructibus
Cornu, horn.
SINGULAR.
CASE-ENDING.
cornn
us
a
cornus
Os
us
cornu
ui, a 1
a
cornu
um
a
U
us
Q
cornu
u
u
PLURAL.
cornua,
us
ua
! II 11 III
uum
UUl
cornibus
ibus (ubus)
ibu
cornua,
us
ua
cornua
us
ua
cornibus
ibus (ubus)
ibu
ibus (ubua)
ua
ua
ibus (ubus)
1. The STEM in nouns of the fourth declension ends in u : fructu, cornu.
2. The CASE-ENDINGS here given contain the characteristic u, weakened
to i in ibus, but retained in ubtts ; see 22.
117. The following IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS occur : 8
1. Ubus for ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural
1) Regularly in acus, needle; arcvs, bow; and tribus, tribe.
2) Often in artusf joint; lacus, lake; partus, birth; portus, harbor;
z, cave ; and veru t spit.
3) Occasionally in a few other words, as genu, knee ; tonitrvs, thunder, etc.
2. Uis, the uncontracted form for fla, in the Genitive: fructuis for
3. Uos, an old form* of the Genitive ending: sentituos* of the senate.
118. Nouns in us are masculine, those in u are neuter, but the fol-
lowing in us are
1 Thus ul Is contracted Into ft : frfictu^ frfictfi.
3 To these should be added the rare endings iid for fi in the Abl. Sing., itue for iis in
the Gen. Sing., and ui'is for fit in the Nom., Ace., and Voc. PI. See Wordsworth, pp. 60-62
3 Generally plural, Hmb.
* It has been already mentioned (47, note 1) that the five declensions are only five
varieties of one general system of inflection. The close relationship between the third
declension and the fourth will be seen by comparing the declension atfructug, a w-noun
of the fourth, with that of gru* (66, 2), a w-nuun of the third. In fact, if the old Geni-
tive ending uit had not been contracted into fit, there would have been no fourth de-
clension whatever. All M-nouns would have belonged to the third declension.
s Compare the Greek Genitive in vo : t^0vc, i\9vot, fish.
' This was first weakened to sem'ttvie (22), and then contracted to tendtiis (23, 2X
the classical form.
5
50 FIFTH DECLENSION.
FMCININE BY EXCEPTION : (1) acm, needle; coins, distaff; domtm, house ,
manwi, hand; porticus, portico; tribus, tribe; (2) Tdus, Ides;
Quinqudtrus, feast of Minerva ; generally penus, store, when oi
this declension ; rarely spents, den ; (3) see 42, II.
NOTB. The only neuter nouns in common use are cornii, genft, and r r. 1
119. SECOND AND FOURTH DECLENSIONS. Some nouns are partly of
the fourth declension and partly of the second.
1. Domus, F., house, has a Locative form down, at home, and is other-
wise declined as follows : *
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Norn,, domus domus
Gen. domus domuum, domOrum
Dot. domul (donao) domibus
Ace. domum domos, domus
Voc. domus domus
Abl. domo (domfl) domibus
2. Certain names of trees in us, as cupres8U8,ficu8, laurus, plrvtu, though
generally of Decl. II., sometimes take those cases of the fourth which end in
w*, s, and u : N. lauru*, G. lavr-us, D. lauro, A. laurum, V. laurus, A. la/tru,
etc. So also colus, distaff.
3. A few nouns, especially senatus, senate, and tumultus, tumult, though
regularly of Decl. IV., sometimes take the Genitive ending i of the second ;
teiidti, tumultl.
4. Quercus, oak, regularly of Decl. IV., has quercorum in the Gen. PJur.
FIFTH DECLENSION: E NOUNS.
120. Nouns of the fifth declension end in ea feminine,
and are declined as follows :
Dies,
day.
Res, thing.
SINGULAR.
CABK-KMUXOB.
Nom.
dis
rs
Ss
Gen.
'l
or die
rI or re
&, s
Dot.
'l
or die
rel or re
el, 6
Ace.
diem
rem
em
Voc.
dies
res
S3
Abl
die
re
g
1 But neuter forms occur In certain eases of other words. Thus, Dat. pecuJ, AW
pecfi. Nom., Ace., and Voc. PI. pecua, from obsolete pecft, cattle ; also artua fron
zrtut ; OHfnia from obsolete oi>#&, bone ; ttpfcua from specus.
9 Combining forms of the second declension with those of the fo\irth.
FIFTH DECLENSION.
Nom. dies res es
Gen. ilieruui ~-rinii erum
Dat. diebus rebus ebus
Ace. dies res es
Foe. dies res 6s
All. diebus rebus ebus
1. The STEM of nouns of the fifth declension ends in e : die, re.*
2. The CASK-ENDINGS here given contain the characteristic e, which ap-
pears in all the cases. It is shortened (1) generally in the ending el, when
preceded by a consonant, and (2) regularly in the ending em.
NOTE. Traces of a Locative in e are preserved in certain phrases found in early
Latin, as die septimj, on the seventh day ; die crdstini , on the morrow; die' proseimi,
on the next day. Cotidie, hodie, pr idie, and the like are doubtless Locatives in origin.
121. IRREGULAR CASE-ENDINGS. The following occur :
1. I or el for el in the Gen. and Dat. : acil for adel, of sharpness ;
diet for diet ; rei for rn ; pernidl for pemiciei, of destruction.
2. Es in the Gen. in early Latin : dies, of a day ; rabies, of madness.
122. DEFECTIVE. Nouns of this declension want the plural, except 2
1. Dies and res, complete in all their parts.
2. Aden, sharpness ; effigies, image ; fades, face ; series, series ; spedes, ap-
pearance ; spet,* hope, used in the Sing., and in the Nom., Ace., and Voc. Plur.
3. Eluviet) used in the Sing, and in the Nom. Plur., and y lades in the
Sing, and in the Ace. Plur.
1 23. GENDER. Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine >
EXCEPT dies, day, and men/lies, midday, masculine, though dies is some
times feminine in the singular, especially when it means time.
124. GENERAL TABLE OF GENDER.
I. Geuder independent of ending. 4 Common to all de-
clensions.
1 Originally most -stems appear to have been either /7-stemi or x stems. Thus: 1)
Most stems in if are modified from i<~i : niteri<~i, miiterit, Nom. miiterii-s, material;
ee 25, 1, note, with foot-note 6. In this class of words the Gen. and Dat. Sing, are
formed from the stem in i<~t, not from that in i* : mdUriae, not mi'iUrifl. 2) Diet
Jidftii ptfbrx, and pft appear to have been x-stems, modified to ^-sterns, as many
t-stems in the third declension were modified to t-stems; see 62, I., 1, foot-note.
J A few plural forms in addition to those here given are sometimes cited, but seem
not to occur in writers of the classical period.
s In early Latin gpfren occurs in the Nom. and Ace. Plur., formed from pf# treated
AD a stem in x. Thus: tpe-s, spiset, spfrft (31, 1).
4 For exceptions, see 43.
COMPOUND NOUNS.
Masculine.
Names of MALES, of
RIVERS, WINDS, and
MONTHS.
Feminine.
Names of FEMALES, of
COUNTRIES, TOWNS, ISL-
ANDS, and TREES.
Neater.
INDECLINABLE NOUNS,' IN-
FINITIVES, and CLAUSES
used as Nvtms.
II. Gender determined by Nominative ending. 4
Masculine,
as, es.
er, ir, us, os, 5s. I
6, or, 5s, er, es and ; ;
es increasing in the
Genitive.
DECLENSION I.
Feminine.
a, e.
DECLENSION II.
DECLENSION III.
9, as, is, ys, x, es and
es not increasing in the
Genitive, s preceded by
a consonant.
DECLENSION IV.
DECLENSION V.
es.
Nenter.
una, on.
a, e, I, y, c, 1, n, t, 5r
ar, ur, us, us.
COMPOUND NOUNS.
125. Compounds present in general no peculiarities of declension.
But
1. If two nominatives unite, they are both declined : s respublica = rSspub-
lica, republic, the public thing ; jusjurandum = jus jurandum, oath.
2. If a nominative unites with an oblique case, only the nominative is
declined : 8 paterfamilias = pater familids (49, 1), or pater famiUae, the father
of a family.
126. PARADIGMS.
SINGULAR.
2?om. respublica
Gen. relpflblicae
Dot. relpflblicae
Ace. rempublicam
Voc, respublica
Abl. republics
jusjurandum
jurisjurandl
jurljurando
jusjurandum
jusjurandum
jurejurando
paterfamilias
patrisfamilias
patrlfamilias
patremfamilias
paterfamilias
patrefamilias
1 Except names of persons.
1 For exceptions, see under the several declensions.
* Words thus formed, however, are not compounds in the strict sense of the term
see 34O, I., note.
IRREGULAR NOUNS. 53
PLURAL.
Norn, rgspublicae iurajaranda patrgsfamilias
Gen. rerumpublicarum patrumfamilifis
Dot. rebuspublicls patribusfamilias
Ace. respublicas jurajtiranda patresfamilias
Voc. respublicae iurajuranda patresfamilias
All. rebuspublicls patribusfamilias
NOTE 1. The parts which compose these and similar words are often and perhaps
nore correctly written separately : reapabtica; paterfamilias orfamiliae.
NOTB 1. Paterfamilias sometimes hM famiUarum in the plural : patresfamili-
irum.
IRREGULAR NOUNS.
127. Irregular nouns may be divided into four classes:
I. INDECLINABLE NOUNS have but one form for all cases.
II. DEFECTIVE NOUNS want certain parts.
III. HETEROCLITES (heteroclita 1 ) are partly of one declension and partly
jf another.
IV. HETEROGENEOUS NOCNS (heterogenea a ) are partly of one gender and
partly of another.
I. INDECLINABLE NOUNS.
1 28. The Latin has but few indeclinable nouns. The following are
the most important :
1. The letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, alpha, fata, etc.
8. Foreign words : -Jdcob^ Riberl ; though foreign words often are declined.
n. DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
1 29. Nouns may be defective in Number, in Case, or in both Number
and Case.
1 30. PLURAL WANTING. Many nouns from the nature of their signi-
fication want the plural : Roma, Rome ; jQstitia, justice ; avrum, gold ; fa
mes, hunger ; sanguis, blood.
1. The principal nouns of this class are:
1) Most names of persons and places : OicerS, KOma.
2) Abstract Nouns : fide*, faith ; justitia, justice.
8) Names of materials : am-urn, gold ; ferrum, iron.
4) A few others : meridiss, midday ; specimen, example ; supellex, furni-
ture ; ner, spring ; tetpera, evening, etc.
2. Proper names admit the plural to designate families, dasset ; names ol
materials, to designate pieces of the material or articles made of it ; and ab-
stract nouns, to designate instances, or kintl*, of the quality : Stipiones, the
Scipios; aera, vessels of copper ; avaritiae, instances of avarice; odia, hatreds.
8. In the poets, the plural of abstracts occurs in the sense of the singular.
1 From rpov, another, and icAto-it, inflection, i. o.. of different declensions.
* From t Tt oo?. another, and y*vot, gender, 1. o.. of different genders.
IRREGULAR NOUNS.
131. SINGULAR WANTING. Many nouns want the singular.
1. The moat important of these are :
1) Certain personal appellatives applicable to classes : majores, forefathers
posterl, descendants ; geminl, twins ; liberi, children.
2) Many names of cities: Athenae, Athens; Thebae, Thebes; Delphi,
Delphi.
3) Many names of festivals : Bacchanalia, Olympia, Saturnalia.
4) Arma, arms ; divitiae, riches ; exsequiae, funeral rites ; exuviae, spoils ;
Idas, Ides ; indutiae, truce ; insidiae, ambuscade ; manes, shades of the dead ;
mlnae, threats ; moenia, walls ; munia, duties ; nuptiae, nuptials ; reliquiae,
remains.
2. An individual member of a class designated by these plurals may be de-
noted by unus ex with the plural: unus ex Kberis, one of the children, or a child.
NOTE. The plural in names of cities may have reference to the several parts of the
city, especially as ancient cities were often made up of separate villages. So in the names
of festivals, the plural may refer to the various games and exercises which together con-
stituted the festival.
1 32. PLURAL WITH CHANGE OF MEANING. Some nouns have one sig
nincation in the singular and another in the plural. Thus :
SINGULAR.
Aedes, temple;
Auxilium, kelp /
Career, prison, barrier /
Castrum, castle, hvtf
Comitium, name of a part of the
Roman forum ;
CSpia, plenty, force ;
Facultas, ability ;
Finis, end /
FortQna, fortune;
Gratia, gratitude, favor ;
Hortus, garden ;
Impedlmentum, hindrance;
Littera, letter of alphabet ;
L fid us, play, sport }
MOB, custom ;
Natalis (dies), birth-day ;
Opera, work, service ;
Pars, part ;
Rostrum, beak of ship '
Sal, salt ;
PLURAL.
aedes, (1) temples, (2) a house.*
auxilia, auxiliaries.
carceres, barriers of a race-course.
castra, camp.
comitia, the assembly held in the comitium.
cOpiae, (1) stores, (2) troops.
facilitates, wealth, means.
fines, borders, territory.
fortunae, possessions, wealth.
gratiae, thanks.
hortT, (I) gardens, (2) pleasure-grounds.
impedimenta, (1) hindrances, (2) baggage,
litterae, (1) letters of alphabet, (2) epistle,
writing, letters, literature.
ludi, (1) plays, (2) public spectacle.
mOr6s, manners, character.
natales, pedigree, parentage.
operae, workmen,
partes, (I) parts, (2) a party.
rostra, (1) beaks, (2) the rostra or tribunt
in Rome (adorned with beaks).
sales, witty sayings.
1 Aedes and some other words in this list, it will be observed, have in the plural two
figniflcations, one corresponding to that of the singular and the other distinct from It
HETEROCLITES. 55
1 33. DEFECTIVE IN CASE. Some nouns are defective in case :
1. In the Nora., Dat., and Voc. Sing. : , opis, , opem, , opt,
help ; , view, 1 , vicem, , vice, change.
2. In the Nora., Gen., and Voc. Sing. : , precl, precem, ,prece, prayer.
3. In the Norn, and Voc. Sing. : , dapis, 1 dapi, dapem, , dape,
food ; , frugis, frugl, frugem, ,fruge, fruit.
4. In the Gen., Dat, and Abl. Plur.: Most nouns of the fifth Decl. ; see 122.
NOTE. Many neuters are also defective in the Gen., Dat., and Abl. Plur. : far, fe/,
mel, pug, rug, tug, etc., especially Greek neuters in o, which want these cases also iu
the singular : epos, melos ; also a few norms of Decl. IV. : metus, situs, etc.
5. In the Gen. Plur. : many nouns otherwise entire, especially monosylla-
bles : nex, pax, pix ; cor, cos, rds ; sal, sol, lux,
1 34. NUMBER AND CASE. Some nouns want one entire number and
certain cases of the other. The following forms occur: fors, forte,
chance ; lues, luem, lue, pestilence ; dicionis, dicionl, dicionem, dicione, sway.
Fas, right, and nefas, wrong, are used in the Nom., Ace., and Voc. Sing. ;
Instar, likeness, nihil, nothing, and opus, need, in the Nom. and Ace. ;
secus, sex, in the Ace. only. Many verbal nouns in u and a few other
words have only the Ablative Singular : jussu, by order ; mandatu, by com-
mand ; rogatu, by request ; sponte, by choice, etc.
III. HETEROCLITES.
135. Of DECLENSIONS II. and IV. are a few nouns in its ; see 119.
136. Of DECLENSIONS II. and III. are
1. Jusjerum, an acre; generally of the second Decl. in the Sing., and of
the third in the Plur. : jitgerum, jugeri ; plural, jugera,jugerum,ju(ieribus.
2. Vas, a vessel ; of the third Decl. in the Sing, and of the second in the
Plur. : vas, vans ; plural, vdsa, vdsorum.
3. Plural names of festivals in alia : Bacchanalia, Saturnalia ; which are
regularly of the third Decl., but sometimes form the Gen. Plur. in drum of
the second. Anclle, a shield, and a few other words have the same peculiarity.
137. Of DECLENSIONS III. and V. are
1. Requite, rest; which is regularly of the third Decl., but also takes the
forms requiem and requie of the fifth.
2. Fames, hunger; regularly of the third Decl., except in the Ablative,
fame, of the fifth (not fame, of the third).
138. FORMS IN ia AND is. Many words of four syllables have one
form in ia of Decl. I., and one in ies of Decl. V. : luxuria, luxuries, lux-
ury ; materia, materies, material.
139. FORMS IN us AND um. Many nouns derived from verbs have one
form in us of Decl. IV., and one in um of Decl. II. : cOnalus,
attempt ; evenlus, evenJurn, event.
1 Defi-ctlve also in the Gen. Plur.
56 ADJECTIVES.
140. Many words which have but one approved form in prose, admit
another in poetry : juventus (utis), youth ; poetic, juventa (ae) : senecti'u
(utis), old age ; poetic, senecta (ae) : paupertds (atis), poverty ; poetic,
pauperits (61).
IV. HETBKOGENEOTTS NOUNS.
141. MASCULINE AND NEUTER. Some masculines take in the plural au
tdditional form of the neuter gender :
Jocus, m., jest; plural, joci, m.,joca, n.
Locus, m., place; plural, loci, m., topics, loca, n., places.
142. FEMININE AND NEUTER. Some feminities take in the pluial an
additional form of the neuter gender :
Carbasus, f., linen; plural, carbasi, f., carbasa, n.
Margarita, f., pearl; plural, margarltae, f., margarUa, n.
Ostrea, f., oyster; plural, ostreae, f., ostrea, n.
143. NEUTER AND MASCULINE OR FEMININE. Some neuters take in the
plural a different gender. Thus :
1. Some neuters become masculine in the plural :
Caelum, n., heaven; plural, caeU, m.
2. Some neuters generally become masculine in the plural, but sometimes
remain neuter :
Frenum, n., bridle ; plural, frenl, m., frena, n.
Rostrum, n., rake; plural, rastri, m., rostra, n.
8. Some neuters become feminine in the plural :
Epulum, n., feast; plural, epulae, f.
144. FORMS IN us AND um. Some nouns of the second declension
have one form in us masculine, and one in um neuter : clipeus, dipeum,
shield ; commentdrius, commentarium, commentary.
145. HETEROGENEOUS HETEROCLITES. Some heteroclites are also hete-
rogeneous : cOnatus (us), edn&tum (I), effort ; menda (ae), mendum (I), fault.
CHAPTER II.
ADJECTIVES.
146. THE adjective is the part of speech which is used
to qualify nouns : bonus, good ; mdynus, great.
NOTE. The form of the adjective in Latin depends In part upon the gender of the
noun which it qualifies : I/onus puer, a good boy ; bona puella, a good girl ; bonum tern-
plum, a good temple. Thus, in the Nom. Sing., bonus la the form of the adjective wnej|
used with masculine nouns, bona with feminine, and bonum with neuter.
ADJECTIVES. fif
147. Some adjectives are partly of the first declension
and partly of the second, while all the rest are entirely of
Jie third declension.
FIKST AND SECOND
DECLENSIONS : A
AND O STEMS.
148. Bonus, good. 1
SINGULAR.
MABO.
FKM.
Naur.
Norn, bonus
bona
botmm
Gen. bonl
bonae
bonl
Dot. bond
bonae
bond
Ace. bonnm
bouam
bonum
Voc. bone
bona
bunum
Adi. bond
bonft
bond
PLURAL.
Nom. bonl
bonae
bona
Gen. bouOnim
bonarum
bondrmn
Dai. bonls
bonls
bonls
Ace. bonds
bonas
bona
Voc. bonl
bonae
bona
Abl. bonls
bonls
bonls
149. Liber, free*
SINGULAR.
MABO.
FBM.
NstTT.
Nom. liber
llbera
llberum
Gen. Uberl
Hberae
iTberl
Dai. liber*
llberae
llberft
Ace. llbernm
Uberain
llberum
Voc. liber
llbera
llberum
Abl. liber*
llberA
libcro
PLURAL.
JVbm. liber!
llberae
llbera
Gen. llberorum
llberarum
llberdrum
Dot. llberls
llberls
llberls
^4cc. llberds
UberftH
llbera
Voc. Uberl
llberae
llbera
.dW. llberls
Uberls
llberls
1 Boxes i declined In the Masc. likenrc of Decl. II. (51), in the Fern, like menm
3f Decl. I. (48), and in the Neut. like templum of Decl. II. (51). The stems are lone
<n the Masc. and Neut., and bontl in the Fern.
* LlBKB is declined in the Masc. like piter (51). and in the fern, and Neut. like ?>onva
58
150. Aeger, sick. 1
MABO.
Nom aeger
Gen. aegrl
Dot. aegro
Ace. aegrum
Voc. aeger
Abl. aegro
Nom. aegrl
Gen. orii in
Dat. aegrls
Ace. aegros
Voc. aegrl
Abl. aegrls
ADJECTIVES.
SINGULAR.
FEM.
aegra
aegrae f
aegrae
aegram
aegra
aegrft
PLURAL.
aegrae
ai'iri am in
aegrls
aegras
aegrae
aegrls
If BUT.
ii in
aegrl
aegro
aegrum
u in
aegro
aegra
OK II III
aegrls
aegra
aegra
aegrls
NOTE. Most adjectives in er are declined like aeger, but the following ii
er and ur are declined like liber :
1) Asper, rough; lacer, torn; miser, wretched; prosper, prosperous; tener,
tender ; but asper sometimes drops the e, and dexter, right, sometimes retains
it : dexter, dextera, or dextra.
2) Satur, sated ; atur, satura, saturum.
3) Compounds infer and ger : mortifer, deadly ; dliger, winged.
151. IRREGULARITIES. Nine adjectives have in the
singular ms 2 in the Genitive and I in the Dative, and are
declined as follows :
Alius, another.
Solus, alone.
SINGULAR.
MASC. ,
FEM
NKUT.
MABO.
FEM.
NKCT.
Nom. alius s
' alia
aliud 3
solus
sola
solum
Gen. allus
allus
allus 4
solius
sollus
solius
Dot. alii
ali!
alii
soli
soli
soli
Ace. aliuin
aliam
aliud
solum
so lain
solum
Voc.
sole
sola
solum
Abl. aliO
alia
aliO
solo
sola
solo
1 AEGKB is declined in the masculine like ager (51), and in the feminine and neuter
like bonus.
2 7 in ?MS is often shortened by the poets; regularly so in altering in dactylic vert*
(6O9).
8 Rarely alis and alid. The eaine stem appears in ali-qitis (19O, 2), some one;
ali-ter, otherwise.
4 For alitiiK by contraction. Alttrius often supplies the place otalitu
ADJECTIVES. 59
PLURAL.
Norn, alii
uliae
alia
soli
solae
sola
Gen. aliOrum
aliaruni
aliorum
solorum
solarum
sOloruin
Dot. ulils
alils
aliis
soils
soils
soils
./'-. alios
alias
alia
solos
solus
sola
Voc,
soli
solae
sola
Abl. alils
alils
aliis
soils
soils
soils
1. These nine adjectives are : alius, a, we/, another ; nullus, a, MOT, no one 1 ,
talus, alone ; totus^ whole ; ullus, any ; unus, 1 one ; alter, -tera, -terum* the
other 3 ; uter, -tra, -trum, 4 which (of two) ; neuter, -tra, -trumf neither.
NOTE 1. The regular forms occasionally occur ID the Gen. and Dat. of some of these
adjectives.
NOTB 2. Like uter are declined its compounds : uterqite, utervis, uterlibet, uter-
cunqut. In atteruter sometimes both parts are declined, as altering utrlux ; and
sometimes only the latter, as ulterutr'tus.
THIRD DECLENSION : CONSONANT AND I STEMS.
152. Adjectives of the third declension may be divided
into three classes :
I. Those which have in the Nominative Singular three
different forms one for each gender.
II. Those which have two forms the masculine and
feminine being the same.
III. Those which have but one form the same for all
genders.
153. ADJECTIVES OF THREE ENDINGS in this declension
have the stem in i, and are declined as follows :
/"
SINGULAR.
MABO.
Nom. acer*
FKM.
acris
Nror.
acre
Cm. acri
fieri ft
Scrl*
Dal. fieri
acrl
acrl
Ace. ficrem
acrem
acre
Voc. ficer
acris
acre
Abl. acrl
fieri
fieri
1 Bee declension, 175.
8 Oen. alterius, Dat. alter'i ; otherwise declined like 1'ilitr (149).
3 Or one oftico, the one.
4 Gen. utrlus, Dat. utrl ; otherwise like itfyer (15O). Xtuter like uter.
* ACER is declined like iynin in the Masc. and Fern., and like marf (03) in the Nout,
except in the Nom. and Voc. Sin?., Masc., and in the Ahl. Sing.
These forms in er are like those in ernf Decl. II. in dropping the ending in the
Worn, and Voc. Sing, and in developing final r into er: I'irer for fieri* , gtein, ilcri.
ADJECTIVES.
Tristior, sadder.*
PLURAL.
MAM. FKM. Nmr.
Norn. acres acres iicria
Gen. acrium acriuni in MI
Dot. aci-ibus a crib us acribus
Ace. acres, Is acres, Is acria
Voc. acrCs acres acria
All. acribus acribus acribus
NOTE 1. Like ACER are declined :
1) Alacer, lively; campester, level; celeber, famous; ceter, 1 swift; equester, eques
trian; paliister, marshy; pedester, pedestrian; puter, putrid; salriber, healthful; til
tester, woody ; terr 'ester, terrestrial ; volucer, winged.
2) Adjectives in er designating the months : October, bris?
NOTE 2. In the poets and in early Latin the form in er, as deer, is sometimes femi-
nine, and the form in is, as acris, Is sometimes masculine.
154. ADJECTIVES OF Two ENDINGS are declined as
follows :
Tristis, sad.'
SIN
M. AND F. NUT.
Nom. trtstis triste
Gen. trlstis trlstis
Dot. trfstl trtstl
Ace. trfstem triste
Voc. trlstis triste
Abl trtstl trlstl
PLt
Nom. trlstes trfstia
Gen. trtstium trlstinm
Dot. trtstibus trtstibus
Aec. trlstes, Is trfstia
Voc. trlstes trlstia
Abl. trtstibus trtstibus
Nox 1. Like trlstior, comparatives, as consonant stems, generally have the Abl.
Sing, in e, sometimes in I, the Nom. Plur. Neut. in a. and the Gen. Plur. in urn. But
complf/res, several, has Gen. Piur. complurium; Nom., Ace., and Voc. Plur. Neut.
oomplura or oomplfrria ; see Plfiz, 165.
NOTB!. In poetry, adjectives In is, e, sometimes have the Abl. Sing, in e: odgno-
mine from ot/ffn/'minit, of the same name.
1 This retains in declension : celer, celeris, celere; and has um in the Gen. Plur.
3 See also 77, 2, note.
* Tristit and trltte are declined Bke ticrit and acre ; the stem is trlxti.
* TrltMorh the comparative (16O) ottrletit; the stem was originally triad's, but
ft hag been modified to trlstius (61, 1) and trtstior (31).
' Enclosed endinpa are rare.
M. AND F.
NKVT.
trlstior
trtstius
trlstioris
trtstioris
tristiorl
trlstiOrl
trtstiorem
trtstius
trlstior
trfstius
trtstiore (I)
trtstiore (I)
trtstiores
trtstiora
tiistioriim
trtstiorum
trtsti5ribns
tiTstiurilms
trtstiores (Is)
trtsti6ra
trtstiores
trtstiora
trtstioribus
tristioribuw
ADJECTIVES,
61
155. ADJECTIVES OF ONE ENDING generally end in s or
x, but sometimes in I or r.
156. Audax, audacious. 1
Felix, happy. 1
M. AWDF.
NBCT.
Atom. audSx
audax
(?en. audacis
audacis
Dot. audacl
audacl
Ace. audacem
audax
Fix?, audax
audax
Abl. audacl (e)
audacl (e)
M. AND F.
feiix
fellcis
fellcl
I'f'lTcem
fellx
fellcl (e)
N*ur.
fellx
tellcis
fellcl
felici (e)
Nom. audacCs
Gen. audilcium
i IMIH
audacfis (Is)
audacfis
i lu-
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
fences
fclicia
fellcium
fellciiim
felicitous
felicitous
fences (is)
fdlTcCs
fellcia
felicia
fCllribus
felicitous
157. Amans, loving.
PrudSns, prudent.
SINGULAR.
M. AMD F. Nmrr.
M. AND F. NECT.
Nom. anians amftns
prudens prudgns
f >'. amantis amantis
prudentis prudentis '
Dat. amantl amantl
prudentl prudentl
Ace. amantem amfins
prudentem prudens
Voc. amans am&ns
prudens prudSns
Abl. am ante (I) amante (I)
prQdentl (e) prudentl (e)
PLURAL.
Nom. amantCs amantla.
prudentCs prudentia
Gen. amantinni amantinm
prudentium prQdentinin
l)'ii. aroantitous amantibus
prudentitons prQdentitoim
Ace. M inn nt es (Is) amantla
prQdentfis (Is) prudentia
Voc. amantCs amantla
prudentCs prQdentia
Abl. amantitons amantibus
prudentitous prudentibus
NOTE. The participle amdns differs in declension from the adjective priidfrwonly
in the AM. Ring., where the participle usually
has the ending e, and the adjective, i.
1 Observe that I in the Abl. Sing., and ia. lum, and l In the Plur., are the regular
oase-endings for i-stems ; see 03 and 63.
3 According to Ritschl, Schmitz, and others, the e which is long in prtld&nt before J
is short in all other forms of the word, i. e., before nt. In the same manner the a which
Is long in amans. is according to Ritschl short in amantis, ainanti, etc. : see p. 87, foot-
note 2. See also Sohmit?., pp. 8-26; Kitsc-hl, Bhein. Museum, xxxi., p. 48S ; MOller, p. 2T.
62 ADJECTIVES.
Participles used adjectively may of course take I. A few adjectives have only e in gen
eral use: (1) pauper, paupere, poor; piibes, piibere, mature; (2) those in es, G
itis or idis : tiles, deses, ^Ive*, sdspes, tuperstes ; (3) caelebt, compos, impos, princep*
158. Vetus, old.
Memor, mindful.
SINGULAR.
M. AND F.
NECT.
M. AND F.
NBUT.
Nom.
vetus
vetus
memor
memor
Gen.
veteris
veteris
memoris
memoris
Dot.
veterl
veterl
memorl
memorl
Ace.
veterem
vetus
memorem
memor
Voc.
vetus
vetus
memor
memor
AU.
vetere (I)
vetere (I)
memorl
memorl
PLURAL.
Nom.
veteres
vetera
memorCs
Gen.
vetcruiii
vetemm
memorum
Dot.
iln.
veterifous
memorilms
Ace.
veteres (Is,
vetera
memorCs (Is)
Voc.
veteres
vetera
ruemores
All.
ilni-
< ilm>
memoribus
1. NEUTER PLURAL. Many adjectives like memor, from the nature of
their signification, want the Neuter Plural ; all others have the ending ia,
as felicia, jjrtidentia, except fiber, ubera, fertile, and vetus, vetera.
2. GENITIVE PLURAL. Most adjectives have ium, but the following
have urn :
1) Adjectives of one ending with only e in the Ablative Singular (157,
note) : pauper, pauperum.
2) Those with the Genitive in eris, oris, uris : vetus, vcterum, old ;
memor, memorum, mindful ; cicur, cicui'um, tame.
3) Those in ceps : anceps, ancipitum, doubtful.
4) Those compounded with substantives which have urn : inops (ops,
opum), inopum, helpless.
IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.
159. Irregular adjectives may be
I. INDECLINABLE : frugl, frugal, good ; nequam, worthless ; mllle, thou
sand; see 176.
II. DEFECTIVE : (ceterus) cetera, cetcrum, the other, the rest ; (iQdicer)
ludicra, ludicrum, sportive; (sons) sontis, guilty; (seminex) seminecis, half
dead; paucl, ae, a, few, used only in the Plural; see also 158, 1.
III. HETEROOLITES. Many adjectives have two distinct forms, one in
, a, um, of the first and second declensions, and one in is and e of the
third : hilarus and hilaris, joyful ; exanimus and exanimis, lifeless.
COMPARISON, 63
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
160. Adjectives have three forms, called the Positive
degree, the Comparative, and the Superlative : altus, al-
tior, altissimus, high, higher, highest. These forms denote
different degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective.
161. The Latin, like the English, has two modes of com-
parison :
I. TERMINATIONAL COMPARISON" by endings.
II. ADVERBIAL COMPARISON by adverbs.
I. TERMINATIONAI, COMPARISON.
1 62. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding to the
stem of the positive the endings :
CoMPABATivE. SUPERLATIVE.
MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FKM. NKUT.
ior ior ius issimus issima issimum '
altus, altior, altissimus, high, higher, highest,
levis, lovior, levissimus. light, lighter, lightest.
NOTB. VOWEL STEMS lose their final vowel: alto, altior, alfissimw.
163. IHHEGULAR SUPERLATIVES. Many adjectives with regu-
lar comparatives have irregular superlatives. Thus :
1. Those in er add rimua to this ending: ' deer, dcrior, awrimux, sharp
NOTE. Vetw has veterrimus; maturus, both maturrimut and mati/rinsim-us ,
darter, dea-timus.
2. Six in ilia add limus to the stem : '
facilis, difficilis, easy, difficult,
similis, dissimilis, like, unlike,
gracilis, humilis, slender, low:
facilix, facilior, fanllimun. Imbecillw has imbecillimiis.
8. Four in rus have two irregular superlatives :
exterus, exterior, extremus and extimus, outward,
Inferus, inferior, Infimus and Imus, lower,
superus, superior, supremus and summus, upper,
posterus, posterior, postremus and postumus, next.
1 The superlative ending is-gi/n ux is probably compounded of in, from #*, the oripinal
comparative ending (154, foot-note 4), and nimwi for timux ; ion-tinnis= ifif-nimun
ln-Ktmut. After /and r, the first elemcmt is omitted, and * assimilated : fad/ in, fa <'/-
ttimux, facil-limu; riffr, I'lcer-fit/iux, ficfr-rimun ; but those in Hit drop the Hna'
owel of the tm. See Bopp, 291-8K7; Schleicher, pp. 488-494; Koby. p. Ixvi.
64 COMPARISON.
164. Egenm, pr&vidus, and compounds in die us, ficus, and
volus, are compared with the endings entior and entissimua, as if
from forms in ens:
egenus, egentior, egentissimus, needy,
prOvidnn, prdvidentior, providentissimus, prudent,
maledicus, maledicentior, maledicentissimus, slanderous,
mQnificus, munificentior, munificentissimus, liberal,
benevolus, beuevolentior, benevolentissimus, benevolent.
NOTB. Mirijtei*#imus occurs as the superlative of mirificw, wonderful.
165. SPECIAL IRREGULARITIES OP COMPARISON.
bonus, melior, optimus, good,
mains, p8jor, pessimus, bad,
magnus, major, maximufl, ffreat,
parvus, minor, minimus, small,
multus, plQs, plurimufl, much.
NOTB 1. Plus is neuter, and has In the singular only Norn, and Ace. plus, and Ge;
plurit. In the plural it has Norn, and Ace. pltiris (m. and f.), plura (n.), Gen. plun
um, Dat and Abl. plfiribus.
NOTI 2. /)?, frfigl, and neqiiam are thus compared :
( divitior, UI vitissiinus, )
dives, rich,
I ditior, ditissimus, i
frugi, frugulior, frugaUssimus, frugal,
n^quaui, n^quior, nequissimus, worthiest.
166. POSITIVE WANTING.
citerior, citimus, nearer, prior, primus, former,
dfiterior, leterrimus, worse, propior, prOximus, nearer,
interior, intimus, inner, \ ulterior, ultiinus, farther.
6cior, Ocissimus, swifter, \
167. COMPARATIVE WANTING.
1. In a few participles used adjectively: meritus, meritissimug, deserving.
2. In these adjectives :
dlversua, dlversissimus,
falsissimus, false,
inclutub, inclutissimus, renowned,
novus, novissimus, new,
sacer, sacerrimus, sacred
vetus, veterrimus, old.
invltus, invitissimus, unwilling, '.
NOTE. Many participles used adjectively are compared in full : am<in#, amantioi
amanttetiimus, loving; doclus, doctior, doctissimus, instructed, learned.
168. SUPERLATIVE WANTING. _
1. In most verbals in ilia and bills : docilis, docilior, docile.
2. In many adjectives in alia and Ilis : capitalis, capit&lior, capital.
3. In alacer, alacrior, active ; caecus, blind ; diutwmts, lasting ; longln-
quits, distant ; oplmits, rich ; procllvis, steep ; proplnquus, near ; salutaris,
salutary, and a few others.
4. Three adjectives supply the superlative thi*-
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES: 65
adolfiscens, adolfiscentior, minimus natu, 1 young,
juvenis, junior, minimus natu, young,
senex, senior, maximus natu, old.
169. WITHOUT TERMINATIONAL COMPARISON.
1. Many adjectives, from the nature of their signification, especially sUch
as denote material, possession, or the relations of place and time: aureus.
golden ; paternus, paternal ; Kmndmis, Roman ; aettivus, of summer.
2. Most adjectives in us preceded by a vowel ; idoneus, suitable.
3. Many derivatives in dlis, dris, ilis, ulus, icus, inus, drus: mortdlit>
(mors), mortal.
4. Albus, white; claudus, lame ; ferus, wild ; lassut, weary; m/i/rus, won-
derful, and a few others.
II. ADVERBIAL COMPARISON.
1 70. Adjectives which want the terminational comparison, form the
comparative and superlative, when their signification requires it, by pre-
fixing the adverbs magis, more, and m&xime, most, to the positive : arduus,
magis arduus, maxime arduus, arduous.
1. Other adverbs are sometimes used with the positive to denote different
degrees of the quality : admodum, ralde, oppido, very ; imprimis, apprime, in
the highest degree. Per and prae in composition with adjectives have the
force of very : perdifficilis, very difficult ; praedarus, very illustrious.
2. Strengthening particles are also sometimes used (1) With the com-
parative: etiam, even, multd, longe, much, far: etiam diligentior, even more
diligent; multd diligentior, much more diligent (2) With the superlative:
multd, longe, much, by far; guam, as possible: multd or longe diligentissi-
mus, by far the most diligent ; quam diligentissimus, as diligent as possible.
NUMERALS.
171. Numerals comprise numeral adjectives and numeral
adverbs.*
1 72. Numeral adjectives comprise three principal classes .
1. CARDINAL NUMBERS : unus, one ; duo, two.
2. ORDINAL NUMBERS: primus, first ; secundus, second.
3. DISTRIBUTIVES : singull, one by one ; blnl, two by
two, two each, two apiece.
1 73. To these may be added
1 Smallest or youngest in age. Nfttu ii sometimes omitted.
* The first ten cardinal numbers, mllle, primus, secundv*, and temel (once), four-
teen words in all, furnish the basis of the Latin numeral system. All other numerals are
'ormed from these either by derivation or by composition.
06 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
1. MULTIPLICATIVES, adjectives in plex, Gen. plicis, denoting BO many
fold : simplex, single ; duplex, double ; triplex, threefold.
2. PROPORTIONALS, declined like bonus, and denoting so many times as
great : duplus, twice as great ; triplus, three times as great.
174. TABLE OF NUMEBAL ADJECTIVES:
CARDINALS.
ORDINALS.
DISTRIBUTIVES
1. onus, una, finuin
primus, first
singuli, one b;i oitt>
2. duo, duae, duo
secundus, 4 second
binl, two by cuo
3. tres, tria
tertius, third
terni (trlni)
4. quattuor
quSrtus, fourth
quaternl
5. qulnque
qulntus, fifth
qulnl
6. sex
sextus
sen!
7. septem
septimua
septfinl
8. octo
octavus
octoni
9. novera
nOnus
novenl
10. decem
decimus
deni
11. undecim
undecimus
Undenl
12. duodeciin
duodecimus
duodenl
13. tredecim*
tertius decimus *
ternl denl
14. quattuordecim
quartus decimus
quaternl d6nl
15. qumdecim
qulntus decimus
qulnl denl
16. sedecim or sexdecim '
sextus decimus
senl denl
17. septendecim '
Septimus decimus
septenl denl
18. duodevlgintl"
duodevlcesimus 8
duodevlcenl
19. undevlginti
undevlc6simus *
undevlcenl
20. vlgintl
vlcesimus 7
vicenl
g. ( vlgintl Onus
vlcesimus primus
vlceni singuli
' Onus et vigintl *
unus et vlcesimus 3
aingull et vicenl
22 (vlgintl duo
vlcesimus secundus
vlceni binl
(duo et vlgintl
alter et vlcesimus
binl et vlceni
30. trlginta
tricesimus 7
trlcenl
40. quadraginta
quadragesimus
quadragenl
50. qulnquaginta
qulnqufigesimus
qulnquagenl
60. sexaginta
sexagesimus
sexagenl
70. septuaginta
ueptuagesimus
septuagenl
80. octoginta
octogesimus
octogeni
1 Sometimes with the parts separated : decem et tres ; decem et getr, etc.
; Literally two from twenty, one from twenty, by subtraction ; but these number*
nay be expressed by addition : decem et octo ; decem et novem or decem novem ; so
9S, *9 ; 88, 89, etc., either by subtraction from trlffintd, etc., or by addition to rlijinCi.
' If the tens precede the units, et is omitted, otherwise it is generally used. Mo IB
English cardinals, twenty-one, one and twenty.
* Alter is often used for secundu*.
* Decimus, with or without et, may precede : deeimut et tertius or decimu tertius
* Sometime! expressed by addition : octdvut decimun and no nun decimu*.
1 *ouie times written with y : viyesimus ; trigf#imu*.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
67
f ARIUNAI.S.
ORDLNAM.
IjtSlBIBUTIVBS.
90. nonaginta
nonagesimus
nonagenl
100. centum
centesimus
centenl
101 ( centum unus
centesimus primus
centenl singull
I centum et unus '
centesimus et primus
centenl et singull
200. ducenti, ae, a
ducentesimus
ducenl
800. trecentl
trecentesimus
trecenl
400. quadringentl
quadringentesimus
quadringenl
500. qulngentl
qulngentesimus
qulngenl
600. sescentl*
sescentesimus "
Beseem
700. septingentl
septingentesimus
septingenl
800. octingentl
octingentesimus
octingenl
900. nongentl
nongentesimus
nongenl
1,000. mllle
mlllesimus
singula milia *
2,000. duo mllia 3
bis mlllesimus
bina milia
100,000. centum milia
centies mlllesimus
centena milia
1,000,000. decies centena
decies centies mlllesi-
decies centena mi-
mllia *
mus
lia
1. OBDINALS with pars, part, expressed or understood, may be used to
express fractions : tertia pars, a third part, a third ; quarto, pars, a fourth ;
duae tertiae, two thirds.
NOTE. Cardinal numbers with parte* are used in fractions when the denominator
larger than the numerator by one : duae partts, two thirds, tret partes, three fourths, etc.
2. DISTRIBUTIVES are used
1) To show the number of objects taken at a time, often best rendered
by adding to the cardinal each or apiece; ternos dendrios acceperunt, they
received each three denarii, or three apiece. Hence
2) To express Multiplication : decies centena mllia, ten times a hundred
thousand, a million.
3) Instead of Cardinals, with nouns plural in form, but singular in sense ?
bina castra, two camps. Here for singull and ternl, unl and trlnl are used
unae titterae, one letter ; trinae lUterae, three letters.
4) Sometimes of objects spoken of in pairs: bini scyphl, & pair of goblets;
and in the poets with the force of cardinals : bina ftastilia, two spears.
3. Poets use numeral adverbs (181) very freely in compounding numbers-
bi-s sex, for duodecim ; bis septern, for quattuordecim.
4. Sescentl and mllle are sometimes used indefinitely for any large num-
ber, as one thousand is used in English.
1 In compounding numbers above 100, units generally follow tens, tens hundreds, etc..
s in English; but the connective et is either omitted, or used only between the wo
highest denominations : mHle centum vlgintl or mllle. et centum vlgintl, 1120.
1 Often incorrectly written nexcentl, nea-centesimtt, and seoscinl.
3 Often written ml/lid. For duo inilia, bina mtlia or bit mille is sometimes used.
4 Literally -'ten times a hundred thousand"; the table might be carried up to any
desired number by using the proper numeral adverb with centena mllia: centifs cen-
tina milia, 10,000.000 ; sometimes in such combinations centena miltii is understood,
and the adverb only is expressed, and sometimes centum mtlia is used.
68 DECLENSION OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
DECLENSION OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
1 75. Unus, Duo, and Tres are declined as follows :
SINGULAR.
Unus, on*. pLURAL
Norn.
unus
una
unum
unl
unae
una
Gen.
unlus
umus
unlus
QnOrum
unarum
unOrun
Dot.
urn
fun
unl
Qnls
unls
unls
Ace.
unum
imam
unum
QnOs
UllilS
una
Voc.
une
una
unum
unl
unae
una
Abl.
unu
una
unfl
unls
unls
unls
Duo, two.
Tres, three.
Norn.
duo
duae
duo 1
trSs, m.
and /.
tria, n.
Gen.
duOrum
duarum
du5rum *
trium
trium
Dot.
duSbus
duabus
duObus
tribus
tribus
Ace.
duos, duo
duas
duo
trSs, trts
tria
Voe.
duo
duae
duo
trSs
tria
Abl.
du5bus
duabus
duObus
tribus
tribus
NOTE 1. The plural of unus in the sense of alone may be used with any noun : unl
Ub-ii, the Ubii alone ; but in the sense of one, it is used only with nouns plural it form,
but singular in sense : nna castra, one camp; unae litterae, one letter.
NOTE 2. Like duo is declined ambo, both.
NOTE 8. MuW, many, and pliiriml, very many, are indefinite numerals, and as
such generally want the singular. But in the poets the singular occurs in the sense oi
many a : nnilta hoxtia, many a victim.
1 76. The Cardinals from quattuor to centum are indeclinable.
1 77. Hundreds are declined like the plural of bonus : ducentl, ae, a.
1 78. Mlttf as an adjective is indeclinable ; as a substantive it is used
in the singular in the Nominative and Accusative, 3 but in the plural it is
declined like the plural of mare (63) : mllia, 4 mllium, mllibus.
NOTE. With the substantive mllle, mllia, the name of the objects enumerated is
generally in the Genitive: rn'iUt fiominum, a thousand men (of men); but if a declined
numeral intervenes it takes the case of that numeral: tria mllia trecenti rn'ilitts, three
thousand three hundred soldiers.
1 79. Ordinals are declined like bonus, and distributives like the plural
of bonus, but the latter often have urn instead of drum in the Genitive :
blnum for binorum.
1 In the ending o In duo and ambo (1 75, note '!), we have a remnant of the dual num-
ber which has otherwise disappeared from the Latin, though preserved in Greek and San-
skrit. Compare the Sanskrit dta, the Greek 4uo, the Latin duo, and the English two.
* Instead of diwrum and dw'irum, duum is sometimes used.
' Rarely in other cases in connection with mllium or mllibua.
* Generally written with one / . mllia, but sometimes with two : miliia.
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
69
180. NUMEKAL SYMBOLS:
AKABIO.
ROMAN. ! ARABIC.
ROMAN.
ARABIC.
ROMAN.
1.
I. 12.
XII.
50.
L.
2.
II. 13.
xm.
60.
LX.
3.
III. 14.
XIV.
70.
LXX.
4.
IV. 15.
XV.
80.
LXXX.
5.
V.
16.
XVI.
90.
XC.
6.
VI.
17.
XVII.
100.
C.
7.
VII.
18.
XVIII.
200.
cc.
8,
VIII.
19.
XIX.
500.
10, or D.
9.
IX.
20.
XX.
600.
DC.
10.
X.
30.
XXX.
1,000.
CIO, or M.i
11.
XL
40.
XL. 10,000.
CCIOO.
1. LATIN NUMERAL SYMBOLS are combinations of: 1 = 1; V = 5; X = 10'
L = 50 ; C = 100 ; 10 or D = 500 ; CIO or M = 1,000."
2. IK THE COMBINATION OF THESE SYMBOLS, except 10, observe
1) That the repetition of a symbol doubles the value : II = 2 ; XX = 20.
2; That any symbol standing before one of greater value, subtracts its
own value, but that after one of greater value, it adds its own value : V = 5 ;
IV = 5- 1 = 4; VI = 5 + 1 = 6.
3. IN THE COMBINATION OF 10 observe
1) That each (inverted C) after 10 increases the value tenfold : 10 = 500 ;
100 = 500 x 10 = 5,000 ; 1000 = 5,000 x 10 = 60,000.
2) That these numbers are doubled by placing C the same number ol
times before I as O stands after it : 10 = 500 ; CIO = 500 x 2 = 1,000 ; 100 =
5,000 ; CCIOO = 5,000 x 2 = 10,000.
3) That smaller symbols standing after these add their value : 10 = 500 ;
100 = 600; IOCC = 700.
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
181. To numerals belong also numeral adverbs :
1. semel, once
2. bis, twice
3. ter, three times
4. quater
5. qulnquies 8
6. sexiCs
7. septies
8. octifis
9. novies
10. decies
11. Ondecies
12. duodecies
1 Thousands are sometimes denoted by a line over the symbol : II = 2,000; V = 5,000
a The origin of these symbols is uncertain. According to Mommsen, / is the out-
stretched finger; F, the open hand ; A", the two hands crossed ; L, the open hand like K
but in a different position ; CIO is supposed to be a modification of the Greek *, not other-
wise used by the Romans, afterward changed to .)/, ID, afterward changed to I), is a
part of CIO ; Cis also supposed to be a modification of the Greek 0, but it may be the
initial letter of centum, as Jf may be that otm'ille.
8 In adverbs formed from cardinal numbers, if* is the approved ending, though ient
often occurs. In adverbs from indefinite numeral adjectives HIM is the approved ending
totient (from tot), so often: quotitii* (from quot). how often. See Braiubach, p 14.
PRONOUNS.
800.
SCO. trecentifia
400. quadringentie
500. qulngenties
600. sescenties
700. septingenties
800. octingenties
inOningenties
O\J\J, \
mongenties
1,000. millies
2,000. bis mtllies
100,000. centies mlllies
1,000,000. millies millies
NOTE 1. In compounds of units and tens, the unit with et generally precedes, as in
the table : M* et vltifs ; the tens, however, with or without et, may precede.
NOTE 2. Another class of numeral adverbs in um or o is formed from the ordinal! :
eriflu, priaH\ for the first time, in the first place; Ui-tinm, tertio, for the third time
(teribe^fe
90. vlciea
'Itredeciea
21. semel et vicics
iquaterdecies
82. bis et vlcies
( quattuordeciCs
80. tncies
(qulnquiesdecies
40. quadragiea
'(qnlndeeies
50. qulnquagies
(sexicsdecies
60. sexagius
1 sedecies
70. septuagies
17. septiesdecies
80. octftgies
(duodevlcies
90. nOnagies
'( octiesdecies
100. centies
._ (flndevicies
101. centies semel
1 9 <
'1 uoviesdecies
102. centies bis
CHAPTER III
PRONOUNS.
182. IN construction, Pronouns* are used either aa Sub
stantives: ego, I, tu, thou; or as Adjectives: meus, my,
tuus, your.
183. Pronouns are divided into six classes
1. Personal Pronouns : tu, thou.
2. Possessive Pronouns : meus, my.
3. Demonstrative Pronouns : hw, this.
4. Relative Pronouns : qul, who.
5. Interrogative Pronouns : quis, who ?
6. Indefinite Pronouns : aliquis, some one.
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
184. Personal Pronouns,' so called because they desig-
nate the person of the noun which they represent, are :
1 Mitt&t is often used indefinitely like the English a thousand times.
* But in their signification and use, Pronouns differ widely from ordinary substantive!
Mtd adjectives, as they never name any object, action, or quality, but simply point out
IU relation to the speaker, or to some other person or thing; see 314, II., with foot-noto
* AUo called Substantice Pi-onvunt, because they are always uted tubatantivtlv.
Ego, /.
TO, ^<w. Sul,
^ Aw
SINGULAR.
Jfom. ego*
to.
Gfen,. mel
tul
eul 1
Da/ mini or ml
tibl
sib!
Ace, mo
te
sfi
Foe.
ta
/4W. m6
u
PLURAL.
JVom. nOs
vOs
^(nostrum
(nostrl
vestrum *>
vestrf >
8Ul
/)<tf. nObls
vCbls
sibi
^lc<r. nOs
vOs
96
Voc.
vOs
Alii, nobls
vobte
86
71
himdf, etc. 1
1. The CASE-ENDINGS of Pronouns differ considerably from those of Nouns.
2. Suf, of hnnsetf, etc., is often called the Reflexive pronoun.
8. EMPHATIC FORMS in met occur, except in the Gen. Plur. : egomet, I my-
self; /'nut, etc. But the Norn, tu has lute and tiitemti, not tumet.
4. REDUPLICATED FORMS. Sesd, tett.^ mtone, for g, ^, ?.
5. ANCIENT AND RARE FORMS. Mis for mtU ; tfc fortui; mid and mtptt
1ormi; ted for it; sed, sepse, for .
6. CUM, when used with the ablative of a Personal Pronoun, is appended
Jo it : mecum, tecum.
II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
185. From Personal pronouns are formed the Possessive*:
meus, a, um, my ; noster, tra, trum, our ;
tuus, a, um, thy, your ; vester, tra, trum, your ;
guus, a, um, 7m, Tiers, its; suus, a, um, their.
* Of himself, herself, ihelf. The Nominative is not usd.
' Ego has no connection In form with me'i, mihl, etc., but it corresponds to the
Oreek iyiav, iy<a. The oblique cases of ego and tn In the singular are derived from th
Indo-European roots ma and tva. Compare the Accusative Singular of each in
SANSKRIT. OKEKK. LATIN. ENOLISIL
ma-m or ma, n4, nu", me.
tTa-m or tva, re or at, t ', thee.
.</", */*;, n<\ in both numbers are formed from the root tra. The origin of the plan)
forms of ego and tii Is obscure. See Paplllon, pp. 142-149; KQhnor, I., pp. 878-382.
Vwtrum and ventrl. are also written to/drum and vottri, though less correctly.
If el, tu>, u7, nostrl, and vestri, are in form strictly Possessives in the Gen. Sing., but b)
use they have become Personal. Nottrl and vestri have also become Plural. Thus, memoi
iextr~i, mindful of you, 1 means literally mitulful ofyourn, i. e., of your welfare, interest
Vbstrum and veetruin, fur nontn'irum and *>e*tr<~n-uiit. are also Posseisivea: se 186>.
PRONOUNS.
NOTS 1.- Posaesaiv-isare declined as adjectives of the first and second declension!
trot >/ii a* has in the Vocative Singular Masculine generally mi, sometimes meus, and IB
the Genitive Plural sometimes meuni instead ofmedrum, 1
NOTE 2. Emphatic forms In pte and met occur: nitapfe, suamet.
NOTE 8. Other possess! ves are: (1) ctijus, a, um? 'whose,' and cftju*, a, um,*
'whose?' declined like bonus, and (2) the Patrials, nostrum, Genitive dtis, 'of our coun-
try,' vestrtu, Genitive iitit, ' of your country,' and cHj<~is, Genitive atis, ' of whose conn
try,' declined as adjectives of Declension III.
III. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
186. Demonstrative Pronouns, so called because they spe-
cify the objects to which they refer, are declined as follows:
L Hie, this.*
SINGULAR.
MASO.
FKIL
Nitre.
Norn, hlc
baec
hSc
Gen. hujus
hujus
liiij us *
Dot. huio
buic
buic
Ao-. hunc
hanc
h5c
Abl. hOo
hae
hoc
MASC.
hi
hOriiin
bis
hSs
his
PLURAL.
FEM.
hae 1
harum
his
has
hla
NBUT.
haec
liornm
his
haec
his
II. Iste, that, that of yours ;* see 450.
SINGULAR.
MAM.
FEB.
(JEUT.
Nom. iste
ista
istud
Gen. istlus
istius
istius 6
Dot. istl
istl
istl
Ace. istum
istam
istud 8
iw ista
ista
ist6
PLURAL.
MASC.
FBH.
NEUT.
istl
istae
ista
istOrura
istftrum
istSruaa
istls
istls
istls
istus
istas
ista
istls
istls
istls
1 In early Latin fmix \ sometimes written tovog, and mi us, sovot,
' From the relative qui, cftjus (187), also written qumns.
' From the interrogative quiz, cujus (188), also written qaMw.
* The stem of hie is Ao, ha, which by the addition of ;', another pronominal stem
een In <-, 'he, 1 becomes In certain cases hi (for ho-t), hae (for ha-i), as in Af-c, hae-c
The forms ho, ha, appear in hii-c, ha-nc. Ancient and rare forms of this pronoun are
hie (for Afc), Twins (for fiiijus), hoic, hoioe (for huic), hone (for hunc), heis, htinoe, hit,
\lnce (for hice, M), Mbus (for hit).
* The Genitive suffix is UK, appended to the stem after the addition of i (foot-note 4) :
ko-i-u, hujus (f changed to.; between two vowels, 28) , isto-i-u*, ist~iu (i retained after
consonant). The suffix u, originally </*, is in origin the same as the suffix is in the
third declension. In one the original vowel a is weakened to , and in the other to t
Ae Wordsworth, p. 95 ; Corssen, I., p. 307.
In prose i in the ending lit* la generally long.
Demonstrative. Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns want the Vocative
r Here the form with c, haec, is sometimes used.
The stem of itte (for itttus) is isto in the Masc. and Neut., and ixla in the Fern. 4
to weakened to (, in istr, (24, 1, note) and to in istu-d. Ancient and rare forms of iU
PRONOUNS.
78
in. Hie, that, 1 that one, he, is declined like iste ; see n. on the
preceding page.
IV. Is, he, this, that*
MASO.
FEM.
NBUT.
Nom. is
ea
id
Gen. gjus
ejus
ejus
Dot. &
*
&*
Ace. eum
earn
id 4
Abl. e6
ea
eO
PLURAL.
MASO.
PEM.
NEUT.
el, tt
eae
ea
eSrum
earum
eorum
els, ils
els, ils
els, ils
eSs
efts
ea
els, ils
els, ils
els, ils
PLtTRAL.
NUT.
MASO.
FEM.
NlUT.
ipsum
ipsl
ipsae
ipsa
ipsius
ipsorum
ipsarum
ipsOrum
ipsl
ipsls
ipsls
ipsls
ipsum
ipsOs
ipsas
ipsa
ipsO
ipsls
ipsls
ipsls
V. Ipse, self, he.*
SINGULAR.
MASO. FEM.
Nom. ipse ipsa
Gen. ipsius ipsius
Dot. ipsl ipsl
Ace. ipsum ipsam
Abl. ipsO ipsa
VI. Idem, the same.*
re llV4 (for fV<?\ forms in i, at. I (for f i) in the Genitive, and in f>, tie, 5 (for i) in the
Dat. : is<i (for ist'lus), ittfi (for w<l), ista (for ixftut or *<i).
1 The stem of ille (for i/lus) is i//o, -j//a. Ancient and rare forms are (1) Hint (for
ille), forms in >, , f (for iw) in the Genitive Singular, and in 6, a, '"< (for I) in the
Dative Singular : illl (for illiu#\ etc. ; (2) forms from ollux or o//e (for those from ille):
ollun, olle, olla, etc.
3 The stem of is is i, strengthened in most of its case-forms to eo, ea. Ancient or
rare forms of i are, eis (for it) ; e-i-ei, ei-ei, i-ei, eae (for Dative Singular el); im, em
(for eum) ; e-is, i-eig, eis (for Nominative Plural el) ; f-i-eit, ei-eis, e-eit, fftw*, eabut
(for tin). To these may be added a few rare forms from a root of kindred meaning, no,
*a: sum, am=eum, earn; *', d=efiK, eatt. This root appears in ip-gus, ip-sa, ip-
tum Si, if, and sl-c. thus, are probably Locatives from this root or from eva, the root
ofui(184).
3 Sometimes a diphthong in poetry. In the same way the plural forms el, i>, els, in,
hro sometimes monosyllables. Instead of II and Us, i and IK are sometimes written.
4 Bee page 72, foot-note 6.
Ipse (for ipnut i-pe-sut) is compounded of i or its stem i, the intensive particle
pe, 'even, 1 'indeed, 1 and the pronominal root so, a, mentioned in foot-note 2 above.
The stem is if/so, ipsa, but forms occur with the first part declined and pse unchanged :
eum-pte, eam-pue, etc. ; sometimes combined with re : redpse = rf-tHpue = re iptd, 'in
reality.' fpsus (for ipse) is not uncommon.
In Idem, compounded of it and dem, only the first part is declined, ltd em ii
shortened to Idem, iddem to Mem, and m it changed to n before dem (33, 4). In
early Latin eiftdem and indent occur for Idem, eidem and Idem for idem;
Mid ltdem in the Nominative Plural for eldem.
PRONOUNS.
Feu.
NBITT.
MASO.
FEM
NUT,
ffom. Idem eadem idem
Gen. gjusdem Sjusdem ejusdem
Dot. eldem eldem idem'
Ace. eundem eandem idem
Abf. eodem eadem eOdem
( eldem *
J . . , eaedem eadem
( udem
eOrundem earundem e6rundeui
elsdem elsdem elsdem *
ilsdem ilsdem iisdem
eOsdem easdem eadem
elsdem elsdem elsdem *
ilsdem ilsdem ilsdem
1. Hie (for hl-ee) is compounded with the demonstrative particle ce,
meaning here. The forms in c have dropped e, while the other forms have
dropped the particle entirely. But ce is often retained for emphasis ; hlcc,
hujusee, hosce, horunce (m changed to ri), horunc (c dropped). Ce, changed
to ci, is generally retained before the interrogative ne : hlnne, hdscine.
2. ILLIC AND IsTic, 3 also compounded with the particle co, are declined
alike, as follows :
SINGULAR.
MASO.
FEM.
NETIT.
Nom. illlc
Gen. illiusce
illaec
illfusce
illuc (ill6o)
illlusce
Dot. illlc
illic
illio
Ace. illuno
Abl. illoc
illano
iliac
illue (illoo)
illcc
MABO.
illio
illlsce
illosce
illlsce
PLURAL.
FBM.
illacc
illlsce
illasce
illlace
NKUT.
illaec
illlsce
illaec
illlsce
8. SYNCOPATED FOEMS, compounded of ecce or en, ' lo,' ' see,' and some
cases of demonstratives, especially the Accusative of ille and is, occur : eccfim
for ecce eum ; eccos for ecce eos ; ellum for en ilium ; ellam for en illam.
4. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES : talis, e, such ; tantus, a, um, so great ; tot,
BO many; totut, a, um, so great. Tot is indeclinable; the rest regular.
NOTE. For tdlis, the Genitive of a demonstrative with modi (Genitive of moduli,
measure, kind) is often used: hiijuf/modl, fjusmodl, of this kind, such.
IV. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
187. The Relative qul, *who/ so called because it re-
lates to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood,
called its antecedent, is declined as follows : *
1 Sometimes a dissyllable.
8 Eldem and elsdem are the approved form*. Instead of ildem and iitidem, dis
syllables in poetry, Idem and Isdem are often written.
3 Illic and ist'lc are formed from the stems of ille and ixte, in the same manner as /IK
to formed from its stem ; see page 72, foot-note 4.
Observe that ce ts retained in full after *, but shortened to c in all other situations.
* The stem of qul is quo, <2**a, which becomes co, cu in ay in and cm. Qul nd
PRONOUNS.
75
U&so.
FKM.
NCT.
/Vom. qul
quae
quod
Gen. cujus
CUJUS
cujus
Dot. cui
cui
cui
Ace. quern l
quain
quod
All. quo
qua
quO
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
MASC, FBM. NECT.
qul quae quae
quOrum quarum quorum
quibus quibus quibus
quOs quas quae
quibus quibus quibus
1. Qul * = qud t qua-) ' with which,' ' wherewith,' is a Locative or Ablative
of the relative qul.
2. Oum, when used with the Ablative of the relative, is generally appended
to it : quibuscum.
3. Qulcumqiie and Quisquis, * whoever,' are called from their signification
general relatives. 3 Quicumque (qulcunque) is declined like qul. Quisquis is
rare except in the forms, quisquis, quidquid (quicquid), quoqvo.
NOTE. The parts of Quicumque are sometimes separated by one or more words :
qua re cumque.
4. RELATIVE ADJECTIVES: qualis, e, such as; quantus, o, urn, so great;
quot, as many as; quotut, a, um, of which number; and the double and
compound forms: quaUsquaUs^ qualiscumque, etc.
NOTB. For QuaUt the Genitive of the relative with modi is often used : ctijusmodl,
nt what kind, such as; eujutcumquemodi, cuicuimodl (for cujwcujusmodi.), of what-
ever kind.
V. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
188. The Interrogative Pronouns quis and qul, with
their compounds,* are used in asking questions. They are
declined as follows :
quae are formed from quo and qua like hi and hae in 7/7- c and hae-c from ho and lia ' see
186, I., foot-note 4. Ancient or rare forms are </<'', quix (for qiti), Nom. Sing. ; quirius
(i = J); qu&t, cui (for ciijus, as in cuimodl = ofijwnnodl), quoiei, quoi (for eui) ; qurx
(for gut), Nom. Plur. ; qual (for quae}, Fern, and Neut. Plur. ; queis, quis (for quibus).
1 An Accusative quom, also written quum and cum, formed directly from the steip
quo, became the conjunction quom, quum, cum, when,' lit. during which, I. e., during
which time. Indeed, several conjunctions are in their origin Accusatives of pronouns-
yunm, 'in what way,' 'how,' is the Accusative of qul; quamquam^ 'however rnufc,'
the Accusative of quis-qui* (187, 8); turn, 'then.' and tarn, 'so,' Accusatives of the
pronominal stem to, in, seen In is-lus, is-te, is-ta (186, II., foot-note 8).
2 This is an element in quln = qul-ne, ' by which not,' ' that not,' and In quippe =
qu\-pe, 'indeed.'
8 Relative pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs may be made general in signification by
taking cumque, like qui-cumque, or by being doubled like quis-quin : qut'i lin-cumqut,
qiu~>lix-qu<~iHx, of whatever kind ; uf>i-cumqut, ubi-ubl, wheresoever.
The relative qul. the interrogatives quin, qul, and the indefinites quit, qui, are
all lormed from the stem quo, qua. The ancient and rre forms are nearly tb $am !
all; see page 71. foot uote 6
76
PRONOUNS.
I. Quis, who, which, what?
SINGULAR.
MASC.
FEM.
NKUT.
Nom. quis
quae
quid
Gen. cujus
cujus
cujus
Dat. cui
cui
cui
Ace. quern
quam
quid
Abl. quo
qua
qu6
PLTJRAI..
MASC.
FEU.
NEITT.
qul
quae
quae
quorum
quarum
quorum
quibus
quibus
quibus
quos
quas
quae
quibus
quibus
quibus
II. Qui, which, what ? is declined like the relative qul.
1. Quis is generally used substantively, and Qul, adjectively. The forms
qui and quern are sometimes feminine.
2. Qul, how I in what way ? is a Locative or Ablative of the interrogative
quis ; see 187, 1.
8. COMPOUNDS of quis and qul are declined like the simple pronouns : quis-
nam, quinam, ecquix, etc. But ecquis has sometimes ecqua for ecquae.
4. INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES : quali*, e, what 1 quantus, a, um, how
great ? quot, how many ? quotus, a, um, of what number ? uter, utra, utrum,
which (of two) ? see 151.
VI. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
189. Indefinite Pronouns do not refer to any definite
persons or things. The most important are quis and qul,
with their compounds.
190. Quis, 'any one,' and qul, 'any one,' 'any,' are
the same in form and declension as the interrogatives quis
and qul. But
1. After si, nisi, lie, and num, the Fern. Sing, and Neut. Plur. have qucu
or qua : si quae, si qua.
2. Front quis and qul are formed
1) The Indefinites:
aliquia, aliqua, aliquid or aliquod, 1 some, tome one.
quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam or quodpiam, 8 some, some one.
quldam, quaedam, quiddam or quoddam, 3 certain, certain one.
quisquam, quaequam, quicquam or quidquam, 4 any one.
1 Aliquis is compounded of all, seen in uli-u; qvfoquam, of <?t'sand quam ; quit-
qu, of quis and que (from qul) ; qulwis, of qul and the verb vis (29:*), 'you wish'
hence qul-vls, 'any you wish 1 ; quilibet, otqul and the impersonal libet, 'it pleases.'
a Also written quippiam, quoppiam.
* Quidarn changes m to n before d : que.nd.am for
4 i.>uimj!iiini generally wants the Fern, and the Plur.
PRONOUNS.
77
2) The General Indefinites :
quisque, quaeque, quidque or quodque, 1 every, every one.
qulvls, quaevls, quidvls or quodvls, any one you please.
qullibet, quaelibet, quidlibet or quodlibet, any one you please.
NOTE 1. These compounds are generally declined like quis and qiti, but they have
In the Neut. Sing, quod used adjectively, and quid substantively.
NOTE 2. Aliquis has aliqua instead of aliquae in the Fern. Sing, and Nent. Plur.
AUqul for aliquis occurs.
191. The correspondence which exists between Demonstratives, Rela-
tives, Interrogatives, and Indefinites, is seen in the following
TABLE OF CORRELATIVES.
IXTEBBOGATIVK.
bnnmnm
DEMONSTRATIVE.
BKLAUVB.
quit, qul,
who ? what ?
quis, qul* any one,
any; aliquit,* some
one, some ; quidam,
certain one, certain ;
Me, this one, this; 4
itte, that one, that;
iile, that one, that;
is, he, that ;
qui,* who.
uter, which
of two I
uter or alteruter, ei-
ther of two ;
uterquw, each, both ; 8
qw, who.
qvdfa, of
what kind?
qudlislibet,* of any
kind;
tdtis, such ;
qudUs, 3 as.
quantut, how
great?
aliquantug, some-
what great ; quan-
tusmt, as great as
you please ;
tantus, so great ;
quantus, 3 as,
as great.
quot, how
many?
aliquot, some ;
tot, so many ;
quot, as, as
many.
NOTE. NesciS qui*, ' I know not who, 1 has become in effect an indefinite pronoun
= quidam , ' some one.' So also nendfi qu>, 'I know not which ' or * what ' = ' some ' ;
M*ci?> quot = aliquot. ' some, 1 ' a certain number. 1
1 In Qnut-quixqite both parts are regularly declined.
8 Observe that the question yuiit or qul, who or what? may be answered indefi-
nitely by qms, qul, alitjuis, etc., or definitely by a demonstrative, either alone or with
a relative, as by hie, this one, or hlc qul, this one who; i*. he, or i qul, he who, etc.
* In form observe that the Indefinite Is either the same as the interrogative or is a
compound of it : quit, ali-qui, qul, qui-dam, and that the relative is usually the same
M the interrogative.
On hie, Me, ille, and it, see 45O; 451, 1.
* Or one of the demonstratives, file, iste, tc.
78 VERBS.
CHAPTER IV.
VERBS.
192. VERBS in Latin, as in English, express existence,
condition, or action: est, he is; dormit, he is sleeping;
legit, he reads.
193. Verbs comprise two principal classes:
I. TRANSITIVE VERBS admit a direct object of the action :
servum verier at, he beats the slave. 1
II. INTRANSITIVE VERBS do not admit such an object .-
puer currit, the boy runs. 1
1 94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person.
I. VOICES.
195. There are two voices:
I. The ACTIVE VOICE* represents the subject as ACTING
or EXISTING : pater f Ilium amat, the father loves his son ;
est, he is.
II. The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject as ACTED
UPON by some other person or thing : fllius d patre amd-
tur, the son is loved by his father.
1. INTRANSITIVE VERBS generally have only the active voice, hut are some-
times used impersonally in the passive ; see 3O1, 1.
2. DEPONENT VERBS s are Passive in form, but not in sense : loquor, to
speak. But see 231.
II. MOODS.
1 96. There are three moods : 4
1 Here servum, 'the slave, 1 is the object of the action : beats (what?) the slave. The
object thus completes the meaning of the verb. lie beats is incomplete in sense, but I'i6
boy runs is complete, and accordingly does not admit an object.
8 Voice shows whether the subject acts (Active Voice), or is acted upon (Passive
Voice). Thus, with the Active Voice, ' the father loves his m,' Cue subject, father, if
the one who performs the action, loves, while with the Passive Voice, ' the sor. is loved
by the father, 11 the subject, ton, merely receives the action, is acted upon, is loved.
1 So called from deponi, to lay aside, as they dispense, in general, with the active
form and the passive meaning. For deponent verbs with the sense of the Greek Middle,
see 465.
* Mood, or Mode, means manner, and relates to the manner in which the meaning
of the verb is expressed, as will be seen by observing the force of the several Moodi.
VERBS. 79
I. The INDICATIVE MOOD either asserts something as a
fact or inquires after the fact:
Legit, HE is READING. Legitne, is HE READING? Servius regnavit, Ser-
vius REIGNED. Quis ego sum, who AM If
II. The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses not an actual fact,
but a possibility or conception. It is best translated '
1. Sometimes by the English auxiliaries," let, may, might, should,
would:
Amemus patriam, LET us LOVE our county. Sint beatl, MAY THEY BE
happy. Quaerat quispiam, some one MAY INQUIRE. Hoc nemo dixerit, no one
WOULD SAY this. Ego censeam, I SHOULD THINK, or / AM INCLINED TO THINK.
Enititur ut vincat, he strives that HE MAY CONQUER.' Domum ubi habitdret,
legit, he selected a house where HE MIGHT DWELL.
2. Sometimes by the English Indicative, especially by the Future
forms with shall and will :
Huic ceddmus, SHALL WE YIELD to this one ? Quid dies ferat incertum est,
wfuit a day WILL BRINO FORTH is uncertain. DubitO nura debeam, 1 doubt
whether I OUGHT. Quaeslvit si liceret, he inquired whether IT WAS LAWFUL,
8. Sometimes by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions :
Scrlbere ne pigrere, DO not NEOLEOT to write. Ne trdnsieris Iberum, DO
not CROSS the Ebro.
4. Sometimes by the English Infinitive:*
Contendit ut vincat, he strives TO CONQUER."* MissI sunt qul contulerent
Apollinem, they were tent TO CONSULT Apollo.
III. The IMPERATIVE MOOD expresses a command or an
entreaty :
Justitiam cole, PRACTISE justice. Tu n6 cede malls, DO not YIELD to mii-
fortuties.
1 The use and proper translation of the Subjunctive musi be learned from the Syn-
tax. A few illustrations are here given to aid the learner in understanding the Para-
digms of the Verbs; see 477-53O.
1 This is generally the proper translation in simple sentences and in principal clauses
: 483), and sometimes even In subordinate clauses (49O).
1 Or, he Htriren TO CONQUER; eee 4 below, with foot-note 4.
4 The English has a few remnants of the Subjunctive Mood, which may also be used
In translating the Latin Subjunctive: Utinam possem, would that I WERE ABLE.
* Observe, however, that the Infinitive here -is not the translation of the Subjunc-
tive alone, but of the Subjunctive with its subject and connective : ut vincat, to con-
quer (lit., that he may conquer) ; qu! consulerent, to contult (lit., u-ko should
oontult).
80 VERBS.
III. TENSES.
197. There are six tenses:
I. THREE TENSES FOR INCOMPLETE ACTION:
1. Present: amo, I love, I am loving. 1
2. Imperfect : amdbam, I was loving, I loved.
3. Future : amdbo, I shall love, I will love.
II. THREE TENSES FOR COMPLETED ACTION.
1. Perfect : amdvl, I have loved, I loved.
2. Pluperfect : amdveram, I had loved.
3. Future Perfect : amdvero, I shall have loved.*
NOTE 1. The Latin Perfect sometimes corresponds to our Perfect with
have (have loved), and is called the Present Perfect or Perfect Definite ; and
sometimes to our Imperfect or Past (loved), and is called the Historical Per-^
feet or Perfect Indefinite. 3
NOTE 2. The Indicative Mood has all the six tenses ; the Subjunctive has
the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect ; the Imperative, the Present
and Future only. 4
198. PRINCIPAL AND HISTORICAL. Tenses are also distin-
guished as
I. PRINCIPAL or PRIMARY TENSES:
1. Present : am8, I love.
2. Present Perfect : amdvl, I have loved. 8
3. Future : amabo, I shall love.
4. Future Perfect : amdverd, I shall have loved.
II. HISTORICAL or SECONDARY TENSES:
1. Imperfect: amdbam, I was loving.
2. Historical Perfect : amdm, I loved. 8
8. Pluperfect: amdveram, I had loved.
1 Or, / do love. The English did may also be used In translating the Imperfect and
Perfect: I did lone.
* Or, / will have loved.
1 Thus the Latin Perfect combines within itself the force and use of two distinct
tenses the Perfect proper, seen in the Greek Perfect, and the Aorist, seen in the Greek
Aorist: amavi = jre^iArjKa, I have loved; amavi = c0iAt)<ra, I loved. The Historical
Perfect and the Imperfect both represent the action as past, but the former regards
it simply as a historical fact I loved ; while the latter regards it as in progress 1
was loving.
4 The nice distinctions of tense hare been fully developed only in the Indicative. In
the Subjunctive and Imperative, the time of the action is less prominent and is less defi-
nitely marked.
VERBS. 81
199. NUMBERS AND PERSONS. There are two numbers,
SINGULAR and PLURAL/ and three persons, FIRST, SEC-
OND, and THIRD.'
NOTE. The various verbal forms which have voice, mood, tense, number,
and person, make up the finite verb.
200. Among verbal forms are included the following
verbal nouns and adjectives :
I. The INFINITIVE is a verbal noun. 8 It is sometimes best trans-
lated by the English Infinitive, sometimes by the verbal noun in ING,
and sometimes by the Indicative :
xire ex urbe vo!6, / wish TO GO out of the city. Gesti6 scire omnia, 1 long
TO KNOW all tilings. Haec scire juvat, TO KNOW these things affords pleasure.
Peccdre licet nemini, TO SIN is lawful for no one. Vincere s sols, you know
how TO CONQUER, or you understand OONQUERING. S Te dlcuut esse* sapien-
tem, they say that you ABE 4 wise. Sentlmus calere 4 Ignem, we perceive that
fire IB HOT.* See also Syntax, 53)2-539.
n. The GERUND gives the meaning of the verb in the form of
a verbal noun of the second declension, used only in the genitive,
dative, accusative, and ablative singular. It corresponds to the Eng-
lish verbal noun in ING:
Amandl, OF LOVING. Amandl causa, for the sake OF LOVING. Are Viven-
di, the art OF LIVING. Cupidus tS audiendi, desirous OF HEARING you. Utilin
bibendo, useful FOB DBINKING. Ad discendum pr6pensus, inclined TO LEABN,
or TO LEABNING. Mfins discendo alitur, the mind is nourished BY LEARNING.
See also Syntax, 541-544.
HI. The SUPINE gives the meaning of the verb in the form of a
verbal noun of the fourth declension. It has a form in urn and a
form in u :
Amdtum, TO LOVE, FOB LOVING. Amdt&, TO BE LOVED, FOB LOVINO, IN
1 As in Nouns; see 44.
4 The Infinitive has the characteristics both of verbs and of noons. As a verb, it gov-
erns oblique cases and takes adverbial modifiers ; as a noun, it Is itself governed. In
origin it is a verbal noun in the Dative or Locative. See Jolly, pp. 179-200.
3 Observe that the infinitive vincere may b translated by the English infinitive, to
conquer, or by the verbal noun, conquering.
4 Observe that the infinitives e*se and calere are translated by the indicative are and
it (it hot) ; and that the Ace. tf, the subject of ttse, U translated by the Nom. you, the
subject of are ; and that the Ace. lynem, the subject of oaler*, Is translated by the Nom.
flrt, the subject of is.
1 Occasionally the Gerund, especially with a preposition, may be thus translated by
the English infinitive.
8& VERBS.
LOVING. Auxilium postuldtum venfc, he came TO ASK aid. Difficile dicta est,
ii is difficult TO TELL. See Syntax, 545-547.
NOTE. The Supine in urn, is an Accusative in form, while the Supine in
u may be either a Dative or an Ablative ; see 116.
IV. The PARTICIPLE in Latin, as in English, gives the meaning
of the verb in the form of an adjective. 1 It is sometimes best
translated by the English Participle or Infinitive, and sometimes
by a Clause :
Amdne, LOVING. Amdturus, ABOUT TO LOVE. Amatut, LOVED. Aman-
dut, DESERVING TO BE LOVED. Plato scribetis mortuus est, Plato died WHILE
WRITING, or WHILE HE WAS WRITING. Sol oriens diem conncit, the sun RISING,
or WHEN IT RISES, 2 causes the day. Rediit belli casum tentdiurus, he returned
TO THY (lit., about to try) the fortune of war. In amlcls elioendisf in SELECT-
ING friends. See Syntax, 548-550.
NOTE. A Latin verb may have four participles : two in the Active, the
Present and the Future, amans, amaturus ; and two iii the Passive, the Per-
fect and the Gerundive, 3 amdtus, amandus.
CONJUGATION.
201. Regular verbs are inflected, or conjugated, in four
different ways, and are accordingly divided into Four Con-
jugations, 4 distinguished from each other by the stem char-
acteristics or by the endings of the Infinitive, as follows :
CHARACTERISTICS. INFINITIVE ENDINGS.
CONJ. I. a a-re
II. d e-re
III. e e-re
IV. I l-re
202. PRINCIPAL PARTS. The Present Indicative, Pres-
ent Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and Supine are called
from their importance the Principal Parts of the verb.
1 Participles are verbs in force, but adjectives in form and inflection. As verbs, they
govern oblique cases ; as adjectives, they agree with nouns.
a Or by its rising.
3 Sometimes called the Future Passive Participle. In agreement with a noun, it
is often best translated like a gerund governing that noun ; see 544.
4 The Four Conjugations are onlj varieties of one general system of inflection, as the
differences between them have been produced in the main by the union of different final
letters in the various stems with one general system of suffixes; see Comparative View
of Conjugations, 213-214
VERBS. 83
NOTE 1. In the inflection of verbs it is found convenient to recognize foui
B terns:
1) The Verb-Stem, which is the basis of the entire conjugation. This is
often called simply the Stem.
2) Three Special Stems, the Present Stem, the Perfect Stem, and the Su-
pine Stem.
NOTE 2. The Special Stems are formed from the i'erb-Stem, unless they
are identical with it. 1
203. The ENTIRE CONJUGATION of any regular verb
may be readily formed from the Principal Parts by means
of the proper endings. 2
1. SUM, / am, is used as an auxiliary in the passive voice of regular
verbs. Accordingly, its conjugation, though quite irregular, must be given
at the outset. The Principal Parts are
PBES. INDIO. PEBS. INFIN. PKKF. INDIC.
sum, I am, esse, to be, ful, / have been.
NOTE 1. Swn has no Supine.
NOTE 2. Two independent stem,* or roots 3 are used in the conjugation of
this verb, viz. : (1) s, seen in s-um (for ets-um) and in .s--e, and ('2; fu, seen
in fu-i.
1 For the treatment of 8tems, see 240-256. In many verbs the stem is itself de-
rived from a more primitive form called a Root. For the distinction between roots and
stems, and for the manner in which the latter are formed from the former, see 313-318.
* In the Paradigms of regular verbs, the endings which distinguish the various forms
are separately Indicated, and should be carefully noticed. In the parts derived from the
present stem (222, 1.) each ending contains the characteristic vowel.
3 The forms of irregular verbs are often derived from different roots. Thus in Eng-
lish, am, iftut, been ; go, went, gone. Indeed, the identical roots used in the conjuga-
tion of sum are in constant use in our ordinary speech. The root <vf, Greek 9, originally
ax, is seen in am (for as-mi), art (for as-t), are (for ns-e); the root/w, Greek </>u. origi-
nally Wiit, is seen in be (for Me), been. The close relationship existing between the
Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and English is seen in the following comparative forms ; eV-o-i is
Homeric, and i-vri Doric:
SANSKRIT. GREEK. LATIN. ENGLISH.
as-mi ti-fti H HIM a-m
as-i itr-iri es ar-t
as-ti io-ri es-t is
s-mas itT-tiiv for ecr-^ii 8-umus ar-e
tha <7"T es-tis ar-e
s-anti i-vri for etr-vri s-unt nr-e
Every verbal form is thus made by appending to the stem, or root, a pronominal ending
meaning /, thou, he, etc. Thus ml, seen in the English me, means /. It is retained in
as-mi and i-/ni, but shortened to m in s-u-m and a->. TV, meaning he, is preserved
in as-ti and ecr-rc, but shortened to t in ex-t and lost in ix. The stem also undergoes
various changes: in Sanskrit It is an, sometimes shortened to ft; in Greek es, sometimei
shortened to e ; in Latin es, sometimes shortened to , as in Sanskrit ; in English , ar,
vr is-
84
VERBS.
204. Sum, I am. STEMS, es, fu.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PUBS. Im>. PRBS. IMF. PBRP. IND.
mi -- ful,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
es,
est,
T!I III.
eras,
erat,
er*,
eris,
erit,
ful.
fuit,
SINGULAR.
I am,
thou art, 3
he is ;
1 was,
thou wast,*
he was ;
I shall be*
thou wilt be,
he will be ;
I have been, 6
thou hast been,
he has been ;
PRESENT TENSE.
IMPERFECT.
FUTURE.
PERFECT.
sum us,
estis,
-Mill
eraiiiiiM.
erfttis,
TSUI I
erimus,
eritis,
'inn.
luinni-
fuistis,
fuCrunl,
fuCre, .
we are,
you are,
they are.
we were,
you were,
they were.
we shall be,
you will be,
they will be.
we have been,
you have been,
> they have been.
I had been,
thou hadst been,
he had been ;
PLUPEKFECT.
fueramus, we had been,
fueratis, you had been,
f ueraii t, they had been.
FUTURE PERFECT.
I ihall have been,
thou wilt have been,
he will have been ;
fuerf mils, we shall have been,
fuerttis, you will have been,
fuerint, they will have been.
fueram,
fueras,
fuerat,
fuer*,
fuerls,
fuerft,
1 The Supine is wanting.
* Sum is for esum, eram for esam. Whenever of the stem ex comes between tw<
vowels, e is dropped, as in gitm, mint, or .1 is changed to r, as in eram, erO; see 31, 1.
The pupil will observe that the endings which are added to the roots es and fu are dis-
tinguished by the type.
3 Or you are, and in the Imperfect, you were; thou is confined mostly to solemn
flMMBM.
13 In rerbfi, final o, marked o, te geaeraUy long.
Or, Futare, TvdH ; r>rfel, Item ; roe 1*7, note L
VERBS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
M
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
sin,
sis,
sit,
may I be, 1
mayst thou be,*
let him be, may he be ;
imii-
sltis,
sint,
let us be,
be ye, may you be,
let them be.
IMPERFECT.
essem,
esset,
I should be, 1
thou wouldst be,
he would be;
essent,
we should be,
you would be,
they would la.
PERFECT.
fuerim,
fuerfs,
fuerit.
7 may have been, 1
thou mayst have been,
he may have been ;
fuerimus.
fuerttis,
fuerint,
we may have been,
you may have been,
they may have been.
PLUPERFECT.
fuissem
fuisses,
fuisset,
/ should have been, f uissemns,
Ihou wouldst have been, fuissetis,
In- would have been ; f uissent,
we should have been,
you would have been
they would have been
IMPERATIVE.
Pree. es,
be thou,
este,
be ye.
Fut. osto,
est6,
thou shalt be*
he shall be ; 8
estote,
-uiilo.
ye shall be,
they shall be.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. esse, to be.
Perf. fulsse, to have been.
Fut. futftriiK esse, 4 to be about
to be.
Fut. futfltru*, 4 about to be.
1. In the Paradigm all the forms beginning with e or * are from the stem
to ; all others from the stem fuf
2. BARE FORMS :/orem, fores, foret, forent, fore, for essem, esslt, estet,
essent, futurus etme ; iem, sifts, siet, tient, orfuam, fuds, fuat, fuant, for wV,
Jiff, sit, sint.
1 On the translation of the Subjunctive, see 196, II., and remember that It is ofteu
best rendered by the Indicative. Thus, rim may often be rendered Tom, and fuerim, I
ii'i i >' been.
1 Or be thou, or may you, be.
1 The Fut. may also be rendered like the Pros. , or with let : be thou ; let him be,
4 Futiiru* is declined like bonus. Ho in the Infinitive : futiiru*, a, nm tss.
* Es and/u are root* as well as stems. As the basis of this paradigm they are prop-
erly xtern*, but as they are not derived from mere primitive forms, they are In them-
nelvei roott.
86
FIRST CONJUGATION
FIRST CONJUGATION : A VERBS.
205. ACTIVE VOICE. Amo,Ilove.
VERB STEM AND PRESENT STEM, amO,. 1
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PBEB. IND. PBES. Iwr. PEEK. IND.
am6, amare, am&Tl,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Burnt*
all allllll
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
amfts,
amat,
/ love, 9
you love,*
he loves;
amailius,
amatis,
amant,
we love,
you love,
they love.
IMPERFECT.
amatmm,
amalmt,
/ was loving,
you were loving,
he was loving ;
amabaiiiiis
amabati*,
ainabaiit,
we were loving,
you were loving,
they were loving^
FUTURE.
amftbis,
amftlit,
/ shall love,*
you will love,
he will love ;
in alkiiniis
iimabitis,
amabllllt
we shall love,
you will love,
they will love.
PERFECT.
amflvl,
amavistl,
amftvit,
I have loved, 1
you have loved,
he has loved ;
amaviiiiiiw,
ama\islis,
amavCrnnt,
we have loved,
you have loved,
re, they have lovt
amaveram, I had loved,
amaverfls,
ainaver.it,
you had loved,
he had loved;
PLUPERFECT.
a ma v'ra m 11 , we had loved,
a 1 1 1 a v i-ji I i s. you had loved,
amaverant, they had loved,
FUTURE PERFECT.
amaveris,
amaverit,
I shall have loved*
you will have loved,
he will have loved ;
amaverf mug, we shall have loved.,
amaverltis, you will have loved
amaverint, they will have loved.
1 The final a of the stein disappears in am.fi for ama-6, amem, amfs, etc., for ama-
Im, ama-ls, etc. Also in the Pass, in amor for ama-or, amer, etc., for ama-ir, etc.;
pe 23 ; 27. Final o, marked o, is generally long.
* Or I am loving, I do lovt. So in the Imperfect, / loved, I was loring, I did lov&
. * Or thou lovest. So in the other tenses, thou want loving^ thou wilt love, etc.
Or I will love So in the Future Perfect, / shall have loved or I will hav loved
Or I loved; see 197, note 1.
ACTIVE VOICE.
87
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR,
PLURAL.
amem,
< -
amet,
may I love,*
may you love,
lei him love ;
iiiiieiiiiiN.
ainetis,
ameiit,
let us love,
may you love,
let them love.
imftrem, I should love,
amftrfis, you would love,
amftret, he would love ;
IMPERFECT.
amariiiuM, we should love,
amjlrljtis, you would love,
amftrent, they would love.
PERFECT.
amaverim, I may have loved, 11
amaverls, you may have loved,
am&verit, he may have loved ;
amavertnms, we may have loved,
amSverf tis, you may have loved,
ainaveriiit, they may have loved.
PLUPERFECT.
amavissem, I should have loved, \ &mvi88&mn8,weshouldhaveloved,
am&vissCs, you would have loved, amavissCtis, you would have loved,
amaviswet, fie would have loved; \ amavissent, they would have loved.
IMPERATIVE.
Prrs. ama, love thou ; ] amftte,
Fut. amfttA, thou shall love,
amftt6, he shall love ;
amant6,
love ye.
ye shall love,
they shall love.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. amftre, to love.
Perf. amavlsse, to have loved.
Fut. ;i mat ft r ii s ' esse, /" be about
to love.
GERUND.
Gen. ;i i amli of loving,
Dot. i :i ml o for loving,
Ace. <n :ni<liiiii loving,
Abl. ;un;ni<l>, by loving.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. amftns, 4
Fut. amatttrns, 8 about to love.
SUPINE.
Ace. amfttum,
Abl. amatfl,
to love,
to love, be loved,
' On the translation of the Subjunctive, see 196, II.
* Often best rendered I hare lor&l. 80 In the Pluperfect, I had loved ; Bel90.Il
Decline like lonwt, 148.
For declension, see 157.
FIRST CONJUGATION,
FIKST CONJUGATION: A VERBS.
206. PASSIVE VOICE. Amor, lam loved.
VERB STEM AND PRESENT STEM, ama.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRKS. IMD. PKKS. INF.
amor, amarl,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
lam loved.
PBBF. IND.
atnAiiix sum
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
amor
amamur
amaris, or re
11 Kiiuiiii
amatur
in aiilur
IMPERFECT.
I was loved.
amabar
amabamur
amabaris, or re
amabamitii
ninabiltiir
:inial:iii<iir
FUTURE.
I shall or mil be loved
amftbor
amftberis, or re
iiniftbittir
amftbimur
;i m a It II II < IIP
PERFECT.
I have been loved or I was loved.
amatns sum
amatus es
amatus* et
amatus erani
amatus eras
amatus erat
PLUPERFECT.
I had been loved.
am at f
amatl
amatl crant
FUTURE PERFECT.
7 shall or will have been loved.
amatns erd '
amatus eris
amatus* erit
amatl erimut*
amatl <-ri< is
amatl erunt
rfl, fulstl, etc., are sometimes used for sum, e, etc.: amdtus fitl for am<itiu
80 fueram, futrds, etc., for tram, etc. : also fuerf), etc., for erd, etc.
PASSIVE vome.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I be loved, let him be loved. 1
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
amer amemiir
amris, or re ameminl
AinCtur amentnr
IMPERFECT.
I should be loved, he would be loved. 1
amftrer amareniiir
amftreris, or re amftreminl
amftretur amftrentiir
PERFECT.
I may have been loved, or I have been loved. 1
amatns sim* amatl
amatus sis amatl
amatns sit amatl sint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have been loved, he would have been loved. 1
amatus essem'
amatns essCs
amatns esset
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. amftre, be thou loved ; \ amftminl, be ye loved.
Put. amfttor, thou shaft be loved,
am ft tor, he shall be loved ;
INFINITIVE.
Pres. amftrl, to be loved.
Per/, amatns esse,* to have been
loved.
Put. a milt UIH Irl, to be about to
be loved.
amantor, they shall be loved.
PARTICIPLE.
Per/, amatns, having been loveu.
Oer? ainandus, to be loved, de-
serving to be loved.
1 Bnt on the translation of the Subjunctive, see 106, II.
* Fuerlm,fueru, etc., are sometimes used for aim, f, etc. 80 t,liafui*tm,/iiif4
etc., for e**em, e*e, etc. : rarely fuiwt for eate.
ffer. = Gerundive; see 2OO, IV., note.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
SECOND CONJUGATION: E VERBS.
207. ACTIVE VOICE. MoneS, I advise.
VERB STEM, mon, moni ; PRESENT STEM, mone.
PRES. IND.
SINGULAR.
mone*
mimes
monet
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PBES. INF. PBKF. IND.
monCre, monul,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
/ advise.
SUPINE.
inonitum
PLURAL.
. ~-iiin-i
monent
IMPERFECT.
1 was advising, or / advised.
<-l;i I
iiioii-l!iii 1
FUTURE.
/ thall or will advise.
<"-li-
"'lil
monul
monuistl
monuit
PERFECT.
I have advised, or I advised.
monuimus
monuf stis
nionuern 11 1 or fire
monueram
<'i-:i.
monuerat
PLUPKRFECT.
/ had advised.
monue r ftmiis
monuerfttis
monuerant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have advised.
monuerd
monuerts
monuerit
raonuerfinns
mouuerttis
monuerint
AVTIVE VOICE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I advise, let him advise. 1
SINGULAR.
moneam
monefts
moneat
PLURAL.
moneamus
moneant
IMPERFECT.
/ should advite, lie would advise.
inoneremus
mon$ret mon<Brent
PERFECT.
I may have advised, or I have advised. 1
monuerim nionuerfmus
inunuerfs monuerftis
monuerit monuerint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have advised, he would have advised*
monuissem monuissdiiiiB
monuisset monuissent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. mon6, advise thou ; \ monfite, advise ye.
inonCtA, thou shaft advise,
lie shall advise ;
Put.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. monCre, to advise.
/'erf. monulsse, (o have advised.
l-'ut. monitaruH ease, to be altout
to advise.
GERUND.
Gen. monendl, of advising,
Dat. monendd, for advising,
Ace. monenduni, advising,
Abl. monendO, by advising.
monetote, ye shall advise,
monent6, tlt< >i shall advise.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. monCns, advising.
Fut. iniinii n TUN < ill- tut to aa'vise
SUPINE.
Ace. iiionit uiii. to advise,
Abl. monittt, to advise, be advised.
i Bu on the translation of the Subjunctive, see 196. II.
3 The Pluperfect, like the Perfect, Is often rendered by the Indicative : 1 had ad
riitJ. you had adcUed, etc.
J SECOND CONJUGATION.
SECOND CONJUGATION: E VERBS.
208. PASSIVE VOICE. Moneor, 7am advised.
VERB STEM, mon, moni ; PRESENT STEM, moiie
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PKKS. IM> PRES. INF. PBRF. IMD.
moneor, monerl, monitus sum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. I am advised. pLpRAL>
moneor
unm*ris, or re
monetur
monemur
moneminl
monentnr
IMPERFECT.
7 was advised.
monebftniiir
-lari- or re inunebaiuiiil
monebantnr
FUTURE.
/ shall or will be advised.
monetoor
mone1>eri8, or re
nionebinmr
moneltimiiif
PERFECT.
I have been advised, I was advised.
monitns sum ' monitl sumus
nioiiitus es monitl 'stis
inoiiii us ettt monitl suiii
PLUPERFECT.
7 had been advised.
nionit us erum
monitns -rsi*
monituci erat.
monitl eramus
monitl erjitis
monitl erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
7 sJtaU or will have been advised.
muni nis er6 '
eris
erlt
monitl 4'riiiiu
monitl eritis
monitl ernnt
1 Bee 806, foot-notes.
PASSIVE VOICE.
93
SINGULAR.
monear
moneftris, or re
moneatwr
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I be advised, let him be advised.
PLURAL.
moneftmur
moneftminl
moneantur
IMPERFECT.
/ should be advised, he would be advised.
mon*rer
mon*r*ris, or re
moneretur
monCrCmur
nn)ii*r'tiiinl
tiionereiitnr
PERFECT.
I may have been advised, or I have been advisea.
monituw
monitus sis
monitus sit
raonitl
monitl wills
monitl int
PLUPERFECT.
/ should have been advised, ht would have been advised?
monitus essem '
monitug <.<.
naonitus esset
monitl
monitl
monitl
IMPERATIVE.
Prex. monCre, be thou advised ; \ monCininl, be ye advised.
Fut. monfitor, thou shall be ad-
vised,
monitor, he shall be advised ; \ monentor, they shall be *dvised.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. monCrl, to be advised.
Perf. monitus entte, 1 to have been
advised.
Fut. iiiuiiit ii in Irl, to be about to
be advised.
PARTICIPLE.
Perf. monitus, advised-
Oer. monendas, to be advised, de-
serving to be advised.
1 See BO6, foot-notes.
* Or I had b^en advfted, yvu had "been advixtd. etc.
94
THIRD CONJUGATION.
THIRD CONJUGATION: CONSONANT VERBS.
209. ACTIVE VOICE. Rego, I rule.
VERB STEM, reg ; PRESENT STEM, rege. 1
PRES. ISD.
reg6\
<
regis
il
regbam
rogeba*
regebat
regain
reges
reget
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. INF. PERF. IND. SUTINE.
regere, rexl, 2 rectum. 4
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
I rule.
PLURAL.
regimnt*
regitis
II ill
IMPERFECT.
I was ruling, or / ruled.
regebaimig
: -Iai i~
regebant
FUTURE.
/ sJiatt or will rule.
regemns
regCtis
regent
PERFECT.
I Jiave ruled, or / ruled.
i-l i
rexit
rexeram
rexerftf*
rexerat
!<>
rexeris
rexerit
rexistix
rexerimt, or ere
PLUPERFECT.
/ had ruled.
rcxoramitK
rexeratis
rgxerant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have ruled.
4-l-IIIIIIM
rexerftis
rgxerint
1 The characteristic is a variable vowel 0, u, e, i : regfl, regunt, regere, regf 8 ; Cup
ius calls it the thematic vowel ; see Curtius, I., p. 199, but on 0, see also Meyer, 441.
3 See 254; 3O, 33, 1.
ACTIVE VOICE.
95
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I rule, let him rule. 1
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
regain regaining
a- reg&tis
regat regant
IMPERFECT.
I should rule, he would rule.
regerem regeremui
regerCs regerCtis
regeret regerent
PERFECT.
I may have ruled, or I/iave ruled.
rexerim
rgxerit
PLUPERFECT.
/should have ruled, he would have ruled.
IMPERATIVE.
i reglte,
ix-.--
i-.--|
rege, rule thou ;
Put. regltA, t/iou shall rule,
regiti, /w shall rule ;
INFINITIVE.
Pres. regere, to rule.
Perf. rexiwse, to have ruled.
/'/. i-i-i't urii esae, to be about
to rule.
GERUND.
Gen. regendl, of ruling,
Dot. regendd, for ruling,
Ace. regendnm, ruling,
Abl. regendd, by ruling.
rule ye.
regitOte, i/e shall rule,
regwnti, (hey shall ruJe.
PARTICIPLE.
Pros. regCns, ruling.
Put. MM-I n IMIN, about to
SUPINE.
Ace. rSctuni, to rule,
Abl. rgctft, to rule, be ruled.
But on the translation of the Subjunctive, see 196. II
THIRD CONJUGATION.
THIRD CONJUGATION: CONSONANT VERBS
210. PASSIVE VOICE. Regor, 7am ruled.
VEKB STEM, reg ; PRESENT STEM, rege. 1
PKKS. IND
regor,
SINGULAR.
regor
regeris, or re
regitur
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PEES. INF.
regl,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
7 am ruled.
IMPERFECT.
/ was ruled.
PEBF. IND.
.mil
PLURAL.
reglniur
reginiinl
reguittur
regfibftris, or re
regcbatur
FUTURE.
I dial! or will be ruled.
regar
regCris, or re
regCtur
PERFECT.
I have been ruled, or I was ruled.
regCbamur
irgebn mint
reg&bantur
regemur
regCminl
regentur
-IIIH
rectiiN eg
i-Setus est
ruHT
reetl estis
rt-otl
PLUPERFECT.
7 had been ruled.
rfictus eriini *
rCctus erfl.8
erat
reel u er *
r6ctus eri
rSctus erit
rccti era (i*
i-ectl erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have been ruled.
recti eriiiiiiM
eritls
ernnt
> Be 8O9, foot-note*.
* See 206, foot-notes.
PASSIVE VOWS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I be ruled, let him be ruled.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
97
regar
regftris, or re
regfttur
reg&mur
regain in!
regantur
regerer
regerrls, or re
regeretur
IMPERFECT.
I should be ruled, he would be ruled.
regerfimur
regerfiminl
regerentur
PERFECT.
I may have been ruled, or I have been ruled.
recta* sim ' rectl slums
r6ctB si* rSctl sltis
r6ctu sit r6ctl slut
PLUPERFECT.
Ithould have been ruled, he would have been ruled.
rectos egsem ' rSctl
11- essCci rSctl
ii*
rSctl eftsent
IMPERAUVK.
Pra. regcre, be Ihou ruled; \ regiminl, be ye ruled.
Fut. regltor, thou tthalt be ruled,
regitor, fie shall be ruled ;
INFINITIVE.
Pre*. regl, to be ruled.
Per/. i6ct esse, 1 to have been
ruled.
Fut. rectum Irl, to be about to be
ruled.
reguntor, they shall be ruled.
P>RTICIPLE.
Perf. rfictnw, ruled.
Qer. regendus, to be ruled, de-
serving to be ruled.
1 Bee 306, foot-notes.
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
FOURTH CONJUGATION : I VERBS
. ACTIVE VOICE. Audio, I hear.
VERB STEM AND PRESENT STEM, audl.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PEES. Inn. PKKS. INF. PERF. IND.
audid, audlre, audlvl,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
/ liear.
StJPINB.
audit it IIB
SINGULAR.
audio
aud'is
audit
PLURAL.
audliniis
audltis
iiini
IMPERFECT.
Twos liearing, or I heard.
audiClmm
FUTURE.
I shall or will hear.
audiaiu
:iii(li
audiet
audTvi
audlvistl
audTvil
audient
PERFECT.
I have heard, or / Jieard.
audTvimiiH
aiidn 'rn ii I , or
audlveram
audlveraw
uiidu era!
audlverd
audlverls
audlverit
PLUPERFECT.
7 had heard.
audiverftti?*
audivernnt
FUTURE PERFECT.
/ sJiatt or will have heard.
audlverfnms
audivei-ftis
audlverint
ACTIVE VOICE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I hear, let him hear. 1
SINOUI.AR.
iani
audifts
audiat
PLURAL.
audi&mus
;iudi:itis
audiant
IMPERFECT.
/ should hear, he would hear.
audfrem
audlrfcs
audlret
audlrCiims
audiiM't iw
audlrcnt
PERFECT.
/ ma;/ have heard, or 1 have heard.
audlverim
audlverfs
audlverit
audlverfunis
audlverftis
audlveriiit
PLUPERFECT.
7 fi/iould have heard, he would have heard.
audivissem
audTvixsent
IMPERATIVE.
Preg. audl, hear thou ; \ audlte, hear ye.
Ful. audi to, thou xhalt hear, audl tote, ye shall hear,
audlt6, he shall hear ; audiiintO, the// shall hear.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. audl re, to hear.
Perf. audlviMMe, tn have heard.
Put. audltfkriiH ee, to be about
to hear.
GERUND.
Gen. audiendl, of hearing,
Dat. audiendo, for hearing,
Ace. a in I i<> IM| ii m. liearina,
Abl. audiendo, 6^ Jiearing.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. audiCnw, hearing.
Fuf. auilil nrii>, ahoul to hea*
SUPINE.
Ace. audit 11111, to hear,
Abl. audltn, to hear, be heard
1 But on the translation of the Subjunctive, see 190, II.
100
FOURTH CONJUGATION*
FOURTH CONJUGATION: I VERBS.
212. PASSIVE VOICE. Audior, / am heard.
VERB STEM AND PRESENT STEM,
PBJM. IND
audior,
SINGULAR.
audior
audlris, or
audltur
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PBBS. INF.
audlrl,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
7am heard.
PBRP. IND.
audltus sum.
PLURAL.
audlmnr
audlminl
audiuntni>
IMPERFECT.
/ was heard.
ludlfebar audiebftmur
audiCbarij*, or re audifibaminl
audiebalur audiebantnr
FUTURE.
I shall or will be heard.
audiar
audiCtur
auditus
audltiiN es
audltus csl
audiCmiiiT
audientur
PERFECT.
7 have been heard, or 7 was heard.
audltl
audltl estis
audltl snnt
PLUPERFECT.
7 had been heard.
audltus eram' audltl erainns
audltns eras audftl eratis
audltus erat audltl erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall or will have been heard.
audltus erd ' audltl erimna
auditns eris
audltus erit
audltl eritis
audltl
1 See 9O6, foot-notes.
PASSIVE VOIVK
101
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
May I be heard, let him be heard.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
audiar
audiaritfi, or re
audiatur
audiamur
audiaminl
audiaiitur
IMPERFECT.
7 should be heard, he would be heard.
audlrer
audlreris, or re
audlrCtur
audlremur
audlrCminl
audlrentur
PERFECT.
7 may have been heard, or 7 have been heard.
audltus sim 1
audltus sis
audltua ait
audltl slinus
iiiiilit i sltis
audltl Hint
PLUPERFECT.
I should have been heard, he would have been heard
audltus essem ' audit I
audltns essCs audltl
audltus esset audltl esseat
IMPERATIVE.
I'rex. aadlre, be thou heard ; \ iiudlminl, be ye heard.
f\U. auditor, thou shaft be heard,
auditor, he Khali be heard ;
INFINITIVE.
Pres. audlrl, to be heard.
Perf. audltus emwe, 1 to have been
ainliiiMtor, they shall be heard.
PARTICIPLE.
Perf. audit u 8, heard.
heard.
!'vt. Hudftum Irl, f'> be about to ' Cfer. andiendiiM, / be heard, de-
be heard. serving to be litard.
1 See 2O6, foot-note*
102
VERtiti.
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS.
213. ACTIVE VOICE.
PRESENT SYSTEM."
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT.
nm -o -as,
-at ; -amus, -Stis,
-ant.
mon -eo, -6s,
-et ; -emus, -etis,
-ent.
reg -o -is,
-it ; -imus, -itis,
-unt.
aud -io, -is,
-it ; -Imus, -Itis,
-hint.
IMPERFECT.
am -fibam, -abas,
-abat ; -Sbamus, -abatis,
-abant.
mon -ebam, -ebas,
-ebat ; -ebamus, -ebatis,
-ebant.
reg -ebam, -ebas,
-ebat ; -ebamus, -ebatis,
-ebant.
and -iebam, -iebas,
-iebat ; -iebamus, -iebatis,
-iebant
FUTURE.
am -abo, -abis,
-abit ; -abimus, -abitis,
-abunt.
mon -ebo, -6bis,
-ebit ; -ebimus, -ebitis,
-ebunt.
reg -am, -6s,
-et ; -Smus, -etis,
-ent.
aud -lam, -i6s,
-iet ; -iemus, -ietis,
-ient.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
am -em, -s,
-et ; -emus, -etis,
-ent.
mon -earn, -eas,
-eat ; -eamus, -efitis,
-eant.
reg -am, -as,
-at ; -am us, -at is,
-ant.
aud -iam, -ias,
-iat ; -iamus, -iatis,
-iant.
IMPERFECT.
am -arem, -ares,
-aret ; -Sremus, -aretis,
-arent.
mon -erem, -gres,
-eret ; -erSmus, -eretis,
-erent.
reg -erem, -eres,
-eret ; -eremus, -eretis,
-erent.
aud -Irem, -Ires,
-Iret ; -Irgmus, -Iretis,
-Trent.
PRESENT.
IMPERATIVE. FpTt;RE
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
SINOULAR. PLURAL.
am -a, -ate ;
-ato, -ato ; -atote,
-anto.
mon -e, -Ste ;
-eto, -eto ; -etote,
-ento.
reg -e, -ite ;
-ito, -ito ; -itote,
-unto.
aud -I, -Ite ;
-Ito, -Ito ; -Itote,
-iuntS,
PRKS. INFINITIVE.
PRES. PARTICIPLE.
GERUND,
am -are ;
-ans;
-andl.
mon -5re ;
-Sns;
-endl.
reg -ere ;
-ens;
-endl.
aud -Ire ;
-iens ;
-iendl.
NOTE. Verbs in *5 of Conj.
III. have certain endings of Conj. IV.; see 217.
1 For the Pretent System, see 222, I.
VERBS.
103
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS
214. PASSIVE VOICE.
PRESENT SYSTEM.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT.
am
-or,
-aris
or are, 1
-atur ;
-amur,
-aminl,
-antur.
mon
-eor,
-gris
ar gre,
-etur ;
-emur,
-emini,
-entur.
reg
-or,
-eris
or ere,
-itur ;
-imur,
-iminl.
-untur
aud
-ior,
-Iris
or Ire,
-itur ;
-imur,
-Imim,
iuntur.
IMPERFECT.
am
-abar,
-abaris
or abare,
-abatur ;
-abamur,
-abaminl,
-abantur.
mon
-6 bar,
-ebaris
or ebare,
-ebatur ;
-ebamur,
-ebamini,
-ebantar.
reg
-gbar,
-ebaris
or ebare,
-ebatur ;
-ebamur,
-ebamim,
-ebantur.
aud
-i6bar,
-iebaris or iebare,
-iebatur ;
-iebamur,
-iebaminl,
-iebani.ur,
FUTURE.
am
-Sbor,
-aberis
or abere,
-abitur ;
-abimur,
-Sbiminl,
-abuntur.
mon
-6bor,
-gberis
or ebere,
-ebitur ;
-ebimur,
-ebiminl,
-gbuntur.
reg
-ar,
-gris
or ere,
-etur ;
-emur,
-emini,
-entur.
and
-iar,
-igris
or igre,
-ietur ;
-iemur,
-ioniiiii,
-ientur.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
am
moo
reg
aud
am
mon
reg
aud
-er,
-ear,
-ar,
-iar,
-arer,
-erer,
-erer,
-Irer,
-Sris
-earis
-aris
-iaris
-argris
-Srgris
-ereris
-Ir6ris
or 6 re,
or eare,
or are,
or iare,
or argre,
or 6rSre,
or erere,
or Irgre,
PRESENT.
-gtur ;
-eatur;
-atur ;
-iatur ;
IMPERFECT.
-aretur ;
-gretur ;
-eretur ;
-Iretur ;
-emur,
-eamur,
-amur,
-iamur,
-aremur,
-eremur,
-eremur,
-Iremur,
-emint,
-eaminl,
-aminl,
-iaminl,
-argminl,
-ereminl,
-ereminl,
-ireminl,
entur.
-eantur
-antur.
-iantur.
-arentur.
-erentur.
-erentur.
-Irentur.
PRESENT.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
am -are, -aminl ;
-emini ;
-iminl ;
IMPERATIVE.
mon -ere,
reg -ere,
aud -Ire,
-Iminl ;
SINOULAR.
PLURAL.
-ator,
-ator ;
-antor.
-gtor,
-etor ;
-entor.
.itor,
-itor ;
-untor.
-Itor,
-Itor ;
-i untor.
GERUNDIVE.
-:IIII|M -.
-endus.
-endus.
-iendus.
PRES. INFINITIVE.
am -art ;
mon -erf;
reg -I;
aud -Irf ;
1 In these and the following endings re takes the place of ri* : <irin or tire, i~i/>il?-in 01
ibi'tre. Re, is formed from rix by dropping final and then changing final i to e; e
8O, 5; 34, 1, note; also 337.
104
VERBS.
imav
monu
r6x
audlv
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS
315. ACTIVE VOICE.
PERFECT SYSTEM.'
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PERFECT.
-is 1 1, -it ; -imus,
audlv
amftv
a.onu
r6x
audlv
amav
monu
rex
audlv
-istls,
-Crunt, fife*
PLUPERFECT.
-eram, -eras, -erat; -eramus, -cratis, -erant
FUTURE PERFECT.
-ero, -ens, -erit; -enmus, -erKtis, rint
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PERFECT.
-erim, -erfo, -rit; -enmus, -erftis, -erint
PLUPERFECT.
issem, -isags, -isset; -issemus, -isggtis, -issent
PERFECT INFINITIVE.
-isse.
SUPINE SYSTEM."
Fur. INFINITIVE. Fur, PARTICIPLE.
-iirus esse.
-Qrus.
SUPINE,
-um, -ft.
1 For the Perfect System, see 222, II.; for the Supine System, 222, III.
' From the comparative view presented in 213-216 it will be seen that the fmu
conjugations ditter from each other only in the formation of the Principal Parts and U
the endings of the Prtxtnt Syitem. 8e also 201, foot-not*.
VERBS. 105
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS.
216, PASSIVE VOICE.
SUPINE SYSTEM.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
unftt ] PERFECT -
I? 1 > -us sum, -us es, -us est ; -I ' sumus, -I estig, -I sunt
rod
audit J
PLUPERFECT.
amat ;
1 I -us eram, -us eras, -us erat; -I eramus, I eratis, -I erant
rect
audit J
FUTURE PERFECT.
-us eri, -us eris, -us erit ; -I erimus, -I eritis, -I erunt.
amat
1
audtt
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PERFECT.
js aim, -us sis, -us sit ; -I slmus, -' sltis, -I int.
PLUPERFECT.
amat
1 -us essem, -us essgs, -us esset : -I cssdnus. -I essStis, -I esaetit
rect
audit
INFINITIVE.
amat "I PERFECT. FUTUBK.
-usesse.
audit j
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
amat
monit
rect
audit J
In the plural, -UK becomes -i : amtit-1 *innu, etc.
106 THIRD CONJUGATION.
217. A few verbs of the Third Conjugation form the Present
Indicative in id, ior, like verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. They
are inflected with the endings of the Fourth wherever those end-
ings have two successive vowels. These verbs are
1. Gapid, to take ; cupio, to desire ; facid, to make ; fodid, to dig ; fugid,
to flee ; jacio, to throw ; parid, to bear ; quatid, to shake ; rapid, to seize ',
sapid, to be wise, with their compounds.
2. The compunods of the obsolete verbs, lacio, to entice, and spccid, 1 to
look ; allicid, elicio, illicid, pellicid, etc. ; aspicw, conspicid, etc.
3. The Deponent Verbs : gradior, to go ; morior, to die ; patior, to suffer ;
see 231.
218. ACTIVE VOICE. Capio, I take.
VERB STEM, cap ; PRESENT STEM, cape. 9
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. IND. PRKS. INF. PEKF. IND. SUPINB.
capid, capere, cepi, captum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
capio, capis, capit ; | capimus, capitis, cajiiunt.
IMPERFECT.
capiebam, -iebas, -iebat ; | capiebamus, -iebfitis, iebant.
FUTURE.
capiam, -ies, -iet ; | capiemus, -ietis, -ient.
PERFECT.
cepi, -isti, -it ; I cepimus, -istis, -erunt, or ere.
PLUPERFECT.
ceperam, -eras, -erat ; | ceperamus, -eratis, -erant.
FUTURE PERFECT.
ceperS, -erls, -erit ; | ceperimus, -eritis, -erint
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
capiam, -ias, -iat ; | capiiimus, -iatis, -iant.
IMPERFECT.
caperem, -eres, -eret ; | capereinus, -eretis, -erent.
PERFECT.
cCperim,--erts, -erit ; | cepenmus, -eritis, -erint.
PLUPERFECT.
cepissem, -isses, -isset ; | ce.iissenius, -issetis, -issent.
1 Spectit occurs, but is exceedingly rare.
z With variable vowel e. i., cape, vapi.
VERBS IN 10.
IMPERATIVE.
10?
SINGULAR.
Pres. cape;
Fut, capito,
capito ;
INFINITIVE.
Pres, capere.
Perf. cSpisse.
Fut. captflrus esse.
GERUND.
Gen. capiendl,
Dai. capiendo,
Ace. capiendum,
Abl. capiendo.
PLURAL,
capite.
capitote,
capiunto.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. capiSns.
Put. captQrus.
SUPINE.
Ace. cap turn,
Abl. captQ.
219. PASSIVE VOIC'E Capior, 7am taken.
PRINCIPAI., PARTS.
PRES. INP. PRES. IWF.
capior, cap!,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
PEKF. IND
captus sum
SINGULAR.
capior, caperis, capitur ;
PLURAL.
I capimur, capiminT, capiuntur.
IMPERFECT.
capiSbar, -i^baris, -ieb&tur ; | capiSbamur, -iebaminT, -iSbantur
FUTURE.
| capiSmur, -ieminl, -ientur.
PERFECT.
| captl -Minus, estis, sunt.
PLUPERFECT.
| captl erauius, eratis, eratat.
FUTURE PERFECT.
captus ero, eris, erit ; | captl erimus, eritis, erunt.
capiar, -igris, -igtur;
captus sum, es, eat ;
capias erara, eras, erat ;
108 VERBAL INFLECTIONS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR. ri.I'RAL.
capiar, -iaris, -iatur ; | capiamur, -iaminl, -iantur.
IMPERFECT.
caperer, -ereris, -eretur; | caperemur, -ereminl, -erentur
PERFECT.
captjte sim, sis, sit ; j captl slmus, sitis, .-int.
PLUPERFECT.
captus essem, esses, esset ; | capt! essgmus, essgtis, essent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. capere; | capiminl.
Put. capitor,
capitor ; 1 capiuator.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. capl.
Per/, captus ease.
Put. captuin Irl.
PARTICIPLE.
Per/, captus.
Fut. capiendus.
VERBAL INFLECTIONS.
220. The PRINCIPAL PARTS are formed iu the four conjuga
tions with the following endings, including the characteristic vow
els, a, , e, I :
CONJ. I. 6, are, avi. Stum,
ami, amare, amavl, amiitum, to love.
CONJ. II. In a few verbs : e8, ere, e vl, etum,
d6le6, delere, delevi, deletnm, to destroy.
In most verbs: e6, ere, ul, itum,
moneo, mongre, tnonul, monitum, to advite.
CONJ. III. In consonant stems : 6, ere, si, turn,
carpo, carpere, carpal, carptum, to pluck.
In vowel stems: 6, ere, I, turn,
acu6, acuere, acul, acutum, to sharper.*
CONJ. IV. 15, Ire, IvI, Itum,
audio, audlre, audlvl, audltum, to hear.
221. COMPOUNDS of verbs with dissyllabic Supines generally
change the stem-vowel in forming the principal parts :
I. When the Present of the compound has i for e of the simple verb :
VEKJSAL IXJfLEUTWNb. 109
1. The Perfect and Supine generally resume the e : '
reg6, regere, rexl, rectum, to rule,
dl-rig6, dlrigere, dlrexl, dlrectum, to direct.
2. But sometimes only the Supine resumes the e : '
tene6, tenere, tenui, tentum, to hold.
de-tine6, detinere, detinul, detentum, to detain.
II. When the Present of the compound lias i for a of the simple verb :
1. The Perfect generally resumes the vowel of the simple perfect, and
the Supine takes e, 1 sometimes a:
capi6, capere, cpl captum, to take.
ac-cipi6, accipere, accept, acceptum, to accept.
2. But sometimes the Perfect retains i and the Supine takes e : '
rapiS, rapere, rapul, raptum, to seize.
dl-ripio, dlripere, dlripul, dlreptum, to tear asunder.
NOTB. For Reduplication in compounds, see 255, I., 4; other peculiarities of
compounds will be noticed under the separate conjugations.
222. All the forms of any regular verb arrange themselves in
three distinct groups or systems :
I. The PRESENT SYSTEM, with the Present Infinitive as its basis,
comprises
1. The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative Active and Passive.
2. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive Active and Passive.
3. The Imperative Active and Passive.
4. The Present Infinitive Active and Passive.
5. The Present Active Participle.
6. The Gerund and the Gerundive.
NOTE. These parts a-e all formed from the Present Stem, found in the
Present Infinitive Active by dropping the ending re: amare, present stem
AMI; monire, MONK; regere, RKOE; audirc, AUDI.
II. The PERFECT SYSTEM, with the Perfect Indicative Active as
its basis, comprises in the Active Voice
1. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative.
2. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive.
8. The Perfect Infinitive.
NOTE. These parts are all formed from the Perfect Stem, found in the
Perfect Indicative Active, by dropping I : amdvl, perfect stem AMAV ;
monui, MONP.
III. The SUPINE SYSTEM, with the Supine as its basis, comprises
1 Th favorite vowel before <r, or two or more consonants ; gee 24, 1.
110
SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION.
1. The Supines in urn and u, the former of which with Irl forms th
Future Infinitive Passive.
2. The Future Active and Perfect Passive Participles, the former of
which with esse forms the Future Active Infinitive, and the latter of which
with the proper parts of the auxiliary sum forms in the Passive those
tenses which in the Active belong to the Perfect System.
NOTE. These parts are all formed from the Supine Stem, found in the
Supine by dropping um : amatum, supine stem AMAT ; moniturn, MONIT.
SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION
FIRST CONJUGATION.
223. ACTIVE VOICE. Amo,Ilove.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
am&, amare, amavi, amatum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, ama.
INDICATIVE.
Pres. amo
Imp. amabam
Put. amabo
Perf. amavf
Plup. amaveram
P.P. amavero
Fut.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amem
arnarem
IMPEB.
ama
INFINITIVE.
amare
amato
Gerund, amandl, d5, etc.
3. PERFECT STSTEM ; STEM, amav.
amftverim amavisse
amavissem
4. SCPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, amat.
| amaturus esse
Supine, amatum, amatu.
PARTirnPLK.
amans
amaturus
224. PASSIVE VOICE. Amor, lam loved.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
amor, amari, amatus sum.
Prts. amor
Imp. am aba r
Fut. amSbor
2. PRESENT SYSTEM; STEM, ama.
amer
amarer
amare
am art
amator
Gerundive, amaudus.
SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION.
Ill
INDICATIVE.
Perf. amatus sum
Plup. amatus eram
F. P. amfttus ero
Put.
3. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, ainCit.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amatus sim
amatus essem
INFINITIVE.
amatus esse
amatum In
amatus
SECOND CONJUGATION.
225. ACTIVE VOICE. Moneo, I advise.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
monere, monui, monitum.
mone6,
Pres. inoiu-o
Imp. monSbam
Fvt. iiioiiebu
Perf. monui
Plup. monueram
F. P. monuero
Put.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM; STEM, mon.
moneam
monSrem
mone
mongre
inongns
monSto
Gerund, monendl, d6, etc.
3. PERFECT SYSTEM; STEM, monu.
monuerim monuisae
monuissem
4. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, montt.
| | | moniturus esse | monituruc
Supine, monitum, raonitQ.
226. PASSIVE VOICE. Moneor, / am advised.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
moneor, mongri, monitus sum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM; STEM, numS.
mongre
Pre*. moneor
///,/'. monfibar
J'*u(. mongbor
Perf. monitus sum
Plup. monitus eram
F. P. monitus ero
Pitt.
monear
monSrer
monStor
Gerundive, monendus.
8. SUPINE SYSTEM; STEM, monit.
monitus sim
monitus essem
monitus esse
monitum IrT
monituB
SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION.
227. ACTIVE
reg6,
INDICATIVE.
Pres. rego
Imp, regebam
Put. regam
Perf. rgxl
Plup. rSxeram
F. P. rSxero
Fut.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
VOICE. Rego, I rule.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
regere, rexi, rectum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, rege.
SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE.
regam
regerem
rege
regito
Gerund, regendl, do, etc.
regere
PARTICIPLE.
! regeus
3. PERFECT SYSTEM; STEM, rex.
rSxerim
rexissem
rgxisse
4. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, red.
\ | rScturus esse j rectum;
Supine, rSctum, rectu.
228. PASSIVE VOICE. Regor, I am ruled.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
regor, re gi> rectus sum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, rege.
Prex. regor
Imp. regbar
Fut. regar
Perf. rSctus sum
Plup. rSctus eram
F. P. rSctus ero
Fut.
regar
regerer
regere
regl
regitor
Gerundive, regendus.
3. SUPINE SYSTEM; STEM, rict.
rectus sim
rSctus essem
rSctus esse
Irt
rSctua
SYNOPSIS 0V CONJUGATION.
113
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
229. ACTIVE VOICE. Audio, / hear.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
audire, audlvi, auditum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM; STEM, audi.
F
audire
audlto
audio,
INDICATIVE.
Pres. audio
Imp. au dig bam
Fut. audiam
BPBJlTHOTmt.
audiam
audlrem
IMPBK
audi
PARTICIPLE
audieus
Gerund, audiendl, d6, etc.
3. PERFECT SYSTEM; STEM, audlv.
Perf. audlvl
Plup. audlveram
F. P. audlverS
Fut.
audlverim
audlvissem
audlviase
4. SUPINE SYSTEM; STEM, audit.
\ | I audlturus ease I audjturus
Supint, aiidltuiu, audltu.
230. PASSIVE VOICE. Audior, / am heard.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS
audior, audiri, audit us sum.
Pres. audior
Imp. audiebar
Fut. audiar
2. PRESENT SYSTEM; STEM, audi.
audiar audire audiri
audlrer
auditor
Gerundive, audiendus
8. SUPINE SYSTEM ; STEM, audit.
Perf. audltus sura
Plup. audltus eram
F. P. audltus ero
Fut.
audltus sim
audltus essem
audltus ease
audltum Irl
audltue
114
DEPONENT VERBS.
DEPONENT VERBS.
231. Deponent Verbs have in general the forms of the Passive
Voice with the signification of the Active. But
1. They have also in the Active, the future infinitive, the participles,
gerund, and supine.
2. The gerundive generally has the passive signification ; sometimes
also the perfect participle : hortandus, to be exhorted ; expertus, tried.
3. The Future Infinitive of the Passive form is rare, as the Active form
is generally used.
NOTE. The synopsis of a single example will sufficiently illustrate the peculiarities
of Deponent Verbs.
232. Hortor, I exhort.
1. PRINCIPAL PARTS.
hortor, hortari, hortatus sum.
2. PRESENT SYSTEM ; STEM, horta.
INDICATIVE.
Pres. hortor '
Imp. hortabar
Fut. hortabor
SUBJUNCTIVE.
horter
hortarer
hortare
INFINITIVE.
hortari
Gerund, hortandl.
hortator
Gerundive, hortandus.
Perf. hortatus sum
Plup. hortatus eram
F. P. hortatus ero
Fut.
3. SUPINE SYSTEM; STEM, hortat.
hortatus sim
hortatus essem
hortatus esse
hortaturus esse
PABTICIPLB.
hortans
hortatus
hortaturus
Supine, hortatum, hortatu.
NOTE. For the Principal Parts of Deponent Verbs in the other conjugations, see
268, 283, and 288. Prom these Principal Parts the pupil, by the aid of the paradigms
already learned, will be able to inflect any Deponent Verb.
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
233. The ACTIVE PEEIPHEASTIC CONJUGATION, formed
by combining the Future Active Participle with sum, de-
notes an intended or future action:
1 The tenses are inflected regularly through the persons and numbers : hortor, hor-
tdris, hortdtur, horttlmur, hortdmini, hortantur. All the forms in this synopsis have
the active meaning. / exhort, I was exhorting, etc., except the Gerundive, which has
the passive force, dexerving to be exhorted, to be eashorted. The Gerund ire. as it is
passive in meaning, cannot be used in intransitive Deponent Verbs, except in un imper-
sonal tenie ; see 3O1. 1 .
PECULIARITIES IN CONJUGATION.
115
Amaturus sum, / am about to love.
INDICATIVE.
Pres. amaturus sum *
Imp. amaturus eraiu
Fut. amaturus ero
Perf. amaturus ful
Plup. amaturus fueram
F. P. amaturus f uero '
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amaturus sim
amaturus essem
amaturus fuerim
amaturus fuissem
INFINITIVE.
amaturus ease
amaturus fuisse
234. The PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION, formed
by combining the Gerundive with sum, denotes necessity or
duty.
Amandus sum, I must be loved.*
Prez. amandus sum
Imp. amandus eram
Fut. amandus ero
Perf. amandus fui
Plup. amandus fueram
F. P. amandus fuero
amandus sim
amandus essem
amandus fuerim
amandus fuissem
amandus ease
amandus fuisse
NOTE. The Periphrastic Conjugation, in the widest sense of the term, includes all
forms compounded of participles with mm ; but as the Pres Part, with sum is equiva-
lent to the Pres. Ind. (amans e#t amat), and is accordingly seldom used, and as the
Perf. Part, with sum is, in the strictest sense, an integral part of the regular conjugation,
the term Periphrastic is generally limited to the two conjugations above given.
PECULIARITIES IN CONJUGATION.
235. Perfects in Svi, evi, ivi, and the tenses derived
from them, sometimes drop v and suffer contraction before
s and r, and sometimes before t. Thus
A with the following vowel becomes Si : amUvisR (amaistl), amdstl ,
amdveram (amaeram), amaram ; am&vme (amaisse), amOsse ; amdvit (ama-
it), amat.
E with the following vowel becomes S : n&vl (to spin), n&visti (neisti)
nesti ; nSvSrunl (negrunt), nlruni.
I-I and I-i become I : audivistt (audiistl), audlsll , audlviasem (audiis
oCin), audissem ; audivil (audiit), audit.
1. Perfects in ivi sometimes drop v in any of their forms, but generally
without contraction, 8 except before s: audivi, audii, a-udiit, auditram ; audi-
fiati, audiisti or audisti.
1 The periphrastic forms are Inflected regularly through the persons and nnmbert:
amdturus sum, , tt. The Kut. Perf. is rare. 2 Or, / deserve (ought) to be Isroed.
'Then in proxe the first i retains quantity and accent: audl'-i, audl'-it. Se
Seelmann. p. 1
116 PECULIARITIES IN CONJUGATION.
3. Perfects in dvt. The perfects of nOsci, to know, and movei, to move,
sometimes drop and suffer contraction before r and s : ndvisti, ndsti.
3. Perfects in si and xl sometimes drop Is, w, or sis : scrlpsistl, scripstl ;
dixisse, dixe / accessistis, accestis.
236. The ending Sre for erunt in the Perfect is com-
mon in Livy and the poets, but rare in Cicero and Caesar.
NOTB. The form in ere does not drop v. In poetry erwnt occurs.
237. R for ris in the ending of the second Person of the Passive is
rare in the Present Indicative, but common in the other tenses.
238. Die, due, fac, and fer, for dice, duce, face, and fere, are the
Imperatives of dice, ducb, facift, and ferS, to say, lead, make, and bear.
NOTE 1. Diet, dvce, and face occur In poetry.
NOTE 2. Compounds follow the simple verbs, except those otfad6, which change a
into i : conjlce.
239. Undus and undl for endus and etutl occur as the endings of the
Gerundive and Gerund of Conj. III. and IV., especially after i: faciundus,
from fati8, to make ; dlcundus, from died, to say.
240. ANCIENT AND RARE FORMS. Various other forms, belonging in
the main to the earlier Latin, occur in the poets, even of the classical
period, and occasionally also in prose, to impart to the style an air of an-
tiquity or solemnity. Thus forms in
1. Ibam for isbam, in the Imperfect Ind. of Conj. IV. : scibam for
sciebam. See Imperfect of eft, to go, 295.
2. Ibo, Ibor, for tarn, iar, in the Future of Conj. IV. : servlbfi for ser
viam ; opperlbor for opperiar. See Future of eS, 295.
8. im for am or em, in the Pres. Subj. : edim, edls, etc., for edam, edos,
etc. ; duim (from duS, for do), for dem. In sim, velim, nolim, malim (204
and 293), im is the common ending.
4. assd, ss6, and sd, in the Future Perfect, and Sssim, fissim, and
sim, in the Perfect Subjunctive of Conj. I., II., III. : fax& (facs8) for
fecerft l (from facio) \ faxim for fecerim l ; ausim for ausus sim (for ause-
rim, from audeo). Rare examples are : levasafi for levdverS ; prohibSsai for
prohibuerd ; jussd for jusserd ; capsfi for ceperb ; 0x6 for laerb ; occteit for
ocdderit ; taxis for tetigeris.
5. t6 and mind for tor, the former in both numbers, the latter in the
singular, of the Future Imperative, Passive and Deponent : arbitral^, arbi-
traminO for arbitrator ; utunto for Utuntor.
6. ier for I in the Present Passive Infinitive : amdrier for amarl ; wdi-
rier for vidSrl.
Remember that r in er6 and erim was originally n ; see 31, 1 ; 3O4, foot-noU 9.
ANALYSIS OF VERBAL ENDINGS. 117
ANALYSIS OF VERBAL ENDINGS.
241. The endings which are appended to the stems in the for-
mation of the various parts of the finite verb contain three distinct
elements :
1. The TENSE-SIGN : ba in ama-ba-tn, reffi-bO-s.
2. The MOOD- VOWEL : a in mone-cl-s, reg-O-s.
3. The PERSONAL ENDING : a in mone-d-s, reg-n-s.
I. TENSE- SIGNS.
242. The Present . is without any tense-sign : amd-s. So also
the Future ' hi Conjugations III. and IV.
243. In the other tense-forms of all regular verbs, the tense-sign
is found in the auxiliary with which these forms are all compounded :
AmO-bam* arnctv-eram ; amd-b&, amSv-erS ; monS-bam, monu-eram.
II. MOOD-SIGNS.
244. The Indicative has no special sign to mark the Mood.
245. The Subjunctive has a long vowel a, 5,* or I 4 before
the Personal Endings:
Mone-d-mus, mone-d-lis, am-3-mus, am-S-tis, s-l-mus, s-l-tis.
NOTE. This vowel la shortened before final m and t. and generally in the Perfect
before , mun, and tin . moneam, amet, sit,fueri, amdverbnus, amdverlti*.
1 This Future is in form a Present Subjunctive, though it has assumed in full the
force of the Future Indicative; see foot-note 4 below.
'* Sam and warn, are both auxiliary verbs in the Imperfect, the former from the stem
bfiu, the old form of fu in /M-?, and the latter from the stem e*; the former added to the
Present stem forms the Imperfect, the latter added to the Perfect stem forms the Pluper-
fect. Bf> and trfi are Future forms, the former from bhu, the latter from en ; the former
added to the Present stem forms the Future in Conjugations I. and II., the latter added
to the Perfect stem forms the Future Perfect. In the Subjunctive the tense-forms, axcept
the Present, are compounded with Subjunctive tense-forms from es; thus, erem in reg-
erern is for eem, the old form of essem ; trim in reoK-erim is for #im = aim, and issem
in rip-intern is for essem ; thus the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive of xn/n added U
the Perfect stem form the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive.
3 This i? comes from a-l, of which the ? alone is the true Mood-Sign.
4 The Latin Subjunctive contains the forms of two distinct Moods the Subjunctivt
with the sign ?, and the Optative with the sign ?, sometimes contained in 2 for a-i.
Thus: Subjunctive, mone-d-mu, audi-d-Us; Optative, s-l-mus, rexer-i-Us, am-e-mu
for ama-l-mus, reger-e-s for regera-l-s. The Subjunctive and Optative forma, originally
distinct, have in the Latin been blended into one Mood, called the Subjunctive, and are
used without any difference of meaning. Thus the Mood in mone-<~i-mus, a Subjunctive
form, has precisely the same force as in am-e-mu, an Optative form. The First Person
Singular of Futures in amregam, audiam, etc. is in form a Subjunctive, while the
other Persons, rtgeit. et, etc., audiet, ft, etc., are in form Optatives.
118
PERSONAL ENDINU8.
246. The Imperative is distinguished by its Personal Endings?
gee 247, 3.
HI. PERSONAL ENDINGS.
247. The Personal Endings are formed from ancient pronom-
inal stems, and have, accordingly, the force of pronouns in Eng
Ush. They are as follows-.
PBKSOW. ACTIVE.
PASSIVE.
MKA.NUW.
Singular.*
First m
r
/
Second s
ris
thou, you
Third t
tur
lie, s/ie, it
Plural''
Mrst mus
mur
we
Second as
mini*
U'4
Third nt
ntur
they
EXAMPLES.
ainaba-m
amaba-r
reg6
rego-r
amaba-s
amaba-ris
regi-s
rege-rls
ttinfiba-t
amaba-tur
regi-t
regi-tur
ttinaba-mus
amaba-mur
regi-mus
regi-mui
amaba-tis
amaba-minl
regi-tis
regi-min
amaba-nt
amaba-ntur
regu-nt
regu-ntu
1. OMITTED. In the Present, 4 Perfect, and Future Perfect Ind. of all
the conjugations, and in the Future Ind. of Conjugations I. and II., the
ending TO does not appear. In these forms the First Person ends in 5: 6
am6, amtibo, amcivero ; except in the Perfect, where it ends in ?.' amdvl.
2. The endings of the Perfect Active are peculiar. They are the same
as in ful :
1 In the Singular these Personal Endings contain each (1) in the Active Voice one
pronominal stem, m, I; , thou, you; t, he; and (21 in the Passive two such stems, one
denoting the Person, and the other the Passive Voice : thus, in the ending tur, t (tu)
denotes the person, and r, the voice. /? of the first person stands for in-r.
* In the Plural the Endings contain each (1) in the Active two pronominal stems :
mu-s = m (mu) and , I and you, 1. e., we ; tig = t (the original form for , thou. as seen
in tft, thou) and , = s and , thou and thou, i. e., you; nt = n and t, he and he, 1. e., they ;
ml (2) in the Passive three such stems, the third denoting the Passive Voice : thus in
ntur, nt (ntu) denotes the person and number, and r, the voice.
* Mini was not originally a Personal Ending, but the Plural of a Passive Participle;
not otherwise used In Latin, but seen in the Greek (/xevoc.). Amdmini, originally amami-
nl f.gtis, means you are loved, as amati etis means you have been loved.
4 Except in num, I am, and inquarn, I say.
8 The origin of this final 6 is uncertain. Curtius regards It as simply the thematic
rowel, but Meyer recognizes in it a suffix combined with the thematic vowel; see Cur-
tlus, Verbnm, I., pp. 199, 200; Meyer, p. 849.
* Probably a part of the stem ; but see Curtius, Verbum, II.. p. 173 ; Paplllon, pp. 194-
196 ; also two papers by the author, on the Formation of the Tenses for Completed Actiol
n the Latin Finite Verb; Transactions of the Am. Phil. Assoc.. 1874 and 1873.
FORMATION OF STEMS.
SIKGULAR. PLUBAL.
Fvrtt Pers. fii-I fu-i-mus
Second fu-is-tl fu-is-tis
TMrd fu-i-t fu-eru-nt or ere
?. The Imperative Mood has the following Personal Endings :
ACTIVE.
PASSIVE.
SINGULAR.
PLTRAL.
SlNGfLAR.
PLVBAL.
Pres. Second Pars.
a
te
re
mini
Put. Second
t6
tote
tor
Third
t6
nt6
tor
ntor
248. Infinitives, Participles, Gerunds, and Supines are formed
with the following endings:
ACTTVK. PASSIVB.
In/lnitive Present re (ere) . rt (ert), I
Perfect isse us esse
Future Qrus esse urn Irl
Participle Present ns
Future ftrus
Perfect n
Gerundive ndu
Gerund ndl
ine HIM, Q
FORMATION OF STEMS.
249. The three Special Stems are all formed from the Verb Stem.
I. PRESENT STEM.
250. The Present Stem, found in the Present Infinitive Active
by dropping re, is generally the same as the Verb Stem in the First
and in the Fourth Conjugations, and sometimes in the Second.
Thus, nmd, dele, and mull * are both Present Stems and Verb Stems.
1 ,)/ is omitted In the first person, and /;. an ancient form of ?, x. Is used in the sec-
Mid. Otherwise the endings themselves are regular, but in the second person t> and tig
are preceded by ?*, and grunt In fu-frunt is for esurtt. the full form for sunt. Thus
fu-frunt is a compound of fu and emint for Mint. Fti-iiiHs, in like manner, may be a
yimpound of fu and inti for enfit, and /-/<?, of fu and MJ for e#ti for ex.
* In the Present the ending is dropped in the Sing. Act., and the endings te and re
re shortened from tin and rig of the Indicative by dropping and changing linal / into
e ; see 24, 1, note. In the Future, tft of the second person corresponds to t'i of the Per
feet Ind.; <<5 and ntfi of the third person to t and nt. Tor and ntor add / to tft and ntft
Tot doubles the pronominal stem.
* The final vowels are generally explained as derived from aja, which became, in
Doqj. I., <y', shortened to 6 In am-6, and to a in the other forms, as am-d-mus: in
ISO FORMATION OF STEMS.
251. The Present Stem, when not the same as the Verb Stem,
is formed from it by one of the following methods :
1. By adding a short vowel, called the Thematic vowel : '
reg6 ; Stem, reg ; Present Stem, rege ; to rule.
can6 ; " can ; cane ; to sing.
2. By adding a Thematic vowel preceded by n, so, or t :
in5 ; Stem, si ; Present Stem, sine ; to permit.
apernd ; " sper, spre ; sperne ; to spurn.
temn6 ; tern ; temne ; to despite.
veteraso6 ; " vetera ; veterasce ; to grow old.
creseo ; " ore ; cresce ; to increase.
plectd; " pleo; plecte; to braid.
3. By adding a Thematic vowel preceded by i or j :
capio ; Stem, cap ; Present Sten>,, cap-je, cape ; * to take.
pell6 ; pel ; pel-je, pelle ; to drive.
curro ; " our; cur-je, curre; 8 to run.
4. By adding a Thematic vowel and inserting n changed to m before
a labial, b or p ; see 33, 3 :
Stem, frag ; Present Stem, frange ; to break.
1 fua ; ftmae ; to pour.
u rap; rumpe; tonurst.
5. By adding fi, 8, or I:
Juvd: Stem, juv ; Present Stem, luva ; to assist.
videft; " vid; vide; to see.
hauriA ; u hanr/orhaus; " hauri ; to draw.
0. By reduplicating the stem :
sistfl ; Stem, eta ; Present Stem, sista,' siste ; to place.
ser6 ; " sa ; sisa, sise, sere ; * to sow.
NOTE. Sometimes two of these methods are united in the same stem :
glgno ; Stem, gen ; Present Stem, gigene, gigne ; B to beget.
nanclacor ; " nao ; nanolsce ; to obtain.
ConJ. II., ejo, shortened to a in del-ed, and to e in dtl-e-mv; and in Conj. IV., ijo,
ihortened to if> in awl -in. to hi in aml-iv-nt. and to i in aud-i-mim ; see 335, foot-note.
1 This Thematic vowel, originally a, is generally weakened to e or t : reg-e-re, reg-i-
mu; but sometimes it appears to take the form of 6 or M : reg-6, reg-u-nt. There is,
However, some difference of opinion in regard to the origin of S in such cases ; se
847, 1, foot-note 5
7 With variable Thematic vowel : see foot-note 1, above. ./, pronounced .</. assimi-
lated to I and r in pelle and curre, as in the Greek /SaAAu, from aA-;<o. See Curtins.
Verbum, I., p. 800.
3 For stista for stasta. The e in tiste takes the several forms of the Thematic vowel.
4 8 changed to r between two vowels; see 31, 1. The vowel a of the stem is
weakened to t before #, but to e before r ; see 84, 1 and 2.
s Bedoplication with Thematic vowel
^V inserted and i-xc-e added.
FORMATION OF STEMS. 121
n. PERFECT STEMS.
252. Vowel Stems form the Perfect Stem by adding v-.
trad (a-6), amavl ; Stem, am& ; Perfect Stem, amav ; to love.
deleo, delevl; u dele; delev; to destroy.
audio, audlvi ; " audl ; audiv ; to hear.
1. In verbs in u6, the Perfect Stem is the same aa the Verb Stem :
acu6, acul ; Stem, aou ; Perfect Stem, acu ; to sharpen,
253. Many Liquid Stems, and a few others, form the Perfect
Stem by adding u:
a!6, aim ; Stem, al ; Perfect Stem, alu ; to nowri&h.
frem6, fremul; " from; frerau; forage.
teneo, tenul ; " ten ; tenu ; to hold.
doce6, docul; " doo; doou; to teach.
254. Most Consonant Stems form the Perfect Stem by adding s :
reg6, rexl ; Stem, reg ; Pa-feet Stem, rex * r5gs ; to rule.
sortbo, sortpsl ; " scrtb ; scrips = scribe ; to write.
carpo, carpal ; u carp ; carps ; to pluck.
255. A few Consonant Stems form the Perfect Stem without
any suffix whatever. But of these
I. Some reduplicate the stem : '
cand, oecinl ; Stan, can ; Perfect Stem, cecin ; to sing.
1. The REDUPLICATION consists of the initial consonant (or consonants)
of the stem with the following vowel, or with e generally with the follow-
ing vowel, if that vowel is i, I, o, or u, otherwise with e ; see examples under
871, 1, and 272, 1.
2. The STKH-VOWU, a IB generally weakened to t, sometimes to e : cad6,
cecidt (for eecadi), to fall.
8. In VERBS BEGINNING WITH Sp OB St, the reduplication retains both con-
sonants, but the stem drops the . spondt6, spopondi (for xpospondl), to prom-
ise ; td, iMl (for ttesti), to stand.
4. In COMPOUNDS the reduplication is generally dropped, but it is retained
in the compounds of do, to give ; *W, to stand ; disco, to learn ; poirf, tc
demand ; and sometimes in the compounds of curr6, to run ; re-spondeo, r-
spondl, to answer; circum-dd, circvm-dedl ; circum-M, circum-stetl, to en-
circle. The compounds of dd which are of the third conjugation change <
of the reduplication into i : ad-do, ad-didi (for ad-dedi), to add ; see 259, 1.
II. Some lengthen the Stem-Vowel : '
em6, 6ml ; Stem, em ; Perfect Stem, em ; to buy.
ag5p egl ; ' ag ; eg ; to drive.
ab-ig6, ab-f gl ; " abig ; '* abeg ; to drive away.
NOTE. The stem- vowels a and (in compounds) i generally become f, as In agi and
5eliiit8, 271, 1, and 278,1. 8e Itata, 271,2; 272,2.
122 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
III. Some retain the stem unchanged : '
led, lol ; Stem, lo ; Perfect Stem, to ; to strike.
viso, vlsl ; " vis ; " vis ; to vitii.
NOTB. Of the few verbs belonging to thin class, nearly all have the item-syllable long
III. SUPINE STEM.
256. The Supine Stem adds t to the Verb Stem :
amo, s
amatum ;
Stem, ama; 81
ipine Stem, amat:
to love.
dlc6,
dictum ;
" die;
" diet;
to say.
mone6,
raonitum ;
" moni; 8
" inonit ;
to advise.
dele6,
deletum ;
" dele ;
" delet;
to destroy.
audi5,
auditum ;
" audi;
audit;
to hear.
carp6,
carptum ;
" carp;
carpt;
to pluck.
1. Stems in d and t, most stems in 1 and r, and a few others, change
t into s :
laedd, laesum; Stem, laed; Supine Stem, laes; to hurt.
verto, versnm ; " vert ; vere ; to turn.
verro, versum; " verr; " vers; to brush.
fal!6, falsum; " fall; " fals; to deceive.
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.*
FIRST CONJUGATION.
CLASS I. STEM IN SL : PERFECT iisr vt OR ul.
257. Principal Parts in 0, 5re, Svl, atum. r
These endings belong to most verbs of this conjugation. The follow-
ing are examples :
dono dOnare dOnftvI dSnatum, to bestow.
honSro honorare hon6ravl honOratum, to honor.
libero Uberare Hberavl llberatum, to free.
noinino nominare nominavi nominatum, to name.
pugno pugnare pugnavl pugnatum, to fight.
spero sperare speravl speratum, to hope.
NOTE 1. Pdtd, are, <if, atum, to drink, has also a supine, potum.
NOTE 2. Cendtus, from cenft, to dine,' unAjiiratti*. (romjiirri, ' to swear,' are active
in meaning, having dined, etc. Pi.lux. from piitn, is also sometimes active in meaning
' See list, 872, 3. For amafi. ' See 8O7.
4 Laes is for laedt, plau* (orplaudt, ci* for vidt, rem for rertt. fals (or fa III, vers
for verrt ; see 35, 3, 2), note.
* The Perfect Formation is selected as the special basis of this classification, because
the irregularities of the other principal parts are less important and can be readily as-
sociated with this formation. In this classification the regular or usual formation is first
given with a few examples, then complete lists (1) of all the simple verbs which deviate
from this formation, and (2) of such comi>ounds as deviate in uny important particular
from their simple verbs.
It is deemed unnecessary longer to retain the double mark ^ over final o in verbs.
The pupil has now learned that this vowel may be short, though it is generally long in
the Augustan poets.
FIRST CONJUGATION.
123
258. Principal Parts
orepd
cub6
domo
eneco
frico
plica
seed
sonO
tonO
vet6
crepare
cubare
domare
enecare
fricare
micare
plioare
secare
sonare
tonare
vetare
in 0, are,
crepui
cubul
domul
enecu!
fricul
iiiicui
j plicavl
( plicui
secul
sonul
tonul
vetul
ul, itum. 1
crepitum, 2 >
cubitum, 3
domitum,
enectum, 4
j frictum, [
( fricfttum, J
to creak,
to recline,
to tame,
to kill.
to rub.
to glitter.
to fold.
to cut.
to sound,
to thunder
to forbid.
plicatum, |
plicitum, 6 J
sectum, 7
sonitum, 1
vetitum,
CLASS II. PERFECT IN i,
259. Principal Parts in 0, are, I, turn.
1. WITH REDUPLICATION. 8
dare dedl datum,
stare stetl statum,
a WITH LKNQTHENKD STEM-VOWEL.*
dO
stO
juvO
lava
juvar
lavare
jttvl
lavi
jtttum, 1
( lavatum,* i
< lillltUlll. V
( lOturo, )
to give,
to stand.
to assist,
to wash.
NOTE 1. In dfi the ch*raoteri8tlo a ! short by exception : ' ' dabam, dabo, darem,
etc. Four compounds of (tooircumdo, pesmtmdfl, ajtisdn, and ven-umdo are conju-
gated like the simple verb the rest are of the Third Conjugation (271). The basis of
everal of these conipounut ,s do, 'to place, 1 originally distinct from do, 'to give.'
NOTE 2. Compounds Oi tf> generally want the Supine. In the Perfect they have
nM.i, if the first part Is a dissyllable, otherwise xtiti : adsto, adtfdre, adttitl. Dteto and
esttto want Perfect and Supine.
1 Note deviations In the Supine.
1 Inerepd, tire, u> (</<), ituin (utum)\ diecrtpo, dr, ui (AvV), .
9 Compounds which insert m, as aceumbO, etc., are of Conj. III.; see 273.
4 The simple ntcn Is regular, and even in the compound the forms in uvi and iitnm
Hxjur.
DimicO, (ire, avl (?), atum ; emicd, are, ul, atum.
Dv^pltcO, multiplier, replied, and aupplicn, are regular : are, tivl, fitvm.
7 Seen has participle aec&tfirus : sano, sonatiirus ; jwvt), juwtiiruH, iii compounds
lso jfitiirus. Rfsom'i has Perfect retondvi^ Most compounds of or<ri want the gupine
8 See 255, I. and II.
In poetry, Innn is sometimes of Conj. III. : lavfi, Invert, Mvl, etc.
10 This short vowel is explained by the fact that do is a root-verb formed directly from
the root da without the suffix from which the a is derived in other verbs It this conju
gallon; gee 250, foot-note.
134 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
260. DEPONENT VERBS.
In this conjugation deponent verbs are entirely regular.
cOnor cOnart cOnatus sum, to endeavor
hortor hortarl hortatus sum, to exhort.
mlror mlrart mlrfltus sum, to admire.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
CLASS I. STEM IN e : PERFECT IN vf OR ul.
281. Principal Parts in eO, ere, evl, etum.
These endings belong to the following verbs :
dele6 delSre delevl deletum, to destroy.
com pled complete complSvI completum, 1 to fill.
fle6 fl6re flfivl fletum, to weep.
ueO n6re nevl netiim, 1 to spin.
262. Principal Parts in eO, Sre, ul, itum.
These endings belong to most verbs of this conjugation. The
following are examples :
debeo debere debul debitum, to owe.
habe& habere babul habitum, to have.
moneS mongre monul monitum, to advise.
noceS noc6re nocul nocitum, to hurt.
pared pftrgre pfirul paritum, to obey.
placed placSre placul placitum, to please.
taced tac6re tacul taciturn, to be silent.
NOTE 1. Many verbs with the Perfect In ui want the Supine. The fol-
lowing are the most important :
candeo, to thine.
egeO, to want.
emineO, to stand forth.
flOreO, to bloom.
frondeO, to bear leaves.
horreC, to shudder.
lateO, to be hid.
madeO, to be wet. \ sorbeO, to swallow.
niteo, to ghine. , splende<% to shine.
ole6, to smell. studeO, to study.
palleO, to be pale. | stupeO, to be amazed.
pateO, to be open. \ timeo, tojear.
rubeo, to be red. i torpeO, to be torpid.
sileO, to be silent. \ vire6, to be green.
NOTE 2. Some verbs, derived mostly from adjectives, want both Perfect
and Supine. The following are the most important:
albeO, to be white.
ealveo, to be bald.
caneO, to bt gray.
flaveo, to be yellow.
hebeft, to be blunt.
iininineo, to threaten.
maere6, to be sad.
umeo, to be moist. polleO, to be powerful,
renldeo, to slnne.
lacteO, to suck. I squaleo, to befiUhy.
1 So other compounds of the obsolete pled : eospleO. impleo, etc.
8 To these may be added abolefi, aboltre, abolevt, abo/itum, ' to destroy,' with Supinr
in itum. See also abolfsco, 277.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
125
CLASS II. STEM IN c, n, r, OR s: PERFECT IN ul. 1
263. Principal Parts hi eO, Sre, ul, turn or sum. 3
These endings belong to the following verbs :
censeo censgre cgnsui cgnsum, 8
doceS
misceS
teneS
torre6
censgre
docgre
miscgre
tengre
torrgre
cgnsul
docul
miscul
tenul
torrui
doctum,
( mistum,
( mlxtum,
tentum, 4
tostum,
to think,
to teach.
to mix.
to hold,
to roast.
CLASS III. STEM IN A CONSONANT : PERFECT IN si OR I.
264. Principal Parts in eo, ere, si, turn.
auged auggre auxl auctum, to increase.
indulges indulggre indulsl indultum, to indulge.
torqueS torqugre torsi tortum, to twist.
265. Principal Parts hi eo, 5re, !, sum. 2
algeo
ardeo
cSnlveo
frfgeS
fulgeS
haereS
jubeS
IficeS
iQgeS
maneS
mulgeS
mulceS
rldeo
suadeo
tergeS
turgeS
urges (u
NOTE. deO, clere, clvl, citum, to arouse, has a kindred form, do, c>re, clvl, cilum,
from which it seems to have obtained its Perfect. In compounds the forms of the Fourth
Conj prevail, especially In the sense of to call, call forth.
1 For convenience of reference, a ffenerat List of all verbs Involving irregularitiei
will be found on page 888.
' The Pretent Stem adds e ; see 251, 5. For phonetic change*, see 33-36.
5 Participle oensun and cenmtus. Percfnefi wants Supine : recf-nueo has rc?n#um
and recenrftum.
* In most compounds the Supine is rare.
* Poetic, fulgo, fulgere, etc.
* The stem of haeren Is haft. The Present adds f and changes u to r between tw<
rowels. In haetl and haenum, i standing for *# or n( is not changed.
* In compounds sometime* mulctum.
ardgre
cSnlvgre
frfggre
fulggre
haergre
jubgre
Ittcgre
luggre
mangre
mulggre
mulcgre
rfdgre
suadgre
terggre
turggre
nrcrBrp
arsl
( cOnlvI )
1 cSnlxI $
f rtxl (rare)
fulsl
haesl
jussl
10x1
luxl
mans!
mulsl
mulsl
rtsl
Mifi-i
tersl
tursl (rare)
nrsT
arsiim,
to burn,
to wink at.
to be cold.
to shine.
to stick.
to order,
to thine,
to mourn.
to remain.
to milk,
to soothe,
to laugh,
to advise,
to wipe,
to swell.
In ryffjts
5
haesum, 8
jussum,
mansum,
mulsum,
mulsum,'
rtsum,
suasum,
tersum,
126
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
266. Principal Parts in eO, Sre, I, turn.
WITH LENGTHENED STEM- VOWEL.
cared
cavfire cavl cautum,
to bewam
faved
foveo
moveo
paveo
voveo
favgre favt fautum,
fovSre fOvt fotum,
movgre mOvI mOtum,
to favor,
to cherish,
to move,
to fear,
to vow.
vovgre v5vl v5tum,
267.
Principal Parts in ee, Sre, I, sum.
1. WITH REDUPLICATION.'
mordeo
pendeo
spondeo
tondeo
mordere momordl morsum,
pendgre pependl pensum,
spondere spopondl spflnsum,
tondgre totondl tonsuni,
to bite,
to hang,
to promise,
to shew.
2. WITH LENGTHENED STEM-VOWEL.
seded
video
sedere s6dl sessum,'
vidfire vldl vteum,
to tit.
to see
conlvefi
ferveo
langueO
liqueo
prandec
etrfdeS
8. WITH UNCHANGED STEM.
to wink at.
to boil,
to be languid,
to be liquid,
to dine,
to creak.
languere languT
prandere prandl prftnsum, 4
strtdere strtdl
268.
DEPONENT VERBS.
1. Regular.
liceor
mereor
pollioeor
tueor
rereor
licSrl licitus sum,
merSrf meritus sum,
pollicri pollicitus sum,
( tuitus sum, )
tu6rt ] tutus sum, f
yerfiri veritus sum,
to bid.
to deservt.
to promise.
to protect.
to fear.
2. Irregular.
fateor
medeor
misereor
reor
faterl fassus sum, 6
to confess.
to cure.
to pity.
to think.
misereri \ s * 8um . [
I misertus sum, J
rerl ratus sum,
1 For reduplication in compounds, see 255, 1., 4.
1 So ctrcumstdea and superseded. Other compounds thus : atsidto, ere,
emttssum ; but disrideo, praesldeO, and refidet, want 8upine.
* Observe that the supine sttm is wanting in most of these verbs.
4 Participle, prantus, in an active senio, having dined.
Ofmflteor, eri, oonfe&isuA : so prqfttear.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
127
audeo
gauded
soled
3. Semi-Deponent Deponent in the Perfect.
audere ausus sum, to dare.
gaudere
solere
ausus sum,
gavisus sum,
solitus sum,
to rejoice.
to be accustomed
THIRD CONJUGATION.
NOT*. This conjugation contains tiie primitive verbs of the language; see 335
CLASS I. STEM IN A CONSONANT : PERFECT IN si OR I
269. Principal Parts in (or io), ere, si, turn.
These are the regular endings in verbs whose stems end in a
consonant. The following are examples : '
to pluck,
to gird,
to gay.
to lead,
io extinguish,
to carry,
to marry,
to rule,
to take,
to draw,
to burn,
to carry.
to live.
carpo
carpere
carpsl
carptum,*
ciugo
cingere
ciuxl (gsl)
cinctum,
itfc6
dlcere
dM
dictum,
dfic<5
ducere
dfixl
ductum,
exstinguo
exstinguere
exstinxl
exstinctum, 5
gero
gerere
gessl
gestum,
nii bo
nubere
mips!
nuptum,
reg5
regere
rexl
rectum,*
sumo
sumere
sumps!
sumptum,
trah6
trahere
traxl
tractum,
uro
Qrere
ussl
ustum,
veh6
vehere
vSx!
vectum,
vlv6
vivere
vlxl
vlctum,
270.
Principal Parts in (or io), ere, si, sum. 1
(<!,-,
cSdere
cessl
cessum,
claudd
claudere
clausl
clausum, 4
dlvido
dlvidere
dlvlsl
dlvlsum,
evado
fivadere
8vasl
evasum, 1
flgo
flgere
flxl
flxum,
tltvto
flectere
flexl
flexum,
frend6
frendere
j frSsum, )
} fressum, J
laedd
laedere
laesl
laesum, 4
IfldO
lOdere
iQs!
Ifisnm,
mitta
mittere
mlpi
missum,
mergO
mergere
mersl
mersum,
( n6xl )
H-'-tu
nectere
I nexul 8 )
nexum,
pect6
pectere
p6xl
pexum,
to yield,
to close,
to divide,
to evade,
to fasten,
to bend.
to gnash.
to hurt,
to play,
to send,
to dip.
to bind
to comb.
1 For Phonetic Change*, see 3O-36.
* The stem-vowel Is often changed in compounds: carpfi, <tf-eerp/); rego, dl-rigo;
for this change, see 344, 4; also 221.
' So other compounds of ttinguO (rare): ditttlngufi, etc.
* Compounds of claudo have for au, con-clf/do ; those of laedfi, 7 for , il-ttdO ,
Utose ot'plaurlfi generally 6 for au, etr-pKdo : those otgnaHi>, en for qua, con-cutii).
* 80 other compounds otvtido. Compounds take this form in the Perfect-
128
OJ>' VRB&
plecto
plectere
plSrf plexum,
to plant.
plaudo
plaudere
plausl plausum, 1
to applaud.
prem6
premere
pressl * pressuin,
to press.
quati6
quatere
quassl * quassum, 1
to shake.
spargC
spargere
spurs! sparsum,
to scatter.
I'ado
rfldere
rasl rasum,
to shave.
rodo
rOdere
r6sl rosum,
to gnaw.
tergo
tergere
tersl tersum, 1
to toipe off.
trudo
trudere
trfisi trusum,
to thrust.
271.
Principal Parts
in (or io), ere, I, turn.
1.
WITH REDUPLICATION.
abdu
abdere
abdidl ubditum.*
to hide.
cano
canere
cecin! cantum,'
to sing.
crgdo
crdere
crSdidl creditum, 6
to believe.
i ' . ^
j
HHirT
j !-*,*,
Q13CO
paugo
QlSCGrG
pangere
pepigl pactum,
io iant.
to bargain.
pango
pangere
| pauxl panctum, 1 >
( peg! pactum, f
to fix in.
pario
parere
peperf partum, 8
to bring forth.
sist6
sistere
stitl statum, 9
to place.
tango
tangere
tetigl tact urn, 10
to touch.
tendd
tendere
( tentum, 10 )
tetendl jtSnsum, C
to stretch.
tollo
tollere
sustull sublfitum,' 1
to raise.
vendo
vendere
vSndidl venditum,'
to sell.
pungu
pungere
pupugi pQnctum, 11
to prick.
2. WITH
LENGTHENED STEM- VOWEL.
ag6
agere
6gl actum, 18
to drive.
capio
capere
c6pl captum, 14
to take.
emo
emere
6ml Smptum, 1 *
to buy.
1 See page 12T, foot-note 4.
a See 34, 1, note; 35, 8, 2).
* Also terffef/i torgere, etc.; compounds take this form ; see 365.
4 So all compounds of do except those of Conjugation I. ; see 259, note 1.
* Concino, ere, condnui, ; so occinv and praecinn; other compounds want
Perfect and Supine.
* Explained as a compound of df> ; see dbdo.
7 Compingo, ere, compegt, eompactum ; so also impingo. DepangO wants Perfect:
repangO, Perfect and Supine.
* Participle, pariturus: compounds are of Conjugation IV.
* Compounds thus : cfmsistd, ere, constiti, conMtum ; but circttmstetl also oceurf .
* Compounds drop the reduplication.
11 Attollo and extollo want Perfect and Supine.
11 Compounds thus : compungo, ere, compOnotf, compftnctum.
11 So oircumagO and perago ; satagO wants Perfect and Supine. Other compound*
change a Into f in the Present: abigo, ere, abegi, abactwm; but coigo becomes cftg<\
era, ooegl, ooactum, and deigo, diffO, tre, degi, without Supine. Prodigo wants Supin*,
and ambigv, Perfect and Supine.
14 S ttnttcapio ; other compounds thus : accipio, ere, accept, aeceptwm.
16 So coemo ; other eornpounds thai : adimo, ere, ademi, adfrnptum
THIRD CONJUGATION.
lay
facia
fugia
jacid
franga
'ego
linqud
scaba
vinco
rumpo
272.
Jadfl
caeda
curra
fallO
pared
pella
penda
posed
tunda
eda
fodia
fundo
facere
fugere
jacere
frangere
legere
linquere
scabere
vincere
rumpere
f6cl
fugl
jecl
frggl
legi
llqul
scabl
vlcl
rupl
factum, 1
fugitum,
jactum, 8
fractum,*
iSctum, 4
vlctum,
ruptum,
Principal Parts* in (or io), ere, I, gum.*
1. WITH BIDDPLICATION.
cadere
caedere
currere
cecidl
cecldl
cucurrl
casum, 1
caesum, 8
cursum, 9
fallere
parcere
pellere
pendere
poecere
tundere
fefelll
pepercl (parsl)
pepull
pependl
poposcl
tutudl
falsum,
parsum, 11
pulsum, 11
pSnsum, 11
j tunsum,"
2. WITH LBNOTHENID STEM-VOWKL.
edere Cdl 6suni,
fadl fossum,
fodere
fnndere
fadl
fusum,
8. WITH UNCHANOKD STEM.
accenda accendere accendl accSnsum, 14
cflda cadere cOdl cttsum,
defenda
defendere defendl
dSfSnsum, 1 * to de^
to m&kt.
to flee,
to throw,
to break,
to read,
to leave,
to scratch,
to conquer
to burst.
to fall,
to cut.
to run.
to deceive,
to spare,
to drive,
to weigh.
to demana.
to beat.
to eat.
to dig.
to pour
to kindle,
to for
>rae.
efend.
1 PassI ve irregular: f>f), Jtorl, foetus turn. ; see 294. So tatitfaoto and compounds
utfado with verbs ; but compounds with prepositions thus : conjlcio, cfinflcwe. cfwfeel.
c&n/ect*imf with regular Passive, drnfidor, onnflci, cnnfectus sum.
I SuperjaciO has jactum. or jectum in Supine : compounds with monosyllabic prepo-
sitions thus: tihirir,. abicere, abjecrt, abfectwni ; see page 80, foot-note 1.
* Compounds thus : cnnfringi), ere, cfmfregi, ofmfr&ctum.
4 So compounds, except (1) coltigO, ere, colUgl, coUlctum ; so deKgO, ttigo, ofMgn(V-
dliigo, ere, iliUx'i, diUctum ; so intellegfi, neglego, though neglegi occurs in the Perfect.
' Compounds with Supine : relinquo, ere, retlqul, relief urn.
For Phonetic Changes, see 30-36.
7 Ineidfi, ere, tncidt, incusum ; so occido and recidn ; other compounds want Supine.
Compounds thus : contfdo, ere, concMl, condtum.
* ExourrO and praecrtrro generally retain the reduplication : esecucurrl, prac>unn-
rt; other compounds generally drop it.
10 RefellO, ere, refelH. without Supine.
II Oomparco, ere, compare!, compartum, also with e tor a: oomperoc, r*. *c.
Jtnparca and reparcn want Perfeci and Supine.
'* Compounds drop reduplication, 255, 1., 4.
" Compounds retain reduplication, 255, I., 4.
14 So other compounds of the obsolete cando va&fendo.
180
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
tindo findere fidl (findl) fissum,
to part.
Ic6 Icere IcI
Ictum,
to strike.
mandO mandere mandl
mansum,
to chew.
pandS pandere pandl
( passum, |
( pfinsum, f
to open.
(
i plnsiturn, )
plnso(pls6) plnsere ] ^- QS
j plstum, V
to pound
( P
( pmsum, )
prehendo prehendere, prehendl prehensum, 1
to grasp.
scando scandere scandl
scansum,
to climb.
scindo scindere scidl
scissum,
to rend.
solvo solvere solvi
solutum*
to loose.
velld vellere velll (vulsl) vulsum,
to pluck .
verrS verrere verri
versum,
to brush.
verto vertere vertl
versum, 3
to turn.
vls6 vlsere vlsi
vlsum,
to vis*t
volvo volvere volvl
volutum,
to roll.
NOTB 1. Some verbs with the Perfect in si or I want 'the Supine :
angO, ere, Snxl, to squeeze.
inetuu. ere, I.
to fear.
aiinuo, ere, i, to assent.
pluO, ere, I, or pluvl,
to rain.
batuu, ere, I, to beat.
ppallfi. ere, i,
to play the fiar;
blbo, ere, 1 to drink.
sldo, ere, I, 4
to frit down.
congrnO, ere, !, to agree.
ningO. ere, nTnsa,
to snow.
ingruO, ere, I, to assail.
stride, ere, I,
to creak.
lainbo. ere, I. to lick.
sternn6, ere, i,
to meeee.
NOTB 2. Some verbs want both Perfect and Supine :
elango, to clang.
claudo, to be lame.
hlsco,
vadO,
to gape,
to go.*
fatlsoo, to gape.
temnd,
to despise.*
gllsco, to grow.
vergo,
to incline.
CLASS 11. STEM IN A CONSONANT : PERFECT IN nl.
273. Principal Parts
accumbS accumbere
aid alere
in (or iO), ere, ul, itiim,
accubul accubitum,' to recline.
alul J autum,
altum
:!
depsO
depsere .
depsul
\ UCJIMLUIH, 1
to knead.
elicid
glicere
Slicul
elicitum, 8
to elicit.
fremO
fremere
fremul
fremitum,
to rage.
gem&
gemere
gemul
gemitum,
to groan.
gign5
glgnere
genul
genitum,
to beget.
mold
molere
molul
molitum,
to grind.
1 Often written prendo, prtndere, etc.
V is here changed to its corresponding vowel u : sotiifwn for solutum.
1 Compounds of de, prae, re, are generally deponent in the Present, Imperfect, an<
future.
4 Perfect and Supine generally supplied from tedeo; hence sedl, u*um. So in com
pounds.
S*tfi>ddo, 2 7O.
But contemns, ere, contempti, conUmptum.
7 So other compounds otcumbo, cubd; see cubf>, 258.
< Other compounds of lacio thus : allicio, al/icere. ul/fj-l. allectum
pined
plnsere
\ plnsul
| plnsl
( plnsitum, 1
< plstum,
( pinsum, )
pono
ponere
posui
positum,
strepo
strepere
strepul
strepitum,
vomo
vomere
vomui
vomitum,
THIRD CONJUGATION. 131
to crush.
to place,
to make a noise,
to vomit.
NOTE. CompescO. 'to restrain'.; excetto, 1 'to excel'; furd, 'to rage'; gterM 'to
snore ' ; and tremo, ' to tremble,' have the Perfect in ui, but want the Supine.
274. Principal Parts in (or io), ere, ui, turn.
eolo colere colul cultum, to cultivate.
consulo cOnsulere consulul cOnsultum, to consult.
occulo occulere occului occultum, to hide.
rapid rapere rapul raptum, 1 io snatch.
serO serere serul sertum, to connect.
texo texere texui textum, to weave.
275. Principal Parts in 0, ere, gul, sum.
meto metere messul * messum, to reap.
necto nectere j n . > nexura, to bind.
CLASS in. STEM IN A VOWEL : PERFECT IN vi OR L
276. The following verbs have the Perfect in avl from a stem in a :
pasco 4 pascere pavi pastum, to feed.
sterno sternere stravi stratum, to strew.
veterasco veterascere veteravl to grow old.
277. The following verbs have the Perfect in evl from a stem in :
abolgsco
cerno
crgsco
quiSsco
aperno
suSsco
abolfiscere
cernere
crgscere
quiSscere
spernere
sugscere
abolSvI
crfivl
crSvI
quiSvI
sprgvl
suevl
abolitum, 6
crfitum,
cr6tum,'
quietum,
sprCtum,
suCtum,
to disappear,
to decide,
to grow,
to rest,
to spurn,
to become accwtomed.
NOTE. SerO, serere, sOvi, sntum, 7 to tow.
278. The following verbs liave the Perfect in tvi from a stem in Ir
arcess6
arcessere
arcfisslvl
arcCssItum,
to call for.
capgssd
capessere
capSssIv!
capSssItum,
to lay hold of.
cupi6
cupere
cuplvl
cupltum,
to desire.
facSssd
fac6ssere
j facesslvl /
j facSssi J
facSsaltum,
to make.
1 Other compounds of ctJIo want the Perfect and Supine, except percdlfi,
percull, perculsum.
3 Compounds thus : corripio, corripere, carripui, correptum.
3 The Perfect in sul seems to be a double formation, *? enlarged to ul.
4 The stem otpaitcd is pa, p&s ; tlie Present Stem adds *c ,' see 251, 2.
* 80 inolencft ; but adolecO has Supine adultum ; eoroletcfl, etroletum ;
obsotetum.
fncreico and ituccretod want the Supine.
1 Compounds thus : coruterO. <ymrr, oonsevl,
133
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
incSsao
lacesso
Jino
nosco
peto
quaero
rudo
sapio
sino
tero
iru'i'ssi-rc
j incSssivI |
| incessl ]
lacessere
lacessivi
linere
IM, I8vl
noscere
n5vl
petere
petivl
quaerere
quaesivl
rudere
rudM
sapere
saplvi, sapul
sinere
slvl
terere
trtvi
lacfissltum.
litum,
nOtum, 1
petltum,
quaesltum,'"
rudltum,
situm,
tritum,
279. Principal Parts in 0, ere, I, turn.
These are the regular endings in verbs with u-stems.
are examples :
acul acutum,
argul argutum,
imbu! imbatum,
minul minutum,
rul rutum,
statui statutum,
tribul tributum,
acuo
arguo
imbuo
minuo
ruo
statud
tribuo
fluxum,
structum,
to attack.
to provoke
to smear,
to know,
to ask.
to seek.
to bray.
to taste.
& permit,
to rub.
The following
to sharpen,
to convict,
to imbue,
to diminish,
to fall,
to place,
to impart.
to flow,
to build.
arguere
imbuere
minuere
ruere
statuere
tribuere
.Ffaa) and struo have the Perfect in xi.
fluo fluere fluxi 8
struo struere struxJ 3
INCHPTIVES.
280. Inceptives end in sc6, and denote the beginning of
an action.
NOTE. When formed from verbs, they are called Verbal Inceptives, anc
when formed from nouns or adjectives< Denominative Inceptives.
281. Most VERBAL INCEPTIVES want the Supine, but take the Perfect
of their primitives :
acul
ami
calol
florul
tepul
virul
arescd
calescC
flOresco
tepescO
viresco
(vtreo
acescere
ftrescere
cal&scere
florescere
tepescere
virescere
to become sour,
to become, dry.
to become warm,
to begin to bloom,
to become warm,
to become green.
NOTE. The following take the Perfect and Supine of their primitives:
concuplscd
convalesce
(con, cupio)
(con, Taleff)
ere
ere
concuplvi
convalul
concupitum,
convafitum.
to dtsire.
to grow strong.
exardescS
(ex, ardeo)
ere
ezarsi
cxarsuin.
to burn.
inveterasco
(inveterO)
ere
inveteravi
inveteratum,
to grow old.
obdormiscO
(ob, dormid)
ere
obdormlvi
obdormitum,
to fall asleep.
revMscO
(re. vivff)
ere
revM
revfctum,
to revive.
cited
(ct#)
ere
scJvi
scitom,
to enact.
1 80 IgndscD ; ugnoscd and cognosce have itotm in Supine, agnitum ; dignotcO ad
inUrnoscO want Supine.
' J Compounds thus : acquire, ere, acquittoi, acqu~iitwn.
* Forjlug-si, strug-sl, formed rot from u-Btema, but from consonant-ttKOa,
THIRD VOXJVGATION.
133
282. Most DENOMINATIVE INCEPTIVES want both Perfect and Supine .
dltesco (dives), to arow rich.
dulcescO (dul<n8\ } to become sweet.
grandescO (granaut), to grow large.
mltescd
mollescO
puerascO (jruer)^
NOTB. The following have the Perfect in ui :
crgbr6sc6 (ffl
dfirgsco a
innStescd it
uiacrCsco 11
uiaturescO n
ubnmti-sco o
recrudescfl r
vilesco (c
283. DEPON
amplector 1
aplscor
comminiscor
experglscor
fatTscor
fruor
fungor
gradior
Irascor
labor
liquor
loquor
morior
nanclscor
nascor
nltor
obllvlscor
paclscor
patior
proficlscor
queror
reminlscor
ringor
sequor
ulclscor
fttor
voonnr
reber) ere crfibrul,
urus) ere durul,
i, ndtus) ere innotui,
tacer) ere macrui,
Atwrui) ere inuturui,
!>, mutus) ere obm&tui,
6, crudits) ere recrfldnl,
'tin) ere yilui,
ENT VEKBS.
amplexus sum,
aptus sum, 1
commentus sum, 2
ezperrgctus sum,
3
| fructus sum, )
( fruitus sum, )
functus sum,
gressus sum, 4
lapsus sum,
locutus sum,
(M, rare) mortuus sum,'
nactus (nanctus) sum,
natus sum, 6
\ nlsus sum, /
/ nlxus sum, \
oblltus sum,
pactus sum,
passus sum,
profectus sum,
questus sum,
rictus sum,
secutus sum,
ultus sum,
Qsus sum,
T
fldo
Semi-Deponent Deponent in the Perfect.
ftdere flsus sum,
to grow mild,
to grow soft,
to become a boy.
to become frequent
to become hard,
to become known,
to become lean,
to ripen,
to grow dumb,
to bleed afresh,
to become worthiest.
to embrace,
to obtain,
to devise,
to awake,
to gape.
to enjoy.
to perform
to walk,
to be angr$.
to fall,
to melt,
to speak,
to die.
to obtain,
to be born.
to strive.
to forget,
to bargain,
to suffer,
to set out.
to complain,
to remember,
to growl,
to follow,
to avenge
to use.
to eat.
to trust.
1 Adiplteor, I, adeptwt awn ; so indtyiwor.
(Jom-minlscor la compounded of con, and the obsolete minfacor;
wants the Perfect.
' Dl-fticor, >, de-fetmu turn.
* Compounds thus : aggredior, 7, aggrettut turn.
' Aforior La future participle moriturut; nacor. ndirttiirut
134 CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
CLASS I. STEM IN I: PERFECT IN vl.
284. Principal Parts in io, Ire, IvI, Itum.
The following are examples :
fluio flnlre fmivi flmtuin, tojinish.
I'-nii i lemre lenlvi lemtum, to alleviate.
munio munire munlvl munltum, to fortify.
pflnio punlre punlvi punitum, to punish.
scio scire sclvl scltum, to know.
sepeli6 sepellre sepelivl sepultum, 1 to bury.
sitio sitlre sitlvi to thirst.
vftgi6 vaglre vaglvl to cry.
NOTE 1. Fis often dropped in the Perfect: audi/i for audwl ; see )>86, 1.
NOTE 2. Desideratives (338, HI.) except esurio, ire, , Uum ; nup-
turio, ire, ivi, and parturio, ire, ivi want both Perfect and Supine. Also n
few others :
balbutio, to stammer.
caecutio, to !> blind.
feriO, to strike.
ferocio, to be fierce.
gannio, to baric.
ineptio, to trifle.
sag-in. to be wise.
superbiO, to be proud.
tussio, to cough.
CLASS II. STEM IN c, 1, OR r : PERFECT IN ul.
285. Principal Parts in io, Ire, ul, turn.
amicio amicire amicu! (xi ) amictum, to clothe.
aperio aperlre aperui apertum, to open.
operio operlre operuT opertum, to cover.
salio salire salui (il) (saltum), 4 to leap.
CLASS III. STEM IN A CONSONANT : PERFECT IN si OR l
286. Principal Parts in io, Ire, si, turn.
farcio
farcTre
farsl
j fartum,* \
( farctum, f
to stuff".
fulcio
fulclre
fulsi
fultum,
to prop.
haurio 4
haurlre
hausl
haustum, hausum,
to draw.
saepio
saeplre
saepsi
saeptum,
to hedge in.
sancio
sanclre
sanxi
( sancltum, |
( sanctum, |
to ratify.
sarciS
sarclre
sarsl
sartum,
to patch.
vincio
vincire
vinxi
vinctum,
to bind.
1 Supine irregular.
* Compounds thus: desilid, lr, ul (#), (detultum).
' Compounds thus : confercio. Ire, confers?, confertum.
* The stem of haurio is haun. The Present adds I and changes to r between two
vowela ID h/iutl and hausum, x standing for HK or at is not changed.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
135
287. Principal Parts in io, Ire, si, sum.
raucio
sentio
raucire
sentire
rausi
s6nsl
rausum,
sensum,
NOTE. The following verbs have the Perfect in * .
comperio
reperio
venio
comperire
reperlre
venire
comperi
repert
veni 1
compertutn,
repertum,
ventnm,
288. DEPONENT VERBS.
blandior
largior
mention
mOlior
partior
potior s
sortior
assentior *
experior
metior
opperior
ordior
orior
1. Regular.
in blanditus sum,
M largitus sum,
In mentltus sum,
Iii molltus sum,
IrT partltus sum,
Irt potltus sum,
M sortltus sum,
2. Irregular.
in assensus sum,
M expertus sum,
M mf-nsiis sum,
j oppertus sum,
( opperltus sum,
Irl 5rsus sum,
Irl ortus sum, 4
to be hoarse,
to feel.
to learn,
to find,
to come.
to flatter,
to bestow,
to lie.
to strive,
to divide,
to obtain,
to draw lots.
to assent.
to try.
to measure.
to await.
to begin,
'to rise.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
289. A few verbs which have special irregularities are
called by way of preeminence Irregular or Anomalous
Verbs. They are sum, edd, fero, volo, fid, eo, qued, and
their compounds.
290. Sum, 'I am,' and its compounds.
I. The conjugation of sum has been already given (204); its numerous
compounds absumf adxum, de.tum, praesumf etc. except possum and prd-
vww, are conjugated in the same way.
1 With lengthened stem-vowel.
a In the Present Indicative and Subjunctive, forms of Conjugation III. occur.
* Compounded of ad and nentio ; see 287.
4 Participle, orituru*. Present Indicative, Conjugation III., orerin, oritur. Imper-
fect Subjunctive, or'irer or orerer. So compounds, but aciorior follows Conjugation IV.
' Alifum and praexum, like possum, have Present Participles, absent and praesens.
used as adjectives, abent*preent.
136 IRREGULAR VERBS.
n. Possum, posse, potui, to be able.
INDICATIVE.
SINGULAR.
Pres. possum, potes, potest ; possumus, potestis, possunt.
Imp. poteram ; ' poteramus.
Fut. potero ; poterimus.
Perf. potui; potuimus.
Plup. potueram ; potueramus.
F. P. potuero ; potuenmus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. possim, possls, possit ; posslmus, possltis, possint.
Imp. possem ; possgmus.
Perf. potuerim ; potuerimus.
Plup. potuissem ; potuissemus.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. posse. Pres. potens (as an adjective).
Perf. potuisse.
NOTE 1. Possum Is compounded of potit, ' able, 1 and #MTO, ' to be. 1 The parts ar
lometimes separated, and then potts is indeclinable : potis sum, potis xumus, etc.
.NOTK 2. In possum observe "
1) That potis drops is, and that t is assimilated before : possum torpotsum.
2) That the Perfect is potui not potfui.'*
8) That posse and possem are shortened forms for potesse and potessem.
III. Prosum, ' I profit,' is compounded of jjrd, prod, ' for,' and sum, ' to
be.' It retains d when the simple verb begins with e : prosnm, prodes,
prSdest, etc. Otherwise it is conjugated like sum.
291. EdO, edere, edi, esum, to eat.
This verb is sometimes regular, and sometimes takes forms similar,
except in quantity, 8 to those of sum which begin in es. Thus
INDICATIVE.
Pres.
i
ed6,
edis,
Ss,
edit;
est;
edimus,
editis,
estis.
edunt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp.
I
ederem,
gssem,
edergs,
essgs,
ederet ;
gsset ;
ederemus,
essemus,
ederetis,
gssetis,
ederent.
esseiit.
1 Inflected regularly through the different persons : poteram, pot eras, poterat, eto.
80 also in th other tenses : potui, potutett. etc.
4 For old and rare forms, see 2O4, 2. Potui is probably a regular perfect in ul
from an obsolete verb potto or potto ; see 262, 285 j also Stolz, p. 225.
' These forms have f long before s, while the correspondingforms of sum have e short
IRREGULAR VERBS.
137
'
ede ;
Fut.
Pres.
6st6;
IMPERATIVE.
edite.
68tCo
editote,
estote.
edunttx
edere.
esso.
MOTE 1. In the PASSIVE, fittur for editwr and futetur for ederi'tur also occur.
NOTE 2. FORMS IN IH for am occur In the Present Subjunctive : edim, edis, edit,
we., for fitiiin. edds, edat, etc.
NOT* 8. COMPOUNDS are conjugated like the simple verb, but comedo has In the 8u
pine comesum or comextum.
292. Fero,
ferre, tuli, latum,
ACTIVE VOICE.
to bear.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres. fero, fers,
fert; ferimus, fertis,* ferunt.
Imp. f erSbain ; *
ferSbftmus.
Fut. f eram ;
ferSmus.
Perf. tuli;
tulimus.
Plup. tuleram ;
tuleramus.
F. P. tuler5 ;
tulerimus.
Pres. feram ;
SUBJUNCTIVE. feramus
Imp. f errem ;
ferrmus. 4
Perf. tulerim ;
tulerimus.
Plup. tulissem ;
tulissemus.
Pres. fer;'
IMPERATIVE. ferte
Fut. fertd,
fertOte,
fert6;
feruntS.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. ferre. 4
Pres. ferSns.
Perf. tulisse.
Fut. Iatuni8 ease.
Fut. latQrus.
1 Bee page 136, foot-note 2.
* Fer-s, fer-t, f#r-tia, like e-t, cs-tis, dispense with the usual thematic yowel i
With such vowel the forms would be feris, ferit, feritis.
* Inflect the several tenses in full : ferfbam, ferebai, etc.
4 Ferrem, etc., forfererem, etc. ; ferre torferere (e dropped).
* Fer tor feres .ferto. ferte, fertote, ferric, fertw. without thematic yowel
138
IRREGULAR VERBS,
GERUND.
&en. ferendl,
Dttf. ferendd,
dec. ferendum,
AM. ferendO.
SUPINE.
Ace. latum,
Abl. latu.
PASSIVE VOICE.
fwror, fern, latus sum,
INDICATIVE.
to be born*.
SINOULAK.
Pres. feror, ferris, fertur; 1
Imp. fergbar ;
Put. f erar ;
Perf. latus sum ;
Plup. latus eram ;
F. P. latus ero ;
Pres. ferar;
Imp. ferrer ; '
Perf. latus sim ;
Plup. latus essem ;
Pres. ferre ; '
Put. fertor, 1
f ertor ;
INFINITIVE.
Pres. ferrf. 1
Perf. latus esse.
Fut. latum M.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
PLURAL.
ferimur, ferimini, feruntur
ferebamur.
feremur.
lati sun i us.
latl eramus.
latl erimus.
feramur.
ferrgmur.
latl siniiis.
lati cssemue.
ferimini.
feruntor.
PARTICIPLE.
Perf. latus.
Ger. ferendus.
1. FerO has two principal irregularities :
1) Its forms are derived from three independent stems, seen in ferd, tvU^
latum.
2) It dispenses with the thematic vowel, e or i, before r, , and t.
2. COMPOUNDS offero are conjugated like the simple verb, but in a few ot
them the preposition suffers a euphonic change :
0ft.
aufero
auferre
abstuli
ablatum
ad-
xiferO
adferre
attull
allatum
con-
confers
conferre
contull
collatum
dis-
differo
differre
distull
dllatum
x-
eflero
efferre
extull
e latum
in~
infero
Inferre
intull
illatum
ob-
offers
offerre
obtull
oblatum
svi>-
suffero
sufferre
sustull
sublatum
' Without thematic vowel.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
139
NOTE. Svttu/l and tut/latum are not often used in the sense of guferO, to bear, but
they supply the Perfect and Supine ottollo, to raise; see 271.
293. Vol6, velle, volul, to be willing.
N6lO, nolle, nolui, to be unwilling.
Malo, inalle. malul, to prefer.
INDICATIVE.
Pres. void, nOlo, malO,
vis, nOn vis, mavis,
vult; nOnvult; mavult;
vommus, uOlumus, malumus,
vultis, nOn vultis, mavultis,
volunt. nolunt. malunt.
Imp. vol6 bam. nolebam. malebam.
Put. volam. nOlam. malam.
Perf. volul. nolui. malul.
I'lup. volueram. nOlueram. malueram.
F. P. voluero. noluero. maluerO.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. velim. 1 nOlim. m&lim.
Imp. vellem.* . nOllem. mallem.
Perf. voluerim. nOluerim. m&luerim.
Plup. voluissem. nOluissem. maluissem.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. noli, nSHte.
Fut. nollto, nOlItOte,
ndllto ; nul unt o.
INFINITIVE.
Pret. velle. nOlle. malle.
Perf. voluisse. nOluisse. mftluisse.
PARTICIPLE.
Prea. volfins. | nOlns. j
NOTE 1. The stem of void is vol, with variable stem-vowel, o, e, u.
NOTE 2. NOLO is compounded of ns or nSn and volo ; MALO, of magik
and volo.
NOTE 3. RARE FORMS. (1) Of VOL6: volt, voltis, for vult, vultis, sis,
niltis, for A vis, si vultis ; vln 1 for vlme. (2) Of NOLO : nSvls, nevult (nevoU\
1 Velim is inflected like sim, and vellem like extern.
3 \' file in and relle are syncopated forms for veltrem, ttlere; t is dropped and r
issirn ilated : velerem, telrem. vellem ; vel#re, vlre, velle. So ndllem and noUt, for
ifiltrtm and m'/lere; mfillem. and mallt, for materem and mtllere.
140
IRREGULAR VERBS.
nevelle, for n8n (nS) vis, n5n (n&) vult, nslle. (8) Of MALO : mdvold, mclvelim,
rn&vellem, for mate, mdlirn, mallem.
294. Flo, fieri,
factus sum, to become, be made. '
SINGULAR.
INDICATIVE.
PLURAL.
Pree. flo, fls, fit;
Imp. flebam ;
/'Vrf. flam ;
Per/, f actus sum ;
Plup, factus eram ;
F. P. factus ero ;
flmus, fltis, flunt.
flebamus.
fiemus.
factl sumus.
fact! erfimus.
factl erimus.
Pres. flam ;
7wip. fierem ;
Perf. factus sim ;
Plup. factus essem
SUBJUNCTIVE. flamu8
fiergmus.
factl slums.
; factl essemus.
Pres. ft;
IMPERATIVE.
flte.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. fieri.
Perf. factus esse.
Perf. factus.
Fut. factum Trl.
Ger. faciendus.
295. EO,
ire,
ivi,
itum,
to go.
Pres. e5, Is, it ;
Turns, Itis, eunt.
Imp. Ibam ;
ibainus.
Fut. Ibo;
Ibimus.
Perf. Ivi;
Ivimus.
Plup. Iveram ;
Iveramus.
F. P. Ivero ;
Iverimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. earn ;
eamus.
Imp. Irem ;
Iremus.
Perf. Iverim ;
Iverimus.
Plup. Ivissem ;
IvissSmus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. I;
Ite.
Fut. It6,
It6te,
Ito;
eunto.
1 COMPOUNDS of ftO are conjugated like tbe simple verb, but rinfl't, dffit. and injii
are defective; see 297, III., 2.
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 141
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. Ire. Pres. iens, Gen. euntis.
Perf. Ivisse.
Put. iturus ease. Ful. iturus,
GERUND. SUPINE.
Gen. eundl,
Dot. eundO,
Ace. eund'im, Ace. itum,
Abl. eundO. Abl. ittt.
). Eo is a verb of the Fourth Conjugation, but it forms the Supine with a short vowel
(itwm), and ! s irregular in several parts of the Present System. It admits contraction
according to 235 : txtis for ivistis, etc.
2. Kfi, as an ID transitive verb, wants the Passive, except when used impersonally in
the third singular, Itur, ibatur, etc. (3O1, 1), but Iri, the Passive Infinitive, occurs as an
auxiliary in the Future Infinitive Passive of the regular conjugations : amdtum. frf, etc.
8. COMPOUNDS of eO generally shorten Ivl into if. VeneQ (venum eo) has sometimes
ntiiiiiinn for venlbam. Muny compounds want the Supine, and a few admit in the
Future a rare form in earn, if, iet.
NOTE 1. Transitive compounds have the Passive: adefj, to approach; adeor, etc.
NOTB 2. Ambio is regular, like audio, though amblbam for ambifbam occurs.
296. QueO, quire, qulvl, quitum, to be able, and nequed, nequlre, nequlvl
(il), nequiium, to be unable, are conjugated like ed, but they want the Im-
perative and Gerund, and are rare except in the Present tense. 1
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
297. Defective Verbs want certain parts. The following are
the most important : a
T. PRESENT SYSTEM WANTING.
Coepf , / have begun. Meminl, / remember. OdI, / hate.
INDICATIVE.
Parf. coepi.
Ptup. coeperam.
F. P. coepero
Perf. coepcrim.
Plup. coepissem.
meminl.
memineram.
meminerO.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
meminerim.
meminissem.
IMPERATIVE.
Sing, memento.
Plur. mementfite.
odl.
Oderam.
odero.
ftderim.
ftdissem.
1 A Passive form, tjuitur, neqvfitur, etc., occurs before a Passive Infinitive.
8 For many verbs which want the Perfect or Supine, or both,
142
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Fut.
coepisse.
coepturus esse.
INFINITIVE.
meminisse.
odisee.
dsurus ease.
08U8. 1
osurus.
PARTICIPLE.
Perf. coeptus.
Fut. coepturus.
1. With PASSIVE INFINITIVES, 'coepl generally takes the Passive form : coeptus sum,
eram, etc. Coeptrus is Passive in sense.
2. Meminl and odi are Present in sense; hence in the Pluperfect and Future Perfect
they have the sense of the Imperfect and Future. Jfovi, ' I know,' Perfect of nosco, ' to
learn,' and consuetl, ' I am wont,' Perfect of consucsco, ' to accustom one's self,' are also
Present in sens.
II. PARTS OF EACH SYSTEM WANTING.
1. Aio, I say, say yes.*
ait;
-6bat ;
ait;
aiat;
Indie. Pres. aiO,
Imp. aiebam,
Perf.
tin. Pres.
ais, 9
-ebas,
aiunt.
-ebamus, -Cbatis, -ebant. 4
aias,
aiant.
Imper. Pres. al (rare).
Part. Pres. aiens.
2. Inquam, I say.
Indie. Pres. inquam,
Imp.
Put.
inquis,
inquit ;
- inquiebat ;
inquifis, inquiet;
inquitti, inquit ;
inquimus, inquitis, inquiunt.
Imper. Pres. inque. Fut. inquitd.
3. Fan, to speak.*
Indie. Pres.
Fut. fabor,
Perf. fatus sum, es,
Phtp. fatus eram, eras,
Subj. Perf. fatus sim, sis,
PI up. fatus essera, esses,
Imper. Pres. fare.
Inftn. Pres. farl.
Part. Pres. (fans) fantis.
Gerund, Gen. and Abl. fandl, do.
fatur;
fabitur ;
est ;
erat;
sit;
easel ;
fatl sumus, estis, sunt.
f&tl eramus, eratis, erant.
'fatl simus, sitis, sint.
fatl ess&mus, essetis, essent.
Perf. fatus.
Supine, Abl. fatu.
Ger. fandus.
1 Otun is Active in sense, hating, but is rare except in compounds : ar<~>Ku. ptrdsw.
* In this verb a and i do not form a diphthong; before a vowel the i has the sound
f y: a-yO, d-yunt; Bee 1O, 4, 8).
s The interrogative form atene is often shortened into airi 1 .
4 Aibam, att>a, etc., occur; also inquibat for inquiebat.
* Farl is used chiefly in poetry. Compounds have some forms not found in th
simple: adftimur, adfamini, adf&bar ; effaberis.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
143
III. IMPERATIVES AND ISOLATED FOBMS.
1. IMPERATIVES.
have, havete; havetO; Inf. havere, 1 hail.
salve, salvete, salveto;* aalvere, hail.
cedo, cette, tell me,
apage, begone.
2. ISOLATED FORMS.
INDICATIVE. StrBJUNcrivm.
PlUME NT. FUTTTEB. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. INPTNIMVB.
eOnfit ; - confiat ; confieret ;
deflt, deftnnt ; deflet ; deflat ; -
Inflt, Influnt, -
Sub. Imp. forem, fores, foret, -- forent.
Jnd. Pres. ovat, he rejoices.
Ind. Pres. quaeso, quaesumus, 4 1 pray.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
298. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English Impersona)
with it: licet, it is lawful; oportet, it behooves. 6 They are conju-
gated like other verbs, but are used only in the third person singu-
lar of the Indicative and Subjunctive, and in the Present and Per-
fect Infinitive.
299. The most important Impersonal Verbs are
confierl, to be dotu.
defieri, to be wantinf
- to begin.
Inf. fore. 8
Part, ovans.
decet, deouit,
libet,
libuit,
licet,
licuit,
licitum est,
liquet, licuit,
it becomes.'
it is evident.'
piguit,
pigitura eat,
paenitet, paenituit, it cautes r&
.
P^ et '
1. PAKTICIPLES are generally wanting, but a few occur, though with a somewhat
modified aeuse: (1) from LIBET: libfnn, willing; (2) from LICET: licfns, free ; Ucitiis,
allowed; (8) from PABNITBT: paenittns, penitent; paenitendut, to be repented of; (*,'
from PUDET : i>inli an, modest ; pudendu*, shameful
2. QEBUNDS are generally wanting, but occur In rare Instances : patniteiidum, pu-
tUndfi.
1 Atao written ave, avete, etc.
The Future alvel>\ is also used for the Imperative.
Forem = exsem ; fore =futilrum ense ; see 2O4, 2.
Old forms for quiitro and quaerimwt.
The subject is generally an infinitive or clause, but may be a noun or pronoun de<
not ng a thing, but not a perxon : Me fieri oportet, that this should be done is necessary
These four occur in the third person plural, but without a personal subject.
Mt migeret, I pity ; mf patnitet, I repent.
Also the compound, pertaedet, pertavrum et, It greatly wearies.
144 PARTICLES.
300. Generally Impersonal are several verbs which designate
the changes of the weather, or the operations of nature :
Fulminat, it lightens ; grandinat, it hails ; lucescit, it grows light ; plvit ,
it rains ; rorat, dew falls ; tonat, it thunders.
301. Many other verbs are often used impersonally :
Aceidit, it happens ; appdret, it appears ; constat, it is evident ; contingit,
it happens ; delectat, it delights ; dolet, it grieves ; interest, it concerns ; juvat,
it delights ; patet, it is plain ; placet^ it pleases ; praestat, it is better ; rtfert,
t concerns.
1. In the PASSIVE VOICE intransitive verbs can be used only impersonally. The par-
ticiple is then neater :
Mihl creditw, it is credited to me, I am believed; tibl creditur, you are believed;
creditum est, it was believed; cert&tttr, it is contended; cwrritur, there is running, peo
pie run; ptigndtur, it is fought, they, we, etc., fight; vivitur, we, you, they live.
2. The PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC COSJUOATION (,234) is often used impersonally. The
participle is then neuter:
MM tortbendum est, I must write; tibi acribendum <, you must write; Ml tori
bendum tst, be must write.
CHAPTER V.
PARTICLES.
302. THE Latin has four parts of speech sometimes called
Particles: the Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the In-
unyection.
ADVERBS.
303. The Adverb is the part of speech which is used to qual-
ify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs: celeriter currere, to run
swiftly; tarn celer, so swift; tarn celeriter, so swiftly.
304. In their origin, Adverbs are mainly the oblique cases l of
nouns, adjectives, participles, and pronouns.
I. ACCUSATIVES. Many Adverbs were originally Accusatives :
1. ACCUSATIVES OF NOUNS: partim, partly ; fords, 1 out of doors; diu 1 (for
dium 9 ), for a long time. Here belong numerous adverbs in tim and ww.,
chiefly from verbal nouns 3 no longer in use : > contemptim, contemptuously ;
1 Some, indeed, are the oblique cases of words not otherwise used in Latin, and some
tro formed by means of case-endings no longer used in the regular declensions.
J Accusative of dius = dies.
* Some adverbs in tim and sim are from adjectives : singuldtim, one by one. I
time doubtless tim, dtim, fin/, and im came to be regarded simply as adverbial suffixes,
and were so used in forming new adverb*.
ADVERBS. 145
&ngim, perceptibly, slowly ; raptim, hastily ; statim, steadily ; furtim, by
stealth.
2. ACCUSATIVES OF NOUNS WITH PREPOSITIONS : ad^nod/um, very, to the full
measure ; in-vicem, in turn ; in-caasum, in vain ; ob-iter, on the road, in pass-
ing ; ob-'oiam, in the way, against ; poat-modum, after a short time ; inter-
diu ' and inter-dint,* during the day ; inter-dum, 1 during the time, in the
mean time.
3. ACCUSATIVES OF ADJECTIVES:
1) NEUTERS in urn, a, e, us, is : soli/m, only ; multum, multa, much ; nim*
turn, too much ; parum, little ; secundum, secondly ; ceterum? cetera, as to the
rest ; verum? truly ; abunde, 3 abundantly ; facile, easily ; saepe,* often ; plus,
more ; minus, less ; saepius. more frequently ; mat/is, more, rather. 8
2) FEMININES in am, as : bifdriam,* in two parts; multifdriam, in many
parts ; clam = calam, secretly ; palam, openly ; perperam, wrongly ; alias,
otherwise.
4. ACCUSATIVES OF PRONOUNS: quamj how much; tarn," 1 so much; htm,
then ; tun-c, at that time ; nun-c, now.
II. ABLATIVES. Many Adverbs were originally Ablatives :
1. ABLATIVES OF NODJ*S in d, e, Is: ergo, accordingly; 8 numero, exactly;
forte, by chance ; jure, rightly ; sponte, willingly ; grdtiis, or gratis, gratui-
tously ; forls, out of doors.
NOTE. The ablative is sometimes accompanied by a preposition or by an adjective:
ex-templ<i, Immediately lit., from the moment; llico for in loon, on the spot; quot-
iiiuiix. yearly; multi-modls, in many ways; lio-die (hoc-die), to-day; qud-re, where-
fore, by which thing.
2. ABLATIVES OF ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES in d, FEMININE, d, ?,' and I,
NEUTER : dextrd 10 = detterd, on the right ; extra, 11 on the outside ; infra, 11 on
the under side ; intrd, on the inside ; intrd, within ; ultra, beyond ; perpetud,
continually ; ran?, rarely ; suhitd, suddenly ; auspicdtd, after taking the aus-
1 Dili and dum are explained as forms of dium = diem, and diu as for diis; see
Corssen, I., pp. 232-286; II., 488.
2 Often becoming conjunctions etterum, but. Non, from ne-unum, also belongs
here.
3 From obsolete abundix.
* Here may be added Kernel, ' once,' and simul, 'at the same time,' both for simile.
8 .Sec?M, 'otherwise'; tentis, 'as far as'; prfitinun, 'straightforward 1 ; and vtrsu*
toward,' doubtless belong here.
* Originally partem or viam may have been used.
7 Quiim, from stem qua, In qu'i, quae; tarn, turn, from stem ta, to, in the final syl-
able of ixt*, for ig-tn-n, in-ta; tun-c = t-uin-ce, nun-c = num-ce, in which num is from
the stem no, seen also in num, ' whether,' and also In its original form, na, In nam, 'for.'
8 Literally, by the deed. Compare Greek ipyov, fpy<?.
* That e is here an ablative ending is proved by the fact that It appears in early Latin
in the form of fd, an undoubted ablative ending.
10 With those feminines, parfe or via may have been originally used.
11 Often becoming prepositions. In fact, all prepositions In are derived from adrerbe
which were originally ablatives In ad, afterward <J.
11
140 ADVERBS.
pices ; consulto, after deliberating ; sortito, by lot, i. e., after casting lots ;
dvcte, learnedly ; libere, freely ; certe, 1 surely ; mrf?, rightly ; vert, truly ;
doctissime, most skillfully ; mdxime? especially ; brevi, briefly.
3. ABLATIVES OF PRONOUNS : ea, there, in that way ; fide, here, in this way ;
qua, where, in which way ; eddem, by the same road, in the same way.
NOTE. Several pronominal adverbs denote direction toward a point: en, to that
place; hoc, hue, to this place, 3 illfi, illo-c, ittu-c, to that place; isto, isto-c, ittfi-c, to
the place where you are; quf>, to which place.
III. LOCATIVES. Some Adverbs were originally Locatives :
1. LOCATIVES OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES in I or e : hen, yesterday ; tern-
perl^ in time ; vesperi, in the evening ; peregri, or peregre, in a foreign land.
2. LOCATIVES OF PRONOUNS : 7*ic, 4 here; illic, 4 there; istic, there where you
are ; sic, in this way, thus ; utlf ut, in which way ; ibi,* there ; ubi, where.
NOTE. Locative forms in im also occur : olim, formerly ; vtrim-que, on
both sides ; ilUm, illin-c, from that place ; hin-c, from this place ; often with
de : utrin-de, from both sides ; in-de, from that point, thence.
IV. ADVERBS IN tus AND ter. Adverbs are also formed by means of
the endings tus 7 and ter : 7
Fundi-tus, from the foundation ; rddici-tus, from the roots, utterly ; dlmni-
tu, by divine appointment, divinely ; forti-ter, bravely ; dcri-ter, sharply ;
durv-ter, harshly ; elegan-ter, elegantly ; aman-ter, lovingly ; pmden-ter, pru-
dently.
NOTE 1. The stem- vowel before tus becomes i, and consonant stems as-
sume * : fundi-tas* rddic-i-tus. The stem-vowel before ter also becomes
i : durteer. 8 Consonant stems, however, do not assume i, but drop final t :
amant-ter, aman-ter.
NOTE 2. Many adverbs are simply adverbial phrases or clauses whose
parts have become united in writing. In these compound forma prepositions
1 As e is an ablative ending, certo and certe are only different forms of the same
word ; so also recto and recte, verfi and vere, though the two forms do not always have
precisely the same meaning: v?r<>, in truth; vere, truly.
2 This is the regular ending in superlatives.
3 These are sometimes explained as Dative*, but they are probably Ablatives; ilb~>,
lit., by thftt way or road, finally came to mean to that place, \. e., to the place to which
the road leads.
4 Here the Locative ending is ? / hi, illi, istl, si ; c for ce is a demonstrative ending,
meaning here. Sic is the Locative of na ; see 313, foot-note.
' Ut'i contains two stems u or cu (seen in cui), and (a or to (seen in U in is-te).
In ibi and ubi the ending is 67 ; i in ibi is the stem of in. he ; u in ub\ is the same
as in '/ .
7 Seen also in in-ter, in the midst; in-tus, within; sub-ter and sub-tus, below.
These suffixes are of uncertain origin ; the former appears to be a case-suffix with abla-
tive meaning, no longer used in declension ; the latter, like ter in al-ter, nos-ter, and dex-
ter, has lost its case-suffix, and may therefore represent either tero with an ablative suffix,
or terum with an accusative suffix. See Corssen, II., p. 29'.); Kiilmer. I., p. 079.
8 The stem-vowel o is changed to i.
ADVERBS
14?
arc especially common, and sometimes seem to be used with cases with which
they do not otherwise occur: ant-ed,, 1 before, before that; inter-ed, in the
mean time ; post-ed, after ; ante-Mc, 1 before this ; quem-ad-modum, in what
manner ; parum-per, for a while ; nu-per novurn-per, lately ; tantis-per, for
so long a time ; videlicet = videre licet, clearly lit., ' it is permitted to see' ;
scilicet = scire licet, certainly ; forvitan =fors sit an, perhaps.
305. Many Pronominal Adverbs, like the pronouns from which
they are formed (191), are correlatives of each other, as will be seen
in the following
TABLE OF CORRELATIVES.
IHTEBEOGATIVE.
INDEFINITE.
DKMONSTKATIVB.
RELATIVE.
I. PLACE IN WHICH.
alicubl, somewhere ;
hie, here ; 3 istic,
uU, where ?
uspiam, usquam, any-
where; ubivis, where
there ; ill/lc, there ;
ubi, where.
you please.
II. PLACE TO WHICH.
hue, to this place ; 3
qud, whither?
aUqud, to some place ;
quolibet, qudvis, whith-
er you please.
istuc, to that place ;
illuc, to that place;
ed, to that place ;
eddern, to the same
quo, whither.
place.
qudrsum,* to
what place?
to what end ?
aliqud-vorsum, 4 to
some place.
hdrsum,* to this
place.
qudrsum, to
which place or
end.
III. PLAGE FROM WHICH.
hinc, from this place ;
alicunde, from some istinc, from that
unde, whence?
place ; undelibet, from place ; illinc, from
unde, whence.
any place.
that place ; inde,
from that place.
1 Some scholars, regarding ed and h&c In tbese and similar cases as ablatives, think
i,hat all such compounds had their origin at a time when ante, pout, inter, etc., admitted
(hat case ; but Corssen treats td and fulc in all such cases a ne.ute.ru in the accuxatirt,
plural. See Corssen, II., p. 465; Bucheler, p. 32.
" Observe that the question ubl, 'where? 1 may be answered indefinitely by alicu-
bi, uspiain, etc., or definitely by a demonstrative either alone or with a relative : hie,
'here'; /t?c, ubi, 'here, where.'
3 fflc, 'here,' 'near me'; ixt^c, 'there, 1 'near you'; illic, 'there, 1 'near him'; t&i,
'there,' a weak demonstrative and the most common correlative of ubl, 'where.' 8e
distinction in pronouns (191). A similar distinction exists in hue, ixtiic, illf/a, and .
4 For qw-torsum - qwi-versum, 'whither turned 1 ; aliqiw-vorsum, huo-vorsum.
148
ADVERBS.
TABLE OF CORRELATIVES. (Continued.')
INTERROGATIVE.
INDEFINITE.
DEMONSTRATIVE.
BBLATIVB.
IV. TIME.
gaw<&,wb.en?
guotiens, how
often?
quandd, aliquando,
unquam, at any time.
aUquotienx, somewhat
often.
nunc, now; turn,
then ; tune, at that
very time ; ibi, then.
fattens, so often.
quom, cum,
quum, when.
quotient, as, as
often.
V. WAT, MANNER, DEGREE.
qua, by or in
what way?
ut, uti, how ?
quam, how
much?
aliqua, by or in some
way ; qvdvw, by any
way.
aliqua, in some way,
etc.
aliquam, somewhat.
Aac, by this way ;
istdc, by that way;
iliac, by that way ;
ed, by that way ; ed-
dem, by the same
way.
ita, sic, so, thus.
tarn, so much.
qua, by which
way.
ut, iiti, in
which way, as.
quam, as.
NOTE 1. From Relative Adverbs are formed General or Indefinite Relatives by
appending -cumque or by reduplicating the form : ublcumque, ubiubl, wheresoever ;
quf/cumque, quf'qun, whithersoever.
NOTE 2. Other examples are
1) PLACE: alibi, elsewhere; ibidem, in the same place; necubi, lest anywhere,
that nowhere; sicubi, if anywhere; a/id, to another place; citrd, to this side; filtro
eitrdque, to and fro; utroque, to both places ; aliwn.de, from another place ; indidem,
from the same place ; utrimque, from or on both sides ; und-ique, from all sides.
2) TIME: ltod-ie, to-day ; fieri, yesterday; eras, to-morrow; pndie, the day be-
fore; postridie. the day after; jam, already ; jam turn, even then; jamditl.jamdudiim,
jamprldem. long ago ; quondam, at a certain time ; olim, formerly, hereafter ; interim,
intered, meanwhile; anted, prius, before; post, posteCi, afterward; unquam, ever;
nfmquam, never; semper, at all times.
3) WAY, MANNER, DEGREE :aden, so ; aliter, otherwise ; magix, more ; paene. al-
most ; palam, openly ; prorsus, wholly ; rite, rightly ; valde, greatly ; v'ur, scarcely.
4) CAUSE :ciir, why; ef>, for this reason; ideo, idcircfi, propterea, on this account;
ergo, igitur, itaque, therefore, accordingly.
NOTE 8. Fescio, with an interrogative adverb, is often equivalent to an indefinite
adverb : nexcid qitfimodo, I know not in what way = quodammodo, in some way ;
nescio ubl= alieubi, In some place; nestift unde=alicunde, from some place; see also
191, note.
Nora 4. Adverbial phrases are formed by combining minim or nimium with quan-
tum : mlrum quantum, it is wonderful how much = wonderfully much, wonderfully ;
nimium quantum, exceedingly. Mlrum quam, ~ine q>iam, and valde quam have a
similar force : hoic wonderfully, how very, how greatly exceedingly, iconderfutty.
NOTE 5. For INTERROGATIVE PABTICLKS, see 311, 8.
NOTE 6. For NKGATIV* PABTIOLES, see 552.
PREPOSITIONS. 149
306. COMPARISON. Most adverbs are derived from adjectives,
and are dependent upon them for their comparison. The com-
parative is the accusative neuter singular of the adjective, and the
superlative changes the ending us of the adjective into e : '
altus, altior, altissimus, lofty-
alte, altius, altissime, loftily.
prudSns, prudentior, prudentissimus, prudent.
prudenter, prudentius, prudentissime, prudently.
1. When the adjective is compared with magis and mSximS, the adverb
is compared in the same way :
egregius, magis egregius, maxime Sgregius, excellent.
egregie, magis egregie, maxime egregie, excellently.
2. When the adjective is irregular, the adverb has the same irregularity :
bonus, melior, optimus, good.
bene, melius, optim6, well.
male, pejus, pessime, badly.
3. When the adjective is defective, the adverb is generally defective :
deterior, deterrimus, worse.
dfiterius, deterrime, worse.
novus, novissimus, new.
nove, novissime', newly.
4. A few not derived from adjectives are compared :
diu, diutius, diutissime, for a long time.
saepe, saepius, saepissimS, often.
satis, eatiug, sufficiently.
nuper, nuperrime, recently.
5. Most adverbs not derived from adjectives, as also those from ad-
jectives incapable of comparison (169), are not compared : hlc, here ; nunc,
now ; vulffdriter, commonly.
6. Superlatives in 6 or um are used in a few adverbs : prlmO, primum,
potisfimum.
PREPOSITIONS.
307. The Preposition is the part of speech which shows the
relations of objects to each other :
In Italia esse, to be IN Italy ; ante me , BEFORE me.
NOTE 1. Prepositions were originally adverba, and, like other adverbs (3O4), are in
origin petrified case-forms. 2
1 See 304, II.. 2.
2 Thns prepositions In ft are in origin ablatives : cir&i, citnl. contra, erga. eo-tnl.
\itfrCi. etc: while those in m are accusatives: drcwm, &<ram, cum. eta. These case
forms passed into adverbs denoting ilirei'tion. situation, etc.; but they finally became
iMociuted with nouns in the accusative or ablative as auxiliary to the case-ending : /<<
150 CONJUNCTIONS.
NOTE 2. For the UBK of Prepositions, see 432-437.
NOTE 8. For the FORM and MEANING of Prepositions in Composition, see 344, 5.
308. INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. ' Ambi, amb, ' arouad, 1
'about'; dis, dl, 'asunder'; in, 'not,' 'un-'; por, 'toward, 1
'forth'; re, red, 'back'; se, sed, 'aside,' 'apart'; and ve, 'not,'
are called Inseparable Prepositions, because they are used only in
composition.
NOTE. For the FORM aud MEANING of the Inseparable Prepositions in Composition.,
&ee 344, 6.
CONJUNCTIONS.
309. Conjunctions are mere connectives. They are either Co-
ordinate or Subordinate.
1. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS connect similar constructions-.
Labor voluptasQUE, 2 labor AND pleasure. Karthaginem cepit Ac 2 dlruit, Ju
took AND destroyed Carthage.
2. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS connect subordinate with principal con-
structions :
Haec DUM * colligunt, effugit, WHILE they collect these things, lie escapes.
310. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS comprise
1. COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting UNION :
Et, que, atque,* ac, and; etiam, quoque, also; neque, nee, and D_t; neque
neque, nee nee, neque nee, neither nor.
2. DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting SEPARATION :
Aut, 4 Del, ve, sive (seu), or; aut aut, vel vel, either or; ive five, eith-
er or.
NOTE. Here belong interrogative particles in double or disjunctive questions : utrum,
num., or ne an, whether or; an, or; annfm, necne, or not; see 353.
3. ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting OPPOSITION :
= FROM a place ; * loco = oirr OF a place ; aliquid low movere, to move anything FROM
a place; aliquid ex locfi movere, to move anything OUT OF a place. An adverb thus
separated from the verb and brought into connection with a noun ceased to be ar adrerli
and became a preposition.
1 Like other prepositions, these were doubtless originally case-forms.
a Thus que connects two nominatives, dc two indicatives which are entirely coordi
nate, took AND destroyed, but dum connects 'the subordinate clause, haeo colligunt,
with the principal clause, effugit he escapes WHILE they collect these things.
8 Copulative conjunctions are et = Greek en, que KCU, and their compounds tt-iam
or et-jarn^ at-que, quo-que, ne-que. Ac is a shortened form of at-que ; nee, of ne-que.
4 Disjunctives are aut, vel, tie, with their compounds : vel rel'/s, ' should you wish,'
offering a choice, v = vis, ' you wish, 1 M in qul-vw, ' any you please ' ; lvt = sivls, ' if
you with.'
CONJUNCTIONS. 151
Sed, 1 a/item, verum, vero, but; at, but, on the contrary; atqul, rather;
ceterum, but still, moreover; 4 tamen, yet.
4. ILLATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting INFERENCE :
Ergo, igitur, inde, proinde, itaque, hence, therefore ; see also 554, IV., 2.
6. CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting CAUSE :
Nam, namque, enim, etenim, for. 3
311. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS comprise
1. TEMPORAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting TIME :
Quando, quom,* cum, or quum, when ; ut, ubl, as, when ; cum (quom or
quum) prlmum, ut prlmum, ubl primum, simul, simuldc, simul ac, simul-
atque, simul atque, as soon as ; dum, donee, quoad, quamdiuf while, until, as
long as ; antequam, priusquam, before ; posteaquam, after.
2. COMPARATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting COMPARISON :
Ut, utl, slcut, slcuti, as, so as ; velut, just as ; praeut, prout, according as,
in comparison with ; quam, as ; tanquam, quasi, ut si, ac si, velut si, as if.
3. CONDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting CONDITION :
(Si,' if; si non, nisi, nl, if not; sin, but if; si quidem, if indeed; si modo,
dum modo, dum/modo, if only, provided.
4. CONCESSIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting CONCESSION :
Quamquam, licet," 1 cum (quom,* or quum), although ; etxl, tametsl, ftiamsl,
even if; qunmvv<,i quantumvw, quantumlibet, 7 however much, although; ut,
grant that ; m, grant that not.
5. FINAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting PURPOSE or END :
Ut, utl, that, in order that ; ri&, neve (neu), that not ; quo, that ; qufrminus,*
that not.
6. CONSECUTIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting CONSEQUENCE or RESULT :
Ut, so that ; ut non, quvn,* so that not.
1 Conjunctions, like adverbs, consist largely of case-forms, chiefly from pronominal
items. Thus, ted, ne,rf>, ergfi, etc., are explained as ablatives (ed from *w?); autei,
vfrum, ceterum, quam, quod, qitom, or cum, etc., as accusatives; que, ubl, utl, ut, etc.,
M locatives.
2 Lit., an to the rent.
8 But most Canaal Conjunctions are subordinate; see 311, 7.
4 Quom, the original form out of which cum and qtium were developed (22; 26.
foot-note), occurs In early Latin, as in Plantus. Cum is the approved form in classical
Latin.
8 See 3O4, I., 1 and 2, foot notes.
8 Probably locative, possibly instrumental: see page 78, foot-note 2.
7 Licet is strictly a verb, meaning it is permitted ; c?*. In quam-r'is and quantum-
fit, is also a verb: qwani-vlit, 'as much as you wish 1 ; as is alio libef, 'it pleases,' In
quantum-libet, 'as much as is pleasing.'
8 Qufrmimu = quit minus, ' by which less' ; quin = qul nf, ' by which not.'
152 FORMATION OF WORDS.
7. CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS, denoting CAUSE :
Quia, quod, quoniam, 1 quando, because, inasmuch as; cum (qvom, quum\
since ; quanddquid-em, siquidemj* vtpote, since indeed.
8. INTERROGATIVE CONJUNCTIONS, denoting INQUIRY : 3
Ne, nonnt, nwm, utrum, an, whether; an non, necne, or not
INTERJECTIONS.
312. Interjections are certain particles used as expressions of
feeling or as mere marks of address. 4 They may express
1. Astonishment : 6, hem, ehem, atat, bubae, vdh, en, ecce.
2. Joy . id, evoe, euge, 'eja, 0, papae.
3. Sorrow : vae, ei, heu, eh#u, dhi, dh, au, fro.
4. Disgust : aha, phy, apage.
6. Calling : heus, o, e/io, ehodum.
6. Praise : eu, euge, eja, foja.
CHAPTER VI.
FORMATION OF WORDS.
SECTION I.
ROOTS. STEMS. SUFFIXES.
313. Words are formed from stems 616, 1), and stems from
roots or from other stems.
NOTE 1. Thus uta-tut, 'position,' is formed from the stem statu by adding the nom-
inative snffix , 5 but the stem xtatn is itself formed from the root sta by appending the
derivative suffix tu.
1 Compounded of quom-jam, when now.
* lit., if indeed.
* These are sometimes classed as Adrerbs. In some of their uses they are plainly
Conjunction*, while in other cases they approach closely to the nature of Adverbs. As
a matter of convenience they may be called Interrogative Particles: see 351, 1.
4 Some interjections seem to be the simple and natural utterance of feeling, and
accordingly do not appear to have been built up, like other words, from roots and stems,
but to be themselves specimens of the unorganized elements of human speech. Others,
however, are either inflected forms, as age, 'come,' apage = an-aye, 'begone,' or muti-
lated sentences or clauses : mehercufe*, mehtreu V, etc., = me Ilerculftt juvef, * may
Hercules protect me'; mfeastf'r, 'may Castor protect me'; mfdi us Jidiu*. 'may the
true God help me'; f cantor = en Cattfo; ' lo Castor.'
* This is doubtless a remnant of an old demonstrative, sa, meaning that, he, sfo.
ROOTS, STEMS. 153
Ron 2. Words are either simple or compound :
1. Simple, when formed from single roots with or without suffixes.
2. Compound, when formed by the union of two or more roots or stems; #
840, III
314. ROOTS. Roots are the primitive elements out of which
all words in our family of languages have been formed. ' They arc
of two kinds :
I. PREDICATIVE ROOTS, also called VERBAL ROOTS.* These designate or
Dame objects, actions, or qualities : es in es-t, be is ; i in i-r<2, to go ; due in
iuc-s= dux, leader; doc in doe-ilis, docile.
II. DEMONSTRATIVE ROOTS,' also called PRONOMINAL ROOTS. These do not
name objects or actions, but simply point out the relation of such objects or
actions to the speaker: me in mei, of me; tu in tul, of you; * in is, that, that
one, he.
315. The STEMS* of simple words may be divided into three
classes : Boot Stems, Primary Stems, and Secondary Stems.
316. ROOT STEMS are either identical with roots, or are formed
from them without the aid of suffixes :
Due-is, ' of a leader,' root-stem due ; * es-tig, ' yon are,' root-stem es ; reg-es,
kings,' root-stem reg ; vdc-is, ' of the voice,' root-stem voc ; murmur-is, ' of
a murmur,' root-stem murmur,
317. PRIMARY STEMS are formed from roots by means of suf-
fixes:'
1 These roots were probably all monosyllabic, and were once used separately as words,
but not as parts of speech. Thus en, the root of sum. **, ' to be. 1 and i. the root of t?>,
Ire, ' to go,' were doubtless used in their original form, as significant words, long before
the verbs themselves had an existence.
3 Observe that from this class of roots, whether called Predicative or Verbal, may
be formed the stems, not only of verbs, but also of nouns, adjectives, and, in fact of ali
the parts of speech except pronouns.
1 The learner should note the difference in signification between Predicative and
Demoimtrative Roots. Thus duo? has a definite meaning, and must always designati
one icho leads; while the pronoun ego Is not the name of any person or thing, but maj
be used by any and every person In speaking of himself.
4 The learner has already become familiar with the use of stems in the inflection >f
nouns, adjectives, etc. ; but steins, like roots, were probably once used as words.
* The basis of every inflected word is u stem. Due Is therefore the stem of duc-i*,
but as it can not be derived from a more primitive form, it is also a root. According to
some authorities, rf.u, the stem of reg-es, and vftc, the stem of vf.c-eg, are not roots, but
derived from more primitive forms reg in rtg-0, and voc in vnc-0 ; according to othei
authorities, however, rty and rfff are only two forms of the same root; so nlso voc and
we, due and diic. The stem murmur is not a root, but formed from the root mut
by reduplication. See Cnrtius, Chron., p. 25; Schleicher, pp. 841-850; Meyer, pp. h
371-3T6.
Any suffix used to form a Primary Stem ii cllcd a Primary Sitflla<; see 355O.
154 STEMS.
BOOT. SUFFIX. STEM. WORD.
ar, vo, ar-vo, ar-vu-m, 1 field.
fac, to, fac-to, fac-tu-s, 1 made.
sta, tu, sta-tu, sta-tu-s, position.
NOTE.. All stems formed from verb-stems are also generally classed as Primary
Stems : 2 curd-tor, ' guardian,' ' curator,' from curd, ' to care for,' frem cura, ' care.'
318. SECONDARY STEMS are formed from other stems* by means
of suffixes : *
STEM. SUFFIX. SECONDARY STEM. WORD.
civi, 5 co ; civi-co, civicus, civic.
victor, 5 ill ; victor-is, victoria, victory.
victor, ic ; victor-ic, victrix, 6 victress.
319. THE STEMS OF COMPOUND WORDS are formed by the union
of two or more stems, or of a stem with a root :
fu-era,* fu-era-s, you had been.
grand-aevo, 8 grand-aevu-s, of great age.
igni-color,' igni-color, fire-colored.
magn-animo, 10 magn-animu-s, great-souled.
NOTE 1. Words are formed from Stems by means of the Suffixes of Inflection ; see
46 and 202, note 1.
NOTE 2. A single root often gives rise to a large class of forms. Thus, from the root
sta, ' to stand,' are derived
1. The numerous forms which make up the conjugation of the verb stS, stare, stetl,
stdtum, to stand.
2. All the forms of the verb sisto, sistere, still, statum, ' to place.'
3. Numerous other forms. Thus (1), sta-bilis, ' stable,' ' firm,' from which are de-
rived stabilio, 'to make firm'; stabilitds, ' firmness,* and stabiliter, 'firmly'; (2) stabu-
lum, 'a standing place,' 'stable,' from which are derived stdbulo, and stab-ulor, 'to have
a standing place'; (3) stamen, 'something standing,' 'warp in an upright loom'; (4)
statim, 'in standing,' 'at once'; (5) statid, 'standing'; (6) stativus, 'stationary'; (7)
stator, 'a stayer'; and (8) status, 'position,' from which is derived statuo, 'to place,'
which in turn becomes the basis of statua, ' a statue,' and statura, ' stature.'
1 Ar-vo-m weakened to arvum, fac-to-s tofactus; see 22, 2.
This is a matter of convenience, as new stems, or words, are formed from verb-stems
in the same manner as from roots ; see Schleicher, p. 347.
1 Except verb-stems. Remember that steins formed from verb-stems are treated as
Primary; see 317, note.
* Any suffix used to form a Secondary stem is called a Secondary suffix, but many
suffixes may be either primary or secondary. Thus co in civicus is Secondary, as it
is added to a stem ; but in locus, ' place,' it is Primary, as it is added to a root.
Civi is the stem of clvis, ' citizen ' ; victor of victor, ' conqueror ".
For vlctorix, by contraction.
f Compounded of root fu with stem era from the root es ; see 2O3, note 2, and 243 ,
For grandi-aevo.
Compounded of Igni, the stem of ignis, 'fire,* and of color, the stem of color, 'color.'
10 Compounded of magno, the stem of inagnus, 'great,' and of animo, the stem of
animus, 'sonl,' magno-animo becoming magnanimo.
SUFFIXES.
155
320. SUFFIXES. Most suffixes 1 appear to have been formed
from a comparatively small number of primitive elements called
PRIMARY SUFFIXES.
L
Il.a
EXAMPLES.
*,
a, 3 o, e, e, i,
6,u,
a and o in nouns and adjectives, 6 in nouns,
and e, i, 5, and u in verbs : scnd-a, writer ;
fug-a, flight : jug-o, Nom. jug-u-mf yoke ;
fid-i, Nom. fid-'e-s, faith; reg-ef rule thou;
reg-i-s, you rule ; reg-0, 1 rule ; reg-w-nt, they
rule.
i,
i,
in a few nouns: <K>-*', Nom. av-i-s, bird; aro-i t
Nom. arc-i-s, arc-s* arx, citadel.
,
u,
in nouns : T ac-u, Nom. ae-w-s, needle.
an,
on, 8n, en,
in,
denoting either the ACT or the AGENT; atperg-
on, Nom. aspergfr* (G. t*s), sprinkling; ger-
6n, gerd* (G. dm\ a carrier; pect-en (G. inis) t
a comb.
ant,*
ent, unt.
in present participles : 10 audient-s, audiens,
hearing ; ab-es-ent-e, ob-sens^ absent ; amd-
ent-t, amdns, loving.
1 Most suffixes appear to be of pronominal origin, 1. P., from pronominal stems or
roots, but, according to Bopp, Corssen, and others, a few may be of verbal origin. Thus
In several suffixes beginning with b seen in ber, bilis, buliim, etc. Corssen recognizes
the root bhar = ftr in /r-0, ' to bear ' ; in some beginning with t seen in ter, tor, turns,
etc. the root tor, ' to accomplish ' ; in some beginning with c seen in cr, culum, erum,
etc. the root ka/r = cr, ere in cre-0, ' to make. 1 For a discussion of the subject, see
Bopp, III., pp. 186-201 ; Corssen, I., p. 567; II., pp. 40, 68; Schleicher, p. 448.
1 Column I. shows the suffix in its mtpponed original form, while column II. showj
the various forms which the suffix has assumed in Latin.
s Originally long in Latin in feminine forms ; see 21, 2, 1).
Observe that these suffixes form utemit, not ea*e. Sometimes the Nominative Sing-
ular is in form identical with the stem ; but in most cases, the Nominative is formed
from the stem by adding the Nominative suffix, as in Ji<lt-x. m in jugu-m forjugo-m
(<> weakened to u, 22, 2).
Observe that the Present stem takes the several forms, rey-e, rey-i, reg-fi, rtg--u ;
but see page 118, foot-note 5.
Often thus dropped; sometimes changed to *, f: mart, mare, e; caedt, cade,
caedf-*, slaughter.
7 Also in adjectives, in union with i making vi: ttn-tii-*, thin.
.y dropped; see 36, 5, 8).
' This is the base of several compound suffixes: ent o, ent-id, ent-io Nom. ent-
um, ent-ia, and ent-iwn ; flu-tnt-nm, stream ; *apl-ent-ia, wisdom ; til-ent-inin, silence
Also in a few adjectives and nouns : frequ-mt-t, frequenx, frequent; fiari-ent-a
partns. Here is the Nominative ending.
15G
PRIMARY SUFFIXES.
PRIMARY SUFFIXES. (Continued.}
I.
II.
EXAMPLES.
aa,
j*' = ya,
os, us, es, 1
es. or, ur,
ia, 5 io, ie,
gen-os, gen-w? birth ; corp-us* body ; nub-es,
cloud ; rob-ur, 3 strength ; sop-or (21, 2), sleep.
ia and io in adjectives ; ie in nouns : ex-im-ia,
ex-im-io, Nom. ex-im-iu-s, ex-im-ia, ex-im-
iu-m, select; fac-ie, Nom. fac-it-s, appear-
ance.
ja = ya,
e, i, id, iu,
in verb': cap-e l take thou; cap-e-re, to take;
cap-i-s, you take cap-i-mus, we take ; cap-
id, I take ; cap-iu-nt, they take.
jans' =
yans,
ids, idr, ius,
J&-, 8r,
in comparatives : may-ids, mag-ior, ma-jdr, Nom.
ma-jor (21, 2), greater; min-or, min-or (31,
2), smaller ; see 163, 165.
ka,
ca,co,
rare : 8 pau-cd, pau-co, pau-cus, a, WTO, small ;
lo-co, locus, place.
la,
11, lo, li,
see ra.
ma, 9
ml, mo,
fSr-ma, form ; pri-mo, pri-mws, first ; sup-mo,
sum-nw (34, 3), sum^mus, highest; al-rno,
al^mus, cherishing.
1 This hiiftix seems to be used in forming the Latin Infinitive, in origin the Dative of
a verbal noun : rtg-es-e, reg-ere (31, 1), 'to rule' lit.,/r ruling : e is the Dative end-
ing (67, note); see Schleicher, p. 472. See also page 81, foot-note 2.
a With variable vowel (57, 2); in early Latin o, in classical Latin u in Nominative
Singular, e in other cases. We thus have in early Latin o in gen-os, and in classical
Latin n in gen-tu, and en changed to er (31, 1) in gen-er-is, gen-er-i, etc. Words of
this class take no Nominative ending.
3 With variable vowel o, u. We thus have corp-u*, corp-or-is^ with s changed to
r (31, 1). 8 final is also changed to r in robur; see 31, 2.
* Doubtless a pronominal stem. It is common as a secondary suffix (page 154, foot-
note 4) : pater-io, patr-io, Nom. patr-ius, paternal; v'>ctf>r-ia, victory; luxur-ia, lnx-
ur-ieJi, luxury; see 325.
4 Originally long in Latin, see 31, 2, 1).
Probably the verbal root ja, identical with i in ire, to go. So explained by Curtius.
Verbuin, I., pp. 290-295. Ja was also used as a secondary suffix, appended to the stems
of nouns and adjectives, in forming denominative verbs; see 335, foot-note.
7 This suffix is generally secondary: alt-ior, alt-ins, higher; ttapient-ior, wiser;
gee 163.
8 It seems to appear without its final vowel in some nouns in a- : ape-c-*, apex, point,
top. It is common as a secondary suffix: c'tri-co, c>vi-cu, civic (330); and is also
used in compound suffixes, as cu-fo, ci-no. ti-co : Jlf>K-cu-lui>, a small flower ; <7rt-ci-w *,
prophetic. See Schleicher, p. 478; Corssen, II.. pp. 205, 806. 307.
' This is also an element in ti-ma, fi-mo, si-md, si-mo, is-si-mfi, is-si-mo: op-ti
mug, a, urn, best; a It-in-sl mu. higbeft.
PRIMARY SUFFIXES.
PRIMARY SUFFIXES. (Continued.)
I.
IL
EXAMPLES.
man, 1
men, miii.'
moii.
denoting the MEANS of the action, sometimes
the ACT itself, or its RESULT : tegri-men, or tHj-
men* a covering; no-men^ name; certd-men,
contest ; ser-mon, ser-jnd, 4 discourse.
na,'
na. no,
1. in adjectives with the force of perfect parti-
ciples: 8 plena, pie-no, ple-nus, a, u?n, filled,
full; reff-no, reff-num, kingdom, that which
is ruled.
2. in nouns and adjectives with various mean-
ings : top-no, som-no (33, 3, note), som-nus,
sleep.
ni,
ni, 7
Ig-ni, tff-nis, fire ; pd-ni, pd-nis, bread.
nu,
nu,
very rare : ma-mt, ma-nus, hand.
ra,la,
rS, ro, la,
lo,li,
ag-ro (agrus), ager, field; sac-ro (sac-rug), facer,
sac-ra, sac-rum, sacred ; sed-ld, sel-la (34, 2),
seat ; cande-la, a light ; te-lo, te-lum, weapon ;
doci-li, doci-lis^ docile.
ta,'
ta, to, si,
so,
1. in perfect participles : 10 amd-ti), amd-ttis, a,
urn, loved; plaud-to, plan-to (35, 3), plau-
svs, applauded ; cond-tux, having tried ; prdn-
sus, having taken lunch.
2. in a few adjectives : sex-to, sex-tun^ sixth.
1 This is an element In men-to, ms>n-id\, and msm-io: nf/tri-men-tum, cutriment;
qutri-mfin-ia, complaint; texti-mSn-ium (secondary suffix), testimony.
1 With variable vowel (57, 2). The suffix man is weakened to wen in the Nomina-
tive Su^ular, and to mi in the other cases.
* For gno-men, 'name,' the meant by which one is known.
4 N is dropped ; see 36, 5, 8).
' Nearly equivalent to ta. In some languages It forma passive participles like to..
* Often secondary : pater-no, p/iter-nun, paternal; sometimes preceded by <7, ?, or I :
font-a-nvg, of a fountain; can-1-nus, canine; ali-f-nu#, belonging to another; see 327,
329, and 330.
7 As fa and na are closely related in meaning and use, so are H and nl. They art
sometimes united in the same suffix : ti-fi-ni (32G).
8 Rn and la are only different forms of the same sufflx. In Latin and Greek this
suffix often forms verbal adjectives which sometimes pass into nouns : gna-nu, 'know-
ing,' from (/nd in no-scd, ' to know' ; Sii-pov. 'gift,' ' something given.' from 80 In SiSuifn.
'to give.'
* In the form of ti it is the first element In ti-rmi, a, urn : op-M-mu*, best ; and the
second element in ix-tti-iut>, a, um : alt-i*-i-mu*, highest. In the form of t<i, it is the
first element in t'l-ti, shortened to t It: clvi-td# = ctri-tat-n, state.
10 Often becoming adjectives or non,n; al-to, al-tut, high ; n*~i-tut, son.
ir.H
DERIVATION OF WORDS.
PRIMARY SUFFIXES. (Continued.)
I.
II.
EXAMPLES.
tar,
ter, t6r,
see tra.
ti, 1
ti,* si,
in verbal nouns : ves-ti, vet-tis, garment ; met-ti,
met-tis, messis (35, 3), reaping, harvest.
tu,
t*,'
in verbal nouns, including supines : sta-tu : sta-
tus, standing; i-tu, i-tus, going; dic-tu (su-
pine), in telling, to tell.
tar, 4 tra, 4
ter, tor, tro,
ter 6 and tor denoting AGENCY; tro, MEANS:
pa-ter, father; master, mother; vic-tor, con-
queror ; audi-tor, hearer ; ard-trum, plough.
va,
vo, uo,
in nouns and adjectives : ar-vo, ar-vum, ploughed
field ; vac-uo, vac-uus, empty.
SECTION II.
DERIVATION OF WORDS.
FORMATION OF NOUNS BY SUFFIXES.
I. FROM THE STEMS OF OTHER NOUNS.
321. DIMINUTIVES generally end in
lus, la, him; ulus. ula, ulum ; culua, cula, culum :
1 Ti Is the first element in ti-a, ti-o, ti-e, ti-o-ni,, ti-on (i dropped) : jftgti-tia, jus-
tice; serm-tio, servi-tium, service; duri-tie, duri-Hes, hardness; sta-tifm, sta-tio (n
dropped), station.
2 /often disappears; men-ti, men-tis, men-ttt^ mens (36, 2), mind.
8 Tu is the first element in the suffixes, tu-d. tu-o; tu-ti, tut, and tu-don: sta-tna.
statue; mor-tuus, dead; serm-tfiti, serm-tf/t (xerm-tiitx). serri-tfis. servitude; tiirjsi-
tf/don, ttirpi-tftdo (n dropped), turpitude.
4 Perhaps of verbal origin (32O, foot-note 1). This suffix seems to be the basis of
several compound suffixes : tf-r-id, tftr-io, turd, tfiro, trie for tdr-i-c, etc. ; see examples,
394, 326. 33O.
5 Ter is used in names denoting family relationship, originally AGENCY : pa-ttr,
lit. protector, from the root pa, to protect.
For the convenience of the learner the suffixes are given in the Nominative form,
i. e., with the Nominative ending and the modified stem-vowel. Observe that the stem
suffix in lu-s and lu-m is lo. The endings, ulus, ula, ulum, were developed irregularly
after the analogy of u-lus, u-la, u-lum in such words as hortu-lus, virgu-lus, oppidu-
lum, where the is the modified stem-vowel. Thus the u in reg-u-lus and eapit-u-lum
is an Irregularity introduced from the Diminutives of a and o stems. Lus, to, him are
formed from the suffix la or ra. often used in forming Primary Stems (320). Culun,
cula, culum are compound suffixes in which the first part, CM, is formed from the suffix,
originally ka, modified in Latin to co, cu, seen in lo-co-s, locus, place ; see 320, ka, foot-nota
NOUNS.
lob
filio-lus,
fllio-la,
atrio-lum,
alveo-lus,
hortu-lus,
virgu-la,
oppidu-lum,
reg-ulus,
capit-ulum,
flos-culus,
parti-cula,
munus-culum,
from
a little daughter,
a small hall,
a small cavity,
a small garden,
a small branch,
a small town,
a petty king,
a small head,
a small flower,
a small part,
a small present,
filius,
son.
filia,
daugJUer.
atrium,
hall.
alveus,
cavity.
hortus,
garden.
virga,
branch.
oppidum,
town.
rex,
king.
caput,
head.
flos,
flower.
pars,
part.
munus.
present.
\. Lus, la, lum, are appended to a and o stems; ulus, ula, ulum, to
Dental and Guttural stems ; culus, cula, culum, to e, i, and u stems, anti
to Liquid and s stems ; see examples.
2. Before lus, la, lum, the stem-vowels a and o take the form of o
after e or i, and the form of u in other situations : fllio-lus, fllio-la for
flliO-la, hortu-lus for horto-lus.
3. Before culus, cula, culum, stems in u change u into i, and stems
in on change o into u: versi-culus, 'a little verse,' from versus; homun-
cufus, ' a small man,' from homb. Like nouns in on, a few other words
form diminutives in un-culus, un-cula : av-unculus, ' maternal uncle,' from
avus, ' grandfather.' l
4. El lus, el-la, el lum, il-lus, il-la, il-lum,* are used when the stem
of the primitive ends in a or o, preceded by 1, n, or r : ocel-lus* ' smaU
eye,' from oculus ; fdbel-la, 'short fable," from f fibula ; vll-lum* 'a small
wine,' from vlnum.
NOTE. The endings leus and cifi occur: ecu-lem, 9 *a small hore,' from eguus;
homun-dli, ' a small man,' from homo.
322. PATRONYMICS, or names of DESCENT, generally end in
des, stem-suffix da, masculine ; a for ds, stem-suffix d, feminine.
Tantali-dgs, son of Tantalus ; Tantali-s, dangliter of Tantalus. 4
The'sl-des, son of Tlieseus ; Th6s5i-s, daugliter of Theseus.
Thestia-dSs, son of Tfieslius ; Thestia-s, daughter of Thcstius.
NOTB. The suffix ne, preceded by 7 or f>. is sometimes used in forming feminine Pat
ronymlcs: Neptiini-nf, <iaught:r of Neptune; Acfivio-nf, daughter of Acrisius.
> Nubl-eula, pltbe-cuta, and vulpe-cula are formed as If from e-fi
s The syllables el and U do not belong to the ending, but are produced by a slight chango
in the stem. The quantity of the vowel e or i Is therefore determined by the primitive
thus, oculus, oculu-ltm = octtl-lus = ocel-lus; vlnitm, n'mu-lum = nln-lum = vil-lum.
3 Also written equu/eun, but eculews it the approved form.
4 The vowel preceding the suffix Is usually i, &s in Tantali-dfs, Tantali-s, modified
from the stein-vowel o. Primitives In eu# generally change eu to i or ei, :i in Tfifn'i-
dfs, ThesH-ft; and primitives in iwi change stem-vowel o to a, as in IhesMa-dt*
Other nouns sometimes form Patronymics after the analogy of nouns in ius: L&frtiadet,
on of t^aertes. Aenfi'isbas Attitudes, masculine, and Aenfti, feminine.
160 DERIVATION OF WORDS.
323. DESIGNATIONS OF PLACE are often formed with the endings-
arium, etum, turn, lie. 1
columb-firium, a dovecot, from columba, dove.
querc-Stum, a forest of oaks, quercus, oak.
sallc-tum, a thicket of willows, sallx, willow.
ov-Ile, a sheepfold, ovis, sheep.
1. Arium designates the PLACE where anything is kept, a receptacle:
zerdrium, ' treasury,' from aes, money.
2. Etum, turn, used with names of trees and plants, designate the PLACE
where they flourish : ollvetum, ' an olive-grove,' from oliva, ' olive-tree.'
3. lie, used with names of animals, designates their STALL or FOLD :
bovlle, ' stall for cattle,' from bos, stem bov.
4. OTHER EXAMPLES are
Aestu-drium, 'tidal bay,' from aestus, 'tide' ; avi-drium, 'aviary,' from avis,
'bird'; don-drium, 'place for oiferings,' from donum, 'gift'; pom-drium,
4 orchard,' from poniwm, ' fruit ' ; aescul-etum, ' forest of oaks,' from aesculm^
' oak ' ; pm-etttm, ' pine-forest,' from plnus, ' pine ' ; ros-etum, ' rose-bed,'
from rosa, ' rose ' ; vin-etum, ' vineyard,' from vlnum, ' vine ' ; virgul-tttm,
' a thicket,' from virgula, ' bush ' ; capr-ile, ' goat-stall,' from caper, ' goat.'
324. DERIVATIVES are also formed with several other endings,
especially with
arius, id, ium. itium, ma, imonium, itas, tus, atus. 2
statu-arius, a statuary, from statua, statue.
mul-io, muleteer,
sacerdot-ium, priesthood,
serv-itium, servitude,
rgg-ina, queen,
patr-imonium, patrimony,
clv-itas, citizenship,
vir-tus, virtue,
consul-atus, consulship,
mulus, mule.
sacerdos, priest.
servus, slave.
rex, king.
pater, father.
civis, citizen.
vir, man.
consul, consul.
1. Arius and i8 generally designate PERSONS by their occupations.
2. Ium and itium denote OFFICE, CONDITION, or COLLECTION : servitiurn,
servitude, sometimes a collection of servants.
1 Arium and lie are the endings of neuter adjectives used substantively (33O). The
vowels a and I were probably developed out of the stem -vowel of the primitive, but they
were afterward treated as a part of tbe suffix. For an explanation of such vowels, see 33O,
foot-noto. Many derivative endings were thus formed originally by the union of certain
suffixes with the stem-vowel of the primitive ; accordingly, when added to vowel stems,
they generally take the place of the stem-vowel: colwnb-a, columb-arium ; quere-o,
ijuerc-Stum.
* Amis is identical In origin with the adjective ending ririus (33O), and atus with
atun In participles. In each the initial a was originally the stem-vowel of the primitive.
ha is the same formation as the adjective ending inm (330). On i-tium, i-nifmiutn,
i-t<ix, and tf<*. see ti. ta, tit. man, mon, with foot-notes, 320; remember that the initiai
WM developed from the stem-vowel of the primitive.
NOUNS. 161
3. Ina and imonium are used with some variety of signification ; see
examples imder 7 below.
4. Itas and tus designate some CHARACTERISTIC or CONDITION : hirtd-i-
i/ls, 'heirship/ from hires, 'heir'; virtus, 'manliness,' 'virtue,' from vir.
5. Atus denotes RANK, OFFICE, COLLECTION : consulutus, ' consulship,'
from consul ; senutus, ' senate,' 'collection of old men,' from senex.
6. For PATRIAL or GENTILE NOUNS, see 831, note 1.
NOTE. The endings ago, Igo, and Qgo * also occur : vir-ago, ' heroic maiden, 1 from
vir, 'hero ' ; ferr-ugo, ' iron-rust,' frovafemum, ' iron. 1
7. OTHER EXAMPLES are
Libr-arius, ' transcriber of books,' from liber, ' book '; lign-arlus, ' joiner,'
from lignum, ' wood ' ; quadrtg-drius, ' driver of a four-horse chariot,' from
quadriga, ' four-horse chariot ' ; arbitr-ium, ' decision,' from arbiter, 'arbiter ';
conjug-ium, ' wedlock,' from conjunx, ' spouse ' ; magis-ter-ium, ' presidency,'
from magis-ter, 'president'; oa-tium, 'door,' from 6s, 'mouth'; gall-lna,
' hen,' fromgallus, ' cock ' ; doctr-lna, for doctor-ma, ' doctrine,' from doctor,
' learned mau,' ' doctor ' ; mair-imonium, ' matrimony,' from mater, ' moth-
er ' ; aedll-itds, ' office of edile,' from aedilis, ' edile ' ; auctor-Uas, ' authority,'
from auctor, ' founder,' ' author ' ; senec-tus, ' old age,' from senex, ' old man ';
,* 'office of tribune,' from tribunus, 'tribune.'
II. NOUNS FROM ADJECTIVES.
325. From Adjectives are formed various ABSTRACT NOTJNS
with the endings
ia, itia, ta, tas, itas, tus, edo, itude, imonia. 3
diligentria,
diligence, from diligens,
diligent.
superb-ia,
amlc-itia,
haughtiness,
friendship,
superbus,
amlcus,
haughty,
friendly.
juven-ta,
youth,
juvenis,
young.
liber-tas,
freedom,
liber,
free.
bon-itas,
goodness,
bonus,
good.
pi-etas, 4
piety,
pius,
pious.
juven-tus,
i/outh,
juvenis,
young.
dulc-odO,
sol-itfido,
sweetness,
solitude,
(lulris,
solus,
sweet,
alone.
acr-im8nia,
sharpness, acer,
sharp.
1 These endings were formed, according to Coresen, by appending the suffix an to
ay, the root of ago, to put in motion, make, do ; see Coresen, I., p. ffTT.
1 As if formed from a verb, triWno, fire, like equit-atw, 'cavalry, 1 from equito,
Sre, 'to ride, 1 from eques, 'a horseman. 1
* When appended to vowel stems, these endings take the place of the final vowel.
Originally the initial I in i-tia, l-tds, i-tttd$, and Imonia formed no part of the suffix,
but represented the stem-vowel of the primitive. On ia, tia, and ta, eeeja, tl, and ta,
3J8O ; on i-tas and tus, see page 160, foot-note 2 ; on i-tttdo and i-m5nia, see tu and
man, 33O. The original of V-ilo, S-din is obscure.
For pi-itds by dissimilation (26).
12
162
DERIVATION OF WORDS.
NOTK 1. Instead of ia and itia, ies and ftitg occur: pauper, pauper-itg, poverty.
durug, dur-itia or dur-ititg, hardness.
NOTE 2. Before tag the stem of the adjective is sometimes slightly changed : facilia,
facuU&g, faculty ; difflcilis, difficultag, difficulty ; pottns, potegtds, power.
NOTE 8. A few adjectives form abstracts with both itds and itiidd : jftrmus, firm-
ittjg, firmitfid6, firmness. Polysyllabic adjectives in tus often suffer contraction before
these endings i honestds for honest-itas, ' honesty,' from honeatug ; so/ licit i~/ do, for sol~
Ocit-itudd, ' solicitude, 1 from sollicitug.
1. OTHEK EXAMPLES are
Auddc-ia, ' boldness,' from auddx, ' bold ' ; jftgt-itia, 'justice,' from Justus,
just'; gaev-itia, 'cruelty,' from saevus, 'cruel'; senec-ta, 'old age,' from
senex, ' old ' ; aequdl-itdt, ' equality,' from aequdlis, ' equal ' ; edr-itds, ' dear,
ness,' from cdrus, ' dear ' ; &nxi-etds, ' anxiety,' from Snxius, ' anxious ' ; al'
itudd, 'height,' fromafttw, 'high'; fort-itudS, 'bravery,' from fortis, 'brave*;
mdffn-itudd, 'greatness,' from mdgmts, 'great.'
HI. NOUNS FROM VERBS AND PROM ROOTS.
326. From the Stems of Verbs and from Roots are formed nu-
merous nouns with the suffixes *
ter, tor, 2 trlx, trum, tura, tus, ti&, 16.'
pa-ter,
frft-ter,
father, from the root pa,
brother, bhra, fra,
to protect,
to support.
anifi-tor,
lover, ama-re,
to love.
audl-tor,
hearer,
audl-re,
to hear.
defen-sor,
defender,
d6fend-ere,
to defend
vfina-tor,
hunter,
vena-rl,
to hunt.
v6na-trlx,
huntress,
( u
it
gubernft-trix,
directress,
guberna-re,
to direct.
ara-trum,
plough,
ara-re,
to plough.
r6s-trum, 4
beak,
* rod-ere,
to gnaw.
pic-tor,
painter, ping-ere,
to paint.
plc-tflra,
painting,
"
u-sura, 5
using, flt-I,
to use.
audl-tus,
hearing, audl-re,
to hear.
vl-sus,'
sight, vid-6re,
to see.
audl-tio,
Jiearing, audl-re,
to hear.
moni-ti5, 6
advising, mong-re,
to advise.
vl-sio, 6
seeing, vid-ere,
to see.
leg-io,
a selecting, leg-ere,
to select.
occld-io,
a slaying, occld-ere,
to slay.
' These endings appear to be true suffixes, a* they do not contain the stem-vowel ot
the primitive.
* For the phonetic change by which t In tor, tura, etc., unites with a preceding d or
t and produces ** or *, as in def end-tor, defengor, see 35, 8, 2).
* On ter, tor, trix, and tura, see tar, tra ; on tug and tid, see tu and U : and on it*.
ee ja, 320.
4 For rod-trwm ; see 35, 8, 1).
* For ut-tura, vid-tug, vid-tifi ; ae* 36 S 8>
' From item moni, seen in mom-farn
NOUNS. 163
1. Ter, tor, and trlx designate the AGENT or DOER ; trum, the MEANS
of the action ; and tura, tus, tid, and 16, the ACT itself ; see examples.
But nouns in tus and 16 sometimes become concrete, and denote the RESULT
of the action : quaes-tus, ' gain,' from quaes-ere, ' to gain ' ; leg-id, ' a select-
ing ' and then ' a legion ' (the men selected), from leg-ere, ' to select ' ; ex-
srci-tus, ' exercise,' ' drill,' and then ' an army ' (a collection of trained
men), from exerce-re, ' to exercise.'
2. Us, a, 6 ' sometimes designate the AGENT of the action : coqu-us =
ooquus, cook, from coqu-ere, to cook ; scrlb-a, writer, from scrlb-ere ; err-6,
wanderer, from err-dre.
NOTE I. Tor, trix, tfira, and tits are sometimes added to noun stems with or with-
out change : vid-tor, 'traveler,' from via, 'way'; sena-tor, 'senator,' from senea (Geni-
tive seni, stem sen), ' old man ' ; jdni-tor, 'janitor,' and jdni-tr'i-c, ' janitrix,' from jiln-
ua, 'gate'; Utterd-tura, 'writing,' from ttttera, 'letter 1 ; consul-d-*us, 'consulship,'
from consul, 'consul.'
NOTE 2. For nouns in id from the stems of other nouns, see 324, with 1.
3. OTHER EXAMPLES are
Accusd-tor, 'accuser,' from accusa-re, 'to accuse'; euro-tor, 'keeper,'
from euro-re, ' to take care of ; da4or, ' giver,' from da-re, ' to give ' ; vic-
tor, ' victor,' from vinc-ere, 3 'to conquer' ; inven-trix, 'a female discoverer,'
from inven-ire, 'to discover'; monstrum = mon-es-trum, 3 'prodigy,' from
mon-ere, ' to admonish ' ; rds-trum, ' rake,' from rdd-ere, ' to rake,' ' scrape ' ;
arma-tura, ' arming,' ' equipment,' from armd-re, ' to arm ' ; nd-tura, ' birth,'
'nature,' from nd-sci, 4 'to be born'; scrip-tura, for tcrib-tura, 6 'writing,'
from scrib-ere, ' to write ' ; de-tug, for ag-tutf ' driving,' ' act,' from ag-ere, ' to
drive,' ' act ' ; dc-ti$, for ay-tio, ' action,' from ag-ere, ' to act ' ; moni-ti6, ' act
of admonishing,' from mone-re, 'to admonish'; mon^itus, 'admonition,' from
mone-re, ' to admonish ' ; opln-i6, ' opinion,' from opln-drl, ' to think ' ; opt-
65, ' choice,' from opt-dre, ' to choose.'
327. From the Stems of Verbs and from Roots are formed
nouns with the suffixes
or, u, eg, ies, ium, en, men, mentum, monia, monium, bulum,
culum. brum, 1 cram, num. 8
1 Oand ti, the stems of us and ", are only different forms of the suffix a ; and on, th>.
jtem of f>, fin in, is from the suffix an ; lee 320.
9 Root vie.
* With the compound suffix es-trum, from as-tra; see an and tra, 3XO.
* RootuJ.
See 33, 1.
Observe change in quantity: ag-ere, dc-tu*i see Gellius, IX., 8.
7 On the forms bulum, brum, culum, crum, see 35, 2, foot-note 3.
8 On or (for off), UK, and is, see as ; on ifg and ium, see jn ; on en, see an ; on men,,
mentum, mfmia, and mfmium, see man ; on num, see no all in 320 ; on bulum, brunt,
ntlum, arum, see Corssen, II., p. 40.
164
DERIVATION OF WORDS.
am-or,
love, from am-are,
to lovf
tim-or,
fear,
tim-ere,
to fear.
gen-us,
birth, .
gen in gign-ere,
to tear.
frfgus,
cold,
frfg-ere, 1
to be cold.
s6d-es,
seat,
sed-ere, f
to sit.
fac-iSs,
make, face,
fac-ere,
to make.
gaud-ium,
joy,
gaud-ere,
to rejoice.
stud-ium,
zeal, study,
stud-ere,
to be zealout
pect-en,
a comb,
pect-ere,
to comb.
flu-men,
a stream,
flu-ere,
to flow.
orna-mentum,
ornament,
Crna-re,
to adorn.
queri-m6nia,
complaint,
querf,
to complain .
ali-m5nium,
nourishment,
ale-re,
to nourish.
voca-bulum,
appellation,
voca-re,
to call.
vehi-culum,
vehicle,
vehe-re,
to carry.
d6lu-brum,
shrine,
delu-ere,
to cleanse.
simula-crum,
image,
simula-re,
to represent.
r6g-num,
reign,
reg-ere,
to rule.
1. Or, us, Ss, ies, and ium generally designate the ACTION or STATE
denoted by the verb, but es, ies, and ium sometimes designate the RESULT
of the action : aedificium, ' edifice,' from aedific-are, ' to build.'
2. Men, mentum, monia, monium, and num generally designate the
MEANS of the action, or its involuntary SUBJECT, sometimes the ACT itself,
or its RESULT : flu-men, ' a stream,' ' something which flows,' from flu-ere ;
aa-men, ' an army in motion,' from ag-ere.
NOTE. The stem or root Is sometimes shortened or changed : mo-mentum, ' moving
force, 1 from mov-ere.
3. Bulum, culum, brum, and crum designate the INSTRUMENT or the
PLACE of the action : vehi-culum, ' vehicle ' (instrument of the action),
from vehe-re ; tta-bulum, ' stall ' (place of the action), from sta-re.
NOTE. The vowel of the stem is sometimes changed : epul-crum, ' sepulchre,' from
itpel-lre, 'to bury'; see /J4, 8.
4. In culum, c is dropped after c and g : vinc-ulum, ' a bond,' from
vine-Ire : rea-ula, ' rule,' from reg-ere.
NOTE. Do, /a, agi, Ig6,* and a few other endings also occur : torpe-d6, 'numbness,'
from torpe-re. 'to be numb'; cupl-dd, 'desire,' from cupe-re, 'to desire ; cande-la,
'candle,' front eande-re, 'to shine'; vor-ago, 'whirlpool,' from vor-rire, 'to swallow up?
vtrt-ig?>, 'a turn,' from vert-ere, 'to turn.'
5. OTHER EXAMPLES are
Splend-or, origbtness,' from splend-2r, 'to be bright'; op-us, 'work,'
ttom the root op for ap, ' work ' ; dec-us, ' ornament,' from root dec, in dec-et,
1 In several 01 these examples the noun is not strictly derived from the verb, but
both nonn and verb are formed from one common root, as frlg-us and frlg-ere from the
root friij.
9 Sed-ere and sed-et show a variable root-vowel e, e ; see 2O, note 2.
8e Oorssen, I., p. 577; II., pp. 802, 308.
ADJECTIVES. 165
it Is becoming ' ; nub-is, ' cloud,' from the root nab in nub-ere, ' to veil ' ;
upec-iea, ' look,' from speoere, ' to look ' ; effug-i-um, ' escape,' from effug-ere,
' to escape' ; imper-ium, ' command,' from imper-dre, 'to command' ; certd-
men, ' contort,' from certo-re, ' to contend ' ; docu~mentum^ ' lesson,' ' docu-
ment,' from doce-re, ' to teach ' ; nutrl-mentum^ ' nourishment,' from nutri-re^
' to nourish ; pd-bulum, ' fodder,' from the root /> in pd-scere, ' to feed ' .
spectd-culum, ' sight,' from spectd-re, ' to behold ' ; to-mm, ' gain,' from
lu-ere, ' to pay ' ; do-num, 1 ' gift,' from the root da in do-r<?, ' to give.'
FOKMATION OF ADJECTIVES BY SUFFIXES.
I. ADJECTIVES FROM NOUNS.
328. FULLNESS. Adjectives denoting fullness, abundance, sup-
ply, generally end in
OHMS, cosus, lens, lentus, tns.*
anim-Osus, full of courage, from animus, spirit, courmy'
fructu-Osus, fruitful, fructus, fruit.
belli-cosus, warlike, " bellum, war.
pesti-lgns, pestilential, " peatis, pest.
pesti-lentus, "
vlno-lentus, full of wine, vlnum, 'urine.
fraudu-lentus, fraudulent, " fraus, fraud.
la-tus, winged, aid, wing.
turrl-tus, turreted, " turris, turret.
cornQ-tus, horned, " cornti, horn.
jus-tus, just, " jils, right.
NOTB. Before osus the stem-vowel is generally dropped, but** la retained: aninu
t>sut, anim-osiM, but fructu-osut.
1. OTHER EXAMPLES are
Ann-dms, * full of years,' from annus, ' year ' ; luxuri-Ssus, ' luxurious,'
from luxuria, ' luxury ' ; pericul-osus, ' dangerous,* from periculum, * danger ' ;
tenebr-8#u8 and tenebri-cosus, 'gloomy,' from tenebrae, 'gloom'; turbus-lentut^
' riotous,' from wr5a, ' riot ' ; bat bd-tus, ' bearded,' from barba, ' beard ' ;
auri-tug, 'long eared,' I'roui auris, 'ear'; onus-tus t 'burdened,' from onus,
' burden.'
329. MATERIAL. Adjectives designating the material of whicb
anything is made generally end in
1 With modified stem or root: doc&, docu; da, df>.
* On onus, see Schleicher, p. 408; Corssen, I., p. 62; II., p. 688. Cfau* Is from co
and 5*?, g thus from beUum, 'war,' is formed belli-cut, 'belonging to war'; and from
belli-cus is formed bellico-'~*wt, belli-eosus, ' warlike.' On lens, lentus, see ra , la, 3iJO.
The vowel before lent, lentnt generally , sometimes o or i was originally the stem-
vowel of the primitive, as in v'ino-ltntut, petti-lens, ]>eti-lentvs, but it was sometimes
treated as a part of the suffix: ri-olentu, 'violent,' from vis, 'force.' Tus is identical
with tus in the passive participle, and tt'Jien added to vowel-stems is preceded by <7, 5,
or u: (lid-tux, turrl-tus. cornfi-lut, like amt'i-tus, audl-tut, acft-tus ('sharpened,' from
acu-o, 'to sharpen'). It may. however, be added to consunant-sterns j'ntit*.
166
DERIVATION OF WORDS.
eus, mis, neus, aceus, icius. 1
aur-eus,
argent-eus,
fag-eus,
fagi-nus,*
fagi-neus,*
popul-nus, 3
p6pul-neus, 3
papyr-aceus,
later-icius,
golden,
of silver,
of beech,
of poplar,
of papyrus,
of brick,
from
aurum,
argentum,
fagus,
pflpulus,
it
papyrus,
later,
gold,
silver,
a beech.
a poplar
papyt'us.
brick.
NOTK. These endings sometimes denote characteristic or possession
' belonging to a maiden.'
330. CHARACTERISTIC. Adjectives signifying belonging to, de-
rived from, generally end in
cus, icus, alia, Ills, anus, mus, aria, arius, iua, enaia. 4
dvi-cus,
relating to a citizen,
from
civis,
citizen.
patr-icus,
paternal,
(i
pater,
father.
natur-alis,
natural,
u
natura,
nature.
mort-alia,
mortal,
M
mors,
death.
host-Ilis,
hostile,
H
hostis,
enemy.
clv-ilis,
relating to a citizen,
M
civis,
citizen.
oppid-anus,
of the town,
M
oppidum,
tovm.
urb-anus,
of the city,
M
urbs,
city.
mar-lnus,
marine,
u
mare,
sea.
equ-Inus,
of, pertaining to a horse,
"
equus,
horse.
lun-firis,
lunar,
(i
lima,
moon.
salut-aris,
salutary,
U
salus,
safety.
auxili-arius,
auxiliary,
M
auxilium,
aid.
r6g-ius,
royal,
((
r6x,
king.
6rat6r-ius,
of an orator,
U
6rator, s
orator.
fur-ensis,
forensic,
forum,
forum.
1 On eus, stem eo, see Corssen, II., pp. 842-846; Bopp, III., p. 429; on nus, see
na, 32O. Neus adds eus to no, seen in nus; aceus adds eus to uc, seen in tite (333,
foot-note 2); and ic-ius adds ius to ic orico; see^a, 32O, and icu#, 33O.
3 Stem-vowel changed to i before nus and neus.
* Stem-vowel dropped before nus and neus.
* On cus, see ka, 320. In i-cus, i was originally the stem-vowel of the primitive, but
was finally treated as a part of the suffix, as in patr-icus. In the same way the vowels
& and i In alia, His, arts, drius, anus, and Inus were developed from the stem-vowels
of the primitives; thus in such words as doc-i-lis, 'docile, 1 from doc-e-re, the suffix
seems to have been originally lis, but at length the preceding i was treated as a part of
the suffix, making iUs. If now His be added to ?iosti, the stem of hostis, we shall have
hosti-iUs = host-Uis ; or, with Corssen, we may suppose that from hostis was formed
the verb hoxtl-re, and that the ending lis was added directly to host!, making host'i-li*.
The long initial vowel in other endings is supposed to have had a similar origin. Mis,
llis, and arie are virtually the same suffix, as I and r are interchangeable ; see ra, ?a.
foot-note, 320. Arius i'tri-ius. On anus, Inus, and ius, see ja and na, 33O; on
fnsit, see Corssen, I., pp. 62, 254; II, pp. 6S8, 719.
6 Bat irra-tor is formed from ord-re by adding tor to the stem ; tee 326.
ADJECTIVES. 16?
1. Ester or estris, 1 timus, itimus, ticus, 2 cinus, and a few other end
fags occur : terr-ester or terr-estris, ' terrestrial,' from terra, ' earth ' ; mari-
limus, ' maritime,' from mare, ' sea ' ; leg-itimus, ' lawful,' from lex, leais,
1 law ' ; rus-ticus, ' rustic,' from rOs, ' country ' ; vati-cinus, ' prophetic,'
from rates, ' prophet.'
2. OTHKB EXAMPLES are
Domini-cus, 'of a master,' from deminus, 'master'; serc-lUs, 'slavish,'
from servus, ' slave ' ; vir-ilis, ' manly,' from vir, ' man ' ; capit-dlis, ' of the
head,' 'capital,' from caput, 'head'; reg-alis, 'kingly,' from rex, 'king';
cdnsul-dris, 'consular,' from consul, 'consul'; milti-dris, 'military,' from
miles, 'soldier'; ayr-drius^ 'of or relating to land,' from ager, 'field'; ar-
gent-drius, ' of silver,' from argentum, ' silver ' ; can-inus, ' of a dog,' from
canis, 'dog'; lup-inus, 'of a wolf,' from lupus, 'wolf'; mont-dnus, 'of a
mountain,' from mdns, ' mountain ' ; nox-ius, ' injurious,' from noxa, ' in-
jury ' ; patr-ius, ' of a father,' from pater, ' father ' ; imperdtor-ius, ' of a com-
mander,' from i/inperdtor, ' commander.'
331. Adjectives from proper nouns generally end in
anus, ianus, Inus ; ius, iacus, icus ; ensis, iensis ; as, aeus, eus. J
Sull-anus, of Sulla, from Sulla, Sulla.
Rom-anus, JRoman, Roma, Home.
Mari-anus, of Marius, Marius, Marius.
Ciceron-ianus, Ciceronian, Cicero, Cicero.
Lat-Inus, 9 Latin, Latium, Latium.
?laut-Inus, of Plautus, Plautus, Plautus.
Corinth-ius, Corinthian, Corinthus, Corinth.
Corinth-iacus, "
Britann-icus, British, Britannus, a Briton.
Cann-8nsis, of Cannae, Cannae, Cannae.
AthSn-iSnsis, Athenian, Ath6nae, Athens.
fldSn-fts, of Fidenae, FldSnae, Fidenae.
Smyrn-aeus, Smymean, Smyrna, Smyrna.
Pythagor-Sus, Pythagorean, " Pythagoras, Pythagoras.
1. Anus and ianus are the endings generally used in derivatives from
Names of Persons ; but others also occur.
NOTE ]. Many of these adjectives from names of places are also used substantive)?
M Patrial or Gentile Noun* to designate the citizens of the place : Corinthil, the Co-
rinthians; Athfniermen, the Athenians.
NOTK 2. The Roman Oentls or c/ant were all designated by adjectives in ius, ae
gins Corntlia, gint Jftlia.
1 The ending ester or estris may be formed by adding ter or Ms to from the suffix
a (32O); but see Corssen, II., p. 649.
8 On ti-mus, i-ti-mus, and ti-cii, see fa, ma, ca, 32O.
* When appended to vowel stems, these endings take the place of the stem-vowel:
Stdl-iinus. In fact, anus is formed by the union of the stem-vowel with the suffix. 80
in Mari-ilnus, but in examples like this the i before finuH was finally treated as a part
of the suffix, making &?nu, as seen in Oicerdn-i<~inu. Inus in Lat-'mus contains to,
from Lat-io, the stem of Latium.
168 DERIVATION OF WORDS.
NOTE 8. An adjective In iws, used substantively, formed a part of the name of everj
distinguished Roman, and designated the gens to which he belonged ; see Roman Names,
649.
II. ADJECTIVES FROM ADJECTIVES.
332. DIMINUTIVES from other adjectives generally end like
diminutive nouns (321) in
lus, ulus, culus. 1
gbrio-lus, tomcwhal drunken, from Sbrius, drunken
aureo-lus, golden, aureus, golden.
long-ulus, rather long, " longus, long.
pauper-culus, rather poor, " pauper, poor.
NOTE 1. The endings ellus and illus also occur as In nouns (331,4): nov-ellus,
new,' from novus, ' new. 1
NOTE 2. Culu* Is sometimes added to comparatives: durius-culut, 'somewhat
hard,' from durior, durius, 'harder.'
m. ADJECTIVES FROM VERBS AND FROM ROOTS.
333. Verbal adjectives generally end in
bundus, cundus, dus; bills, tills, sills, lls; ax.*
mlra-bundus, wondering, from mira-ri, to wonder.
mori-bundus,
vere-cundus, diffident,
cali-dus, warm,
pavi-dus, fearful,
ama-bilis, worthy of love,
mori, to die.
vere-rf, to fear.
cale-re, to be warm,
pave-re, to fear.
ama-re, to love.
& -^
duc-tilis, ductile, duc-ere, to lead.
fleSSsf^ fi^^ " flect ' ere ' to/Mm -
doci-lis, docile, " doc6-re, to teach.
pugn-ax, pugnacious, pugna-re, to fight.
aud-ax, daring, " aud6-re, to dare.
1. Bundus and cundus have nearly the force of the present participle ;
but bundus is somewhat more expressive than the participle : laetH-bundus,
rejoicing greatly ; and cundus generally denotes some characteristic rather
than a single act or feeling : vere-cundus, diffident.
2. Dus retains the simple meaning of the verb.
3. Bills, tills, silis, and lis denote CAPABILITY, generally in a passive
sense : amdbilis, capable or worthy of being loved ; sometimes in an active
sense : terribilis, terrible, capable of producing terror.
1 See p. 168. foot-note 6.
4 Bundus is explained by Corssen and others as formed by appending undus, endus,
the Gerundive suffix, to bu=fu, as seen \aful; cundut, by adding the same suffix to
no (ka, 32O); see Corssen, II., pp. 810-312. On dus, see Corssen. II., pp. 302, 303; on
!', see ra, la, 320; and on bilix, 32O, foot-note 1 ; also Corssen, I., pp. 166-1G9; on tilit
and i/w, Corssen, II., pp. 41, 826. The ending dx = d-c-s Is for a-co-s, in which d wa
originally the stem-vowel of an a-verb thus pftgn-d-oo-s becomes piiynd-ct, pugndte.
* Flec-tili* =flect-tilis : e 35. 3. 21
VERBS. 169
4. Ax denotes INCLINATION, generally a faulty one : loquax, loquacious.
6. Cus, Icus, nous, vus, uus, Ivus, tivus, ticius, ius, and ulus l also
occur:
Medi-cut, ' healing,' ' medical,' from mede-ri, ' to heal ' ; am-teus, ' friend-
ly,' from am-are, ' to love ' ; cad-uous, ' falling,' ' inclined to fall,' from cad-
tre, 'to fall'; xat-vus, 'safe,' from root *a, 'whole,' 'sound'; noc-uus and
noc-ivus, ' hurtful,' from noc-ere, ' to hurt ' ; cap-tivus, ' captive,' from cap-ere,
to take ' ; ficticius, for fig-ticius, ' feigned,' from, fig, the root offing-ere, ' to
form,' ' fashion,' ' feign ' ; exim-ius, ' select,' ' choice,' from exim-ere, ' to
select out ' ; cred-ulus, ' credulous,' from cred-ere, ' to believe.'
6. OTHEB EXAMPLES are
Ludi-bundus, 'sportive,' 'playful,' from lude-re, 'to play'; rldi-bundut,
1 laughing,' from ride-re, ' to laugh ' ; fa-cundus, ' eloquent,' from fd-ri, ' to
speak ' ; ju-cundus, for juv-cundus, ' pleasant,' from juv-dre, l to aid,' ' de-
light ' ; avi-dus, ' greedy,' from ave-re, ' to long for ' ; eupi-dus^ ' desirous,'
from cupe-re, ' to desire ' ; timi-dut, ' timid,' from time-re, ' to fear' ; fad-Us,
1 easy,' ' capable of being done,' from face-re, 'to do ' ; nubi-lis, ' marriage-
able,' from 7iube-re, ' to marry ' ; uti-lis, ' useful,' from uti, ' to use * ; credi-
biUs, ' credible,' from crede-re, ' to believe ' ; terri-bilis, ' terrible,' from terre-
re, 'to terrify'; lauda-biUs, 'praiseworthy,' from lauda-re, 'to praise ';/er-
tilis, ' fertile,' from fer-re, ' to bear ' ; cap-dx, ' capacious,' from cap-ere, ' to
take ' ; ten-dx, ' tenacious,' from ten-ire, ' to bold.'
IV. ADJECTIVES FKOM ADVEKBS AND PREPOSITIONS.
334. A few adjectives are formed from adverbs and preposi-
tions : *
cras-tinus, of to-morrow, from eras, to-morrow.
contra-rius, contrary, contra, affainst.
inter-nus, internal, inter, among, within.
super-bus, haughty, super, above.
super-nus, upper, * u a
FORMATION OF VERBS BY SUFFIXES.
I. VERBS FROM NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
335. Verbs formed from nouns and adjectives are called DE-
voMtNATivES. They end in
OONJ. I. Cox*. II. COJM. III. Coirj. IV.
0, 5-re, eo, e-re, uo, ue-re, 3 io, I-re. 4
1 fit*. M, and l-vua are only different forms of the same suffix; uus was formed by
vocalizing v In vu*; l-vu, by adding- vus to the stem-vowel I ; noc-i-v>is, as if from a
'"xb, noc-ira = noc-ere. The other endings are composed of elements Already explained.
3 But adverbs and prepositions are In origin case-fbrms; see 3O4; 307, note 1.
3 Conjugation III. contains primitive verbs with a few derivatives.
* According to Curtius and others, the suffix which was added to the stems of noun
nd adlectives to form verh-s wa* nriifiiiaUy^'a. pronouncec 1 'i/a. probably identical with >
170
DERIVATION OF WORDS.
cfir-6,
ft-re,
to care for, fr<
>m cur-a,
care.
fug-6,
a-re,
to put to flight,
fug-a,
flight.
pugn-6,
fi-re,
to fight,
pugn-a,
battle.
bell-6,
a-re,
to carry on war,
bell-um,
war.
don-6,
a-re,
to give,
don-um,
gift.
firm-6,
a-re,
to make firm,
firm-us,
firm.
labor -6,
a-re,
to labor,
labor,
labor.
liber-6,
a-re,
to liberate,
Uber,
free.
nomin-6,
a-re,
to name,
nomen,
name.
a,lb-e6,
e-re,
to be white,
alb-us,
white.
clar-6,
a-re,
to make bright,
clar-us,
bright.
clar-eo,
-re,
to be bright,
H
"
flor-eo,
e-re,
to bloom,
flOs,
flower.
luc-eo,
6-re,
to shine,
lux luc-s,
light.
met-uo,
ue-re,
to fear,
met-us,
fear.
stat-uo,
ue-re,
to place,
stat-us,
position.
fin-io,
I-re,
to finish,
fin-is,
end.
moll-Id,
I-re,
to soften,
moll-is,
soft.
vest-io,
I-re,
to clothe^ '
yest-is,
garment.
serv-io,
I-re,
to serve, '
serv-us,
servant.
custod-io,
I-re,
to guard, '
custos,
guardian
NOTE 1. Denominatives of the second conjugation are intransitive, but most of the
others are transitive.
NOTB 2. Derivatives, like other verbs, may of course be deponent: dominor, dri, ' to
domineer,' from dominus, 'master'; miror, ari, 'to wonder at,' from mlrus, 'wonder-
ful ' ; partior, Irl, ' to part,' ' divide,' from pars, partis, ' part. 1
1. OTHEB EXAMPLES are
Gulp-are, ' to find fault,' from culp-a, ' fault' ; gtiri-dri, ' to boast,' ' glory,'
from glori-a, ' glory ' ; nov-are, ' to make new,' from novus, ' new ' ; regn-dre,
'to reign,' from regnum, 'royal power'; lev-are, 'to lighten,' from lenis,
* light ' ; honor-are, ' to honor,' from honor, ' honor ' ; laud-are, ' to praise,'
from laus = laud-s, ' praise ' ; saev-ire, ' to be fierce,' from saevus, ' fierce.'
the root of ?-r, 'to go.' This suffix added to a, the original stem- vowel of most nouns
and adjectives, formed a-ja, still preserved in the ending ajd-mi in a large class of San-
skrit verbs. From this compound suffix aja are derived in Latin, in the first conjuga
tion, (1; ac, contracted to o: cur-0 = cur-ajo for cftr-aG for cfir-aja; (2) a: cur-a-s.
shortened to a in our-a-t for cur-ii-t; in the second conjugation, (1) eo: Ific-eO for ific
ejo for luc-aja; (2) e: lue-e-s, shortened to e in luc-e-t for liic-e-t; and iu the fourth
conjugation, (1) io and iu: serv-io for strv-ijo for serv-aja, serc-iu-nt for serv-iju-nt
for serv-aju-nt; and (2) I: serv-'i-s, shortened to i in nerv-i-t for serv-l-t; see Bopp, I,
pp. 207-229; Curtius, Verbum, 1^ pp. 292, 826-848; Schleicher, pp. 358-861. For an ob-
jection to this explanation of the a-verbs, see Corssen, II., pp. 788-786. On final of the
first person, see 247, 1, foot-note 5. The suflix^a, added to original i-stemg, formed ija
and gave rise to i-verbs : fmio =fln-i-jO fln-ija; and added to u-ntems, it formed
u-ja and gave rise to u-verbs : met-uo = met-u-jo = met-uja. In general, a-stems give
rise to a-verbs : cur-a, cur-a-re ; o-stemtt, sometimes to a-verb, sometimes to e-verl/s,
and sometimes to i-rerb* : firmus, stem Jirmo, flrm-ii-re; albus, stem alb-o, alb-f-re;
tercug, stem serv-o, serv-t-re, ; consonant stems, to a-terbs, e-verbs, or i-verbs, after th
analogy of vowel stems : hibor for labor, labfrr-d-re ; flt>, Jlor-e-re for _fl<~>t-e-re (31, 1 ):
custos, stem crustod, custod-i-re.
VERBS. 171
II. VERBS PROM VERBS.'
336. FREQUENTATIVES or INTENSIVES denote repeated, con-
tinued, or intense action. They are generally of the first conjuga-
tion, and are formed
I. From the stem of the participle 2 in tus or SUB :
cant-6, are, to sing, from cantus from cano, to sing?
capt-6, are, to snatch, " captus ' capio, to take.
dat-6, are, to give often, " datus ' dS, to give.
habit-6, are, to inhabit, " habitus ' habeo, to have.
quass-6, are, to shake violently, " quassus ' quatio, to shake.
territ-5, are, to frighten often, " territus ' terreo, to frighten.
II. From the present stem, by adding to and changing the preceding
vowel to i, if not already in that form : *
agi-tS, are, to shake, from ago, to move, lead.
clSmi-to, are, to shout often, clamo, to shout.
rogi-to, are, to ask eagerly, rogo, to ask.
voci-to, are, to call often, " voco, to call.
voli-to, are, to flit about, " volo, to fly.
NOT 1. Frequentatives are sometimes formed from other frequentatives: 6 cantito,
'to sing often,' from canto from cano; dictito, ' to say often,' from dicto from d'icO.
NOTE 2. A few derivatives in esso and ins!) also occur. They are intensive in force,
denoting earnest rather than repeated action, and are of the third conjugation : faciG,
facesfiO, ' to do earnestly ' ; incipit), incipisso, ' to begin eagerly.'
1. OTHER EXAMPLES are
Dicto, ' to say often,' from died, ' to say ' ; spectd, ' to behold,' from specio,
'to look at' ; factito, 'to do often,' from f acid, 'to do,' 'make'; ianperit6,
' to command often,' from impero, ' to command ' ; rapid, ' to snatch,' from
ropid, ' to seize.'
337. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES denote the beginning of the
action. They are of the third conjugation, and end in sco :
> Either directly or through the medium of nouns, adjectives, or participles.
a They are thus strictly denominatives (335). Intransitive verb's,. though without
the participle in tu or u, may form frequentative* after the analogy of transitive
verbs: curso, are, 'to run about,' formed as if from cursut from currfi, 'to run'; ven-
tit/i, ure, ' to come often,' formed as if from ventus, from renio, ' to come.'
* Remember that the stem of the participle ends in o ; thus cantim = canto-s. Ob
(serve, therefore, that the verb canto, * I sing,' is in form like the stem of the participle.
Cantf) was. however,, originally produced by adding ja to canta, the original stem of
cantus. making canta-ja, cantajt). cantao, canto; see also 335, foot-note.
4 The formation from the participle was doubtless the original method, but at length
tfi was regarded as the suffix, and was accordingly added to present stems, and as in many
cases / preceded, the stem-vowel finally took this form before the suffix to ; see Corssen,
II., p. 297.
6 Sometimes from frequentatives no longer in use : fictito, ' to act often,' as If from
dcto, not in use, from ago ; scrlptito, 'to write often,' as if from scrlpto, not in use,
from tcrlbfi.
172 COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
gel-fi-sco,
to begin to freeze, from gel -6,
a-re,
to freezt.
cal-6-sc6,
to become warm,
cal-eo,
e-re,
to be warm.
rub-S-sco,
to grow red,
rub-eo,
e-re,
to be red.
vir-g-sco,
to grow green,
vir-eo,
e-re,
to be green.
trem-1-sco,
to begin to tremble,
trem-o,
e-re,
to tremble.
obdorm-I-sco,
to fall asleep,
obdorm-io,
i-re,
to sleep.
338. DESIDEBATIVES denote a desire to perform the action.
They are of the fourth conjugation, and end in turio or surio :
par-turio, Ire, to strive to bring forth, from pario, to bring forth.
e-surio, Ire, to desire to eat, " edo, to eat. 1
339. DIMINUTIVES denote & feeble action. 2 They are of the first
conjugation, and end in illo :
cant-illo, to sing feebly, from canto, to sina.
conscrib-illo, to scribble, " consertbo, to wnte.
Nor*. For the DERIVATION OF ADVERBS, see 304.
SECTION III.
COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
340. New words may be formed
I. By the union of two or more words under one principal accent,
without change of meaning :
Res puolica, respubUca, republic ; agn cultura, agrlcultura, agriculture ;
juris consuttus, jurisconsultus, lawyer, one skilled in the law ; quern ad m-o-
dum, quemadmodum, in what way lit., to what measure.
NOTE. These are compounds only In form. The separate words retain In a great
measure their identity both in form and in meaning, and may in fact be written separately.
Res pfiblica is the approved form. Other examples of this class are : Itgis-lator, law-
giver; pater-familias, father of a family; senatus-cfrnsultum, decree of the senate; hi'ic-
tenus, thus far; saepe-numero, often in number; bene-fado, to do well, benefit; ma/e-
dico, to revile; saUft-faciO, to satisfy, do enough for; animum-ad-verto, anim-ad-verto,
to notice, turn the mind to.
n. By prefixing an indeclinable particle to an inflected word,
generally with some change of meaning :
Ad-sum, to be present ; de-pond, to lay down ; re-pond, to replace ; ~e-di*<$,
to learn by heart ; im-memor, unmindful ; per-facilis, very easy ; pro-consul,
1 These are the only desideratlves in common use, but a few others occur : cena-turio.
Ho desire to dine,' from ceno, ' to dine ' ; emp-turio, ' to desire to purchase,' from em<'>.
'to purchase ' ; nup-turif), ' to desire to marry,' from nftbo, ' to marry.' They were prob-
ably formed originally through the medium of a verbal noun in tor or sor (336, foot-note
2) : thus, cf no. cend-tor, ' one who dines ' ; cend-tor-i-re = cend-tur-l-re (o changed to
), 'to desire to dine 1 ; emO, emp-tor, 'a purchaser'; emp-tor-ire = emp-tur-J-re, 'to
desire to purchase.'
a Probably denominative* formed from verb-sterns through diminutive verbal nouns.
NOUNS. 173
proconsul, one acting for a consul ; inter-riff num, interregnum, an interval
between two reigns.
III. By uniting two or more simple stems or roots, and adding
appropriate inflectional suffixes when needed : *
Igni-color, 1 fire-colored ; grandi-aevo-s, 1 grand-aevus, a, um, of great age ;
omni-potent-s, om/nipotens, omnipotent ; mdgno-animo-s, rndgnanimus, a, vm,
great-souled ; tubi-cen^ trumpeter ; arti-fec-s, artifex, artificer ; alio-qvi, ali-
quit* any one.
1. In the first element of the compound observe
1) That the stem-vowel generally takes the *br_. of i : capro-corno-s,
capri-cornus ; tvba-cen, tubi-cen.
2) That consonant stems sometimes assume * . hon&r-i-fico-s,
a, um, honorable.
3; That the stem-vowel disappears before another vowel :
mdgnanimus.
2. The stem-ending and the inflectional ending of the second element
generally remain unchanged in the compound ; see examples above. But
observe
1) That they are sometimes slightly changed : aequo-nocti, aequi-noctio-m, 3
aequinoctium, equinox ; multa-forma, multi-formi*, with many forms.
2) That a verbal root or stem may be the second element in a compound
noun or adjective : tubi-cen (cen = can, the root of can/), to sing), trumpeter ;
U>ti-fer (fer, root of f era, to bear), death-bearing.
NOTE. The words classed under II. and III. are regarded as real compounds, but
those under III. best illustrate the distinctive characteristics of genuine compounds, as
they are formed from compound stems and have a meaning which could not be expressed
by the separate words. Thus, rruignus animus means a great soul, but magna-nirMis
means having a great soul.*
341. In COMPOUND NOUNS, the first part is generally the stem
of a noun or adjective, sometimes an adverb or preposition; and
the second part is the stem of a noun, or a stem from a verbal root :
arti-fex, artist, from arti-fac in ars and facio.
capri-cornus, Capricorn, " capro-cornu " caper " cornu.
aequi-noctium, equinox, " aequo-nocti " p.equus " nox.
ng-mo, nobody, " ne-homon " nS " homo.
prQ-nomen, pronoun, " pr6-n6men " pr6 " nomen.
1 Thus Igni-color Is formed by the union of two stems without Inflectional suffix;
but in grand-avu-8, the suffix is added to the stem grandaerfi, compounded of grandi
and afrfi.
s Literally, any other one.
Tl, the stem-ending of nw, becomes tit, to which Is added the nominative-ending TO.
4 Class II. occupies a position intermediate between I. and III. Some compounds
of particles with verbs, for example, have developed a meaning quite distinct from that
denoted by the separate parts, while others have simply retained the ordinary meaning
of those parts.
174 COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
1. COMPOUNDS in ex, dex, fex, cen, clda, and cola deserve special
notice :
Remo-ex, remex, 1 oarsman ; jtig-dex, jtidex, 1 judge ; arti-fex, artist ; tlbia-
cen, tibi-cenf flute-player; homon-cida, homi-dda, 3 manslayer; agri^cola,*
husbandman, one who tills the soil.
NOTE. Ex (for ag-s) i from the root ag in ago, to drive, impel; de (for dic-s\
from die in dico, to make known ; feas (for foc-s), from foe in facift, to make ; cen, from
sow in canO, to sing; clda (for caed-a), from caed in caedo, to cut, slay ; cola (for coi-a),
from col in cold, to cultivate.
342. In COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, the first part is generally the
stem of a noun or adjective, sometimes an adverb or preposition ;
and the second is the stem of a noun or adjective, or a stem from
a verbal root:
leti-fer, death-bearing, from Isti-fer in IStum and fero.
magn-animus, magnanimous, " magno-animo " magnus " animus,
per-facilis, very easy, " per-facili . " per " facilis.
I. Compounds in ceps, fer, ger, dicus, ficus, and volus deserve
notice :
Parti-ceps, taking part ; auri~fer, gold-bearing ; armi-ger, carrying arms ;
fati-dicus, predicting fate ; miri-ficus, causing wonder ; bene-volus, well-
wishing.
NOTE. Ceps (toTcap-s) is from the root cap in capio, to take; fer, from fer in fero,
to bear; ger, from ger in gero, to carry; dicus (for dic-o-s), from die in dico, to make
known; ficus (for fac-o-s), from fao in facio, to make; volus (for vol-o-s), from vol in
void, to wish.
343. COMPOUND NOUNS and ADJECTIVES are divided according
to signification into three classes:
L DETERMINATIVE COMPOUNDS, in which the second part is qualified by
the first :
Inter-rex, interrex ; merl-dies* midday ; bene-volus, well-wishing ; per~
mdgmis, very great ; in-dignus, unworthy.
II. OBJECTIVE COMPOUNDS, in which the second part is limited by the
first as object :
Prin-ceps, taking the first place ; belK-ger, waging war ; ju-dex, judge,
one who dispenses (makes known) justice ; komi-cida, one who slays a man ;
ytgri-cola, one who tills the field. See other examples in 342, 1.
III. POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS, in origin mostly adjectives. They desig-
O is dropped in remese, and injtidece ; see 27 ; 36, 3, note 8.
A, weakened to i, unites with the preceding i, forming I.
.V dropped, and o weakened to i; see 36, 8, note 8.
The stem-vowel o ofagro is weakened to i. agri; see 22
From medium and dies.
VERBS. 175
nate qualities or attributes as possessed by some person or thing, and an
often best rendered by supplying having or possessing :
Aeni-pes, having bronze feet ; l celeri-p'es, swift-footed ; ali-pes, wing-foot-
ed, having wings for feet ; magn-animus, having a great soul ; un-animus^
having one mind ; long-aevus, of great age, having a long life.
344. COMPOUND VERBS. Verbs in general are compounded
only with prepositions, originally adverbs : "
, Ab-eO, to go away ; ex-eO y to go out ; prdd-ed, to go forth ; con-vocd, to call
together; de-cidd, to fall off; prae-dlc6, to foretell; re-ducd, to lead back;
re-jieid) to repair, to make anew. 8
1. Facio and fid may also unite with verbal stems in e :
Cale-facid, to make warm ; cale-fid, to be made warm, become warm ;
W>e-facid, to cause to totter ; pate-fatiO, to open, cause to be open.
2. Verbs are often united with other words in writing without strictly
forming compounds :
Manu mittd or mawO-mittd, to emancipate, let go from the hand ; satis
facid or satis-facid, to satisfy, do enough for ; animum ad-verto or ani/m-ad
verto, to notice, turn the mind to.
3. Verbs in foo and facto, like the following, are best explained not
as compounds but as denominatives : 4
Aedi-fic6, to build, from aedifex / ampli-ficO* to enlarge ; cale~facto t to
make warm, from cale-factus.
4. Verbs compounded with prepositions often undergo certain vowel-
changes :
1) Short a and e generally become i: habeO, ad-hibeo; teneo, con-tinea. But a
sometimes becomes or u : carpo, de-cerpo ; calcO, con-culcO.
2) At becomes ; ; caedt), in-cldo.
8) Au generally becomes <> or u : plaudo, en-plodo; claudo, in-cludo.
5. FORM AND MEANING OF PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. The following
facts are added for reference :
A, ab, abs. 1. FORM : a before m and t>, and sometimes before // abt
before c, y, <, and, with the loss of J, also before p ; au in au-ferd and ait-
fmjio ; ab before the other consonants, and before vowels. 2. MEANING:
(1) ' away,' ' off ' : d-mitlo, to send away ; abt-condO, to hide away ; as-portd.
1 Observe the force of the compound. Aenun pes means a braeenfoot, but aeni-pit
neans having braze.n feet; see also 340, III., note.
2 The words thus formed are strictly compounds of verbs with adverb*, as the origi-
nal type of these compounds was formed before the adverb became a preposition.
3 Observe in these examples the strict adverbial use of the particles a&, a-, etc., away,
out, etc. Impositions, on the other hand, always denote relations, and are aiiaciUari
to the case-ending ; see 307, foot-note.
4 In some of these the primitive is not found in actual use
As abk-pello, as-pellc. to drive away.
176 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.
to carry off ; au-J "us/id, to flee away ; ab-svm, to be away ; ab-4), to go away
ab-jido or ab-icidj to throw away ; (2) in adjectives, generally negative :
d-m2ns, without mind, frantic ; ab-si/milis, unlike.
Ad. 1. FOKM : ad before vowels, and before J, <, /", A, /, m, n, q, and v,
sometimes before g, I, r, and s, rarely before p and t ; d assimilated before
c. generally before p and t, and sometimes before </, I, q, r, and / gener-
ally dropped before gn, so, sp, and rf. s 2. MEANING: 'to,' 'toward,' ' V:
One's self' ; ' on,' ' at,' ' near,' ' by ' ; ' besides ' : ad-duco, to lead to ; ac- viJo,
to fall to, happen ; ad-moved, to move toward ; ac-cipio, to receive, take to
one's self ; ac-cingo, to gird on ; ad-lStro or al-lHtrO, to bark at ; ad-sum,
to be present or near ; ad-std or a-sto, to stand near, to stand by ; ad-disco,
to learn besides.
Ante. 1. FOKM: unchanged except in anti-cipo, 'to rake beforehand,'
and in composition with tto : ante-std or anti-std, to stand before. 2. MEAN-
ING : ' before,' ' beforehand ' : ante-curro, to run before ; ante-habeo, to prefer
lit., to have or hold before.
Circum. 1. FORM : generally unchanged, but m is sometimes dropped
In compounds of ed, to go : circum-ed or circu-eo, to go around. 2. MEAN
ING : ' around,' ' about ' : circum-mittd, to send around.
Com. 3 1. FORM : com before 5, m, p ; co before vowels, 4 A, and gn , 6 con
or col before If cor before r; con before the other consonants. 2. MEAN-
ING : (1) ' together,' ' with,' in various senses : com-bibo, to drink together ;
com-mittd, to let go together ; co-e6, to go together ; col-loquor, to talk with ;
cdn-fligd, to contend with ; (2) ' completely,' ' thoroughly ' : con-Jicio, to com-
plete, make completely; con-cito, to rouse thoroughly; c6n-#umo t to con-
sume, take wholly ; con-densits, very dense.
E, ex. 1. FORM: ex before vowels and before c, A, />,' q, , 7 1, and with
assimilation before f ;* I before the other consonants. 9 2. MEANING: (1)
out,' ' forth,' ' without,' implying ' freedom from ' : ex-eO, to go out, go forth ;
ex-cidff. to fall out ; e-do, to put forth ; ex-sangvis, without blood, bloodless ;
exronerd, to unload, disburden ; (2) ' thoroughly,' ' completely,' ' successful-
ly ' : ex-uro, to burn up ; e-discO, to learn by heart ; ef-JiciO, to effect, do suc-
cessfully ; e-durus, very hard.
In. 1. FORM : n sometimes assimilated before /, often before i> and r ;
i See foot-note 1, p. 20.
Sometimes retained : ad-gnoscOor d-gnSscO; ad-sto or a-sto.
An earlier form for cum.
4 A contraction often takes place : co-agO, do-go. Com is sometimes retained before
e or i, and co or con is used before i=ji: com-edo, com-itor, co-icio or eon-iciOs
con-iicio or con-jicio; see foot-note 1, p. 20.
Co also appears in co-necto, co-ntveo, co-nitor, and co-nUbium.
But e-potfj and f-pottts; eoe-scendo or e-scendo.
S is sometimes dropped after x : exspecio or ese-pecto.
C before / ia not recommended; Qf*fvn U better than ec-fero.
But eat-lfx.
> Im is the approved form be&re ft. , ad . eo<Ulir in im-perotor, im-perO, XD(
im-ptriitm.
PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 177
often changed to m before b and p ; in other situations unchanged. 2. MIAN-
INS : ' in,' ' into,' ' on,* * at,' ' against ' : in-colo, to dwell in ; in-eo, to go
into ; vnwnigro, to move into ; in-nitor, to lean on ; in-tueor, to look at ;
ir-rided, to laugh at ; im-p&ffnff, to fight against.
Inter. 1. FORM : unchanged, except in intel-legO, to understand. 2.
MEANING : ' between,' sometimes involving interruption* ' together' : inter-
venio, to come between, intervene ; inter-died, to forbid, interdict ; inter-
necto, to tie together.
Ob. 1. FOEM: b assimilated before c,f, g, and p ; dropped in owitto,
fx> omit, and in operio, to cover ; in other situations generally unchanged.*
2. MEANING: (1) ' before,' 'in the way,' 'toward,' 'against,' especially of an
obstruction or opposition : cf-fero, to bring before ; ob-sto, to stand in the way ;
oc-currd, to run toward, run to meet ; op-pugno, to attack, fight against ; (2)
4 down,' ' completely ' : oc-tido, to cut down, kill ; op-primo, to press down,
to overwhelm.
Per. 1. FOKM: generally unchanged, but r is sometimes assimilated be-
fore I,* and is dropped before j in compounds ofjuro, as pe-jero,* to swear
falsely. 2. MEANING : ' through,' ' thoroughly,' sometimes in a bad sense with
the idea of breaking through, disregarding : per-lego, to read through; per-
discd, to learn thoroughly ; per-fidm, perfidious, breaking faith.
Post. 1. FOKM: unchanged, except in pd-merium, the open space on
either side of the city-wall, and pos-meridiamisf of the afternoon. 2. MEAN-
ING : ' after,' ' behind ' : post-habed, to place after, have after, esteem less.
Pr5, pr6d. 1. FORM: pro is the usual form, both before vowels and
before consonants ; prod, the original form, is retained in a few words before
vowels.* 2. MEANING: 'forth,' 'forward,' 'before,' *for': prdd^O, to go
forth or forward ; prd-currO, to run forward ; prd-pugno, to fight in front of,
fight for; pro-hibeo, to hold aloof, i. e., out of one's reach, hence to prohibit ;
prd-mittd, to send forth, to hold out as a promise, to promise.
Sub. 1. FORM: b assimilated before c, /, g, and p, and often before m
and r ; dropped before sp ; in other situations unchanged. The form subt,
shortened to BUS, occurs in a few words : vus-cipio, sux-pcndd. 2. MEANING :
' under,' ' down,' ' from under,' * up ' ; 'in place of,' ' secretly ' ; ' somewhat.
' slightly ' : 7 tub-ed, to go under ; eub-Wjor, to slip down ; sub-due/), to draw
from under, withdraw ; tw-cipid, to undertake ; sus-cito, to lift up, arouse ;
1 It ia used In several compounds referring to death: inter-eo, to die; inter-Jido
to kill.
8 Obs seems to occur in a few words : olf*-ol?*co, on-tendO for obs-tendn (b dropped)
though these words are sometimes otherwise explained; thus ob-soleco, as a compound
otolecO from *ole<~>.
* As pr-le(/f>, ptl-legn ; per-lMo, pel-lido ; but per is preferable.
4 For per-jurn.
' Poti-merldianus is also used; pfi-merfdidnut Is not approved, though it occnrt
As In ]>ri>d-eo, prf>d-igO, prod-iyut, and before in the compound of turn : j>rod
t-s, prfid-e-xt, etc.
7 Mostly in adjectives : wb-absurdwi, somewhat absurd ; tHb-dolut, somewhat crafty
udfrtf, somewhat impudent; ub-inv~tux, somewhat odiour
io
176 PREPOSITIONS TN COMPOSITION.
6, to put in place of, to substitute ; mb-ripio, to take away secrctlj
sub-rideo, to smile, laugh slightly ; sitb-difficilis, somewhat difficult.
Trans. 1. FORM: it generally drops before s, and it often drops m
before d, j, 1 I, in, n; it is otherwise unchanged. 2. MEANING: 'across,'
'through,' ' completely ' : trdns-currO, to run across ; trd-duco, to lead across ;
trdn-silio, to leap across ; trdns-igd, to transact ; to finish, do completely &
thoroughly Ut., to drive through.
8. FORM AND MEANING OF THE INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. The follow
ng facts are added for reference :
Ambi, amb.' 2 1. FORM : amb before vowels ; ambi, am, or an, 3 before
consonants. 2. MEANING : ' around,' ' on both sides,' ' in two directions ' :
amb-io,* to go round ; amb-iffd, to act in two ways, move in different direc-
tions, to hesitate ; am-puto, to cut around or off; an-qulro, to search round.
Dis, di. 1. FORM : dis beforec, p, q, t, before s followed by a vowel, and,
with assimilation, before// but dir for die before a vowel or h ; dl in most
other situations ; but both dis and dl occur before j.* 2. MEANING: 'apart,'
4 asunder,' 6 ' between,' sometimes negative * and sometimes intensive : die-
tineo, to hold apart ; di-duco, to lead apart, divide ; dif-fugid, to flee asunder,
or in different directions ; dir-imd, to take in pieces, destroy ; dis-sentio, to
think differently, dissent; di-judico, to judge between; dis-plieeo, to dis-
please, not to please ; dif-Jirilis, difficult, not easy ; di-laudd, to praise highly.
In. 1. FORM : n dropped before gn ; otherwise like the preposition in .
2. MEANING : * not,' * un ' : i-g nosed, not to know, not to recollect, to par-
don ; im-memor, unmindful ; in-imlcus, unfriendly.
Por, for port. 8 1. FORM: r assimilated before I and / in other situa-
tions, por. 2. MEANING: 'forth,' 'forward,' 'near' : pol-liceor, to hold forth,
offer, promise ; pos-sideo, to possess ; por-riyo, to hold out or forth, to offer.
Bed, re. 1. FORM: red before vowels, before h, and in red-do ; re in
other situations. 2. MEANING : ' back,' ' again,' ' in return ' : red-eo, to go
back ; re-ficid, to repair, make again ; red-amd, to love in return.
Sed, 11 s. 1. FORM : sed before vowels ; sf before consonants. 2. MEAN-
ING : ' apart,' 'aside' : se-cedo, to go apart, secede ; se-pond, to put aside or apart.
NOTE. For the Composition of Adverbs, see 304, I., 2 ; 3O4, II., 1, note ;
304, IV., note 2.
1 Or before i =.j OTJi; see foot-note 1, p. 20.
2 Compare amb6, both, and a/^t, around, on both sides.
3 An before c, q, f, and t.
For amb-efi.
Din-jwngr>, dl-jfidicO.
Both literally ' apart' in respect to place or position, and figwrativtHy ' opart 1 In
eutiment or opinion.
7 Especially in adjectives : die-par, unequal ; dis-ximilig, unlike.
8 Greek iropri. wport, n-pos, to, toward, see Curtius, 381.
To sit near and so to control.
10 Sometimes negative, not, un-: re-signa, to unseal; re-cir/da, to open
11 Probably an old ablative of sul and identical with *-J. \iut
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.
PART THIRD.
SYNTAX
CHAPTER I.
SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.
t. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES-
845. SYNTAX treats of the construction of sentences.
346. A sentence is a combination of words expressing either a
single thought or two or more thoughts.
347. A SIMPLE SENTENCE expresses a single thought :
Deus mundum aedificuvit, God made (built) tfte world. Cic.
348. A COMPLEX SENTENCE expresses one leading thought with
one or more dependent thoughts:
DOnec eris fellx, multds numerable amlcOs, so long as you shall be prosper-
ous, you will number many friend*. Ovid.
NOTE 1. In this example two simple sentences (1) 'you will be prosperous' and.
(2) ' you witt number many friends ' are so united that the first only specifies the timt
of the second : You trill number many friends (when ?), so long as you shall bt pros-
perous. The parts thus united are called Clause* or Members.
NOTR 2. The part of the complex sentence which makes complete sense of itself
multog mimertibis am f* Is called the Principal or Independent Clause; and the
part which is dependent upon it doneo eri fe/ve is called the Subordinate or De
ptndent Clause.
349. A COMPOUND SENTENCE expresses two or more independ
nt thoughts:
Sol ruit et montCs umbrantur, th 9un hastens to its setting and th mvun
tains fire shaded. Verg.
350. A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE has the form of an assertion :
Miltiades accfisatus eat, Mittiailes wot accused. Ntp.
351. An INTEKROGATIVE SENTENCE has the form of a ques-
tion:
Quis loquitur, who upealcsf Ter. Quis nftn paupertatem extimeseit,
viho does not /ear poverty? Cic. Quid ais, n'hat do you say? Tcr. EC-
180 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.
quid anlmadvertis silentium, do you not notice f he silence f Cic. Qualis es1
6 rati.6, ichat kind of an oration, is it ? Cic. Quot sunt, how many are there /
Plaut. Ubi sunt, where are they f Cic. Ubinam gentium sumus, where in
the world are we? Cic. Vlsne fortunam experlri meam, do you wish to try
my fortune? Cio. Nonne nobilitart volunt, do they not wish to be renowned?
Cic. Num igitur peccamus, are we then at fault f Cic.
1. IOTEBBOGATIVE WORDS. Interrogative sentences generally contain some
interrogative word either an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb, or
one of the interrogative particles: 8 -ne, no/me, num ; see examples above.
NOTE 1. Questions with -ne ask for information: Scribitne, 'is he writing?' N
is sometimes appended to u,trum, num, or an, without affecting their meaning, and some-
times inserted in the clause after utrum :
Numne ferre arma debuerunt, ought they to have borne arms t Cic. Utrum tace-
am no. an praedlcem, shall I be silent, or shall I speak f Ter.
NOTE 2. Questions with nonne expect the answer yes: Nfnme seribit, 'is he not
writing? 1
NOTE 3. Questions with num expect the answer no : Num sortoit, Ms he writing?'
NOTE 4. For questions with an, see 363, note 4.
2. The particle -ne is always appended to some other word, generally to
the emphatic word of the sentence, i. e., to the word upon which the ques-
tion especially turns ; appended to non, it forms nonne :
Visne experirl, do you, WISH to try f Ctc. Tune id veritus es, did YOU fear this .'
Cic. Omnisne peciinia soluta est, has ALL the money been paid t Cic. Hocinest
(= h Seine est '*) officium patris, is THIS the duty of a father f Ter. Uiiquamne vidlsti
have you EVER seen f Cic. Nonne volunt, do they NOT wish t Cic.
3. Sometimes no interrogative word is used, especially in impassioned
discourse :
Crgditls, do you believe t Verg. Ego nOn poterO, xhall I not be ablet Oic.
4. An emphatic tandem, meaning indeed^ pray, then, often occurs in inter-
rogative sentences:
Quod genus tandem est Istud gldriae, what kind of glory is that, pray t da
NOTB 1. Nam, appended to an interrogative, also adds emphasis:
Numnam haec audlvit. did he hear thw, pray t Ter.
NOTE 2. For Two Interrogate es in the same clause, and for an Interrogative with
tantus, see 454, 3 and 4.
352. ANSWERS. Instead of replying to a question of fact with
a simple particle meaning yes or no, the Latin usually repeats the
verb or some emphatic word, often with prorsus, vero, and the like,
or if negative, with non :
DIxitne causam, did he ttate the came? Dlxit, he gtated it. Cic. Pos-
sumusne tutl esse, can. we be safe ? Non possumus, we can not. Cic.
1 Ecquid, though the neuter accusative of an interrogative pronoun, has become ii
effect a mere particle with the force of nonne,
9 See 311, 8, foot-note.
' 8 87, note.
CLASSIFICATION OF StiXTENVUS. \%\
NOTE 1. Sometimes the simple particle is used affirmatively, tune, etiam,ita, ver<\
wte, etc. ; negatively, non, minime, e'tc,
Vgnitne, has he come t Non, no 1'laut.
NOTE 2. Sometimes, without an actual repetition of the emphatic word, some equi-
ralent expression is used :
Tuain vestem dGtraxit tib!, did he atrip off your coatt Factum, he did lit., dona
for it was don. Ter.
353. DOUBLE or DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS offer a choice or alter
native, and generally take one of the following forms :
1. The first clause has utrum or -nc, and the second an:
Utrurn ea vestra an nostra culpa est, is that your fault or ours* Cic,
tomamue veniO an hie maneO, do I go to Rome, or do I remain here? Cio.
2. The first clause omits the particle, and the second has an, or anne :
filoquar an sileam, shall I utter it, or Tceep silence? Verg. Gablni5 dlcaia
anne Pompeio, to Gabinius, shall I sat/, or to Pompey ? Cic.
NOTE 1. Other forms are rare. 1
NOTK 2. Utrum sometimes stands before a disjunctive question with - in the flrsl
clause and an in the second:
Utrum, taceamne, an praedicem, which, shall 1 be silent, or shall I speak ? Ter.
NOTE 3. When the second clause is negative, the particle generally unites with the
negative, giving annfm or necne:
8unt haec tua verba necne, are. theiw your words or notf Cic.
NOTK 4. By the omission of the first clause, the second often stands alone with an,
in the sense of or, implying a negative answer :
An hoc timemus, or do ice fear this f Liv.
NOTE 5. Disjunctive questions sometimes have three or more members : a
Oablnio anne PompCiO an utrique, to Gabiniwt, or Pompey, or both f Cic.
NOTB . Disjunctive questions inquire which alternative is true. These must be
distinguished
1) From such single questions as inquire whether either alternative is true :
Solem dlcam aut lutiam deum, shall I call the sun or the moon a god t * Cic.
2) From two separate questions, introduced respectively by num, implying a negative
answer, and by an, implying an affirmative answer:
Num furls 1 an ludis m6? are you mad ! or do you not rather mock me T Hor.
354. An IMPERATIVE SENTENCE has the form of a command,
3xhortation, or entreaty :
Justitiam cole, cultivate juttice. Cic.
355. An EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE has the form of an exclama-
tion:
Rellquit quOs viros, w hat men he has left .' Cic.
1 Thus, in Vergil, -nt occurs In both clauses, also -tie in the first with seu in the
second. In Horace, -ne occurs in the second clause with no particle in the first.
a Cicero, In his oration Pro Domfi, xxii., 57, has a question of this kind extended t
eight clauses, the first introduced by utrum and each of the others by an.
9 Observe that in this sens* aut, not an, Is used.
182 SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.
NOT 1. Many sentences Introduced by interrogative pronouns, adjectives, or ftd
*erbs may be so spoken as to become exclamatory :
Quibus gaudiis exsultabis, in what joys will you exult t Cic.
NOTE 2. Some declarative and imperative sentences readily become exclamatory.
NOTE 3. Exclamatory sentences are often elliptical.
II. ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES.
356. The SIMPLE SENTENCE in its MOST SIMPLE FORM consist*
f two distinct parts, expressed or implied:
1. The SUBJECT, or that of which it speaks;
2. The PREDICATE, or that which is said of the subject:
Cluilius moritur, Cluilius dies. 1 Liv.
357. The SIMPLE SENTENCE in its MOST EXPANDED FORM con-
sists only of these same parts with their various modifiers:
In his castris Cluilius, Albanus rex, moritur, Cluilius, the Alban Icing
dies in this camp? Liv.
1. The subject and predicate of a sentence are called the Principal 01
Essential elements ; their modifiers, the Subordinate elements.
2. The elements, whether principal or subordinate, may be either simple
or complex :
1) Simple, when not modified by other words ; see 358.
2) Complex, when thus modified ; see 359.
358. The SIMPLE SUBJECT of a sentence must be a noun, a pro-
noun, or some word or words used as a noun : '
Bex dficrevit, the king decreed. Nep. Ego scribo, / write. Cic. Ibam,
I was walking. Hor. Vlcimus, we nave conquered. Cic. Video idem valet,
the word video has the same meaning. Quint.
359. The COMPLEX SUBJECT consists of the simple subject with
its modifiers :
Populus Romdnus decrevit, the ROMAN people decreed. Cic. Cluilius rex
moritur, Cluilius THE KINO dies. Liv. Rex RutuUrum, the king OF THE
BUTULI. Liv. Libert officiis, the look ON DUTIES. Cic.
NOTE 1. The subject is thns modified
1) By an ADJECTIVE : Popnlus Romanus.
2) By a NOUN IN APPOSITION : Cluilius rex.
8) By a GENITIVE: Rex Rutul<~>rum.
4) By a NOUN WITH A PREPOSITION : Liber d? offlcils.
1 Here CMUu is the subject, and moritur the predicate.
2 Here Cluilius, Albdnus rfx, is the subject in its enlarged or modified form, and in
ft? castrts moritur is the predicate in its enlarged or modified form.
8 A pronominal subject is always contained or implied in the personal ending. Thus
m in llia-m is a pronominal stem = fire>, and is the true original subject of the verb. Sed
ilo 247; 368 2, foot-note.
ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 183
NOTE 2. A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify another noun or pro-
noun denoting the same person or thing, is called an Appositive ; as Clullius rex, ' Clui-
lius the king. 1
Norn 3. Any noun may be modified like the subject.
NOTE 4. Sometimes adverbs occur as modifiers of nouns :
Non ignari surnus ante inalorum, w are not ignorant of PAST misfortunes.
Verg.
360. The SIMPLE PREDICATE must be either a verb, or the
copula sum with a noun or adjective :
Miltiades est accusdtus, Miltiades WAS ACCUSED. Nep. Tu es testis, you AKF j
WITNESS. Cic. Fortuna caeca est, fortune is BLIND. Cic.
NOTE 1. Like sum, severe! other verbs sometimes unite with a noun or an adjective
to form the predicate ; see 362, 2. A noun or an adjective thus used is called a Predi
cute Noun or Predicate Adjective.
NOTE 2. Sum with an adverb sometimes forms the predicate :
Omnia recte snnt, all things are RIGHT. Cic.
361. The COMPLEX PREDICATE consists of the simple predicate
with its modifiers:
Miltiades Attends llberavit, Miltiades liberated ATHENS. Nep. Laborl
student, they devote themselves TO LABOB. Caes. Me rogavit sententiam, Tie
usked ME MY OPINION. Cic. Pens iter hostibus dedit, the, bridgt furnished
A PASSAGE TO THE ENEMY. Liv. Bella fellciter gessit, he waged wars ncc-
CESSFULLY. Cic. In It/Is castrls moritur, he dies (where?) IN THIS CAMP. Liv
Vere convfinere, they assembled (when?) IN THE SPKING. Liv.
1. The Predicate, when a verb, is thus modified
1) By an ACCUSATIVE : Attends llberavit.
2) By a DATIVE : Laborl student.
8) By two ACCUSATIVES : Me rogavit xententiam.
4) By an ACCUSATIVE and a DATIVE : Iter hostibus dedit.
5) By an ADVERB : Fellciter gessit.
6) By an ADVERBIAL PHRASE: In, hi* caxtrls moritur.
NOTH 1. Still other modifiers occur with special predicates; see 406, 409, 41O,
422.
NOTE 2. No one predicate admits all the modifiers here given. Thus only transi-
tive verbs admit an Accusative (371); only intransitive verbs, a Dative alone (384, 1.);
and only upecinl verbs, two Accusatives (374).
2. A PREDICATE NOUN is modified like the subject:
Haec virtus omnium est rCglna virtutum, this virtue in the queen OF ALI
VIRTUES. Cic. See also 369, notes 1 and 3.
3. A PREDICATE ADJECTIVE is modified
1) By an ADVERB: Satis humilis est, he ^s SUFFICIENTLY humble. Liv.
2) By an OBLIQUE CASE : AvidI laudis fuerunt, they were desirous OF PRAISS
Cic. Omn! aetati mors est commfmis, death ix common TO EVERY AOE. Cic
sunt amicitia, they are worthy OK FRIENDSHIP. Cic.
NOTE. Any adjective may be modified like the predicate adjective :
Eqnes ROiuauus satis litteratus, a Roman knight sufficiently literary. Cic.
184 8YNTAX OF NOUNS.
CHAPTER IL
SYNTAX OF NOUNS.
SECTION I.
AGREEMENT OP NOUNS.
RULE I. Predicate Nouns. 1
362. A noun predicated of another noun denoting the
same person or thing agrees with it in CASE : *
Brutus c&stdt* llbertatis fuit, Brutus was the GUARDIAN of liberty. Liv.
Serviua rex est declarutus, Ser-vius was declared KINO. Liv. Orestem se ease
durit, he said that he was ORESTES. Cio. See 36O, note 1.
NOTE. This role applies also to uouns predicated of pronouns :*
Ego turn niintius, I am a messenger. Liv.
1. A Predicate Noun with different forms for different genders must
agree in GENDER as well as in CASE :
Usus magister* est, experience is AN INBTBUOTOB. Cio. Historia est ma-
yittra* (not magister), history is AN INSTRUOTBESS. Cio.
2. PREDICATE NOUNS are most frequent with the following verbs :
1) With sum and a few intransitive verbs Svado, exsisto, appareO, and
the like:
SomS mdgnus evaserat, Ae had become (turned out) A GREAT MAN. do.
Exstitit vindex libertatis, he became (stood forth) TBS DEFBNDEB of liberty.
Cio. See also examples under the rule.
2) With Passive Verbs of appointing, making, naming, regarding, es-
teeming, and the like :
Servius rex est declaratus, Servius wot declared KING. Liv. Mundus civi-
tat exlstimatur, the world is regarded as A STATE. Cic.
NOTK 1. In the poets, Predicate Nouns are used with great freedom after verb* of I
great variety of significations. Thus with audio = appellor:
Rex audlstl, you have been catted KINO ; 1. e., have heard yourself so called. HOT.
Ego divdrn incedo regina, I walk AS QITEEX of thi gods. Verg.
1 For convenience of reference, the Rules will be presented in a body on page 824.
9 For Predicate Genitive, see 401.
* In these examples c'tstds, rex, and Orestem are all predicate nouns, and agree in
cas respectively with Brutus, Servius, and sS (536).
* As all substantive pronouns have the construction of nouns; see 182.
* Observe that in usws magister est, the masculine form, magister, is used to agre
m gender with ftsus ; while in historia est magistra, the feminine form, maytetra, If
used to agree in gender with historia.
APPOSITIVES. 185
WOTB 1 Tor Predicate Accusative, see 373, 1.
Nora 3. The Dative of the object for which (390), pro with the Ablative, and low
it numero (or in numero) with the Genitive, are often kindred in force to Predicata
Noon* : hostl, pro hoste, loco hostis, numero (or in numero) hostium. ' for an enemy, 1
or 'as an enemy 1 :
Fait omnibus bond, it was A BENEFIT (lit., FOR A BENEFIT) to all. Cic. Bicilis
nObls pro aerdrid fait, Sicily teas A TREASURY (FOB A TREASURY) for us. Cic. Quaes-
tor! parentis loco fait, he was A PARENT (lit., IN THE PLACE OF A PARENT) to the questor.
Cic. Is tib! parentis numero fait, fie was A PARENT to you. Cic. See also Predi
Gate Genitive, 4O1.
3. PREDICATE NOUNS are used not only with finite verbs, but also with
INFINITIVES and PARTICIPLES, and sometimes without verb or participle :
Dficlaratus rex Numa, Numa having been declared KINO. Liv. CanlniO
c&mvle, Canini'ua BEING CONSUL. Cic. See 431, also Orestem under the rule.
NOTE 1. For a PREDICATB NOMINATIVE after the INFINITIVE esse, see 536, 2, 1).
NOTE 2. For an INFINITIVE or a CLAUSE instead of a Predicate Noun ; see 539; 5O1.
RULE II. Appositives.
363. An Appositive agrees in CASE with the noun 01
pronoun which it qualifies :
Clullius rex moritur, Cluiliits THE KIHG dies. Liv. UrbCs Karthagb
atque Numantia, llie cities CARTHAGE and NUMANTIA. Cic. Saguntum,
foederatam dviUUem, exptignavit, he look Sayuntum, an allied TOWN. Liv.
See 359, note 2.
1. An Appositive with different forms for different genders must agree
in GENDER as well as in CASE :
Clullins TV./-,' Cluilius THE KING. Liv. Venus reglha, 1 Venn* TUB WEEN.
Hor.
2. An Appositive often agrees with the pronoun implied in the ending
of the verb :
Hosti** hostem occldere volul, 7, AH ENEMY, wished to tlay an entmy. Liv.
8. Appositives are kindred in force
1) Generally to RELATIVE clauses :
Clullius rftc, CluiUvs (who was) THE KINO. Liv.
2) Sometimes to other SUBORDINATE clauses, 3 as TEMPORAL, CONOTCBSIVE, etc. :
Furius piter didicit, Furius learned WHEN HE WAS A BOY or AS A BOY. Cic.
Junius aedem dictator dcdicavit, Juniitt dedicated th* temple WHEN DICTATOR,
Liv.
4. By SYNESIS* a CONSTRUCTION ACCORDING TO SENSE:
See 368, 1, foot-note.
* ITostis agrees with ego. Implied In volul, ' I wished ' ; se 358. foot-not*
' This construction is sometimes called Adverbial Apposition.
* See Fignre* <tf Kprtrh, 036, IV.. 4.
186 GENERAL VIEW OF CASES.
1) Possessives admit a Genitive in apposition with the Genitive of the pro-
noun implied in them :
Tua ipslus * amlcitia, your OWN friendship. Cic. Meum sollus peccfttum,
my fault ALONE. Cic. Nomen raeum absentis, my name IN MY ABSENCE. Cic,
2) Locatives admit as an Appositive a Locative Ablative (411, 435), with
or without a preposition :
Albae constiterunt in urbe opportunaf they halted at Alba, A CONVENIENT
CITY. Cic. Corinthl, Achaiae urbe, at Corinth, A CITY of Achaia. Tac.
5. CLAUSES. A noun or pronoun may be in apposition with a clause,
or a clause in apposition with a noun or pronoun :
Nos, id 3 quod debet, patria delectat, our country delights us, as it ougM.
Cic. Omnes interflcl jussit, munimentum* ad praesens, he ordered them all
to be put to death, A MEANS OF PROTECTION for tJte present. Tac. For clauses
in apposition with nouns or pronouns, see 499, 3 ; 5O1, III.
364. PARTITIVK APPOSITION. The parts may be in apposition
with the whole, or the whole in apposition with the parts :
Duo reges, ille bello, hie pace, clvitatem auxerunt, two kings advanced tht
state, THE FOBMER by war, the LATTER by peace. Liv. Ptolemaeus et Cleopatra,
reges* Aegypti, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, RULERS of Egypt. Liv.
SECTION II.
GENERAL VIEW OF CASES.
365. Cases, in accordance with their general force, may be ar-
ranged and characterized as follows :
I. Nominative, Case of the Subject.
II. Vocative, Case of Address.
III. Accusative, Case of Direct Object.
IV. Dative, Case of Indirect Object.
V. Genitive, Case of Adjective Relations.
VI. Ablative, Case of Adverbial Relations. 5
1 Ipgiu* agrees with till (of you) involved in tua ; solim and absentis, with met
involved in meum. The Genitive of ipst, solus, ftnus, and omnis is often thus used.
* As a Locative Ablative is a genuine Locative in sense, there is no special irregii-
larity here, and in urbe opportftnd may be explained as a separate modifier of th verb:
' They halted at Alba, at a convenient city.'' Thus explained, it is not an appositi ve at all.
3 Id quod debet, lit., THAT which it oicet. Id and munlmentum are in apposition
respectively with nos delectat and omnet inter/id, and are best explained as Accusatives.
A Nominative apparently in apposition with a clause is generally best explained either as
sn appositive to some Nominative, or as the subject of a separate clause.
* In the first example, ille and file, the parts, are in apposition with reges, the whole ;
but in the second example, regix, the whole, is in apposition with the parts, Ptoleitiaeux
and Cleopatra.
This arrangement is adopted in the discussion of the cases, because, it is thought
it will best present the force of the several cases and their relation to each other.
NOMINATIVE. VOCATIVE. 187
366. The Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Vocative
have probably retained with very slight modifications their original
force as developed in the mother tongue from which the Latin was
derived. *
367. The Ablative combines within itself the separate offices
of three cases which were originally distinct : *
1. The Ablative proper, denoting the relation FROM the place
FROM which.
2. The Locative, denoting the relation IN, AT the place IN or AT
which.
3. The Instrumental, denoting the relation WITH, BY the instru-
ment or means WITH or BY which.
SECTION III.
NOMINATIVE. VOCATIVE.
I. NOMINATIVE.
RULE EEL Subject Nominative.
368. The subject of a finite verb is put in the Nomina-
tive: 1
Servian regnavit, SERVIUS reigned. Liv. Patent portae, THE GATES are
open. Cic. Rex vlcit, THE KINO conquered. Liv. Ego rgges ejecl, vos
tyrannos introducitis, I have banished kings, YOU introduce tyrante. Cic.
1. The subject is always a substantive, a pronoun, or some word or
clause used substantively ; 4 see examples under the rule.
2. A pronominal subject is always expressed or implied in the ending
of the verb : *
. ' That is, in the primitive Indo-European tongue, from which have been derived,
either directly or indirectly, not only the Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, but also the English,
French, German, and indeed nearly all the languages of modern Europe. Upon tin- gen-
eral subject of Ca*ex, their original formation and meaning, see Bopp. I., pp. 242-519;
Merguet, pp. 17-117; Penka, Hubschmann, Holzweicslg, Delbruck, and, among the earlier
writers, Hartung, ' Ueber die Casus,' etc., and Kumpel, ' Casuslehre.'
J See Delbruck, ' Ablativ, Localis. Instrumentalist
' For the Sulyect of the Infinitive, see 536. For the Agreement of the verb with
its subject, see 46O.
4 For clauses used snbstantively, see 54O.
6 8ee 247. Thus monefi means /{not you, he, or we, but /) instruct. Indeed,
every verb contains a pronominal subject in itself, and in general it is necessary to add
a separate subject only when it would otherwise be doubtful to whom the implied pro
iioun refers. Thus rfgnilrit, 'he reigned.' to complete of itself, if the context shows to
188 VOCATIVE.
Discipulos moneo l ut studia amen/, I instruct pupils to love (that THBT
may love) their studies. Quint. Non scholae, sed vltae discb, WE learn
not for the school, but for life. Sen.
NOTE. A separate pronominal subject may, however, be added for the sake of clear-
ness, emphasis, or contrast, as in the fourth example under the rule.
3. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it can be readily supplied, es-
pecially if it is est or sunt :
Ecce tuae litterae, lo your letter (comes). Cic. Tot sententiae, there are
/Bunt) so many opinions. Ter. Consul profectus (est), the consul set out. Liv.
NOTE 1. The verb facto is often omitted in short sentences and clauses:
Melius M, quam vos, these have done better than you. Cic. Eecte ille, he does
rightly. Cic. Cotta finem, Cotta closed, lit., made an end. Cic. So also in Livy
after nihil aliud (amplius, minus, etc.) quam, ' nothing other (more, less, etc.) than ' =
merely'; nihil praeterquam, 'nothing except' = 'merely ': Nihil aliud quam stete-
runt, they merely stood (did nothing other than). Liv.
NOTE 2. Certain forms of expression often dispense with the verb :
Quid, what? quid enim, what indeed? quid ergo, what then? quid quod, what of
the fact that? quid plura, why more, or why shall I say more? nf plura, not to Bay
more; ne multa, not to say much; quid hoc ad me, what is this to me? nihil ad rem,
nothing to the subject.
NOTB 3. For the Predicate Nominative, see 362.
NOTE 4. For the Nominative as an Appositive, see 363.
NOTB 5. For the Nominative in Exclamations, see 381, note 3.
II. VOCATIVE.
RULE IV. Case of Address.
369. The name of the person or thing addressed is put
in the Vocative :
Perge, Laeli, proceed, LAELICS. Cic. Quid est, Catilina, why is it, CATI-
LINE ? Cic. Tuum est, Servl, regnum, the kingdom is yours, SERVIUS. Liv
dil immortalSs, immortal GODS. Cic.
1. An Interjection may or may not accompany the Vocative.
2. In poetry, and sometimes in prose, the Nominative in apposition with
the subject occurs where we should expect the Vocative :
Audi tu, populus Albanus, hear ye, Alban PEOPLE. Liv.
3. Conversely, the Vocative by attraction sometimes occurs in poetry where
we should expect the Nominative :
Qnibus, Hector, ab oris ea-spectute venls, from what shores, Hector, do you AKX-
IOUSLT AWAITED come ? Verg. Made nova virtute, puer, a blessing on your new
valor, boy (lit., be ENLARGED by; supply estti). Verg.
whom the pronoun he refers ; if not, the noun must be added : Servius regnavit, lit., he,
Servius, reigned, or Servius, he reigned. In the fourth example under the rule, e go and
vf>s, though already implied in the form of the verb, are expressed for emphasis. In
impersonal verbs the subject ' it.' in English, is implied in the personal ending t.
1 See preceding foot-note.
ACCUSATIVE. 189
SECTION IV.
ACCUSATIVE.
870. The Accusative is used '
I. As the Direct Object of an Action;
II. In an Adverbial Sense with or without Prepositions;
III. In Exclamations with or without Interjections.
NOTE 1. For the Predicate Accusative, see 362 and 373, 1.
NOT* 2. For the Accusative in Apposition, see 363.
NOTE 8. For the Accusative with Prepositions, see 433.
NOTB 4. For the Accusative as the Subject of an Infinitive, see 536.
I. ACCUSATIVE AS DIRECT OBJECT.
RULE V. Direct Object.
371. The Direct Object of an action is put in the
Accusative :
Deus mundum aedificavit, God made (built) THE WORLD. Cic. Llbera
ran puhlicam, free THE REPUBLIC. Cic. PopulT RomanI salutem dSfendite,
defend THE SAFETY of tlie Roman people. Cic.
I. The DIRECT OBJECT may be
1. An External Object, the person or thing on which the action of the
verb is directly exerted, as salutem above.
2. An Internal Object ; \. e., one already contained or implied in the
action itself. This embraces two varieties :
1) In a STRICT SENSE, the Cognate Accusative, an object having a mean-
ing cognate or kindred to that of the verb :
Servitutem servlre, a to terve in bondage (lit., to serve A SEIWTUDE). Ter.
2) In a FREER SENSE, the Accusative of Effect, the object produced by
the action :
Librum scrlbere, to write A BOOK. Cio.
NOTE. Participles in dux, verbal adjectives in bundus, and in Plautus a
few verbal nouns, occur with the accusative :
Vltabundus castra, avoiding the camp. Liv. Quid tibl hanc curatiost
(curatio est) ' rem = cQr hanc rcm curas, irhat care have you of this? Plaut.
1 The Accusative is probably the oldest of all the oblique cases known to our family
of languages, and was therefore originally the sole modifier of the verb, expressing in a
vague and general way several relations now recognized as distinct. This theory c-
connts for the great variety of constructions In which the Accusative Is used in Latin.
See Ourtius, 'Zur Chronologic,' pp. 71-74; Holzwelsslg, pp. 84-3S.
s The pupil will observe that the Idea of xerTitfttem, ' servitude,' ' service,' is 00^
tained In .the verb servtre, ' to serve,' ' to be a slave or servant. 1
3 8e 27. note.
190 ACCUSATIVE.
II. The COGNATE ACCUSATIVE is generally (1) a noun with an adjective
or other modifier, or (2) a neuter pronoun or adjective. It is used quite
freely both with transitive and with intransitive verbs, and sometimes even
with verbs in the passive voice :
Earn vitam vlvere, to live that LIFE. Cic. Mlrurn soinniare somnium, fa
dream a wonderful DREAM. Plaut. Eadem peccat, he makes THE SAME MIS
TAKES.' Cic. Hoc studet unum, he studies this ONE THING (this one study).
Hor. Perfidum rldens Venus, Venus smiling A PERFIDIOUS SMILE. Hor. Id
assentior, / assent to THIS (I give THIS assent). Cic. Idem gloriarl, to make
THE SAME BOAST. Cic. Quid possunt, HOW powerful are they, or WHAT power
hace they ? Caes. Ea monemur, we are admonished OF THESE THINGS.* Cic.
Mhil moti sunt, they were NOT AT ALL moved. Liv.
NOTE. Here may be mentioned the following kindred constructions :
Vox hominem souat, the voice sounds HUMAN. Verg. Saltare Cyclopa, to dance
THE CYCLOPS. Hor. Longam viam ire, to go A long WAY. Verg. Bellum pugniire, to
fight A BATTLE. Verg.
III. SPECIAL VERBS. Many verbs of FEELING or EMOTION, of TASTE and
SMELL, admit the Accusative :
Honores desperat, he despairs of HONORS. Cic. Haec gemebant, they wert
sighing over THESE THINGS. Cic. Detrimenta rldet, he laughs at LOSSES. Hor.
O let unguenta, he has the odor of PERFUMES. Ten OratiO redolet antlquitdt&n,
the oration smacks of ANTIQUITY. Cic.
NOTE 1. Such verbs are: desptro, to despair of; doled, to grieve for; geme, to sigh
over; horreO, to shudder at; lacrimO, to weep over; maereo, to mourn over; miror,
to wonder at; rldef), to laugh at; sitio, to thirst for, etc.; oleo, to have the odor of;
sapid, to savor of, whether used literally or figuratively. 3
NOTE 2. Many verbs in Latin, as in English, are sometimes transitive and some-
times Intransitive; see auged, dftrd, incipio, laaef), rtiO, suppeditd, turbo, etc., in the
Dictionary.
NOTE 3. Many verbs which are usually rendered by transitive verbs In English
are intransitive in Latin, and thus admit only an indirect object or some special con
struction ; see 385.
NOTE 4. The object of a transitive verb is often omitted, when it can be easily sup
plied : moved = moved me, ' I move (myself) ' ; vertit = vertit se, ' he turns (himself) ' :
Castris non movit, he did not mote from his camp. Liv. Jam verterat fortuna.
fortune had already changed. Liv.
NOTE 5. For the Passive Construction, see 464.
IV. An INFINITIVE or a CLAUSE may be used as Direct Object :
Imper&re cupiunt, they desire TO RULE. Just. Opto ut id audidtie, I deslri
THAT TOU MAT HEAR THIS. Cic.
1 Peccat, 'be makes a mistake 1 ; idem, peccat, 'he makes the same mistake. 1 where
idem represents idem pec<um.
* Literally, ict are admonished THESE THIHOS, i. e., these admonitions.
' Observe that with the Accusative despero means not ' to despair, 1 but ' to despair
of. 1 and is accordingly transitive; doled, not 'to grieve, 1 but 'to grieve for, 1 etc. With
tome of the verbs here given the object is properly a Cognate Accusative.
ACCUSATIVE. 191
372. Many COMPOUNDS of intransitive verbs with prepositions,
especially compounds of verbs of motion with circum, yer, praeter,
trans, and super, take the Accusative :
Murmur contionem pervasit, a murmur went through THE ASSEMBLY. Liv.
Rhenum transierunt, they crossed (went across) THE RHINE. Caes. Circum-
stant sendtum, they stand around THE SENATE. Cic. Hereditdtem oblre, to
enter upon THE INHERITANCE. Cic. Eas ndtiones adlre, to go to those NATIONS.
Caes. Undam innatare, to float upon THE WAVE. Verg. Tela exlre, 1 to avoid
THE WEAPONS. Verg. Gallos praecedunt, they surpass THE GAULS. Caes.
RULE VI. Two Accusatives Same Person.
373, Verbs of MAKING, CHOOSING, CALLING, REGARDING,
SHOWING, and the like, admit two Accusatives of the same
person or thing :
Hamilcarem imperatorem fScfirunt, they made Hamilcar COMMANDER.
Nep. Ancum regem populus creavit, the people elected Ancus KING. Liv.
Suramum consilium appellarunt Sendtum, they called their highest council
SENATE. Cic. S6 praestitit prdpugnatorem llbertatis, he showed himself
THE CHAMPION of liberty. Cic. Flaccum habuit collegam, he had Flaccm AS
COLLEAGUE. Nep. Socrates totius mundi se clvem arbitrabatur, Socrates
considered himself A CITIZEN of the whole world. Cic.
1. PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE. One of the two Accusatives is the Direct Object,
and the other an essential part of the Predicate. The latter may be called a
Predicate Accusative ; see 362.
NOTE 1. ffabeo, 'to have, 1 admits two Accusatives, but when it means 'to regard. 1
it usually takes, instead of the Predicate Accusative, the Dative of the object for which
(384), the Ablative with in or pro, or the Genitive with loa'i, numero or in numero :
liidibrio habere, 'to regard as an object of ridicule'; j>ri'i haste liabfre, in hostibn*
fiabfre, locf> hostium habfre, nnmerii or in numero hostium habfrt, 'to regard as an
enemy.' These constructions also occur with other verbs meaning to regard :
Ea honf/rl habent, they regard thetse things AB AN HONOR. Sail. Ilium pro fionte
habcre, to regard him AD AN ENEMY. Caes. Jam pro factfi habere, to regard it AB
already DONB. do. In hostium numero habuit, fie regarded them AS ENEMIES (lit., in
tli? number of, etc.V Caes. Mu pro dfridiculo putat, ht regards me AS AN OBJECT o^
KlUIrl-] K. TlT.
NOTK -2. -The f'rerficate Accusative Is sometimes an adjective:
Homines caecfw reddit avaritia, avarice renders men BLIND. Cic. Templa deoruui
mi Hi-tit habebat, he regarded the temple* of the gods AS SACRED. Nep.
2. In the PASSIVE these verbs take two Nominatives a Subject and a Predi-
cate corresponding to the two Accusatives of the Active :
Ssrvius rfx est declaratus, Sermus wa declared KINO. Liv. Se also 362, 2.
1 Observe that an intranxitire verb may become transitive by being compounded
with preupsitioD wbich does not take the Accusative.
192 ACCUSATIVE.
RULE VII. Two Accusatives Person and Thing.
374. Some verbs of ASKING, DEMANDING, TEACHING, and
CONCEALING, admit two Accusatives one of the person
and the other of the thmg :
Me" sententiam rogavit, he asked me MY OPINION. Cic. Philosophia n5s
res omnes docuit, philosophy has taught us all THINGS. Cic. Auxilia rggem
Orabant, they asked AUXILIARIES from the king. Liv. Pacem te poscimus.
toe demand PEACE of you. Verg. Non tS celavl serm&nem, I did not conceal
from you THE CONVERSATION. Cic.
1. In the PASSIVE the PERSON becomes the subject, and the Accusative of
the thing is retained :
MS sententiam rogavit, he asktd me MY OPINION. Cic. Ego sententiam ro-
gStus sum, / was asked MY OPINION. Cic. Artes edoctus fuerat, he had been
taught THE ARTS. Liv.
2. Two ACCUSATIVES are generally used with ceti>, doceO, edoceo ; often with
rogo, posed, reposed,- sometimes with dedoceo, exposed, flagitd, oro, etc., can*
sul6, interrogd, percontor ; rarely with moned, admoned, and postulo.
NOTE 1. Celd, 'to conceal,' takes (1) in the Active generally two Accusatives, at>
under the rule, but sometimes the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the
thing with de ; (2) in the Passive, the Accusative of a neuter pronoun or the Ablative
with de :
Me de hoc librfi celavit, he kept me ignorant OF this BOOK. Cic. Id cGlari, to be
kept ignorant OP THIS. Nep. Celari de const/id, to be kept ignorant OF THE PLAN.
Cic.
NOTB 2. DoceO and edoceo generally follow the rule, 1 but sometimes they take the
Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing with or without di-? and some-
times the Accusative * of the person with the Jujitttfive or a subjunctive Clause:
De sna re me docet, he informs me IN KKGABD TO his CASE. Cic. Litteris Graecis
doctus, instructed IN Greek MTEBATUBE. Sail. Socratem Jidibus 3 docuit, he taught
Socrates (with) THE I.YKE. Cic. Te sapere docet, he teachex you TO BK WISE. Cic.
NOTE 3. Most verbs of asking and demanding sometimes take two Accusatives,
but verbs of asking, questioning, generally take the Accusative of the person * and
the Ablative of the thing 4 with de, and verbs of imploring, demanding, generally the
Accusative of the thing * and the Ablative of the person * with a or ab :
Te his de rebus interrogO, / ask you IN REGAED TO these THINGS. Cic. VIctoriam
ab dils exposcere, to implore victory FBOM THE GODS. Caes. Id ab ed flagitare, to de-
mand this FROM HIM. Caes.
1 Other verbs of teaching erudio, instituQ, inform^, instruo, etc. generally take
the Ablative of the thing with or without a preposition, as in or de; see Dictionary,
a DoceO, in the sense of inform, takes de with the Ablative.
* Th Accusative may be omitted. "Wtthjldibus supply canere.
* The Accusative or Ablative of the person is often omitted, and a clause often takes
the place of the Accusative or Ablative of the thing. For examples and for special con-
structions, see. in the Dictionary, coneulo, interrogd, rogo; al&ojfagitii, 6rf>, pogco. *&
twco, anf 1 reposed.
ACCUSATIVE. 193
NOTE 4. Pctfl and postuld generally take the Accusative of the thing 1 and the
Ablative of the person with <i or ab; quaerf), the Accusative of the thing 1 and the
- of the person with or ea;, , a&, or <W :
Pacem ab Romania petit-rant, they asked peace FBOM THE ROMANS. Caes. Aliquid
amicis postulare, to demand something FROM FKIENDS. Cic. Quaerit ex solo ea, etc ,
OF HIM IN PRIVATE (from him alone) those questions, etc. Caes.
375. A NEUTER PRONOUN or ADJECTIVE as a Cognate' 1 Accusative oc
imrs in connection with a Direct Object with many verbs which do not
otherwise take two Accusatives:
Hoc te hortor, / exhort you to THIS, 7 give you THIS exhortation. Cic. Ea *
laonemur, ive are admonished of THESE THINGS. Cic. So with velle, Caes., B.
G. I., 34.
376. A few COMPOUNDS of trans, circum, and ad admit two Accusa-
tives, dependent the one upon the verb, the other upon the preposition :
Iberum copias trajecit, he led his forces across THE EBRO. Liv. Animum
kdverti columtttam, I noticed (turned my mind to) A SHALL COLUMN. Cic.
NOTE. In the Passive these compounds and some others admit an Accusative de-
pending upon the preposition :
Praetervehor mtla Pantagiae, I am carried by THE MOUTH of the Pantagias. Yerg.
Z^CKW sum praetervectus, / have been carried by THE PLACE. Cic.
377. In POETRY, rarely in prose, verbs of clothing, unclothing induo,
fxuo, cingo, accingo, indued, etc. are sometimes used reflexively in the Pas-
sive, like the Greek Middle, and thus admit an Accusative :
Galeam induitur, he puts on HIS HELMET. Verg. Inutile ferrum cingitur,
he girds on HIS -useless SWORD. Verg. Virginfis longam indutae vestem, maid-
ens attired in long ROBES. Liv.
NOTE. A few other verbs sometimes admit a similar construction In the poets:
Antiquum saturuta dolorem, having satisft'ed her ofd RF.SENTMENT. Verg. Suspend
loculiit lacerto, icith SATCUELS hung upon tlie arm (having hung, etc.). Hor. Pascuntur
lilm'is, they brwcse on THE FORESTS. Verg.
II. ACCUSATIVE IN AN ADVERBIAL SENSE.
RULE VIII. Accusative of Specification.
378. A verb or an adjective may take an Accusative
to define its application : 4
1 The Ablative of the person is often omitted, and, instead of the Accusative of the
.'bing, a clause is often used. With postuln and qi/aerf) the Ablative with df occurs.
For examples and for other special constructions, see Dictionary.
3 See 371. II.
3 As a rare exception, moneo admits a noun as the Accusative of the thing; see
Plaut., Stich.. 1, 2, 1.
4 The Accusative of Specification is closely related to the foynatf Accusative and to
the Poetic Accusative after Passive verbs used reflexively, both of which readily paei
into an adverbial construction. Tout capita ID capita vfld>nnr and (taif-am in galeam
14
194 ACCUSATIVE.
Capita vSlamur, we have OUR HEADS veiled (are veiled as to ODR HEADS, or
have veiled OUR HEADS). Verg. Nube humeros araictus, with HIS SHOULDERS
enveloped in a cloud. Hor. Miles fractus membra labore, the soldier with
LIMBS shattered with labor (broken as to his limbs). Hor. Aeneas 6s deo
similis, Aeneas like a god in APPEARANCE. Verg.
1. In a strict sense, the Accusative of Specification generally specifies the
,>art to which the action or quality particularly belongs. In this sense, it is
mostly poetic, but occurs also in prose. See Ablative of Specification, 424.
2. In a freer sense, this Accusative includes the adverbial use of partem,
vicem, nihil, of id and genus in id temporis, id aetatis (at this time, age), id
genus, 1 omne genus, quod genus (for e/us generis, etc.\ etc. ; also of secus, res,
and of many neuter pronouns and adjectives hoc, illud, id, quid (454, 2),
multum, summum, cetera, riliqua, etc. In this sense, it is common in prose :
Maximum partem lacte vlvunt, they live mostly (as to the largest PART)
upon milk. Caes. Locus id temporis vacuus erat, the place was AT THIS time
vacant, Cic. Aliquid id genus scrlbere, to write something OF this KIND.
Oic. Alias res est improbus, IN other THINGS (as to the rest) he is unprinci-
pled. Plaut. Quaerit, quid possint, he inquires now powerful they are. Caes.
vfenlstl, WHY have you come? Plaut.
RULE IX. Accusative of Time and Space.
379. DUKATION OF TIME and EXTENT OF SPACE are ex-
pressed by the Accusative :
Romulus septem et triginta regnavit annos, Romulus reigned thirty-seven
YEARS. Liv. Cyrus quadraginta annos natus regnare coepit, Cyrus began
to reign (when) forty YEARS old (having been born forty YEARS). Cic. Quln-
que mllia passuum ambulare, to walk five MILES. Cic. Pedes octOginta
dlstare, to be eighty FEET distant. Caes. Nix quattuor pcdcs alta, saow four
FEET deep. Liv. But
1. DURATION OF TIME is sometimes expressed by the Ablative, or by the
Accusative with a preposition :
Pugnatum est horift qulnque, the battle was fought five HOURS. Caes. J'et
annos vlgintl certatum est, the war was iraged FOR twenty YEARS. Liv.
2. DISTANCE is sometimes expressed by the Ablative:
MiUbufi passuum sex a Caesaris castrls consedit, he encamped AT THE DIS-
TANCE or sic MILES/TOW Caesar 's camp. Caes.
NOTE. Ab used adverbially, meaning off, sometimes accompanies the Ablative :
Ab rnllibus passuum duobus castra posuerunt, they pitched their camp two mi/ex
OFF. Caes.
indwitur are similar constructions, while quid in quaerit quid poxxint may be explained
either as a Cognate Accusative (371, I., 2) or as an Adverbial Accusative.
1 Some grammarians treat genun in all such cases as an Appositive: aliyuM, id
genus, something, this kind; see Draeger, I., p. 2.
ACCUSATIVE. 195
RULE X. Accusative of Limit.
380. The PLACE TO WHICH is designated by the Accusa-
tive : '
I. Generally with a preposition ad or in :
LegiOnSs ad urbem adducit, he is leading the legions TO or TOWARD THI
CITY. Cic. Ad me scribunt, they are writing TO ME. Cic. In Asiam redit,
he return* INTO ASIA. Nep. C6nfugit in dram, he fed TO THE ALTAR. Nep.
II. In names of towns without a preposition :
Nuntius Romam redit, the messenger returns TO ROME. Liv. Plato Ta-
rentum vgnit, Plato came TO TARENTUM. Cic. Fugit Tarquinios, he fled TO
TARQI/INII. Cic. But
NOTE. Verb meaning to collect, to come together, etc. convenio, cogo, convocO,
etc. are usually treated as verbs of motion, and thus take the Accusative, generally with
a preposition ; but verbs meaning to place loco, collocO, p<~mO, etc. are usually treated
s verbs of rest, and thus take the Ablative (435), generally with a preposition :
I'nuin in locum convenire, to meet IN one PLACE. Caes. Copias in iinuin loeum
cogere, to collect forces IN one PLACE. Caes. In alterius manu vitain ponere, tc
place one's life is THK HAND of another. Cic.
1. In the NAMES OF TOWNS the Accusative with ad occurs (1) to denote
to, toward, in the direction of, into the vicinity of, and (2) in contrast with
4 or 06.-
Trfis sunt viae ad Mutinam, there are three roads TO MUTINA. Cic. Ad
Zamam pervenit, "he came TO THE VICINITY OF ZAMA. Sail. A Dianio ad
Sinopen, from Dianium TO SINOPE. Cic.
2. Like NAMES OF TOWNS are used
1) The Accusatives domum, domos, rus:
Sclpifi domum reductus est, Scipio was conducted HOVE. Cic. DOIIMX ab
ductl, led TO THEIR HOMES. Liv. Rus fcvolare, to hasten INTO THK COUNTRY.
Cic. Domum rediti6, a return HOME. Caes.
2) Sometimes the Accusative of names of islands and peninsulas :
Latona confugit Delum, Latona fled TO DKLOS. Cic. Pervenit Chereont-
emu, he went TO THE CHERSONESUS. Nep.
3) Rarely a few other Accusatives, as exsequias, Inftias, etc. : *
Ille ivfitids ibit, he will deny (will proceed TO A DENIAL). Ten
3. The preposition is sometimes omitted before names of countries,
and, in the poets, before names of nations and even before common nouns :
J Originally the place to whicJi was uniformly designated by the Accusative without
ft preposition. Names of towns have retained the original construction, while most otbfi/
names of places have assumed a preposition.
a See also the Supine in urn, 546.
196 DATIVE.
Aegyptwm, profugit, he fled TO EGYPT. Cic. Italiam venit, he came TO
ITALY. Verg. Ibimus Afros, wt shall go TO THE AFRICANS. Verg. Lavinia
venit lltora, he came to the La.vin.ian SHORES. Verg.
4. A POETICAL DATIVE occurs for the Accusative, with or without a
preposition :
It clamor caelo (for ad caelum), the shout ascends TO HEAVEN. Verg. Faci-
tis descSnsus Averno, easy ^s the descent TO HADES. Verg. See 385, 4.
III. ACCUSATIVE IN EXCLAMATIONS.
RULE XI. Accusative in Exclamations.
381. The Accusative, either with or without an inter-
jection, may be used in exclamations :
Heu me miserurn, AH ME unhappy ! Cic. Me miserum, ME miserable ! '
Cic. 6 fallacem spem, deceptive HOPE! Cic. Me caecum, blind that
I am ! Cic. Pro deorum fidem, IN THE NAME of the gods I Cic. Hanc-
cine audaciam, this AUDACITY ? s Cic. But
NOTE 1. An adjective or Genitive generally accompanies this Accusative, as in the
examples.
NOTE 2. O, eheu, and heu are the interjections most frequently used with the Ac-
cusative, thougn others occur.
NOTE 8. Ocher cases also occur in exclamations:
1) The Vocative when an address as well as an exclamation is intended :
Pro aancte Juppiter, O holy JUPITER. Cic. Infelix Dido, v/nhappy UIDO. Verg.
8) The Nominative when the exclamation approaches the form of a statement:
En deectra, LO THE RIGHT HAND (there is, or that is the right hand) 1 Verg. Ecce
tue Utter/i, LO your LETTER (comes) ! Cic.
3) The Datvve to designate the person after ei, vae, and sometimes after tea, en,
iern:*
M mikl. WOB TO ME. Verg. Vae tibl, WOE TO YOU. Ter. ffcce ttbi, LO TO Ton
f.o here is to you observe). Cic. En tibl, THIS FOB YOU (lo I do this for you). Liv.
SECTION V.
DATIVE.
382. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object, and
designates the PERSON TO or FOR WHOM,' or the THING TO
or FOR WHICH, anything is o^ is done. 6
1 See Milton, ' Paradise Lost,' IV., 78.
2 The exclamation may of course be interrogative in character.
" This is an Ethical Dative ; see 389.
4 The Indirect Object is generally a perxon. ji- somethinq personified. Unlike the
Direct Object, it is never contained in the action or produced by it, but is in most in-
itances the interested recipient of it.
e Whether this was ilje original meaning of the Dative ts aot Known. Delbriic!
DATIVE. 197
383. The Dative is used
I. With a large class of Verbs and Adjectives ;
II. With a few special Nouns and Adverbs.
RULE XII. Dative with Verbs.
384. The INDIRECT OBJECT of an action is put in the
Dative. It is used
I. With INTRANSITIVE and PASSIVE Verbs :
Till servio, / am devoted TO YOU. Plant. Serviunt populo, they are de-
voted TO THE PEOPLE. Cic. Imperio parebant, they were obedient TO (obeyed)
AUTHORITY. Caes. Tempori cedit, he yields to the time. Cic. Laborl stu-
dent, they devote themselves to labor. Caes. Mundus deo paret, the world
obeys GodJ Cic. Caesart supplicSbo, I will supplicate Caesar} Cic. Nobls
vita data est, life has been granted to us. Cic. NumitOri deditur, he is
delivered to Numitor. Liv.
II. With TRANSITIVE Verbs, in connection with the
DIRECT OBJECT :
Agros/>feii dedit, he gave lands TO THE COMMON PEOPLE. Cic. Tibi gra-
tias ago, / give thanks TO YOU. Cic. Nstura hominem conciliat Aomtnf,
Nature reconcile* man TO MAN. Cic. Pons iter hostibus dedit, the bridge
gave a passage to the enemy. Liv. Legos elvitfitibus suls scrlpserunt, thei,
prepared laws for tJieir states. Cic.
1. The INDIRECT OBJECT may be
1) The DATIVE OF INFLUENCE," designating the person TO whom some-
thing is or is done :
Serviunt populo, they are derated TO THE PEOPLE. Cic. Agros plebi dedit,
he gave land* TO THE COMMON PEOPLE. Cic.
2) The DATIVE OF INTEREST, 2 designating the person FOR whom something
is or is done :
Sibl Megarensfis vlcit, he conquered the Megarians FOU HIMSELF. Just.
3) The DATIVE OF PURPOSE or END," designating the object or end FOH
which something is or is done :
Keceptul cecinit, he gare the signal FOR A RETREAT. Liv.
thinks that this case originally designated the place or object toward ichicJt the action
tended. See Kuhn's ' Zcitschrift,' vol. xvlii., p. 81.
1 In Hvbjecl to God : will make trujiplication to Caesar.
'* Observe that the Dative of Influence is very closely connected with the verb, and
IB. in fact, essential to the cr/m/i/efenei> of the sentence; while the Dative of Ititfrett and
trfe Dative of Purpose are merely added to sentences which would be complete w1U>ii\
tin-in Thus Megarfnueg vlcit is complete in itself.
108 DATIVE.
2. DOUBLE CONSTRUCTION. A few verbs admit (1) the Dative of the
person and the Accusative of the thing, or (2) the Accusative of the per-
son and the Ablative of the thing : alicui rem dondre, ' to present a thing
to any one,' or aliquem re dondre, ' to present any one with a thing ' : '
Praedam mllitibus donat, he gives the booty TO THE SOLDIERS. Caes. Athe-
nienses/r umento donavit, he presented the Athenians WITH GRAIN. Nep.
NOTE. This construction may also be used of objects which are in a measure per-
sonified, or which involve persons :
Murum urbl circumdedit, Jie built a wall around THE CITY. Nep. Deus animum
circumdedit corpore, God has encompassed the soul WITH A BODY. Clc.
3. To and for are not always signs of the Dative. Thus
1) To, denoting mere motion or direction, is generally expressed by the
Accusative with or without a preposition (380) :
VenI ad urbem, I came TO THE CITY. Cic. Delum venimus, we came TO
DELOS. Cic.
NOTE 1. But the Dative occurs in the poets; see 380, 4, and 385, 4.
NOTE 2. Mitto, 'to send,' and scribo, 'to write,' take the Dative, or the Accusative
with ad, to denote the person to whom. :
Scribit Labfeno, he writes TO LABIENUS. Caes. Scribes ad me, you icill write TO
ME. Cic.
2) For, in defence of, in behalf of, is expressed by the Ablative with
pro ; for the sake of, for the purpose of, sometimes by the Accusative
with in :
Prbpatria, mori, to die FOR ONE'S COUNTRY. Hor. Dimicare pro libertdte,
to fight FOB LIBERTY. Cic. Satis in usum, enough FOR USE. Liv.
4. The Dative sometimes depends, not upon the verb alone, but upon
the Predicate as a whole :
Tegimenta yaleis 3 mllites facere jubet, he orders the soldiers to make cov-
erings FOR THEIR HELMETS. Caes. Liberls dlvites esse volumus, we wish
to be rich FOR THE SAKE OF OUR CHILDREN. Cic. Quis huic ril testis est,
who testifies TO THIS (lit., in a witness FOR this THING). Cic.
NOTE 1. The Dative is used with verbs modified by satin, bene, end male, whether
written as compounds or not :
IU'tn satis facere (also written satisfacere), to satisfy THEM.* Caes. Cui bene dlxit
iinquatn, FOR WHOM has he ever spoken a good vordt Cic. Optimo viri> maledlcere,
to revile a most excellent MAX. Cic.
NOTE 2. A Dative is sometimes thus added to the predicate when the English idiom
would lead us to expect a Genitive depending upon a noun :
In conspectum vi-nerat hostibus, * he had come in sight OF THE ENEMY (lit., TO THK
1 This double construction occurs chiefly with aspergo, cireumdo, circumfundo.
d<mi), exttO, impertio, induo, Inspergft, interclud.0.
2 Galels is best explained as depending upon tegimenta facere, rather than upon
facere alone; liber is, as depending upon divides ease volumus, and rtl upon testis et.
3 Literally, to do enough FOB THEM.
ffostibus does not depend at all upon conspectum, but upon the entire predicate,
in cijntpectum rintrut.
DATIVE. 199
F.NBM Y). Cic. Caesarl ad pedes proicere, to cast at tfte feet OF CAESAR (lit., TO CAESAR,
at thefett). Caes. Mihi horror membra quatit, a shudder shakes my limbt. Verg.
Urbl fandamenta jacere, to lay the foundation* of (for) the city. Liv.
NOTE 3. The Dative is sometimes very loosely connected with the predicate, merely
designating the person with reference to whom, the statement is true :
Tu illl pater es, you are a father TO HIM. Tac. Tridu! Her exped'itls erat, it wan
a journey of three days FOR LIOIIT- ARMED SOLDIERS. Liv. Est urbe egressls tumu-
lus, there is a mound as you go out of the city. 1 Verg.
5. WITH IMPERSONAL PASSIVE. Verbs which admit only an Indirect
Object in the Active are Impersonal in the Passive, but they may retain
the Dative :
Hostibw resistunt, tfiey resist THE ENEMY. Caes. His sententiis resisti-
tur, resistance is offered TO these OPINIONS. Caes. Ne mihl noceant, that they
may not injure ME. Cic. Mihl nihil nocerl potest, no injury can be done TO
HE (lit., injury can be done TO ME not at all). Cic.
385. WITH SPECIAL VERBS. The Dative of the In-
direct Object is used with many verbs which require special
mention. Thus
I. With verbs signifying to benefit or injure, please or displease,
command or obey, seme or resist, and the like :
Sibl prosunt, tliey benefit THEMSELVES. Cic. Nocre alterl, to injure
ANOTHER. Cic. Zenoril placuit, it pleased ZENO. Cic. Displicet Tullo, it
displeases TCTLLUS. Liv. Cupiditatibus imperSre, to command desires. Cic.
Deo pSrere, to obey God. Cic. Regl servlre, to serve the king. Cic. Hosti-
bus resistere, to resist tJie enemy. Caes.
II. With verbs signifying to indulge, spa/re, pardon, threaten,
believe, persuade, and the like :
Sibl indulgere, to indulge ONE'S SELF. Cic. Vltae parcere, to spare LIFE.
Nep. Mihl IgnOscere, to pardon ME. Cic. Minitans patriae, threatening
his country. Liv. TriscI amlcls, to be angry with friends. Cic Mihi credo
believe me. Cic. Us persuadere, to persuade them. Caes.
NOTE 1. Some verbs of this class take the Accusative: dflectd, juvfi, laedo, offend/),
etc.:
Marium juvit, he helped MarliiK. Nep. Non mo fama delectat, fame does not
delight me. Cic.
NOTE 2. fotf'ifjr, and cfmf'ido with the Ablative, see 425, 1, 1), note.
NOTE 8. The force of the Dative Is often found 01 ly by attending to the strict mean-
1 Other examples are: A Tylls euntl loco alto sit! sunt, they are itituated in an el-
vat&i pliicf an you come (lit., to rme coming) from Pijlat. Liv. Descendentibui
Inter duos liicos, as you dem-end (lit., to thane dftcemliiif/) between the tiro yro-ve-K.
Liv. Exsccndentibus al tetnpluin tniiceria erat. there iru <in tncloxiire an yon <m-
cended to the temple. Liv. In iiniversum aestiinantl plus penes poditom roboris est.
to make <i general entimate (lit M to one making, etc.), there is more strength in tlt
infantry. Tap.
200 DATIVE.
Ing of the verb : nfibo, 'to marry 1 (strictly, to veil one't telf, as the bride for the bride
groom); medeor, 'to cure' (to administer a remedy to); satisfacio, 'to satisfy 1 (to do
enough for), etc.
1. Some verbs admit either the Accusative or the Dative, but with a
difference of meaning :
Cavere aliquem, to ward of some one ; cavere alicui, to care FOR some one.
COnsulere aliquem, to consult, etc. ; alicui, to consult FOR, etc.
Metuere, timere aliquem, to fear ; alicui, to fear FOB.
Prospicere, providere aliquid, to foresee ; alicui, to provide FOR.
Temperare, moderari aliquid, to govern, direct ; alicui (of things), to re-
strain, put a check UPON; temperare alicui (of persons), to spare: 1
Hunc tu caveto, be on your guard against THIS ONE (lit., ward HIM off).
Hor. El cavere volo, I wish to care FOR HIM (i. e., to protect him). Cic. Per-
Jidiam timemus, we fear PERFIDY. Cic. Sibi timuerant, they had feared FOR
THEMSELVES. CaCS.
NOTE. Dare Utterds ad aliquem means to address a letter TO SOME ONK ; but dare
litterds alicui generally means to deliver a letter TO ONE A8 A CARRIER or MESSENGER:
Litterae mihl ad CatUinam datae sunt, a letter addressed TO CATILINE >a deliv-
ered TO ME. Cic.
2. A DATIVE rendered from occurs with a few verbs of differing, dis-
senting, repelling, taking away, etc. :
Differre cuivis, to differ FROM ANT ONE. Nep. Sibi dissentlre, to dissent
FROM HIMSELF. Cic. Somnum mihl adimere, to take sleep FROM ME. Cic.
NOTE. For the Poetical Dative, see 4, below; and for the Ablative with verbs of
Separation or Difference, see 413.
3. A DATIVE rendered with occurs with misceo, admisceo, etc., and
sometimes with facio :
Severitatem miscfcre comitdti,to unite severity WITH AFFABILITY. Liv. Quid
huie hominl facias, what are you to do WITH (TO) this MAN ? Cic. See 4 below.
4. DATIVE IN POETRY. In the poets and in late prose-writers, the Dative
is used much more freely than in classical prose. Thus it occurs with
more or less frequency with the following classes of verbs :
1) With verbs denoting Motion or Direction for the Accusative with ad
or in :
MultSs demittimus Orcf> (for ad or in. Orcum), we send many dou-n TO ORCUS.
Verg. Caelo (for ad caelum) palmas tetendit, he extended his hands TOWARD HEAVEN.
Verg. It clamor caelo, the shout goes to heaven. Verg. See also 392, 1.
2) With verbs denoting Separation or Difference* instead of the Ablative
with ab or de, or the Accusative with inter :
Solstitium pecori (for a pecore) defendite, keep off the heat FROM THE FLOCK. Verg,
Kcurrae distabit amicus, a friend icill differ FROM A JESTER. Hor. Serta capitl dc--
lapsa. garland* fallen from his head. Verg.
1 Many other verbs take different constructions with different meanings; see cfdfi.
?#nvenii), cupin, dfjicift, dolefl, maneo, parcn, peto, solvo, and volo in the Dictionary.
3 Thus with arcefl. alsum, differo, distentif). diuideo, ditto, etc. ; see Dictionary
DATIVE. 201
8) With verbs denoting Union, Comparison, Contention, and the like 1
instead of the Ablative with cum, or the Accusative with inter ;
Miscet s viris, he mingle* WITH THE MEN. Verg. Concurrere hosti (for cum koste), to
meet THE ENEMY. Ov. Solus tibi certat, he alone contend* with you. Verg. Placiton*
puirnabis smori, will you contend with acceptable love f Verg.
4) In still other instances, especially in expressions of Place :
Haeret laterl (for in latere) arundo, the arrow sticks IN HBB BIDE. Verg. Ardet
pex capit>, the helmet gleams UPON HIS HEAD. Verg.
386. DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS. The Dative is used
with many verbs compounded with
ad, ante, con, de, in, inter,
ob, post, prae, pro, ' sub, super:
Adsum a/mm, / am present WITH MY FRIENDS. Cic. Omnibus antestftre,
to surpass ALL. Cic. Terris cohaeret, it cleaves TO THE EARTH. Sen. Hoc
Caesari dcfuit, this failed (was wanting TO) CAESAR. Caes. VoluptatI in-
haerere, to be connected with pleasure. Cic. Interfuit pugnae, he partici-
pated in the battle. Nep. Consilils obstare, to oppose plans. Nep. Llber-
tatl opes postferre, to sacrifice wealth to liberty. Liv. Populo praesunt,
they rule the people. Cic. Tibi prosunt, they are profitable to you. Cic.
Sucfumbere doloribus, to yield to sorrows. Cic. Superfuit patrt, he sur-
vived his fathei; Liv.
1. TRANSITIVE VERBS thus compounded admit both the Accusative and
the Dative :
Sf opposult hostibvx, he opposed HIMSELF- TO TDK ENEMY. Cic. Capiti subdiixerat
onsem, xhe had removed my sword from my head. Verg. See also Libertatl opfs
pofitferre, above.
2. COMPOUNDS OF OTHER PREPOSITIONS, especially of ab, ex, and dram,
sometimes admit the Dative ; while several of the compounds specified undur
the rule admit the Ablative with or without a preposition : 3
SM libertutem abjudicat, he deprirex UIMBELK (sentences himself to the loss) of lib-
erty. Cic. Milii tiinorem Oripc, free MB from fear (lit., snatch away fear KOR MK).
Cic. Pugnu assuescere, to be accustomed to (trained in) buttle. Liv. Dicta cum factiK
componere, to compare words with deeds. Sail.
3. MOTION OK DIRECTION. Compounds expressing mere motion or direc-
tion generally take the Accusative with or without a preposition : 4
1 Thus, with oiipulo, jung<\ mifu-eo, admlncef>, permisceo, nectfi, tocif), etc. ; oert'i,
contendo, factor, pfigno. etc.
s Mixcefi, as a transitive verb, occurs with the Accusative and Dative even in classical
prose; see 385, 8; also 371, III., note 2.
3 8ee assufKCTti angiiffacio, acquitted, coet), cohaeref), coUiido, comiminico, com-
pi'ino, concords), cfinferi), cfinfllgn, congrufi, cotijungo, conxetitio, connti), 'niKisto, in-
Men, insur/i. and interillco, in the Dictionary. See also Draeger, I., pp. 400-426
4 See avcfdt'i, accidd, adtlo, adfero, adhaeretcd, adhibed, adjungft, ailn'itor, ad-
icrlbo, adttum illfidfi, incidfi, incvmbo, incurro, infero, ojff.ro. oppftno. in tha Dictionary
ii02 DATIVE.
Adlre Jras, to approach TH ALTARS. Cic. Ad oonxules adfre, to go TO THK cow
auLS. Clc. In lii-llum insistit, he devotes himself to the war. Caes. Ad omne pericu-
lum opponitur, he is exposed to every peril. Cic.
4. Several compounds admit either the Accusative or the Dative without
any special difference of meaning : >
Mttnititmibus adjacent, they are near THE FORTIFICATIONS. Tac. Mare illud ad-
jacent, they are near that SBA. Nep. Quibus timor incesserat, whom fear had seised.
Sail. Timor patres incessit, fear seized the fathers. Liv.
5. Many compounds which usually take the Accusative or the Ablative
witn a preposition in classical prose, admit a Dative in poetry :
Quid contendat hirundd cycnls (for cum cycnls), why should the sicallow contend
WITH s WANS? Lucr. Contendis ffomero, you contend WITH HOMER. Prop. Aid mis
illabi nostris (for in animds nottros), to sink into our minds. Verg.
NOTE. Instead of the compounds of ad, ante, etc., the poets sometimes use in the
same sense the simple verbs" with the Dative:
QuI haeserat ( adhaeserat) Evandro, who had joined himself 10 EVANDER. Verp.
Ponis (= apponis) mihl porcum, you offer ME (place BEFORE ME) stcine's flevh. Mar-
tial.
387. The DATIVE OF THE POSSESSOR is used with the
verb sum:
Mihl est noverca, I have (there is TO ME) a stepmother? Verg. Fond
nSmen Arethusa est, THE FOUNTAIN has (there is TO THE FOUNTAIN) the name
Arethusa. Cic. But
NOTE 1. The DATIVE OF THE NAME as well af of the possessor is common in expres-
sions of naming : nfrmen e*t, ni'inen datur, etc. :
Scipioni Afric<~in<> cognomen fuit, SCIPIO had the surname AFRICANUS. Sail. Here
Africans), instead of being in apposition with cngnnmen, is put by attraction in appo-
sition with Scipifmi.
NOTE 2. The GENITIVE OF THE NAME dependent upon nomen occurs :
Nomen Mercur! est mini, I have the name OF MERCCRT. Plaut.
NOTE 3. By a GREEK IDIOM, nolens, ctipifns, or invltus sometimes accompanies the
Dative of the possessor :
Quibus liclluin volentibus erat, who UKed the tear (lit., to whom WISHING the war
was). Tac.
388. The DATIVE OF THE APPARENT AGENT is used
with the Gerundive, and with the Passive Periphrastic
Conjugation :
1 Such are adjaceo, adiilor, antecedo, anteeo, cfnitor, despero (also with de X illu-
20, incedo, insulto, invddo, praecvrrii, praeoto, praestolor.
2 Thus feru for ar/J'ero, prfifero ; haereo for adhaereo ; pfmfi for appfmo, depono.
Impl-nO, etc.
* The Datirf with fst usually expresses simple possession or ownership, like the
English have. HabeO Is gometimes used in the same sense, but it more commonly ex-
presses some of the shades of meaning denoted by hold, keep, regard, and the like :
ircem half re, ' to hold the citadel ' ; aliquem in obeididne habere, ' to hold or keep
me in siege ' ; pro hoste habere, ' to regard as an enemy.'
DATIVE. 203
Proelia conjugibus loquenda, battles FOR WOMEN to talk about. 1 Hor.
Suum cuique incommodum ferendum est, EVERY ONE has his own trouble to
bear, or must bear his own trouble. Cic.
NOTE. Instead of the Dative of the Apparent Agent, the Ablative with a or ab is
sometimes used :
QuibuB egt a vobis * consulenduin, for whom measures must be taken BY YOU. Cic.
1. The DATIVE OF THE APPARENT AOBNT is sometimes used with the com-
pound tenses of passive verbs :
Mihi consilium captum jam did est, I have a plan long since formed.' 1 Cic.
NOTB. HABBO with the Perfect Participle has the same force as EST MIHI with the
Participle :
Bellum habuit indicium, he had a war (already) declared. Oic.
2. The REAL AGENT, with Passive verbs, is in classical prose denoted hy
the Ablative with a or ab / see 415, I.
3. The DATIVE is used with the tenses for incomplete action, to designate
the person who is at once Agent and Indirect Object, the person BY whom and
FOR (TO) whom the action is performed :
Honesta bonls viris quaeruntur, honorable things are tought BY good MEN
(i. e., for themselves). Cic.
4. In the POETS, the Dative is often used for the Ablative with a or ab, to
designate simply the agent of the action :
Non intellegor ulli, lam not understood BY ANY ONE. Ovid. Rggnataarva
Satumo, lands ruled BY SATURN. Verg.
389. The ETHICAL DATIVE, denoting the person to
whom the thought is of special interest, is often introduced
into the Latin sentence : *
At libi venit ad me", but LO, he comes to mt. Cic. Ad ilia mihl intendat
:inimum, let him, I PRAY, direct his attention to those things. Liv. QuO mihl
abls, whither are you going, PRAY ? Verg. Quid mihl Celsus agit, what is
MY Celsus doing ? Hor.
1 The Dative with the Gerundive, whether alone or in the Periphrastic Conjuga-
tion, designates the person who has the work- to do ; while with the compound tenses
of passive verbs it designates the person who has the work already done.
1 Here </ vobis is necessary, to distinguish the Agent from the Indirect Object, yui-
biix ; but the Ablative with <i or ab is sometimes used when this necessity does not
exist.
1 The Dative with the Gerundive Is best explained as the Datire of Possessor or
of Indirect Object. Thus, mum cuique incommodum ent means 'every one has his
trouble ' (cuique, Dative of Possessor) ; and mum caique incommodum ferendum eat,
'every one has his trouble to bear.' 80 too, mifi'i consi/ium est, ' I have a plan'; mihl
cfowilium cafjtum est, ' I have a plan (already) formed.'
4 Compare the following from Shakespeare : ' He plucked me ope his doublet and
offered them his throat to cut 1 Julius Caesar, Act I., Scene II. It ascends me Into
the brain.' Henry IV., Part II., Act IV., Scene III. 'He presently steps me a little
Henry IV., Part I., Act IV., 9cne III.
204 DATIVH.
NOTE 1. The ETHICAL DATIVE is always a personal pronoun.
NOTB 2. The ETHICAL DATIVE occurs with VOLO and with INTERJECTIONS :
Quid tfibls vultis, what do you tcish, intend, meant Liv. Avaritia quid sibi vult
ichat does avarice mean f or what object can it havef Cic. Ei mihi, ah ME! Verg
Vae tibi, woe TO YOU. Ter. See 381, note 3, 3).
RULE XIII. Two Datives To which and For which.
390. Two Datives the OBJECT TO WHICH and the OB
JECT or END FOR WHICH occur with a few verbs :
I. With INTRANSITIVE and PASSIVE verbs :
Maid est hominibus avaritia, avarice is AN EVIL TO MEN (lit., is TO MEN
FOR AN EVIL). Cic. Est mihi curae, it is A CARE TO ME. Cic. Domus
dederorl domino fit, the house becomes A DISGRACE TO ITS OWNER. Cic.
Venit Atticls auxilio, he came to the assistance of the Athenians. Nep.
Hoc ill! tribuebatur Ignaviae, this was imputed to him as cowardice (for
cowardice). Cic. Els subsidio missus est, he was sent to them as aid. Nep.
II. With TRANSITIVE verbs in connection with the AC-
CUSATIVE :
Qulnque cohortes castrls praesidio rellquit, he left five cohorts FOR THE
DEFENCE OF THE CAMP (lit., TO THE CAMP FOR A DEFENCE). Ca6S. Pericles
agros suos don5 reT publicae dedit, Pericles gave his lands to the republic
as a present (lit., for a present). Just.
NOTE 1 . The verbs which take TWO DATIVES are
1) Intransitive verbs signifying to be, become, go, and the like: Hum, flo, etc.
2) Transitive verbs signifying to give, send, leare, impute, regard, chooxe, and the
iike : do, dim/), di~>c$, habefl, mitto, relinquo, tribuo, verto, etc. These take in the
Active two Datives with an Accusative; but in the Passive two Datives only, as the
direct object of the Active becomes the subject of the Passive: see 464.
NOTE 2. One of the Datives is often omitted, or its place supplied by a predicate noun:
Ea sunt tisul, thene things are OF USE (FOR CSF,). Caes. Tfi illl pater ee, you are
A FATHER TO HIM. Tac. See 362, 2, note 3.
NOTE 3. With audiens two Datives sometimes occur, dictfi dependent upon au-
diens, and a personal Dative dependent upon tlicti'i audifns, and sometimes ilictfi oboe-
diens is used like </ictf< andienx:
Dicto sum audiens, / am listening to the icord. Plaut. NObls dicto audit'ns est,
he is obedient to us. Cic. Magistro dicto oboediens, obedient to hi* master. Plaut.
RULE XTV. Dative with Adjectives.
391. With adjectives the OBJECT TO WHICH the quality
is directed is put in the Dative :
Patriae solum omnibus carura est, the soil of their country is dear TO ALL.
Cic. Id aptum est femporl, this is adapted TO THE TIME. Cic. Omni aetati
mors est cornmiinis. dea/h is common TO every AGE. Cic. Cams similis lupo
DATIVE. 205
est, a dog is similar to a wolf. Cic. Naturae accommodatum, adapted U
nature. Cic. Graeciae utile, useful to Greece. Nep.
I. ADJECTIVES which take the DATIVE are chiefly those signifying
Agreeable, easy, friendly, like, near, necessary, suitable, subject, useful, f .o-
gether with others of a similar or opposite meaning, 1 and verbals in biUs.
II. OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS sometimes occur where the learner would ex-
pect the Dative :
1. The Accusative with a Preposition : (1) in, erga, adversus, with ad-
jectives signifying friendly, hostile, etc., and (2) ad, to denote the object or
end for which, with adjectives signifying useful, suitable, inclined, etc. r
Perindulgens in patrem, very kind TO HIS FATHER. Cic. Multas ad res
perutilis, very ueeful FOR many THINGS. Cic. Pronus ad lu'itum, inclined to
mourning. Cic.
2. The Accusative without a Preposition with propior, prdximus :
Propior montem, nearer THE MOUNTAIN. Sail. PrOxiraus mare, nearest to
the sea. Caes. See 433 and 437.
3. The Ablative with or without a Preposition :
Alienum a vita mea, foreign TO my LIFE. Ter. Homine alienissimum,
most foreign TO or FROM MAN. Cic. El cum Roscio communis, common to
htm and Roscius (with Roscius). Cic.
4. The Genitive: (1) with adjectives used substantively ; (2) with adjec-
tives meaning tike? unlike? near, belonging to, and a few others: 3
Amlcissimus hominum, the best friend OF THE MEN (i. e., the most friendly
to them). Cic. Alexandn similis, Hke ALEXANDER (i. e., in character). Cic.
Dispar ml, unlike ITSELF. Cic. Cujus pares, like whom. Cic. Popull Ro-
man! est propria llbertas, liberty is characteristic of the Roman people. Cic.
NOTE 1. Idem occurs with the Dative, especially in the poets:
Idem faci , Occident!, fie does the same AS TO KILL, or AS HE WHO KILLS. Hor.
NOT* 2. For the Genitive and Dative with an adjective, see 399, I., note 1.
RUH1 XT. Dative with Nouns and Adverbs.
392. Tlie Dative is used with a few special nouns and
adverbs :
I. With a few nouns from ?erbs which take the Dative :
Justitia est obtemperfitio 4 tigibus, justice is obedience TO LAWS. Cic.
' Such .'f accommodtltut, aequalifi, aliemtg, amlcax, inim'ictm, aptus. ctirim,
facilis, difflvilis, Jidflis, infidelix, finitimun, grdtu*, ingratus, idonem, ji'tcundnit.
Injticundus, molestus. necewfiriw. nMu*, ignfttite, noxiim, p/lr, dinpar, pemicio*u*,
propi nquus, propriiu, sahU'~rri, ftimilis, dissimilit, dtvarsuti, rlc/nns, etc.
a The Genitive is used especially ofttkenetw and unlikeness IN CHARACTER.
s 4.8 similix, disximilis, awimilis, cfmximilis, p'ir, dispar ; adfinis, flnitimu.'
woplnqum; propriuft, tacer, communis; alienus, contrariu*, insuffus, etc.
* From obtempwo. which takes the Dative
^06 GENITIVE.
Stfn respSnsio, a reply TO HIMSELF. Cic. OpulentO hominl servitus dura
est, serving (servitude to) a rich man is hard. Plaut. Facilis descensus '
Averno, easy is the descent to Avernus. Verg.
II. With a few adverbs from adjectives which take the
Dative :
Congruenter * naturae vivere, to live in accordance WITH NATURE. Cic.
Sibl convenienter dlcere, to speak consistently WITH HIMSELF. Cic. Pr5xi
me" hostium castris, next to the camp of the enemy. Caes.
NOTE 1. In rare instances the Dative occurs with a few nouns and adverbs not in-
tsluded in the rale :
Tribumcia potestas, mummentum libertdti, tribunician power, a defence FOB HB,
K.KTY. Liv. Huic una = una cum hoc, -with this one. Verg.
NOTE 2. For the Dative of Gerundives with official names, see 544, note 3.
NOTE 8. For the Dative with interjections, gee 381, note 8; 389, note 2.
SECTION VI.
GENITIVE.
398. The Genitive in its ordinary use corresponds to the
English possessive, or the objective with of, and expresses
various adjective relations. '
NOTK. But the Genitive, especially when objective (396, III.), is sometimes best
rendered to, for, from, in, on account of, etc. :
Benefic.ii gratia, gratitude FOB A FAVOB. Cic. Laborum fuga, escape FROM LABORS.
Cic. Ereptae Virginia ira, anger on account of the rescue of the maiden. Verg.
394. The Genitive is used chiefly to qualify or limit nouns
and adjectives, 4 though it also occurs with verbs and adverbs.
RULE XVI. Genitive with Nouns.
395. Any noun, not an appositive, qualifying the
meaning of another noun, is put in the Genitive :
Catonis orationgs, CATO'S orations. Cic. Castra hostium, the camp OP
THE ENEMY. Liv. Mors Hamilcaris, the death OF HAMILCAR. Liv. Deum
metus, the fear of the gods. Liv. Vir consilil magnl, a man of great pru-
dence. Caes. Pars popull, a part of the people. Cic.
1 From descends, which admits the Dative in poetry ; see 385, 4, 1).
5 From congruens, which takes the Dative.
1 The Genitive has nearly the force of an adjective, and means simply <?/or belonging
to. Thus, regis, equivalent to regiw, means of or belonging to a king. On the origin
nd use of the Genitive, see Hubschmann, p. 108; Merguet, p. 69; Holzweissig, pp. 2fl
nd 73; Draeger, I., pp. 447-498; Roby, II., pp. 116-187.
* Doubtless originally it limited only nouns and adjective*
GENITIVE, 20?
SOT* 1. For the Appositive, see 363.
NOTE 2. An ADJECTIVE is sometimes used for the Genitive :
Bellica gloria = belli gloria, the glory of war. Cic. Conjnnx Hectorea = con1unx
Hectoris, the wife of Hector. Verg. Pugna Marathfmia. the battle of Marathon, Cle.
Diana Ephesia, Diana of Ephems. Cic. See 393, foot-note.
NOTE 8. For the Predicate Genitive, see 4O1.
NOTE 4. For special uses of the Dative, see 384, 4, note 2.
396. The qualifying Genitive may be
I. A POSSESSIVE GENITIVE,' designating the author and the possessor :
XenophOntia librl, the books of Xenophon. Cic. Fanum Neptuni, tht
temple of Neptune. Nep.
II. A SUBJECTIVE GENITIVE, designating the subject or agent of the ac-
tion, feeling, etc. :
Serpentis morsus, the bite of the serpent. Cic. Pavor Numidarum, tht fear
of the A'umidians. Liv.
NoTE.--The POSSESSIVE PRONOUN is regularly used for the Subjective Genitive of
Personal pronouns :
Mea domus, my houye. Cic. Fatna tua, your fame. Cio.
III. An OBJECTIVE GENITIVE, designating the object toward which the
action or feeling is directed :
Amor gloriae, the love of glory. Cic. Memoria malOrum, the recollection
of sufferings. Cic. DeQm metus, the fear of the gods. Liv.
NOTE 1. For the OBJECTIVE GENITIVE, the Accusative with in, ergra, or adver-
sus is sometimes used :
Odium in hominum genus, hatred of or toward the race of men. Cic. Erg& vos
amor, love toward you. Cic.
Nont 2. The POSSESSIVE occurs, though rarely, for the Objective Genitive of Per-
sonal pronouns :
Tua flducia, reliance on you. Cic.
IV. A PARTITIVE GENITIVE, designating the whole of which a part is
taken :
Quis vestrfim, which of youf Cic. Vltae pars, a part of lift. Cic.
'Jmnium aapientissimus, the wisest of all men, Cic.
V. A DESCRIPTIVE GENITIVE, also called a GENITIVE OP CHARACTERISTIC,
designating character or quality, including value, price, size, wcigJit, age, etc.
Vir mfiximi cOnsilil, a man of very great prudence. Nep. Mitis ingenii
juvenis, a youth of mild disposition. Liv. Vestis magnl pretii, a garment of
great valve. Cic. Exsilium decem annorum, an exile of ten yearn. Nep.
Corona parvl ponderis, a crown of small weight. Liv. See 404.
1 It will be found convenient thus to characterize the different uses of the Genitive
by the relation actually existing between the words united by it, though that special re-
lation is not expressed by the case itself, but merely suggested by the meaning of tin
words tun- united.
208 GENITIVE.
NOTE 1 .The Descriptive Genitive must be accompanied by an adjective or som
other modifier, unless it be a compound containing a modifier; as hfijusmodi = fuijiu
modi; tridut, from tree dies; bidui, from duo (bis) dies.
NOTE 2. For id genus ejus generis, omne genus omnis generis, see 378, 2.
NOTE 3. For the Descriptive Ablative, see 419, II., with note.
VL An APPOSITIONAL GENITIVE, having the general force of an Apposi
live (363) :
Virtus continentiae, the virtue of self-control. Cic. Oppidum Antiochiae,
the city of Antioch. Cic. Tellus Ausoniae, the land of Ausonia. Verg.
397. The PARTITIVE GENITIVE designates the whole of which
a part is taken. It is used
1. With pars, nemd, nihil ; with nouns of quantity, number, weight,
etc., as modius, legib, talentum ; and with any nouns used partitively :
Bquorum pars, a part OF THE HORSES. Liv. Nihil novi (441, 2), nothing
NEW (OF NEW). Cic. Nihil reliqul (441, 2), nothing left (lit., OF THE rest).
Sail. Medimnum triticl, a bushel of wheat. Cic. Pecuniae talentum, a talent
of money. Nep. Quorum Gaius, of whom Gains. Cic.
2. With Numerals used substantively : '
Quorum quattuor, four of whom. Liv. Equitum centum, a hundred of
the cavalry. Curt. Sapientum octavus, the eighth of the wise men. Hor
Unus pontium, one of the bridges. Caes.
NOTE. In good prose the Genitive is not used when the two words refer to the sam.i
number of objects, even though of be used in English :
Qui (not guf-rum) duo supersunt, of whom ttco survive. Cic. Omnes homines, all
men. Cic. But see p. 209, note 4, with foot-note.
3. With Pronouns and 'Adjectives used substantively, especially with
comparatives, suprlatives, and neuters : *
Quis vestrum, which of you ? Cic. Num quidnam novi, is there anything
new (OF NEW) ? Cic. C6nsulum alter, one of the consuls. Liv. Prior horum,
the former of these. Nep. Gallorum fortissiml, the bravest of the Gauls. Caes.
Id temporis, that (of) time. Cic. Multum operae, much (of) service. Cic.
NOTE 1. Pronouns and adjectives, except neuters, when used with the Partitive
Genitive, take the gender of the Genitive, unless they agree directly with some othei
word ; see consulum alter, above.
NOTE l. Uttrque, 'each,' 'both,' is generally used as an adjective: but when it is
combined it the singular number with another pronoun, it usually takes that pronoun in
the Genitive:
Uterque exercitus, each army. Caes. Quae utraque, both of which. Sail. Utrique
nostrum 3 gratum, acceptable to each of us. Cic.
1 Numerals used adjectively agree with their nouns: mille homines, 'a thousand
men'; m/lle Jiominum, 'a thousand of men'; multl homines, 'many men'; miilf)
hominum, 'many of the men.'
* An hfa. id, iflud, quid ; multum, plfm, plurimvm, minut, minimum, tantvm
quantum, etc.
* A Partitict Genitive, because a pronoun.
GENITIVE. 209
NOTE 3. For the Partitive Genitive, the Accusative with inter or ante, or th
Ablative with ex. de, or in, is sometimes used :
Inter reges opulentissimns, the most wealthy of (among) kings. Sen. Onus ex viris,
one of the heroes. Clc. Onus l de legatis, one of the lieutenants. CIc.
NOTE 4. Poets and late prose writers make a very free use of the Partitive Genitive
after adjectives :
Sancta dearum, holy goddess. Enn. Sancte deorum, holy god. Verg. FEstSa
dierum, festal days. Hor. Leves cohortium, the light-armed cohorts. Tac. Inclutnj
phiiosophorum, the renowned philosopher. Just. KSliquum diel, the rest of the day.
Liv. Multum diel, much of the day. Liv. RSliquum noctis, the rest of the night. Tac.
Strata viarum = stratae viae, paved streets. Verg. Vana rerum = vanae re's, vain
things. Hor. Hominum cuncfi, all of the men? Ovid. Ciincta terrarum, all lands.
Hor. See also 438, 6.
NOTE 5. The Neuter of pronouns and adjectives with the Partitive Genitive is some-
times used of persons :
Quid h5c est hominis, WHAT KIND 'OF A MAN is this? Plant. Quidquid erat pa-
trum reos diceres, you would have said that ALL THE SENATORS (lit., WHATEVER there
was OF FATHERS) were accused. Liv. Quid hue tantum hominum incedunt, why are
BO MANY MEN (so MUCH OF MEN) cominff hither t Plant.
4. The Partitive Genitive also occurs with a few adverbs, especially when
they are used substantively : 8
AnnOrum adfatim ^abundance of arms. Liv. Lucis minis, too much (of) light.
Ovid. Sapientiae parum, little (of) wisdom. Sail. Partim copiarum, a portion
of the force*. Liv. Quod 6jus facere potest, as far as (what of it) he is able to
do. Cic. Nusquam gentium, nowhere in the world. Cio. Hue arrogantiae,
to this degree of insolence. Tac. Maxime omnium, most of all. Cio.
398. GENITIVE IN SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. Note the fol-
lowing:
1. The GOVERNING WORD is often omitted. Thus
Aedes, templwn, discipulus, hom8, juvenis, puer, etc. ; causa, gratia, and
mdeed any word when it can be readily supplied :
Ad Jovis (sc. aedem), near the temple of Jupiter. Liv. Hannibal anno-
rum novem (sc. puer), Hannibal, a boy nine years of age. Liv. Aberant
bidul (xc. viam or spatium), they were two days' 1 journey distant. Cic. C&n-
ferre vltam Trebonl cum Dolabellae (sc. vita), to compare the life of Trebonius
with that of Dolabella. Cic.
NOTE 1. The governing word is generally omitted when it has been expressed before
Another Genitive, as in the last example; and then the second Genitive is sometimes
attracted Into the case of the governing word :
1 Vnus is generally followed by the Ablative with eon or df, but sometime! by the
Genitive.
3 Observe that in this case the partitive Idea has entirely disappeared, and that the
construction is partitive In form, but not in sense.
8 As with adverbs of QUANTITY abunde,adfatim,nimis, parum, partim, quoad,
tati*. etc.; of PLACE hie, hue, nusguam. ubl. etc.; of EXTENT, DEOBEK, etc. ef>. hue,
qu'<; and with superlatives. As adverbs are substantives or Adjectives to origin, it if
not strange that they are thus used with the Genitive.
210 GENITIVE.
Natura horninis beluls (for beluarwn naturae) antecedit, the nature of man tur
passes (that of) the brutes. Cic.
NOTE 2. In many cases where we supply son, daughter, husband, wife, the ellipsis
is only apparent, the Genitive depending directly on the proper noun expressed :
Hasdrubal Gisconis, Gisco's Hasdrubal, or Hasdrubal the son of Cisco. Liv. Hec
toris Andromache, Hector's Andromache, or Andromache the wife of Hector. Verg.
2. Two GENITIVES are sometimes used with the same noun. One is
generally subjective, the other either objective or descriptive:
Memml odium potentiae, Memmius's hatred of power. Sail. Helvetioruu
injuriae popull Roman!, the wrongs done by the Helvetii to the Roman people.
Caes. Superiorum dierum Sablnl cunctati5, the delay of Sabin-us during (lit.,
of ') the preceding days. Caes.
3. A GENITIVE sometimes accompanies a POSSESSIVE, especially tht
Genitive of ipse, solus, unus, or omnis :
Tua ipsius amlcitia, 1 your own friendship. Cic. Meum s6lius peccatum,
my fault alone. Cic. Nomen meum absentis, my name in my absence. Cic.
4. The Genitive is used with Instar, ' likeness,' ' image,' in the sense of
as large as, of the size of, equal to :
Instar montis equus, a horse of the size of a mountain. Verg.
5. The Genitive is used with prldiS, poslrldie, ergo, and tenus:*
Pridie ejus diel, on the day before that day. Caes. Postrldie ejus diel, on
the day after that day. Caes. Virtutis ergo, on account of virtue. Cic. Lum-
borum tenus, as far as the loins. Cic. For tenus with the Ablative, see 434.
RULE XVII. Genitive with Adjectives.
399. Many adjectives take a Genitive to complete
their meaning :
Avidus laudis, desirous OP PRAISE. Cic. Otil cupidus, desirous OF LEIS-
URE. Liv. COnscius conjurationis, cognizant of the conspiracy. Sail.
Amans sui virtus, virtue fond of itself. Cic. Efficiens voluptatis, produc-
tive of pleasure. Cic. Gloriae memor, mindful of glory. Liv.
NOTB. This Genitive corresponds to the Objective Genitive with nouns :
Amor gloriae, the love of glory. Cic. Appetens gloriae, desirous of (eager for)
glory. Cic.
I. The Genitive is used with adjectives denoting
1. DESIRE or AVERSION : 3
1 JpeHus may be explained as agreeing with tut (of you), Involved In tua, and solitM
and absentia as agreeing with mei (of me), involved in meum.
3 These words are strictly nouns, and, as such, govern the Genitive. Pridie and
postrrldie are Locatives; ergo is an Ablative, and tenus, an Accusative; see 304; 307,
note 1.
8 Such are (1) ovidus, cupidut, studwsus ; fastldifisus, etc. ; (2) gnarus, "\gndru^
wntultut, conscius, Inscius, nescius, ctrtus, incertus; providus, priidens, impru
GENITIVE, 211
Contentionis eupidus, desirous of contention. Cic. Sapientiae studiosus, stu-
dious of (student of ) wisdom. Cic. Terrae fastldiosus, weary of the land. Hor.
2. KNOWLEDGE, SKILL, RECOLLECTION, with their contraries : '
R61 gnarus, acquainted with the thing. Cic. Prudens rel militaris, skilled
in military science. Nep. Perttus belli, skilled in war. Nep. Insuetus
laboris, unaccustomed to labor. Caes. GlOriae memor, mindful of glory.
Liv. Immemor beneficu, forgetful of kindness. Cic
3. PARTICIPATION, GUILT, FULNESS, MASTERY, with their contraries : *
Adflnis culpae, sharing the fault. Cic. Rationis particeps, endowed with
(sharing) reason. Cic. Rationis expers, destitute of reason. Cic. Manifestus
rerum capitalium, convicted of capital crimes. Sail. Vita metus plena, a lift
full of fear. Cic. Mel potens sum, / am master of myself. Liv. Virtutis
comipoB,&tpable of virtue. Cic.
NOTE 1. The Genitive and Dative sometimes occur with the same adjective :
Mr-ns sibi conscia rficti, a mind conscious to itself of rectitude. Verg. Sibi conscil
culpae, conscious to themselves of fault. Cic.
Norn 2. For the Genitive with adjectives used substantively, and with adjectives
meaning like, unlike, near, belonging to, etc., see 391, II., 4.
NOTK 8. For the Genitive with dlgnus and indlgnus, see 421, note 3.
II. The Genitive is used with VERBALS in ax, and with PRESENT PAR-
TICIPLES used adjectively :
Virtutum ferax, productive of virtues. Liv. Tenax prOpositl, tenacious
(steadfast) of purpose. Hor. Amans patriae, fond of his country." Cic.
Fugiens laboris. shunning labor. Caes.
III. In the poets and in late prose writers, especially in Tacitus, the Gen-
itive is used
1. With adjectives of almost every variety of signification, simply to
define their application : 8
AevI maturus, mature in age. Verg. Inggns vlrium, mighty in strength.
Sail. Sen studiOrum, late in studies. Hor. Integer aevl, unimpaired in age
(\. e. , in the bloom of youth). Verg. Aeger animl, 4 afflicted in spirit. Liv. Anx-
ius animl, 4 anxious in mind. Sail. Fldens animl, confident in spirit. Verg.
2. With a few adjectives, to denote cause :
Laetus labOrum, pleased with the labors. Verg. Notus animl paternl, dis-
tinguished for paternal affection. Hor.
dens; peritus, imperitm, rudi*, inxuftut; memor, imm6mor,ete.; (8) adfinw, dm-
sort, exsors, expers, particeps, manifextns, noa-ius; plfnut, fertiUt, refertus, egenus,
inops, vacuus; potens, im potens, compos, etc.
1 See foot-note 3, page 210.
* Amdns patriae, 'fond of his country,' represents the affection as permanent and
constant; whereas the participial construction, amdns patriam, 'loving his country,'
designates a particular instance or act.
8 Like the Ablative of Specification; see 424. For voti reus, 'bound to fulfil a
vow,' see 41O, III., note 2.
* Probably a Loca'irc in origin, as animlt is used in similar instances in the pluml
212
400. Adjectives which usually take the Genitive, sometimes
admit other constructions :
1. The DATIVE :
Mantis subitls avidae, hands ready for tudden events. Tac. Insuetus m6ri-
bus Romanls, unaccustomed to Roman manners. Liv. Facinort mens cOnscia,
a mind conscious of crime, Cic. See 391.
2. The ACCUSATIVE WITH A PREPOSITION :
Insuetus ad pugnam, unaccustomed to battle. Liv. Fertilis ad omnia, pro-
ductive for all things. Plin. Avidus in novas res, eager for new things. Liv.
3. The ABLATIVE WITH or WITHOUT A PREPOSITION :
Prttdens in jure clvlli, learned in civil law. Cio. His de rebus cSnscius,
aware of these things. Cic. Vacuus de defensoribus, destitute of defenders.
Caes. Curls vacuus, free from cares. Cic. Eefertus bonls, repleteWith, bless-
ings. Cic. See 414, III.
RULE XVIII. Predicate Genitive.
401. A noun predicated of another noun denoting a
different person or thing is put in the Genitive :
Omnia hostium erant, all things belonged TO THE ENEMY.' Liv. Senatus
Hannibalis erat, the senate was HANNIBAL'S (i. e., in his interest). Liv.
Judicis est verum sequl, to follow the truth is the duty OF A JUDGE.* Cic.
Parvl pretii est, it is of small value. Cic. Tyrus mare suae dicionis * fecit,
Tyre brought the sea under (lit., made the sea OF) her sway. Curt.
NOTE 1. For a noun predicated of another noun denoting the same person or thing,
see 368; 373,1.
NOTE 2. A PREDICATE GENITIVE is often nearly or quit* equivalent to a Predicate
adjective (36O, note 1): hominin est = humdnum est, 'it is the mark of a man,' 'is
human'; ntultl est = xtultum erf,/ it Is foolish.' The Genitive is the regular construc-
tion in adjectives of one ending : sapientis est (for sapiens est), 'it is the part of a wise
man,' ' is wise.'
NOTK 3. Possessive pronouns in agreement with the subject supply the place of the
Predicate Genitive 4 of personal pronouns :
Est tuum (not tul ) videre, it is your duty to see. Cic.
NOTE 4. Aequl, bonl, and rSliqul occur as Predicate Genitives In such expressions
M aequl facere, aequl bonlque facere, bonl consulere, 'to take in pood part, 1 and
rfliqul facere, ' to leave ' :
Aequl bonlque facio, I take it in good part. Ter. Millie's nihil rSliqui vIctTs fgcere,
the soldiers left nothing to the vanquished. Sail
1 Literally, were or THE ENEMY, or were THE ENEMY'S.
5 Literally, is OF A JUDGE.
3 Here dicionis, denoting a different thing from mare, of which it is predicated, U
put in the Genitive.
4 This is another illustration of the close relationship between a Predicate Genitiv*
and a Predicate Adjective; see also note &
GENITIVM. 313
402. The PREDICATE GENITIVE is generally Possessive or De-
scriptive, rarely Partitive :
Haec hostium erant, these things were OF (belonged to) THE ENEMY. Liv.
Est imperatoris superare, it is the duty OF A COMMANDER to conquer. Caes.
Suminae facultatis est, he is (a man) of the highest ability. Cic. Opera
magni fuit, the assistance was of great value. Nep. Fies nobilium fontium,'
you will become one of the noble fountains. Hor.
403. The PREDICATE GENITIVE occurs most frequently with
sum and facio, but sometimes also with verbs of seeming, regard-
ing, etc. :
Oram Romftnae diciOnis ffecit, he brought the coast under (made the coast
of) Roman rule. Liv. Hominis videtur, it stems to be the mark of a man.
Cic. See also examples under 4O1.
NOTE. Transitive verbs of this class admit in the active an Accusative with the
Genitive, as in the first example.
404. The PREDICATE GENITIVE of PRICE or VALUE is used with
sum and with verbs of valuing :
Magni sunt tuae litterae, your letters are OF GREAT VALUE. Cic. Pluris
ease, to be OF GREATER VALUE. Cic. Parvl pcndcre, to think lightly of. Sail.
Auctoritatom tuam magni aestimO, I prize your authority highly. Cic.
NOTI 1. With these verbs the Genitive of price or value Is generally an defective?
as in the examples, but pretil is sometimes used :
Parvl pretii est, it is of little value. Cte.
NOTE 2. Nihili and, in familiar discourse, a few other Genitives 9 occur:
Nihill facere, to take no account of. Cic. Non floccl pendere, not to care a straw
(lock of wool) for. Plaut.
405. Tanti, quantl, pluris, and minoris are also used as GENI-
TIVES OF PRICE with verbs of buying and selling : *
Emit hortos tanti, he purchased the gardens AT so GREAT A PRICE. Cic.
Vendo frQmentum pluris, I sell grain AT A HIGHER PRICE. Cic.
NOTK. For the Ablative of price, see 422.
RULE XIX. Genitive with Special Verbs.
406. The Genitive is used
I. With misereor and miserescO :
Miserere labOrum, pity the labors. Verg. Miserfiscite rfigis, pity (fa
King. Verg.
1 Facultatis and mdgm are Descriptive, but fontium is Partitive.
a The following 1 adjectives are so used : magni, parvl, tanti, quttntl ; pluris, mi-
ruiris; plurim'i, mua-imi, and minimi,
* As amis, flocci, naucl, and pin.
* Observe that verbs of bwyiny and xel/iny admit the Genitive of price only when
one of these adjectives is used. In other eases they take the Ablative of price.
214 GENITIVE.
II. With recorder, meminl, remmiscor, and obllvlscor : l
Meminit praeteritorum, he remembers (he past. Cic. 'Oblltus sum mel,
/ /lave forgotten myself. Ter. Flagitiorum recordarl, to recollect base deeds.
Cic, Reminlsci virtutis, to remember virtue. Caes.
III. With refert and interest :
Illorum refert, it concerns them. Sail. Interest omnium, it is the inter-
sstofall. Cic.
NOTE. The expression, Venit in mentem, 'it occurs to mind, 1 is sometimes con-
strued with the Genitive and sometimes with the Nominative:
Venit mini Platonis in mentem, 4 the recollection of Plato comes to my mind, or 1
recollect Plato. Cic. Non venit in mentem pugna, does not the battle occur to your
mindt Idv.
407. Verbs of RKMEMBERING and FORGETTING often take the
Accusative instead of the Genitive :
Memineram Paullum, / remembered Paullus. Cic. Triumphos recordarl,
to recall triumphs. Cic. Ea reminlscere, remember those things. Cic.
NOTE 1. The Accusative is the common construction (1) with recordor and (2)
with the other verbs, if it is a neuter pronoun or adjective, or designates an object re-
membered by a contemporary or an eye-witness.
NOTE 2. The Ablative with de is rare :
Recordare de ceteris, bethink yourself of the others. Cio.
408. The CONSTRUCTION with refert and interest is as follows :
I. The PERSON or THING interested is denoted
1. By the Genitive, as under the rule.
2. By the Ablative Feminine of the fbssetsive. 3 This takes the place of the
Genitive of personal pronouns :
MeS, rgfert, it concerns me. Ter. Interest mea, it interests me. Cic.
3. By the Dative, or Accusative with or without Ad; but rarely, and
chiefly with refert, which moreover often omits the person :
Quid refert vlventl, what does it concern one living f Hor. Ad me refert,
it concerns me. Plaut.
II. The SUBJECT OF IMPORTANCE, or that which involves the interest, is
expressed by an Infinitive or Clause, or by a Neuter Pronoun :
1 The Genitive with verbs of pitying, remembering, and forgetting probably de-
pends upon the substantive idea contained in the verbs themselves; see Internal Object,
371, I., 2. Thus, meminl with the Accusative means I remember dixtinctly and fully,
generally used of an eye-tcitness or of a contemporary; but with a Genitive, it means to
ha/re some recollection of. With refert the Genitive depends upon re, the Ablative of
res, contained in the verb, and with interest it may be a Predicate Genitive, or may sim-
ply follow the analogy of refert.
* With venit in mentem, the Genitive Platonis supplies the place of subject. It
probably limits the pronominal subject already contained in venit, as in every Latin verb,
it or (fiat of Plato, the recollection of Plato.
3 See foot-note 1. above.
GENITIVE. 215
Interest omnium recte facere, to do right is the interest of all. Cic. Yestra
hoc interest, this interests you. Cio.
III. The DEGREE OF INTEREST is exoressed by an Adverb, by a Neutei
used adverbially, or by a Genitive of Value (404"' :
Vestra maxims interest, it especially interests you. Cic. Quid nostra re-
fert, what does it concern us ? Cic. Magn! interest mea, it greatly interest!-,
"me. Cic.
IV. The OBJECT or END for which it is important is expressed by the
Accusative with ad, rarely by the Dative :
Ad honorem nostrum interest, it is important for our honor. Cic,
RULE XX. Accusative and Genitive.
409. The ACCUSATIVE of the PERSON and the GENI-
ITVE of the THING are used with a few transitive verbs :
I. With verbs of reminding, admonishing : *
Tg amlcitiae commonefacit, he reminds you OF FRIENDSHIP. Cic. MilitSs
necessitatis monet, he reminds the soldiers of the necessity. Ter.
II. With verbs of accusing, convicting, acquitting : *
VirOs xceleris arguis, you accuse men OF CRIME. Cic. Levitatis eum con-
vincere, to convict him of levity. Cic. Absolvere injuriae eum, to acquit
him of injustice. Cic.
III . With miseret, paenitet, pudet, taedet, and piget : "
Eorum nOs miseret, we pity THEM (it moves our pity OF THEM). Cic.
COnsilil m6 paenitet, / repent of my purpose. Cic. M6 stultitiae meae
pudet, / am ashamed of my folly. Cic.
NOTE 1. The Genitive of the Thing designates, with verbs of reminding, etc., that
to which the attention is called; with verbs of accuxiny,etc., the crime, charge; and
with mitteret, paenitet, etc., the object which produces the feeling; see examples.
NOTE 2. The personal verbs included under this rule retain the Genitive in the
Pimxirf :
Accusatus est prfiditifmit, he -teas accused OF TREASON. Nep.
1 The Genitive with verbs of reminding and admonishing may be explained like
that with verbs of pitying, remembering, and forgetting ; see foot-note 1, page 214.
With verbs of (tccuxiny, etc., the Genitive may also be explained In the same way, or
may depend upon nfmine, crlmine, or jfidici<~>, understood. Sometimes one of these
nouns is expressed; see 41O, II., 1.
a The Genitive with paenitet, pudet, etc.. like that with venit in mentem (see 4O6,
note, with foot-note), depends upon the impersonal subject contained in the verb. Thus,
te hrtec pudent means these things nhinne you, and me ntultiti<ie meae pudet, literally
rendered, means of my folly (1. e., the thought of it, or something about it), fthamen me.
The Genitive with mixer et may be explained either in the same way, or like that with
miser eor; see foot-note 1. page 214.
216 GENITIVE.
NOT S. In judicial language a few verbs not otherwise so used are treated a>
verbs of accusing. Thus condlco occurs with the Genitive in Livy, I., 82.
410. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. The following deserve notice:
I. Verbs of REMINDING and ADMONISHING sometimes take, instead of
the Genitive
1. The Accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective, rarely of a substan-
tive, thus admitting two accusatives :
Illud me admones, you admonish me OF THAT. Cic.
2. The Ablative with de moneo and its compounds generally so:
De proelio v6s admonul, / have reminded you OF THE BATTLE. Cic.
II. Verbs of ACCUSING, CONVICTING, sometimes take, instead of the
Genitive of the crime, etc.
1. The Genitive with nomine, crlmine, judicid, or some similar word :
Nomine conjurationis damnati sunt, they were condemned on the charge of
conspiracy. Cic. Innocentem judicio capitis arcessere, to arraign an inno-
cent man on a capital charge. Cic.
2. The Accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective, rarely :
Id me accusas, you accuse me of that. Plaut.
3. The Ablative alone or with a preposition, generally de :
De pecuniis repetundls damnatus est, he was convicted of extortion. Cic.
III. With verbs of CONDEMNING, the Penalty is generally expressed by
the Ablative, 1 or by the Accusative with a preposition, usually ad:
Tertia parte damnarl, to be condemned to forfeit a third of one's land. Liv.
Capite damnare, to condemn to death, Cic. Morte multare, to punish with
death. Cic. Ad bestias condemnare, to condemn to the wild beasts. Suet.
NOTE 1. In the poets the penalty Is sometimes expressed by the Dative:
Morti damnatus, condemned to death. Lucr.
NOTK 2. The Genitive occurs in such special expressions as capitis condemnare,
'to condemn to death'; votl damntirl^to be condemned to fulfil a vow' = 'to obtain
a wish'; damnftri longl laborw, ' to be condemned to long labor'; rf>tl reus* = votl
damnatus, ' condemned to fulfil a vow ' :
Aliquem capitis condemnare, to condemn one to death. Cic. Damnatus long! laboris,
condemned to long labor. Hor.
IV. With MISERET, PAENITET, PCDET, TAEDET, and PIGET, an Infinitive
or Clause is sometimes used, rarely a neuter pronoun or nihil :
Me paenitet vlxisse, 7 repent having lived. Cic. Te haec pudent, these
things shame you. Ter.
NOTB 1. Like miseret are sometimes used miserencit, commiserescit, mineritur,
commiseretur. Like titeilet are used pertaedet, pertaesvm est.
NOTB 2. Pudet sometimes takes the Genitive of the person before whom one It
ashamed :
Me tui pudet, / am ashamed in your presence. Ter. Pudet homlnum, tt it a
nhamt in the sight of men. Lly.
> Regularly so when the penalty Is a definite sum of money.
* Best explained as a substantive.
ABLATIVE. 217
Nor* t.Pertaeeus admits the Accusative of the object :
Pertaesus Ignaviam soam, disgusted with his own inaction. Suet
V. Many other verbs sometimes take the Genitive. 1 Thus
1. Some verbs of plenty and want, as compled, impleO, 1 egeO, indigeo, like
adjectives of the same meaning (399, 1., 3) :
Virtus exercitatiOnis indiget, virtue requires exercise. Cic. Auxilil egere,
to need aid. Caes. Multitudinem religiOnis implevit,' he inspired (filled) the
multitude with religion. Liv. KG ruin satagere, to be occupied with (to do
fenough of) business. Ter.
2. Some verbs of desire, emotion, or feeling, like adjectives of the same
meaning (399, I., 1) :
Cupiunt tul, they desire you. Plaut. Tul testimonil veritus, fearing your
testimony. Cic. AnimI 3 pendeO, I am uncertain in mind. Cic. Discrucior
animl, / am troubled in spirit. Plaut. Te angis animl, you make yourself
anxious in mind. Plaut. Desipere mentis, to be foolish in mind, or mistaken
in opinion. Plaut.
8. A few verbs denoting mastery or participation, like adjectives of the
same meaning (399, I., 3),potior, t adiplscor, regno :
Siciliae potltus est, he became master of Sicily. Nep. Rerum adeptus est, ht
obtained the power. Tac. Regnavit populorum, Tie icas king of the peoples. Hor.
4. In the poets, a few verbs 5 take the Genitive, instead of the Ablative of
Separation or Cause (413) :
Abstinere Irarum, to abstain from anger. Hor. Laborum decipitur, he it
beguiled of his labors. Hor. Desine querelarum, ceatefrom complaints. Hor.
Desistere pugnae, to desist from the battle. Verg. Eum culpae liberare, to
free him from blame (i. e., to acquit him). Liv. Miriiri laborum, to admire
because of toilt. Verg. DamnI InfectI promittere, to give surety in mew of
expected damage. Cic.
NOTE. For the Genitive of Gerund* and Gerundive*, see 543, I.; 644.
SECTION VII.
ABLATIVE.
411. The LATIN ABLATIVE performs the duties of three
cases originally distinct : *
I. The ABLATIVE PROPER, denoting the relation FROM :
Expulsus est patrid, he was banished FROM HIS COUNTRY. Cic.
1 Transitives of this class of course admit the Accusative with the Genitive.
3 See 481, II.
' Animl in such instances is probably a Locative in origin, as anlmls it used in the
same way in the plural. Bee foot-note on animl, 399, III., 1.
Potior takes the Genitive regularly when it means to reduce to subjection.
As abstineO, dectpio, detinO, desists, levO, libero, etc. : mJror, etc.
These three cases, still recognized in the Sanskrit, originally had distinct forms
bat in the Latin, under the influence of phonetic change and decay, theae forms have
218 ABLA1IVE,
II. The INSTRUMENTAL, denoting the relation WITH, BY :
S5l omnia luce collustrat, the sun illumines all things WITH ITS LIGHT. Cic,
III. The LOCATIVE, denoting the relation IN, AT:
Si oppido tenet, he keeps himself IN THE TOWN. Cic.
I. ABLATIVE PROPER.
RULE XXI. Place from which.
412. The PLACE FKOM WHICH is denoted by the Ablative:
I. Generally with a preposition a, ab, de, or ex :
Ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets out FROM THE CITY. Caes. De for6, from
<hefo)-um. Cic. Ex Africa, from (out of) Africa. Liv.
II. In NAMES OF TOWNS without a preposition : *
PlatSnem Alhenls arcesslvit, he summoned Plato FROM ATHENS. Nep.
Fugit Corintho, he fled from Corinth. Cic.
1. Many names of islands, and the Ablatives domo and rure, are used
like names of towns :
Domo profugit, he fled FKOM "JOME. Cic. Dllo proficiscitur, he proceed*
FROM DELOS. Cic.
2. The Ablative of places not towns is sometimes used without a jtrepo-
fition, especially in poetry :
Cadere nubibus, to fall FROM THE CLOUDS. Verg. Labi equo, to fall FROM A
HORSE. Hor.
k 3. The preposition is sometimes used with names of towns, especially
for emphasis or contrast :
Ab Arded Eomam venerunt, they came FROM ARDEA to Rome. Liv.
NOTE. The preposition is generally used when the vicinity, rather than th* town
itself, is meant :
Discessit a Brundisid, he departed from. Brwidisiwm (i. e., from the port). Caes.
RULE yVHt Separation, Source, Cause.
413. Separation, Source, and Cause are denoted by the
Ablative with or without a preposition :
SEPARATION. Caedem a vobls dSpello, 7 ward off slaughter FROM YOU.
Cic. Hunc a tuls arls arcebis, you will Jceep this one FROM YOUR ALTARS.
become Identical, and their uses have been blended in a single case called the Ablative
On the general subject of the Ablative and its , see Merguet, pp. 109-117; Delbruck
Hubschmann, pp. 82-106; Holzweissig, pp. 28 and 75; Draeger, I., pp. 494-571; Eoby
'I., pp. 68-115.
1 This was the original construction for all places alike.
ABLATIVE. 219
Uic. Expulsus est patriot, he was banished from his country. Cic. Urbem
commeatu prlvavit, he deprived the city of supplies. Nep. C8natu desti-
terunt, they desisted from the attempt. Caes. Vagina eripe ferrum, draw
your sword from its scabbard. Verg.
SOURCE. Hoc audivl de parente me6, I heard this FROM MY FATHER. Cic.
OriundT ab Sablnls, descended FROM THE SABINES. Liv. Statua ex aerf
facta, a statue made of bronze. Cic. Abiete puppis, the stern made of fir
Verg. Jove natus, son of Jupiter. Cic.
CAUSE. Ars Militate laudatur, an art is praised BECAUSE OF ITS USEFUL-
NESS. Cic. Lacrimo gaudio, I weep FOR (on account of) JOY. Ter. Vestrft
hoc causft volebam, I desired this on your account. Cic. Rogatu veneram, /
had come by request. Cic. Ex vulnere aeger, ill in consequence of his wound.
Cic. Aeger erat vulneribus, he was ill in consequence of his wounds. Nep.
NOTK I. Transitive Verbs admit an Accusative with the Ablative; see examples.
NOTK 2. The preposition* most frequently used with the Ablative of Separation
n<l Source are d, ab, de, e, ex, and with the Ablative of Cause, de, e, ex.
NOTE 8. With the Ablative of Separation the preposition is more freely used when
the separation is focal and literal than when It is figurative : de ford, ' from the forum ';
02 Asifi, 'out of Asia 1 ; but le/oa/re inetu, 'to relieve from fear'; condtu desistere, ' to
desist from the undertaking.'
NOTE 4. For the Genitine instead of the Ablative of Separation, see 41O, V., 4;
and for the Dative similarly used, see 385, 9.
414. The ABLATIVE OP SEPARATION designates that from which
anything is separated, or of which it is deprived, and is generally
used without a preposition in the following situations :
I. With verbs meaning to relieve, deprive, need, be without: 1
Leva me hoc onere, relieve me OF THIS BURDEN. Cic. Vinclis exsolvere, to
release FROM CHAINS. Plaut. Molestia expedire, to relieve of trouble. Cic.
Militem praedii fraudare, to defraud the soldiery of booty. Liv. Non egeO
mediclna, I do not need a remedy. Cic. Vacare culpa, to be free from fault.
Cic. See also examples under 413.
II. With moved in special expressions: 2
Slgnum movere locd, to move the standard FROII THE PLACE. Cic.
III. With adjectives meaning free from, destitute of :*
Animus liber curd, a mind free FROM CARK. Cic. Expers metu, rree FBOK
ri.\i:. Cic. Urbs nuda pracsidio, a city dextitute of defence. Cio.
NOTK. For a similar use of the Genitive, 4 see 309, 1., 8.
IV. With opus and usua, meaning need:
1 As expedio, eaconero, levfi, relevo, llbero, relates, xolvO, abtolvo, exsotvO ; evuo,
fraiido, nftdo, orbo, upolio, priro, etc.
* A* in movere foco, movere xenutu, movere tribft, movfre vextigio.
1 A or ab is generally used with names of persons and lometimes with other words.
4 Eglnua, indigux, Hterilin. and some others are freely used with the Genitive: BW
399, 1., 8
220 ABLATIVE.
Auctoritdte tud nobls opus est, we need (there is to us a need of) TOVB
AUTHORITY. Cic. Usus est tu& mihl opera, I need your AID. Plaut.
NOTE 1. In most other instances a preposition accompanies the Ablative of Separa-
tion, though often omitted in poetry and in late prose.
NOTE 2. Opus est and ftsus est admit the Dative of the person with the Ablative of
the thing; see examples.
NOTE 3. With, opus and usus, the Ablative is sometimes a perfect participle, or.
with OJHIX, a noun and a participle :
Cdnsulto opus est, there is need of deliberation. Sail. Opus fuit Hirtio conventC
there was need of meeting Hirtius. Cic.
NOTE 4. With opus est, rarely with fisus e#t, the thing needed may be denoted
1) By the Nominative, rarely by the Genitive or Accusative :
Dux nobis opus est, we need a leader, or a leader is necessary (a necessity) for ut
Cic. Temporis opus eat, there is need of time. Li v. Opus est cibum, there is need of
food. Plaut
2) By an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Supine :
Opus est te valere, it is necessary that you be well. Cic. Opus est ut lavem, it is
necessary for me to bathe (that I bathe). Plaut. Dictu est opus, it is necessary to be
told. Ter.
415. The ABLATIVE OP SOURCE more commonly takes a prepo-
sition ; see examples under 413. It includes agency, parentage,
material, etc.
I. The agent or author of an action is designated by the Ablative with
a or ab :
Occlsus est a Thfebanls, he was slain by the Tkebans. Nep. Occidit a fortl
Achille, he was slain (lit., fell) by brace Achilles. Ov.
1. The Ablative without a preposition may be used of a person, regarded
not as the author of the action, but as the means by which it is effected :
Coraua Numidw firmat, he strengthens the wings WITH NUMIDIANS. Liv.
NOTE 1. The Accusative with per may be used of the person through whose agency
the action is effected :
Ab Oppianico per Fabricios ' fectum est, it was accomplished by Oppianicus
THROUGH THE AGENCY OF THE FABRICII. Cic.
NOTE 2. For the Dative of Agent, see 388.
2. When anything is personified as agent, the Ablative with a or ab may
be used as in the names of persons :
Vinci a voluptate, to be conquered by pleasure. Cic. A fortuna datam oc-
casiOnem, an opportunity furnished by fortune. Nep.
II. PERFECT PARTICIPLES denoting parentage or birth -genitw, ndfus,
ortus, etc. generally take the Ablative without a preposition :
Jove natus, son of Jupiter. Cic. Tantalo prdgnatus, descended from Tan-
talus. Cic. Parentibus natl humilibus, born of humble parents. Cio.
1 Here note the distinction between the Ablative with ab (ab Oppianico), denoting
the author of the action, the Accusative with per (per Fabricios), the person through
whose agency the action was performed, and the Ablative alone (Jfumidis), the meant
of the action.
ABLATIVE. 221
NOTE. In designating REMOTE ANCESTRY, or ub is generally used; but after nattu
nd ortmi, the Ablatives familid, genere, loco, and ittirpe, when modified by an adjec-
tive, omit the preposition :
Oriundl ab Sabinis, devcended from the Sabines. Liv. OrtI ab GennanTs, sprung
from the Ger moats. Cues. Nobiligenere natus, born of a noble family . SalL
III. With the ABLATIVE OF MATERIAL, e or ex is generally used, though
often omitted, especially in poetry :
Status ex acre facta, a statue made of bronze. Cic. Pocula ex auro, cupf
of gold. Cic. Acre cav6 clipeus, a shield of concave bronze. Verg. Abiet
puppis, the stern made of fir. Verg.
NOTB 1. A special use of the Ablative, kindred to the above, is seen with /acio, fiO,
and sum in such expressions as the following :
Quid hoc nomine facias, what are you to do with this man T Cic. Quid HIS ftot,
what will become of him t Cic. Quid tS futuram est, what will become of you t Cic.
NOTE 2. The Dative or the Ablative with d& occurs in nearly the same sense :
Quid huic bomini facias, >chat are you to do with (or to) this man t Cic. Quid de
t5 futurum est, what will become of you T Ofc.
416. The ABLATIVE OF CAUSE is generally used without a prepo-
sition. 1 It designates that by reason of which, because of which, in
accordance with which anything is or is done, and is used both with
verbs and with adjectives ; * see examples under 413.
I. CACSE is sometimes denoted
1) By the Ablative with a % ab, de, e, ex, prae :
Ab eadem superbia* non venire, not to come because of the same haughti-
ness. Liv. Ex vulnere s aeger, ill in consequence of his wound. Cic. Ex
Snvidia labOrare, to suffer from unpopularity. Cic. Nfln prae lacrimls scrt-
bere, not to write in consequence of tears. Cic.
2) By the Accusative with ob, per, propter:
Per aetatem inutil&s, iiseless because of (lit., through) their age. Caes. In
oppidum propter timftrem sese recipiunt, they betake themselves into the city
on account of their f tar. Caea.
NOT* 1. With transitive verbs the motive which prompts the action is often ex
pressed by the Ablutire with a perfect pawive participle:
BegnT cupidltute 4 inducing conjQratlonem fecit, Influenced by the detAre of riding .
h formed a conspiracy. Caes.
NOTB 2. That in accordance with which anything Is done Is often denoted by the
Ablative with lot ex:
1 The Ablative of Cause is very far removed from the original meaning of the Abla-
tive, and indeed in some of its u-cs was probably derived from the Instrumental Abla-
tire; see 4 18.
2 This includes such Ablatives as meo Judic{d, in accordance with my opinion ; med
tentenlid, jwmfi, impuhft, monitu, etc.; cauva, gratia; also the Ablative with de-
tipio, doles, eaejtilit), etvtufto, yaudeo, laborO^ lacrlmo, laetor, triumpho, etc.
' See note 2, foot-note.
4 Here cupiditate mutt b construed with inductun, yet It really expresses the caust
of the action, fecit.
222 ABLATIVE.
R6s eas foedere repetuntur, restitution is demanded IN ACCORDANCE -WITH ran
TREATY. Liv. Digs e praeceptls tuls ftctus, a day passed IN ACCORDANCE WITH TOO
PREOBPT8. Clc. Ex veritate aestimare, to estimate in accordance with the truth Cic.
Ex auctoritiite > senatus confirmare, to ratify on the authority of the senate. Liv.
RULE XXIII. Ablative with Comparatives.
417. Comparatives without QUAM are followed by the
Ablative : a
Nihil est amabilius virtute, 1 nothing is more lovely THAN VIRTUE. Cic.
Quid est melius bonitate, 3 what is better THAN GOODNESS ? Cic. Sclmus s<5-
lem majOrem esse terra, 3 we know thai the sun is larger than the earth. Cic.
Amicitia, qua nihil melius habemus, friendship, than which we have nothing
better. Cic. Lacrima nihil citius arescit, nothing dries sooner than a tear.
Cic. PotiSrem Ira salutem habet, he regards safety as belter than anger. Liv.
1. COMPARATIVES WITH QUAM are followed by the Nominative, or by the
case of the corresponding noun before them :
Hibernia minor quam Britannia existimatur, Ireland is considered smaller
than BRITAIN. Caes. Agris quam urbi terribilior, more terrible to the country
than TO THE CITY. Liv.
NOTK 1. The construction with quam is the ftill form for which the Ablative is an
abbreviation. The Ablative is freely used for yuam with a Subject Nominative or Sub-
ject Accusative regularly so for quam with the Nominative or Accusative of a rela-
tive pronoun, as in the fourth example under the rule. In other cases quam is retained
in the best prose, though sometimes omitted in poetry.
NOTE 2. After plan, minus, amplius, or fongius, in expressions of number and
quantity, quam is often omitted without influence upon the construction; 4 sometimes
also after major, minor, etc. :
Tecum plus annum vlxit, he lived with you more than, a year. Cic. Minus duo
milia, le*x than tico thousand. Liv.
NOTE 3. Instead of the Ablative after a comparative, a preposition with its case, as
ante, prae, praeter, or supra, is sometimes used :
Ante alios Immanior, more momtrous than (before) the others. Verg.
NOTE 4. Ai.ius, involving a comparison, other than, is sometimes used with the
Ablative .
1 These and similar Ablatives with prepositions show the transition from nource to
cause, and illustrate the manner in which the latter was developed from the former. The
Ablative with the preposition seems in general to retain something of the idea of source.
' This Ablative furnishes the standard of comparison that from which, one ztarttt.
Thus, if virtue is taken as the standard of what is lovely, nothing is more so. This Abla-
tive is sometimes explained as instrumental (418), but that view is controverted by a
imilar use of the Greek Qenitive, which does not contain the instrumental Ablative, and
of the Sanskrit Ablative, which is often distinct from the instrumental.
s Virtute = quam virtus ; bonitate = quam bonitas ; terra = quam terrarr 'c.
MM).
4 So in expressions of age : ndtus plus trlgintd annfm, ' having been born more thai
thirty years. The same meaning is also expressed by major trlgintA annos ndius,
major trlgintd annls, major quam trlgintd annorum, or major trigintd annorum.
ABLATIVE. 223
Quaerit all* his, he seeks other things than these. Plant AHui sapiente, other than
1 wise man. Hor.
NOTE 5. Quam pro denotes disproportion, and many Ablatives oplnione, p,
aequo, jtistd, solit<">, etc. are often best rendered by clauses :
Minor caedes quain pro victoria, less slaughter than was proportionate to the vic-
tory. Liv. Serins spe venit, he came later than was hoped (than hope). Liv. Plus
aequo, more than is fair. Cic.
2. With Comparatives, the MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE,' the amount b>
which one thing surpasses another, is denoted by the Ablative :
Hibernia dimidio minor quam Britannia, Ireland smaller BY ONE HALF than
Britain. Caes.
II. INSTBUMENTAL ABLATIVE.
418. The Instrumental Ablative denotes both Accom-
paniment and Means. 9
RULE XXIV. -Ablative of Accompaniment.
419. The Ablative is used
I. To denote ACCOMPANIMENT. It then takes the prepo-
sition cum :
Vivit cum Balbo, he lives WITH BALBUS. Cic. Cum gladils stant, they
stand with swords (i. e., armed WITH swords). Cic.
II. To denote CHARACTERISTIC or QUALITY. It is then
modified by an adjective or by a Genitive :
Summa virtttte adul6sc6ns, a youth OF THE HIGHEST VIRTDE. Caes. QuI-
dam magnO capite, Ore rubicundo, magnis pedibus, a co-lain one with a
large head, with a red face, and with large feet. Plaut. Catilina ingeniO
maid fuit, Catiline was a man of a bad spirit. Sail. UrI sunt specie 1 taurl,
the urus is (lit., the uri art) of the appearance of a bull. Caes.
NOTE. The Ablative, when used to denote characteristic or quality, may be called
either the Descriptive Ablative or the AMaUve of Characteristic.
III. To denote MANNER." It then takes the preposition
cum. or is modified by an adjective or by a Genitive :
1 See 423.
" The idea of mean* was probably developed from that of accompaniment, as seen
in such expressions as cum omnibus copies sequitur, ' he pursues with all his forces'
accompaniment, which readily suggests means, as he employs his/wc* as means;
equls werunt, 'they went with horses' accompaniment and means. Some scholars
have conjectured that originally accompaniment and means were expressed by separata
case-forms, but of this there seems to be little proof
3 Note the close connection between these three uses of the Ablative the first desig-
nating an attendant person or thing with Balbus, with swords; the second, an at-
tendant quality a youth with (attended by) the highest virtue ; the third, ao attend'
224 ABLATIVE.
Cum virtute vlxit, he lived VIRTUOUSLY. Cic. Summa vl proelium com
mlserunt, they joined battle WITH THE GREATEST VIOLENCE. Nep. DuObus
modls fit, it is done in two ways. Cic.
NOTE 1. The Ablative of manner sometimes takes cum even when modified by an
adjective :
Magnu. cum, curd scripsit, he uvote WITH GREAT CABS. Cic.
NOTE 2. But the Ablative of a few words is sometimes used without cum, evea
fben unattended by an adjective, as jure, 'rightly 1 ; injurid, 'unjustly'; ordine, 'in
an orderly manner'; ratione, 'systematically 1 ; xilentio, 'in silence, 1 etc. 1
NOTE 8. Per, with the Accusative, sometimes denotes MANNER : per vim, 'violent-
ly 1 ; per liidum, * sportively.'
1. On the ABLATIVE OF ACCOMPANIMENT, observe
1) That cum is often omitted (1) especially when the Ablative is qualified
by an adjective, and (2) &fterjungd, misceo, and their compounds :
Ingentl exercitu profectus est, he set out with a large army. Liv. Im
probitas scelere jflncta, depravity joined with crime. Cic.
2) That the Ablative with cum is often used of hostile encounters :
Cum Gallls certare, to fight with the Gauls. Sail. Noblscum hostes con-
tenderunt, the enemy contended with us. Cic.
NOTE. For the Dative with verbs denoting union or contention, see 385, 4, 8).
2. On the DESCRIPTIVE ABLATIVE, as compared with the DESCRIPTIVE
GENITIVE, observe
1) That in descriptions involving size and number, the Genitive is used;
see examples under 396, V.
2) That in most descriptions involving <xternal characteristics, parts of the
body, and the like, the Ablative is used, as in the second and fourth examples
under 419, II.
3) That in other instances either case may be used.
4) That the Ablative, like the Genitive, may be used either with nouns,
as in the first and second examples under 419, II., or with verbs in the predi-
cate, as in the other examples.
RULE XXV. Ablative of Means.
420. INSTRUMENT and MEANS are denoted by the Abla-
tive:
Cornibus tauri sS tutantur, bulls defend themselves WITH THEIR HORNS.
Cic. Gloria, diicitur, lie is led BY GLORY. Cic. Sol omnia luce collustrat,
(he sun illumines all things with its light. Cic. Lacte vlvunt, they live upon
milk. Caes Tellus saucia vomeribus, the earth turned (wounded) with tht
ploughshare. Ovid.
ant circumstance to live with virtue, virtuously. Compare cum Salbo vlvere and
turn virtute vltere.
1 But perhaps most Ablatives which never take cum are best explained at the Abla-
tive of caute as lege, 'according to law'; c?m#uetudine, 'according to custom'; con-
tilid, ' on purpose.' etc.
ABLATIVE. 225
Nor*. This Ablative is of frequent occurrence, and is used both with v erbs and with
Kfjectives.
1. The following expressions deserve notice :
1) Quadraginta hostiis sacrificare, to sacrifice with forty victims. Liv.
Facere vitula, to mate a sacrifice of (lit., WITH) a female calf. Verg.
2) Fidibus cantare, to play upon a stringed instrument. Cic. Pilil ludere
to pin y at ball (lit., WITH TJJK BALL). Hor.
3) Aurelia via proficlscl, to set out by the A'trelian way. Cic. Eodem
itinere ire, to go by the same road. Liv. Esquilina porta ingredl, to enter by
he Esguiline gate. Liv.
4) Virtute praeditur possessed qf virtue. Cic. Legiones pulchrls armls
praeditaa, legion* furnished with bt'iutiful arms. Plaut.
2. AdficiO with the Ablatice forms a very common circumlocution : honor*
ndjicere = honorare, to honor ; admimtione adficere admirarl, to admire ; pot-
nd adficere = punire, to punish, etc :
Omnes laetitia adficit, he gladdens all. Cic.
RULE XXVI. Ablative in Special Constructions. 1
421. The Ablative is used
I. With utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds :
Plurimls rebus fruimur et Qtimur, vie enjoy and use VERY MANY THINGS.
Cic. Magna est praeda potltus, he obtained OREAT BOOTY. Nep. Lacte et
carne vescebantur, they lived upon milk and flesh. Sail
II. With VERBS and ADJECTIVES OF PLENTY:
Villa abundat lade, cfaeS, melle ; the villa abounds IN MILK, CHEESE, and
HONEY. Cic. Urbs referta eopils, a city filled WITH SCPPLIES. Cic. VirtQte
praeditus, endowed with virtue. Cic. Deus boms explCvit mundum, God
has JUled th? world with blessings. Cic.
III. With dlgnus, indignus,- and contontus :
Dlgnl sunt amlcitid, they are worthy OF FRIENDSHIP. Cic. Vir patre
diftnus, a man worthy OF HIS FATHER. Cic. HonOre indlgnissimus, most un-
worthy of honor. Cic. Natura parvo contenta, nature content irith little Cic.
NOTE 1. Transitive verbs of Plenty 3 take the Accusative and Ablative:
Armls naves onerat, he loads the ship* with arms. Sail. See also the last
example under 421, II.
NOTE 2. Diynor, as a Pfissive verb meaning 'to be deemed worthy,'
1 This Ablative is n-adily explained as the Ablative of mean*: thus, i'itor, 'I use, 1 * I
serve myself by mean* of; fnwr, ' I enjoy,' 'I delight mysdf with" 1 ; rf*cvr, 'I feej
uiwn,' ' I feed myself icit/i,' etc.
a The nature of the Ablative with dlgnwi and intllgnim is somewhat uncertain. Ol
tytnoloL r ic:il grounds it is explained as inxtrwrnental ; see Delbruck, p. 72; Corssen
1 Krit. Beitr.,' p. 47.
3 Transitive verbs of plenty mean 'to fill,' 'to furnish with,' etc., at vwnulo, aom
pteo, impleO, inibuO, inntruO, onero. i)rni>, etc.
226 ABLATIV1L
takes the Ablative ; but as a Deponent verb meaning ' to deem worthy,' used
only in poetry and lato prose, it takes the Accusative and Ablative :
Honore dlgniiti sunt, they have been deemed worthy of honor. Cic. Me
dlgnor honOre, / deem myself worthy of honor. Verg.
NOTE 8. Dlgnm and indignm occur with the Genitive :
Dignus saliitis, worthy of safety. Plant. Indignus avorum, unworthy of their an-
cestors. Verg.
NOTE 4. Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, originally transitive, are occa-
sionally so used in classic authors. Their participle in dun is passive in sense. Ctr
admits two Ablatives of the same person or thing :
MC ntetur patre, he icill find (use) me a father. Ter.
NOTE 6. For the Genitive with potior, see 41O, V., 8. For the Genitive with verbs
and adjectives of plenty, and for the Accusative and Genitive with transitive verb*
of plenty, sec 410, V., 1, with foot-note, and 399, 1., 8.
RULE XXVII. Ablative of Price.
422. PRICE is generally denoted by the Ablative :
V&ndid\taurdi>a.tria.m,?ie sold his country FOR GOLD. Verg. Conduxit map-
no domum, he hired a house AT A HIGH PRICE. Cic. MultO sanguine Poenis
victoria stetit, the victory cost the Carthaginians (stood to the Carthaginians
at) much blood. Liv. Qumquaginta talentls aestimarf, to be valued at ffti.
talents. Nep. Vile est vlgintl minis, it is cheap at twenty minae. Plaut.
NOTE 1. The ABLATIVE OF PRICE Is used (1) with verbs of buying, selling, hiring
letting ; (2) of costing, of being cheap or dear; > (8) of valuing; (4) with adjectives ol
value. 1
NOTE 2. With verbs of EXCHANGING muto, commute, etc. (1) the thing received
la generally treated as the price, as with verbs of nelling, but (2) sometimes the thing
given is treated as the price, as with verbs of buying, or is put (n the Ablative with cum :
Pace bellum mutiivit, he exchanged war FOB PEACE. Sail. Exsilium patria mutfi-
vtt, he exchanged ms COUNTRY for eac/ile. Curt. Cum patriae aritute gldriam oomnau-
tavit, he exchanged love of country for glory. Cic.
NOTE 8. For the GENITIVE OF PKICE, see 4O5.
RULE XXVULL Ablative of Difference.
423. The MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE is denoted by the
Ablative :
Un6 dii longiSrem mnsem faciunt, they make the month ONE DAY lonyei
(longer BY ONE DAY). Cic. Bidud m6 antecessit, he preceded me BY TWO
DAYS. Cic. S5l multls partibus major est quam terra, the sun is very much
(lit., BY MANY PARTS) larger than the earth. Cic.
NOTE 1. The Ablative is thus used with all words involving a comparison, but ad-
verbs often supply its place: multum r<>buMor, 'much more robust.'
NOTE 2. The Ablative of difference includes the Ablative of dintance (379, 8), MM
the Ablative with ante, post, and abhinc in expressions of time (430).
1 At std, consto, liceo, turn, etc. ; cflru*. venalis, eto
ABLATIVE. 227
RULE XXIX. Specification.
424. A noun, adjective, or verb may take an Ablative
to define its application :
Agesilaus nomine, non potentate fuit r6x, Agesilaus was king IN NAME,
not IN POWER. Nep. Claudus alters pede, lame IN ONE FOOT. Nep. Mori
bus similes, similar in character. Cic. ReliquOs Gallos virtute praec6dunt,
ihey surpass the other Gauls in courage. Caes.
NOTE 1. This ABLATIVE shows in what respect or particular anything i* true :
thus, king (in what respect?) in name.
NOTE 2. For the ACCCBATIVB OF SPECIFICATION, see 378.
III. LOCATIVE ABLATIVE.
RULE XXX. Place in which.
425. The PLACE IN WHICH is denoted
I. Generally by the Locative Ablative ' with the preposi-
tion in :
Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal was IN ITALY. Nep. In nostrts castrls,
in our camp. Caes. In Appia vift, on the Appian way. Cic.
II. In NAMES OF TOWNS by the Locative* if such a
form exists, otherwise by the Locative Ablative:
Romae fuit, he was AT ROME. Cic. Corinthl puerSs docebat, he taughi
boys AT CORINTH. Cic. Athenls fuit, he was AT ATHENS. Cic. H6c facis
Argls, you do this at Argos. Hor. Karthagine reggs creabantur, kings
were elected (created) at Carthage. Nep. Gadibus vlxit, he lived at Gades.
Cic.
NOTE. For the construction with verbs meaning to collect, to come together, and
with those meaning to place, see 38O, note.
1. In the names of places which are not towns, the LOCATIVE ABLATIVB
is often used without a preposition :
1) When fhe idea of means t manner, or cause is combined with that of
place : '
Cnetris sC tenuit, he kept himself IN CAMP. Caes. Aliquem ttctfi recipere,
to receive any one IN ONK'S OWN HOUSE. Cic. Proelw caderc, to fall IN BATTLE.
Caes. Adulescentibus delectart, to take pleasure in the young. Cic. SuS
1 The learnei will remember that the Locatire Abhitirt does not differ in form from
ny other Ahlntive; sec 41 1.
See 48, 4; 51, 8; 66, 4. The Locative wa* the original construction in all names
of places.
' In some cases place and meann are so combined that it Is difficult to determine
which is .he original conception.
228 ABLATIVE.
victoria gloriantur, they glory in, their victory. Caes. Nullo officio assuefactl,
trained in no duty. Caes.
NOTE. The Ablative is generally used with fido, cmifldo, nitor, innltor, and frftun:
Nem6 fortunae stabilitute confidit, no one trusts (confides in) the stability of for-
tune. Cic. Sal us veritate nititur, safety rents upon truth. Cic. Frctus amicis, relying
upon hiti friends. Liv.
2) When the idea of place is figurative rather than literal:
Nova pectore versat consilia, she devises (turns over) new plans IN HER
BKEAST. Verg. Stare judiciis, to abide BY (stand IN) THE DECISIONS. Cic.
Promissls manere, to remain true to promises (lit., remain IN). Verg. Pen-
dcre aniruis, 1 to be perplexed in mind. Cic. Iiitiims sensibus angi, to be
troubled in one's inmost feelings. Cic. Ferox bello, valiant in war. Hor.
Jure perltus, skilled in law. Jic.
2. The Ablatives loco, locis, partc, parliovs, dextra, lacva, and sinistra
are often used without the preposition. Term and marl and Ablatives
with totus are generally so used.
Aliquidfoco ponere, &>/> anything IN ITS PLACE. Cic. Terra marlque, on
land and sea. Liv. Tota Graecia, in all Greece. Nep.
NOTE 1. The Ablative libro, 'book,' generally takes the preposition when used of a
portion of a work, but omits it when used of an entire treatise :
In eo libro, in this book (referring to a portion of the work). Cic. A 116 libro, in an-
other work. Cic.
NOTE 2. Other Ablatives sometimes occur without the preposition, especially wheL
qualified by omnis, medius, or universus :
Omnibus oppidls, in all the toicnu. Caes.
NOTE 8. In poetry the Locative Ablative is often used without the preposition :
Lucis opacls, in shady groves. Verg. Silvis agrisque, in the foreata and jifMs. Ov.
Tbeatris, in the theatres. Hor. Ferre umero, to bear upon the shoulder. Verg.
3. ABLATIVE FOR THE LOCATIVE. Instead of the Locative in names of
towns the Ablative is used, with or without a preposition
1) When the proper name is qualified by an adjective or adjective pronoun :
In ipsa Alexandria, 8 in Alexandria itself. Cic. Longa Alba, at Alba
Longa. Verg.
2) Sometimes when not thus modified :
In monte Albano Lavinioque, on the Alban mount and at Lavinium. Liv.
In Alexandria, 2 at Alexandria. Liv.
NOTE. The following special construction* deserve notice :
In oppido Citio, 3 in the town Citium. Nep. Albae, 4 in urbe opportuna, at Alba, a
convenient city. Cic.
1 In the singular animl is generally used, a Locative probably both in form and in
signification; see p. 211, foot-note 4.
* At Alexandria would regularly be expressed by the Locative, Atexandriae.
* Here Citifi is in apposition with oppidf>, the usual construction in such cases, though
a Genitive limiting oppidfi occurs: In oppido Antiechiae, I'M the citij of Ant lock. Cic.
4 A Locative may thus be followed by in urbe, or in oppidf>. modified by an adjec-
tive; but see 363, 4. 2). Tie preposition in is sometimes omitted.
ABLATIVE. 229
426. LIKE NAMES OF TOWNS are used
1. Many NAMES OF ISLANDS:
Lesbl vixit, he lived in Lesbos. Nep. Conon Cypri vlxit, Conon lived in
Cyprus. Nep.
2. The LOCATIVES domi, riirl, humi, militiae, and belli:
Domi mllitiaeque, at home and in t/ie field. Cic. Rurl agere vltam, fa
ipend life in the country. Liv.
NOTE. A few other Locatives also occur:
Bomae Numidiaeque, at Rome and in Numidia. Sail. Domum Chersonesi habuit
he had a hoiute in the Chersonevus. Nep. Truncum reltquit arGnae, 1 he left the body
in the sand. Verg.
427. SUMMARY. The NAMES OF PLACES NOT TOWNS are gen-
erally put
I. In the Accusative with ad or in, to denote the PLACE TO WHICH :
In Asiam redit, he returns to (into) Asia. Nep.
II. In the Ablative with ab, de, or ex, to denote the PLACE FROM WHICH :
Ab urbe proficlscitur, he sets out from the city. Cues.
III. In the Locative Ablative with in, to denote the PLACE AT or IN WHICH :
Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal was in Italy. Nep.
NOTE. For qualifications and eteceptionn, see 38O, 3 and 4: 412, 2; 425, 1 and 2.
428. SUMMARY. The NAMES OF TOWNS are put 8
I. In the Accusative, to denote the PLACE TO WHICH :
Nuntius Romam redit, the messenger returns to Rome. Liv.
I. 1 . In the Ablative, to denote the PLACE FROM WHICH :
Ffigit Corintho, he fled from Corinth. Cic.
III. In the Locative, or in the Locative Ablative* to denote thp PLACK AT
or IN WHICH :
Corinthl puerOs docCbat, he taught boys <tt Corinth. Cic. Gftdibus vixit,
he lived <it Gndeg. Cic.
NOTB. For qualification!! and exception*, see 380, 1 ; 412, 8; 425, 8.
RULE XXXI. Time.
429. The TIME of an Action is denoted by the Ablative :
Oclonisimo anno est mortuus, he died IN HIS EIGHTIETH YEAR. Cic. Vfre
jonvenere, Oiey assembled IN THE SPRINO. Liv. Natall die suo, on hi* b'u-th-
I 80 also terra e and rictniae.
II This, the original construction for nil names of places, has been retained unchanged
inly in the names of towns and in a few other words. Most names of places have as-
iuini-d a j>rr/MiK>ti<i with the Accitxatire and Alilntire, and have substituted the /.wu-
tirf Ablntirf with a prepoxition in place of the f.ocntire ; see 411, III.
3 That is. the Locat\rt is used if any such form exists; if not, the Locative Ablativt
supplies its place.
230 ABLA TIVE.
day. Nep. Hieme et aestate, in winter and summer. Cic. SClis occasu, at
sunset. Caes. Adventu Caesaris, on the arrival of Caesar. Ca.es. LudTs,
at the time of the games. Cic. V T ix decem annls, scarcely in ten years. Nep.
His vlginti annls, within these twenty years. Cic.
1. Certain relations of TIME are denoted by the Ablative with in or de:
In tall tempore, 1 at such a time (i. e., under such circumstances). Liv. In
diebus proximis decem, 1 in the next ten days. Sail. De media nocte, in (lit.,
from, out of ) th* middle of the night. Caes.
2. Certain relations of TIME are denoted by the Accusative with ad, in,
inter, intra, sub, etc. :
Ad constitutam diem, at the appointed day. Cic. Ad cenam invltare in
posterum diem, to invite to dinner for the next day. Cic. Intra vlginti dies,
within twenty days. Plaut. Inter tot annos, within so many years. Cic.
Sub noctem, toward night. Caes.
430. The INTERVAL between two events may be denoted by
the Accusative or Ablative with ante or post : 3
Aliquot post menses 3 occlsus est, he was put to death some months after.
Cic. Post dies paucos venit, he came after a few days. Liv. Faucis ante
diebus, 3 a few days before. Cic. Homerus annis multis fuit ante Romulum,
Homer lived many years before Romulus. Cic. Paucls diebus post ejus mor-
tem, a few days after his death. Cic. Annls qulngentls post,^0 hundred
years after. Cic. Quartum post annum quam redierat, four years after he
had returned. Nep. NonO anno postquam, nine years after. Nep. Sexto
annO quam erat expulsus, six years after he had been baii'ished. Nep.
NOTE 1. In these examples observe
1) That the numeral may be either cardinal, as in the sixth example, or ordinal, as in
the last three. 4
2) That with the Accusative ante and pout either precede the numeral and the noun,
or stand between them; bat that with the Ablative they either follow both, or stand
between them. 4
3) That0;/fli may follow ante and pout, as in the seventh example; may be united
with them, as in the eighth, or may be used for poxtquam, as in the ninth.
NOTE 2. The ABLATIVE OF THB RELATIVE may be used for postquam:
QuatriduO, quo occlsus est, /our day*, after fie u-as killed. Cic.
1 The Ablative with in is used to denote (1) the circumstttncex of the time, and (2)
the time in or within ichich. In the second sense it is used especially after numeral
adverbs and in designating the periods of life : bin in die, ' twice in the day ' ; in pueri-
tia, * in boyhood, 1 etc.
4 In two instances the Ablative with abhinc is used like the Ablative with ante:
Abhinc triginta die-bus, thirty days before. Cic.
3 The Accusative after ante and post depends upon the preposition, but the Ablative
U explained as the measure of difference (423).
4 Thus, 'five years after' = qulnque tinnw post, or qulnto anno pout; or pout qu'in-
qiie anvo, or pout qulntwm annum; or with post between the numeral and the noun,
qulnqne post ann ?, etc.
* Any other arrangement is rare.
ABLATIVE. 231
Non 3. The time since an event may be denoted by the Accusative with abhhic 01
ante, or by the Ablative with ante : 1
Abhinc annos trecentos full, he lyeed three hundred years ago. do. Faucis ant
iiC-bns eriipit ex urbe, he broke out of the city a few days ago. Cic.
RULE XXXII. Ablative Absolute.*
431. A noun and a participle may be put in the Abla-
tive to add to the predicate an attendant circumstance :
Servi5 rSgnante viguerunt, tJiey flourished in the reign of Servius (Ser-
vius reigning).* Cic. Rggibus exactis, consulgs creatl sunt, after the ban-
ishment of the kings, 4 consul': were appointed. Liv. Equitatu praemisso,
subsequSbatur, having sent forward his cavalry, he followed. Caes. Reg-
num hand satis prOsperum negl6cta religiOne, a reign not sufficiently pros-
perous btcnuse religion was neglected. Liv. Perditls rebus omnibus tamen
virtus s6 sustentare potest, though all things are lost, still virtue is able to
tustain itself. Cic. Obsidibus imperatls, hos Aeduls tradit, 6 having de.
manded hostages, he delivers them to the Aedui. Caes.
1. The Ablative Absolute, much more common than the English Nomins
tive Absolute, generally expresses the time, cause, or some attendant circum
ttance of an action.
2. This Ablative is generally best rendered (1) by a noun with a prepo-
sition in, during, after, by, with, through, etc. ; (2) by an active participtt
with its object ; or (3) by a clause with when, while, because, {/", though, etc. ;
see examples above.
3. A connective sometimes accompanies the Ablative :
Nisi munltls castrls, unless the camp should be fortified. Caes.
4. A noun and an adjective, or even two nouns, may be in the Ablutiv*
Absolute :i
1 The Accusative Is explained aa duration of lime (370), the Ablative aa measure
of difference (423).
2 This Ablative Is called absolute, because it is not directly dependent for it con-
struction upon any other word in the sentence. Originally Locative, it was first used to
denote nliuition or time, a meaning from which its later uses may be readily derived
Thus, while the force of a Locative Ablative is apparent In Servio rlgnante and In rfyi-
bun exdctis, it is recognized without difficulty in neylbctii rfligione as indicating the
xitu<ition or i>tiitf. of thing* In which the reign was not prosperous. In some instances,
however, the Ablative Absolute may be instrumental or causal.
3 Or, while Semiun was reigmng or tcan king.
* Or, iifler the king* were banished.
* In this example obsidibwt and /""<* refer to the same persons. This is nnunnal, aa
In this construction the Ablative generally refers to some person or thing not otherwise
mentioned in the clause to which it belongs.
' The first method of translation comes nearer the original Latin conception, but the
other methods generally accord better with the English idiom.
7 This construction is peculiar to the Latin. In the corresponding constructions In
Sanskrit, Greek, and English, the present participle of the verb 'to i>' is used.
232 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
Sereno caelo, when the sky is dear. Sen. Canlnio consule, in thf eontut,
*hip of Czninius. Cic.
NOTE 1. An infimttwe. or clause may be in the Ablative Absolute with a neutet
participle or adjective :
AuditO Dariuin movisse, pfirgit, having heard that Darius had withdrawn (thaf
Darius had, etc., having been heard), he advanced. Curt. Multi, incerto quid vitarent,
interierunt, many, uncertain what ttiey should avoid (what they, etc., being uncertain)
perished. Liv.
NOTK 2. A -participle or adjective may stand alone in the Ablative Absolute :
Multum certato, pervicit, he conquered after a luird struggle. 1 Tac.
NOTB S.Quisque or ipse in the Nominative may accompany the Ablative Absolute :
Multis sibi quisque petentibus, while many sought, each for himself. Sail. Causa
ipse prd se dicta damnatur, having himself advocated his own cause, he is con-
demned. Liv.
NOTK 4. For the use of absente and praesentt in the Ablative Absolute with
plural noun or pronoun, see 438, 6, note.
SECTION VIII.
CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS
RULE XXXIII. Cases with Prepositions.
432. The Accusative and Ablative may be used with
prepositions : *
Ad amlcum scrtpsl, I have written to a friend. Cic. In curiam, into the
senate-house. Liv. In Italia, in Italy. Nep. Pr6 castrfs, before the camp.
433. The ACCUSATIVE is used with
Ad, adversus (adversum), ante, apud, circS, circum, circiter, cis, citra,
contra, erga, extra, Infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, penes, per, pCne, post,
praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, trans, Qltra, versus :
Ad urbem, to the tit;/. Cic. Adversus deos, toward the gods. Cic. Ante
liicem, before light. Cic. Apud concilium, in the presence of the council. Cic.
Circa forum, around the forum. Cic. Citra flumen, on this tide of the river.
Cic. Contra naturam, contrary to nature. Cic. Intra muros, within tin
walls. Cic. Post castra, behind the camp. Caes. Secundum naturam, ac-
cording to nature. Cic. Trans Alpes, across the Alps. Cic.
NOTE I. Exadversus (urn) also occurs with the Accusative :
Exad versus eum locum, over against that place. Cic. See also 43 7.
NOTE 2. Versus (um) and risque, as adverbs, often accompany prepositions, e*
Dually ad and in :
Ad Oceanum versus, toward the ocean. Caes. Ad meridiem versus, toward Qu.
south. Liv. Usque ad castra liostium, even to the eamp of the enemy, Caes.
1 Literally, it having leen much contested. The participle is used impersonally
* On the general subject of Propositions and their Use, see iioby, II- PD- 861-466
, L, pp 674-65; *Cuh"* II.,
CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 233
Now 8. For propius, prosoime, propior, and proximus, with the Accusative, tee
prope, note 2, under I., below.
NOTE 4. For compounds of preposition*, see 372 and 376.
I. The following uses of prepositions with the Accusative deserve notice:
Ad, TO, the opposite of ab, FROM (1) TO, TOWARD, TILL ; (2) NEAB, AT, ON:
vd mi, ' to me,' ' near me,' * at my house ' ; ad urbem, ' to the city,' ' near the
city ' ; ad dextram, ' on the right * ; ad muUam noctem, ' till late in the night' ,
ad lucem, l ti\\ daybreak'; ad Me, 'besides this,' 'moreover'; ad verbitm,
word for word'; ad hune modum, 'after this manner'; ad uUimum, 'at
kst' ; ad Unum omnes, ' all to a man,' ' all without exception.'
Apud, NEAR, AT, BEFor.E, IN THE PRESENCE OF : apud oppidum, ' near or
before the town ' ; apud me, ' at my house ' ; sum apud me, ' I am at home '
or ' I am in my right mind ' ; apud PlaKnem, ' in the works of Plato.'
Ante, BEFORE, IN FRONT OF, ABOVE, IN PREFERENCE TO '. ante SUOS ailHOg,
' before his tune,' ' too early ' ; ante tempus, ' before the proper time ' ; ante
annum, ' a year before ' ; ante urbem conditam, ' before the founding of the
fcity ' ; ante alids pulcherrimus omnes, 'the most beautiful above all others.'
Circum, circa, circiter, 4 ROUND, AROUND, ABOUT: circum forum,
' around the forum ' ; circa se, ' around or with himself ; circa eaiidem horam,
' about the same hour ' ; circiter meridiem, ' about midday.'
NOTE. Circum, the oldest of these forms, Is used only of place ; cirotl, both ol
ptacf and of time ; circiter, rare as a preposition, chiefly of time. They are all freely
ued as adverbs: circum convemre, 'to gather around'; circa *, 'to be around',
circiter pars quarta, ' about the fourth part,'
Cis, citrS,, 8 ON THIS SIDE cis opposed to trdns, ACROSS, ON THE OTHER
SIDE ; cilrd opposed to ultra, BEYOND : cigflumen, * on this side of the stream ' ;
cis pnttctx dies, ' within a few days'; citrd veritatem, 'short of the truth' ;
citi-d uctori(s> f em, ' without authority.'
Contra, 8 OPPOSITE TO, OVER AGAINST, AGAINST, CONTRARY TO : contrd ed
regibntt, ' opposite to those regions' ; contra, populum, ' against the people ' ;
contrd natiirnm, ' contrary to nature.*
Erga,< TOWARD, TO, AGAINST: ergo, pare/lift, 'toward parents'; odium
vrgd Rfrmdndx, ' hatred to the Romans ' ; ergcL regem, ' against the king.'
Extra, OUTSIDE, WITHOUT, FREE FROM, EXCKPT : ertrd pwtam, 'outside
the gate'; extra culpam, 'without fault,' 'free from fault'; extra ducem,
' except the leader,' ' besides the leader.'
Infra, 8 BKLOW, UNDER, BENEATH, LESS THAN, AFTER, LATER THAN, Opposed
to xnpra, ABOVE : infrd lunam, ' beneath the moon ' ; Infra m?, ' below me ' ;
li'frd tr'fg peilfjt, ' less than three feet' ; infra Lycnrgum, 'after Lycurgus.'
1 For tbe/orm and meaning of prepositions in composition, see 344, r>.
' These three forms are all derived from circus, 'a circle' (L e., from its strm) ; (tee
304; 307. note 1.
* These are often adverbs.
* According to Vanicek, from f and toe root reg In regO; Mn the direction of (lit,
from the direction of ). In Tacitus, eomo times IK RELATION TO: ergii donnnx mim
+Q relation to his own household.'
* l*\F*<i ST. \n,f er<i parto ' to th lower T>rt
334 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
Inter,' BETWEEN, AMONG, IN THE MIDST OF: inter ttrbem et Tiberim, * be-
tween the city and the Tiber' ; inter bonds, 'among the good ' ; inter inanity
1 in the hands,' ' within reach,' l tangible ' ; inter nds, * between us,' ' in con-
fidence ' ; inter se amdre, ' to love one another ' ; inter se diff'erre, ' to differ
from one another' ; inter paucds, inter pauca, ' especially,' ' preeminently ' ;
inter paucds disertus, ' preeminently eloquent' ; inter purpuram atque aurum,
' in the miust of purple and gold.'
Intra, WITHIN, LESS THAN, BELOW, opposed to extra, ON THE OUTSIDE,
WITHOUT : intra castra, ' within the camp ' ; intra me, ' within me ' ; a intrH
?, ' in his mind ' or ' in their minds ' ; s intra centum, ' less than one hundred '
intra modum, ' within the limit ' ; intra famam, ' below his reputation.'
Ob, BEFORE, IN VIEW OF, IN REGARD TO, ON ACCOUNT OF : ob OCuldS, * before
one's eyes ' ; ob stuUitiam tuam, ' in view of your folly,' or ' in regard to your
folly'; ob hanc rent, 'in view of this thing,' 'for this reason,' 'on this ac-
count * ; quam ob rem, ' in view of which thing,' ' wherefore.'
Per, 4 THROUGH, BY THE AID OF : perforum, ' through the forum ' ; per alios,
'through others,' 'by the aid of others'; per se, 'by his own efforts,' also
' in himself,' ' in itself ; per metum, ' through fear ' ; per aetatem, ' in conse-
quence of age ' ; per ludum, ' sportively ' ; per vim, ' violently ' ; per mi licet,
* it is allowable as far as I am concerned ' (i. e., I make no opposition).
Post, BEHIND, AFTER, SINCE : post montem, ' behind the mountain ' ; post
dedicdtidnem templl, ' after the dedication of the temple ' ; pott hominum
wemoriam, ' since the memory of man.'
Praeter, 5 BEFORE, ALONG, PAST, BY, BEYOND, BESIDES, EXCEPT, CONTRARY
ro: praeter oculos, 'before their eyes * ; praeter cram, 'along the coast';
praeter ceterds, ' beyond others,' ' more than others ' ; praeter haec praeter-ea,
' besides these things,' ' moreover' ; praeter vie, ' except me ' ; praeter spem,
' contrary to expectation.'
Prope, propter, NEAR, NEAR BY. Prope, NEAR; propter ^prope-
tor, a strengthened form ofpropef VERY NEAR, ALONGSIDE OF, also IN VIEW OF,
ON ACCOUNT OF : profe hastes, ' near the enemy ' ; prope metum, ' near to fear,'
' almost fearful ' ; propter mare, ' near the sea ' ; propter timdrem, ' on account
of fear ' ; propter se, * on his own account,' ' on their own account.'
NOTE \.-Prope, as an adverb, Is sometimes combined with a, ab, or ad: prope
a Sicilid, ' near Sicily,' ' not far from Sicily ' ; prope ad portds, ' near to the gates.'
NOTE 2. Like prope, the derivatives propius and prdedme, and sometimes even
propior and prfxsimu/t, admit the Accusative : T
Propius perfculum, nearer to danger, Liv. Prflxlme' defls, very near to tfie
1 Formed from in by the ending ter, flke prae-Ur from prae (434, L), prop-ter
from prope (433, I.), aiid xub-ter from sub (435, 1.),
* Often equivalent to in meo animo, *ln my mind.'
Sometimes, in his country, or in their country.
In origin kindred to the Greek vopa.
* Formed from prae (434, I.), like in-ter from in; see inter, with foot-note.
See inter, with foot-note.
* Perhaps by a construction according to sense, following the analogy otpropt, thougii
la most cases a preposition may readily be supplied
CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 335
Ctc. Propior montem, nearer to the mountain. Sail. Proxiinus mare, ne.are.tt to iht
sea. Caes.
Secundum, 1 FOLLOWING, NEXT AFTER, NEXT BEHIND, ALONGSIDE OF, CON-
FORMING TO, ACCORDING TO, IN FAVOR OF : secundum dram, ' behind the altar' ;
tecuudum deds, 'next after the gods' J secundum ludos, 'after the games';
tecundum flu/men, ' along the river ' ; secundum naturam, ' according to na-
ture,' k following nature ' ; secundum cnusam nostrum, ' in favor of our cause.'
SuprS/,* ON THE TOP, ABOVE, BEFORE, TOO HIGH FOR; Opposed tO illfra^
4ELOW : suprd lunam, ' above the moon ' ; suprd hanc memoriam, ' before
jur time ' ; 4 tupra hominem, ' too high for a man.'
Trans, ACROSS, ON THE OTHER SIDE, opposed to cis, ON THIS SIDE : trans
Khenum, ' across the Khine ' ; trans Alpes, * on the other side of the Alps.'
Ultra, BEYOND, ACROSS, ON THE OTHER SIDE, MORE THAN, LONGER THAN,
AFTER, opposed to citrd, ON THIS SIDE : ultra eum locum, ' beyond that place ' ;
ultra eum, ' beyond him'; ultra pignus, ' more than a pledge ' ; ultra, fidem,
'beyond belief,' * incredible' ; uitrd pueriles annos, ' after (beyond) the yean
of boyhood.'
434. The ABLATIVE is used with
A or ab (abs), absque, cOram, cum, do,
6 or ex, prae, pr6, sine, tenus.
Ab nrbe, from th city. Caes. Coram conventu, in the pretence of the
ttuembly. Nep. Cum Antioch6, with Antiochm. Cic. De forO, from the
ftrum. Cic. Ex Asia, out of Asia. Nep. Sine corde, without a heart. Cic.
NOTE i. .Many verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, or nuper admit the Ablative
dependent upon the preposition, but the preposition la often repeated,* or some other
preposition of kindred meaning Is used :
Ablre magistrate, to retire from office. Tac. PQgnS excedunt, they retire from the
battle. Caes. Do vita 1 dGcvdere, to depart from life. Cic. DCcC-dere ex Asia, to depart
oiitofAirta. Cic.
NOTB t.A and i are used only before consonants, nli and ex before either vowels or
consonants. Abu is antiquated, except before /< .
NOTB 8. For cum appended to the Ablative of a personal pronoun or of a relative,
see 184, 6, and 187, 2.
NOTE 4. Teiiun follows Us case. In Its origin It Is the Accusative of A noun,* and
M such it often takes the Genitive :
ColI6 tenus, up to the neck. Ov. LnmbSrum tenus, as far. an the lolnt. C!c,
1 Properly the neuter of ttecundut, ' following,' ' second ' ; but secundu* is a gerund-
ive from tequor, formed like dlcundu* from d'ico (239). For the change of qu to
before u In aec-undus for seytt-undut, see 26, foot-note.
* Like the adjective necnndus In nentun secundux, ' a favoring wind ' one that follows
i* on our course; fliimine secundo, 'with a favoring current' (i. <., down the stream).
* Supra = nuperd parte, ' on the top.'
4 Literally , before thin memory. For hla meaning my or our, see 45O, 4, note 1.
* Though in such cases the first element of the compound is not strictly a preposi-
tion, but an adverb (344, with foot-note). Thus, In de rltd dfcidere, de in the vert
retains its adverbial force, so that, strictly speaking, the preposition Is used only once.
* From the root tan, ten. seen in ten-do, ten-eo, and in the Greek rtiv-u.
236 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
NOTE 5. For the Ablative with or without (M, aa used with facif, />.6, and turn, go
415, III., note,
L The following uses of prepositions with the Ablative deserve notice :
A, ab, 1 abs, FKOM, BY, IN, ON, ON THT SIDE OF. 1. Of Place ; FROM, ON,
ON THE SIDE OF : d ffallid, * from Gaul' ; ab ortu, 'from the east'; a f route,
' in front ' (lit., from the front) ; a tergd, ' in the rear ' ; ab Sequanis, ' on the
side toward the Sequani.' 2. Of Time ; FROM, AFTER : ab fiord tertid, ' from
the third hour'; a puerd, 'from boyhood'; ab coJiort&tione, 'after exhort-
ing.' 3. In other relations ; FROM, BY, IN, AGAINST : a poend liber, ' free from
punishment'; missut db Syrdcusis, 'sent by the Syracusans'; ub equitdtu
ftrmus, ' strong in (lit., from) cavalry' ; ab animd aeger, 'diseased in mind ' ;
ab els defendere, * to defend against (from) them ' ; esse ab aliquo, ' to be on
one's side ' ; a nobi, ' in our interest ' ; servus dpedibus. ' a footman.'
NOTE. Absqut, rare in classical prose, is found chiefly in Plautus and Terence.
Chun,* WITH, in most of its English meanings : cum patre habitdre, l to
live with one's father'; Caesar cum quinque legionibus, ' Caesar with five
legions ' ; consul cum summd imperio, ' the consul with supreme command ' ;
servus cum teld, ' a slave with a weapon,' ' an armed slave ' ; cum prlmd luce,
' with the early dawn,- ' at the early dawn ' ; consentlre cum aliqud, ' to agree
with any one' ; cum Caesare agere, ' to tr?at with Caesar' ; cum aliquo dimi-
cdre, 'to contend with any one'; multl* cum lacrimia, 'with many tears' ;
cirni virtue, ' virtuously ' ; cum eb ut, or cum eo quod, ' with this condition
that,' 'on condition that.* See also 419, III.
De, DOWN FROM, FROM, OF. 1. Of Place ,* DOWN FROM, FROM : di caeld,
' down from heaven ' ; de ford, ' from the forum ' ; de mdjoribus audlre, ' to
hear from one's elders.' 2. Of Time ; FKOM, OUT OF, DURING, IN, AT, AFTER:
diprandio, ' from breakfast ' ; de die, ' by day,' ' in the course of the day ' ; di
tertid vigilid, ' during the third watch' ; de media node, ' at about midnight.'
8. In other relations; FROM, OF, FOR, ON, CONCERNING, ACCORDING TO: de
gummo genere, 'of the highest rank' ;factum de marmore nignitm, 'a bust
made of marble'; homo de ptebe, 'a man of plebeian rank,' 'a plebeian';
triumphus de Gallid, *a triumph over (concerning) Gaul'; yravi de causa,
' for a grave reason ' ; de more vetusto, ' according to ancient custom ' ; de in-
dustrid, 'on purpose' ; de integro, ' anew.' See also 415, III., note 2.
E, ex, 3 OUT OF, FROM. 1. Of Place ; our OF, FROM, IN, ON: ex urbe, * froir>
the city,' ' out of the city ' ; ex equ6pugndre l ' to fight on horseback ' ; ex mn~
vulls, 'in chains' (lit., out of or from chains) ; ex itinere, 'on the march.'
2. Of Time ; FKOM, DIRECTLY AFTER, SINCE : ex ed tempore, ' from that time ' ;
ex. tempore dlcere, ' to speak extemporaneously ' ; diem ex die, ' from day to
day.' 3. In other relations; FROM, OUT OF, OF, ACCORDING TO, ON ACCOUNT OF,
THROUGH : ex vulneribm perire, 'to perish of (because of) wounds'; unus I
filils, 'one of the sons' ; ex commutation e, 'on account of the change' ; ex
consiietudine, ' according to custom ' ; e vestujio, ' on the spot ' ; ex part*
mdgna, 'in great part' ; ex improplso, ' unexpectedly.'
1 (irock -o. * Compare Greek tvv. <rvv. with * Oomoare Greek it. out of
CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 23?
Prae, BEFORE, IN COMPARISON WITH, IN CONSEQUENCE OF, BECAUSE OF: 1
prae manu esse, ' to be at hand ' ; prae manu habere, ' to have at hand ' ; prae
seferre, ' to show, display, exhibit' ; prae ndbls bedtus, ' happy in comparison
with us'; non prae lacrimis 1 posse, ' not to be able becau.se of tears.'
Pr5, BEFORE ; IN BEHALF OF, IN DEFENCE OF, FOR ; INSTEAD OF, AS ; IN
RETURN FOR, FOR ; ACCORDING TO, IN PROPORTION TO I pTO COStrlg, ' before the
camp ' ; pro libertdte, ' in defence of liberty ' ; pro patrid, ' for the country ' ;
pro consuls = proconsul, 'a proconsul' (one acting for a consul) ; pro certo
habere, ' to regard as certain ' ; pro eo, quod, ' for the reason that,' ' because ' ;
pro tud prudentid, ' in accordance with your prudence ' ; pro -iniperio, ' im-
periously ' ; pro s~e quisque, ' each according to his ability.'
435. The ACCUSATIVE or ABLATIVE is used with
In, sub, subter, super :
In Asiam profugit. hejied into Asia. Cic. Hannibal in Italia fuit, Han-
nibal was in Italy. Nep. Sub montem, toward the mountain. Caes. Sub
monte, at the foot of the mountain. Liv. Subter togam, under the toga. Liv.
Subter testudine, under a tortoise or shed. Verg. Super Numidiam, beyond
Numidia. Sail. II ac super re scrlbam, I shall write on this subject. Cic.
NOTE 1. In and sub take the Accusative after verbs implying motion, the Ablative
after those implying rest ; see examples.
NOTE '2. Subter and super generally take the Accusative ; but super, when it means
concerning, of, on (of a subject of discourse), takes the Ablative ; see examples.
I. The following uses of in, sub, subter, and super deserve notice :
In, with the Accusative, INTO, TO, TOWARD, TILL. 1. Of Place ; INTO, TO,
TOWARD. AGAINST, IN : ire in urbem, 'to go into the city'; in Persds, 'into
the country of the Persians'; in dram, 'to the altar'; wnurn in locum con-
venire, ' to meet in one place' (380, with note). 2. Of Time; INTO, TO, FOR,
TILL: in noctem, ' into the night' ; in multam noctem, 'until late at night';
in diem, ' into the day,' also ' for the day ' ; in dies, ' from day to day,' ' daily ' ;
invltdre in posterum diem, ' to invite for the following day.' 3. In other rela-
tions , INTO, AGAINST, TOWARD, ON, FOR, AS, IN I divisft in partfs tres, ' divided
into three parts' ; in hostern, ' against the enemy'; in id certd/men, ' for this
content ' ; in memoriam, patris, ' in memory of his father ' ; in, spem pads, ' in
the hope of peace' ; in rem ewe, ' to be useful,' ' to be to the purpose.'
In. with the Ablative, IN, ON, AT. 1. Of Place; IN, AT, WITHIN, AMONG,
UPON: in urbe, 'in the city'; in Persis, 'among the Persians'; sapientis-
simns in septem, ' the wisest among or of the seven.' 2. Of Time ; IN, AT,
DURING, IN THE COURSE OF : in till I tempore, ' at such a time ' ; in ternporc, ' in
time.' 3. In other relations ; IN, ON, UPON, IN THE CASK OF : esse in arm-it, ' to
be in arms ' ; in summo timore, ' in the greatest fear ' ; in hoc homine, ' in the
case of this man."
Sub. ifith the Accusative, UNDER, BENEATH, TOWARD. UP TO, ABOUT, DIRECT-
1 This causal meaning is developed from the local. The noun in the Ablative is
thought of as an obstacle or hindrance : non prtie liter im>s posse, ' not to be able 60-
/ore, in. the presence of, because of such a hindrance as tears,.'
238 CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
LT AFTER : sub jugum mittere, ' to send under the yoke ' ; sub nostrum aciem,
' toward our line ' ; sub astra, ' up to the stars ' ; sub vesperum, ' toward even-
ing'; sub eds litterds, 'directly after that letter'; sub imperium reddctus,
' brought under one's sway.'
Sub, with the Ablative, UNDER, AT, AT THE FOOT OF, IN, ABOUT : sub terra,,
' under the earth ' ; sub pellibus, ' in tents ' ; > sub bruma, ' at the time of the
winter solstice ' ; sub luce, ' at dawn ' ; sub hoc verbo, ' under this word ' ; sub
iudice, ' in the hands of the judge ' (i. e., not yet decided).
NOTE. Subter, a strengthened form 2 of sub, meaning UNDER, generally takes the
Accusative, though it admits the Ablative in poetry: subter mare, 'under the sea';
subt-er togam, ' under the toga' ; subter densa testiidine, ' under a compact testudo.'
Super, with the Accusative, OVER, UPON, ABOVE : sedens super arma, ' sit-
ting upon the arms ' ; super Numidiam, ' beyond Numidia ' ; super sexdgintd
milia, ' upward of sixty thousand ' ; super ndturam, ' supernatural ' ; super
omnia, ' above all.'
Super, with the Ablative, UPON, AT, DURING, CONCERNING, OF, ON : strata
tuper astro, ' upon purple couches ' (lit., upon the spread purple) ; node super
media,, ' at midnight ' ; hoc super re tcrtbere, ' to write upon this subject ' ;
multa super Priamo rogitdns, ' asking many questions about Priam.'
NOTB. The Ablative is rare with super, except when it means concerning, about, on
(of the subject of discourse). It is then the regular construction.
436. Prepositions were originally adverbs (SOT, note 1), and many of
the words generally classed as prepositions are often used as adverbs 3 in
classical authors :
Ad mllibus quattuor, about four thousand. Caes. Omnia contra circaque,
all things opposite and around. Liv. Prope a Sicilia, not far from Sicily,
Cic. Juxta positus, placed near by. Nep. Supry, Infra esse, to be above, be-
low. Cic. Nee citra nee ultra, neither on this s-ide nor on that side. Ov.
437. Conversely, several words generally classed as adverbs are some-
times used as prepositions. Such are
1. With the ACCUSATIVE, propius, proxime, vridie, postndie, usque, di-
super :
Propius pertculum, nearer to danger. Liv. Prldie Idus, the day before
'.he Ides. Cic. Usque pedes, even to the feet. Curt.
2. "With the ABLATIVE, intus, palam, procul, simul (poetic) :
Tall intus templ6, within such a temple. Verg. Palam populo, in the
presence of the people. Liv. Procul castris, at a distance from the camp. Tac.
feimul his, with these. Hor.
3. With the ACCUSATIVE or ABLATIVE, clam, insuper :
Clam patrem, without the father's knowledge. Plaut. Clam vobls, without
your Icnowledge. Caes.
1 That is, in camp (lit., under skins').
1 Formed from sub, like in-ter from in ; see 433, 1., inter, foot-note.
* They are, in fact, sometimes adverbs and sometimes prepositions.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 239
CHAPTER III.
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.
RULE XXXIV. Agreement of Adjectives.
438. An adjective agrees with its noun in GENDER,
NUMBER, and CASE :
Fortuna caeca est, fortune is blind. Cic. Verae amlcitiae, trite friend-
ships. Cic. Magister optimus, the best teacher. Cic. Qua in re prlvatas
injurias ultus est, in ivhich thing he avenged private wrongs. Caes. Sol
oriens diem cOnficit, the sun rising makes the day. Cic.
1. Adjective Pronouns and Participles are ADJECTIVES in construction, and
accordingly conform to this rule, as in qua in re, sol oriens.
2. When an adjective unites with the verb (generally .wra) to form the
predicate, as in caeca est, ' is blind,' it is called a PREDICATE ADJECTIVE (360,
note 1); but when it simply qualifies a noun, as in verae amlcitiae, 'true-
friendships,' it is called an ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE.
3. AGREEMENT WITH CLAUSE, ETC. An adjective may agree with any word
or words used substantively, as ^.pronoun, clause, infinitive, etc. :
Quis clarior, who is more illustrious ? Cic. Certum est liberfm amiirl, it
it certain that children are loved. Quint. See 42, note.
NOTB. An adjective agreeing with a clause is sometimes plural, as In Greek :
Ut AenCas jactetur nota tib5, how Aeneas it tossed about ix kntmn to you. Verg.
4. A NEUTER ADJECTIVE used as a substantive sometimes supplies the place
of a Predicate Adjective : '
Mors est extremum, death is the last thing. Cic. Trlste lupus stabulis,
a wolf is a sad thing for the flocks. Verg.
5. A NEUTER ADJECTIVE WITH A GENITIVE is often used instead of an ad-
jective with its noun, especially in the Nominative and Accusative :
Multum operae, much service." 1 Cic. Id temporis, that time.' 1 Cic. Vana
rerum, vain t 'tings.* Ilor. Opaca viarum, dark street*. Verg. Strata viarum,
paved streets. Verg. See also 397, 3, note 4.
6. SYNESIS.* Sometimes the adjective or participle conforms to the real
meaning of its noun, without regard to grammatical gender or number :
Pars certare paratl, 4 a part (some), prepared to contend. Verg. Inspe-
ranti * nobis, to -us (me) not expecting it. Catul. Demosthenes cum ceteris
erant expulsl, 4 Demosthenes with the others hud been banished. Nep.
1 As in Greek : oic ayadbc TroAuxoipai'ii), the rule of the many is not a good thing.
8 Multum operae multa opera or multam operam ; id temporis = id tempvt ;
vdna rfrum = m'tnae rex or vi'im'ts re*.
* A construction according to sense; see 630, IV., 4.
* ParuM is plural, to conform to the moaning of jiars, 'part,' 'some,' plural in sense;
240 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.
f
NOTE. In the Ablative Absolute (431) absents and praesente occur in early Latin
with a plural noun or pronoun : 1
Praesente > ibus (els),* in their presence (lit., they being present). Plaut. Prae-
seute testibus, in the presence of witnesses. Plaut.
7. AGREEMENT WITH ONE NOUN FOR ANOTHER. When a noun governs an-
other in the Genitive, an adjective belonging in sense to one of the two nouns,
sometimes agrees with the other :
Majora (for ma/jorum) rerum initia, the beginnings of greater things. Liv.
Cursus justi (Justus) amnis, the regular course of the river. Liv.
NOTE!. In the passive forms of verbs the participle sometimes agrees with a
predicate noun or with an appositive ; see 463.
NOTE 2. An adjective or participle predicated of an Accusative IB sometimes attracted
into the Nominative to agree with the subject :
Ostendit se dextra (for demtram), she shows herself favorable. Verg.
439. An adjective or participle, belonging to TWO OR MORE
NOUNS, may agree with them all conjointly, or may agree with one
and be understood with the others:
Castor et Pollux vial sunt, Castor and Pollux were seen. Cic. Dubitare
visus est Sulpicius et Cotta, Sulpicius and Gotta seemed to doubt. Cic. Temeri-
tus Ignoratioque vitiosa est, rashness and ignorance are bad. Cic.
1. The ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE generally agrees with the nearest noun :
AgrI omnes et maria, all lands and seas. Cic. Cuncta maria terraeque,
all seas and lands. Sail.
2. A plural adjective or participle, agreeing with two or more NOUNS OF
DIFFERENT GENDERS, is generally masculine when the nouns denote persona
or sentient beings, and in other cases generally neuter :
Pater et mater mortul sunt, father and mother are dead. Ter. Honores,
Tlctoriae fortulta sunt, honors and victories are accidental things. Cic. Laoor
Yoluptasque inter se sunt juncta, labor and pleasure are joined together. Liv.
NOTE. When nouns denoting sentient beings are combined with those denoting
things, the plural adjective or participle in agreement with them sometimes takes the
gender of the former and sometimes of the latter, and sometimes is neuter irrespective
of the gender of the nouns :
Hex regiaque classis profecti sunt, the king and the royal fleet set out. Liv. Kegein
n'gnumque sua futura sciunt, they know that the king and the kingdom will be theirs.
Liv. Inimica 3 inter se sunt Ubera ci vitas et rex, a free state and a king are hostile to
each other. Liv.
3. With nouns denoting inanimate objects, the adjective or participle is
often neuter, irrespective of the gender of the nouns :
Labor et dolor sunt ftnitima, labor and pain are kindred (things). Cic.
Innperantl is singular, because nobls is here applied to one person, the speaker (446,
note 2); expulsl is plural, because Demosthenes own citerls means Demosthenes ASH
the others.
1 In this construction alttente and praesente appear to be treated as adverbs.
* See p. 7:?, foot-note 2.
Perhaps best explained tubstantively things hostile ; see 438, 4.
USE OF ADJECTIVES. 241
Nox atque praeda hostls reinorata sunt, night and plunder detained the enemy-
Sail.
4. Two OB MORE ADJECTIVES in the singular may belong to a plural noun:
Prlma et vlcesima legiones, the first and the twentieth legions. Tac.
NOTE. In the same way two or more praenomina ' in the singular may be com-
bined with a family name in the plural :
Gnaeua et Publius Sclpiones, Gnaeus and PubVius Sdpio. Cic. Publius et Herviuf
Sullae, PubUuH and Servius SuVa- Sail.
USE OP ADJECTIVES.
440. The adjective in Latin corresponds in its general use to
the adjective in English.
1. In Latin, as in English, an adjective may qualify the complex idea
formed by a noun and another adjective :
Duae potentissimae gentes, two very powerful races. Liv. Magnum aes
alienum, a large debt. Cic. Naves longas trlginta veteres, thirty old vessels
of war. Liv. 3
NOTE. In general no connective is used when adjectives are combined, as in duae.
potentissimae gentts, etc.; but If the first adjective is multt or plttrirni, the connective
is usually inserted :
Multae et magnae cogitationus, many great fftouy/its. Cic. Multa et praeclara fa-
ciuora, many illustrious deed*. Sail.
2. PROI.EPBIS or ANTICIPATION. -An adjective is sometimes applied to a
noun to denote the result of the action expressed by the verb :
Submersas 8 obrue pupp&s, overwhelm and sink the ships (lit. , overwlielm
the sunken ships). Verg. ScQta latentia 8 condunt, they conceal their*hidden
shields. Verg.
NOTE 1. Certain adjectives often designate a PAKTICULAR PART of an object: prlma
nor. the first part of the night ; mt<Hit aentdte, in the middle of summer; snmmwt mons,
tin top (highest part) of the mountain.
NOTE 2. The adjectives thus used are prlmm, mediiM, ftltimus, fa-tremux^ potttre-
mtut, intimwi, giimnnm, Infimiis, tmus, supremux, tf/iquwt. cfttra, etc.
NOTE 8. In the poets, in Livy, and in late prose writers, the neuter of these adjec-
ilves with a Genitive sometimes occurs :
Libyae extrf ma, Vie frontier* of Libya. Verg. Ad iiltimum inopiae (for ad ultimam
inopiam), to esrtreme destitution. I.iv.
NOTE 4. Adjectives are often combined with Rfia : rex arfrersae, adversity ; res se-
cundae, prosperity; res novat, revolution ; rin piiblica^ republic.
1 For Roman names, see 649.
* Here duae qualifies not Blmply yentfs. but potent isrimt if gentes; magnum quali-
fies aes alifnwii, 'debt' (lit., money belonging to another); veteres qualifies na-rfs
lunyi'm, 'vessels of war' (lit., 'long vessels'), while trlginta qualifies the still more com-
plex expression, n/lvSit longtis veterfs.
3 Observe that submenu! x gives the retatft of the action denoted by olirue, and Is not
applicable to puppet until that action is performed; latentia likewise gives the rtt\M
of i'(idiint.
242 USE OF ADJECTIVES.
441 . Adjectives and participles are often used SUBSTANTIVELY :'
oni, the good ; mortafes, mortals ; docti, the learned ; sapient?*, the wise ;
multi, many persons; multa, many things; praefectus, a prefect; 2 natm, a son.*
1. In the plural, masculine adjectives and participles often designate PERSONS, and
neuter adjectives THINGS: fortes, the brave; divites, the rich; pauperes, the poor;
multi. many; pauci, few; omnes, all; mei, my friends; discentes, learners; spectant's,
spectators \futura, future events; fit-ilia, useful things; mea, nostra, my things, our
things; omnia, all things; haec, ilia, these things, those things.
2. In the singular, adjectives and participles are occasionally used SUBSTANTIVE: ^
specially in the Genitive, or in the Accusative or Ablative with a preposition : doctvx,
a learned man; adulescenx, a young man; verum. a true thing, the truth; falxum, a
falsehood; nihil sincerl, nothing of sincerity, nothing sincere; nih.it. humdni, nothing
human; nihil rSliqui, nothing left; 3 aliquid novl, something new; aprlmd, from the
beginning; ad extremum, to the end; ad sum-mum, to the highest point; de integro,
afresh; de improvlso, unexpectedly; ex aequo, in like manner; in praesentl, at pres-
ent; infutf/rum, for the future; pro certo, as certain. 4
NOTE 1. For the neuter participle with opus and fisus, see 414. IV., note 8.
NOTE 2. For the use of adjectives instead of ribuns in the Genitive, see 395, note 2.
8. A few substantives are sometimes used as adjectives, especially verbal nouns in
tor and trlx : 6 victor exercitm, a victorious army ; homo gladiator, a gladiator, a gladi-
atorial man; victrices Athenae, victorious (conquering) Athens; populus late rex, a
people of extensive sway. 6
442. EQUIVALENT TO A CLAUSE. Adjectives, like nouns in ap-
p*osition, are sometimes equivalent to clauses :
Nemo sal tut sobrius, no one dances when Tie is sober, or when sober. Cic.
Hortensium vlvum amavl, / loved Hortensius, while he wot alive. Cic. Horn?
nunquam sobrius, a man who is never sober. Cic.
NOTE. Prior, primus, vltimtis, postremus, are often best rendered by a relative clause:
Primus morem solvit, fie was the first tcho broke the custom." 1 Liv.
443. ADJECTIVES AND ADVEKBS. Adjectives are sometimes
used where our idiom employs adverbs :
Socrates venenum laetus hausit, Socrates CHEERFULLY drank the poison.
Sen. Senatus frequens convenit, the senate assembled, IN GBEAT NUMBERS. Cic.
Roscius erat ROmae frequens, Roscius was frequently at Rome. Cic.
1 That is, words which were originally adjectives or participles sometimes become
zubstanti-ves ; indeed, many substantives were originally adjectives; see 323, foot-note;
324, foot-note.
2 Praffectus, from praejlcio (lit., one appointed over); natus, from nascor (lit.,
one born).
8 See 397, 1. For nihil rsliqul facere, see 401, note 4.
4 Numerous adverbial expressions are thus formed by combining the neuter of adjec-
tives with prepositions.
That is, these words are generally substantives, but sometimes adjectives.
See Verg., Aen., I., 21.
7 With the adverb primwm the thought would be, he first brake the custom (i. e.,
before doing anything else). Compare the corresponding distinction between tb- Greek
Adjective irpwrot and the adverb irpurov.
USE OF ADJECTIVES. 243
NOTE 1. The adjectives chiefly thus used are (1) Those expressive of Joy^ knowl-
trfge, and their opposites : laetus, libens, invltus, trlstis, sciens, msciens, prudent, tin-
prudens, etc. (2) IffMus^ solus, totus, units; prior, primus, propior, prfKKimus, etc.
NOTE 2. In the poets a few adjectives of time and place are used in the same manner:
Domesticus otior, / idle about home. Hor. Vespertlnus pete tgctum, <( mewing
eetk your abode, Hor.
NOTE 3. In rare instances adverbs seem to supply the place of adjectives:
Omnia recte sunt, all things are RIGHT. Clc. Non Ignari sumus ante malorum, 1 we
ir not ignorant of PAST misfortunes. Verg. Nune hominum ' mores, the charade*
-fmen OF THB PRESENT DAT. Plaut
NOTE 4. Numeral adverbs often occur with titles of office:
Flaminius, consul iterum, Flaminiiis, when consul for the second time. Cto.
444. A COMPARISON between two objects requires the com-
parative degree ; between more than two, the superlative :
Prior hOrum, the former of these (two). Nep. Gallorum fortissiml, tht
bravest of the Gauls. Caes.
1. The comparative sometimes has the force of TOO, UNUSUALLY, SOME-
WHAT, and the superlative, the force of VEBY : doctior, too learned, or some-
what learned ; doctissimus, very learned.
NOTE. Certain superlatives are common as titles of honor : eldrfssimus, noblHssi-
mus, and summits especially applicable to men of consular or senatorial rank; forttsst-
mus, honestissimus, illwtrwximus, and splendid issimus especially applicable to those
of the equestrian order.
2. COMPARATIVE AFTER QUAM. When an object is said to possess on
quality in a higher degree than another, the two adjectives thus used either
may be connected by magis quam * or may both be put in the comparative :
Disertus magis quam sapiens, more fluent than wise.* Clc. Praeclarnm magii
quam difficile, more noble than difficult, or noble rather than difficult. Clc. Dftl&rSs
quam fortiores, more wealthy than brave.* Lav. Clurior quam gr&tior, more Ul/ustri-
OUH than pleasing. Liv.
NOTB 1. In a similar manner two adverbs may be connected by magis quam^ or
may both be put in the comparative :
Magis audiicter quam parato, n-ith more audacity than preparation. Clc. Bellnm
fortius quam fullcius gerere, to wage war with more valor than success. Liv.
NOTB 2. The form with magis, both in adjectives and in adverbs, may sometimes
be best rendered rather than :
Ars magis inagna quam dlfficilis, an art extensive rather than difficult, do. See
also the second example under 2, above.
NOTB 3. In the later Latin the positive sometimes follows quam, even when thv
regular comparative precedes, and sometimes two positives are used :
Vehementius quam mute appetere, to seek more eagerly Vmn cautiouxty. Tac.
Claris quam vetustis, illuxtrious rather than ancient. Tac.
NOTB 4 For the use of comparatives before quam pro, see 417, 1, note 6.
1 Like the Greek TUP irpiv KOKIOV and ru>v vvv at>9pu>irtav.
9 The want of a present participle in the verb sum brings these adverbs into close
connection -with nouns.
3 As in English, more fluent than wise. This IB the usual method in dcero.
* As in Greek, n-Aei'ope? >) j3eArc'oi>e, mart numerous than good. Thlt method, coot
ion in Livy, is rare in the earlier writers.
244 AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS.
3. STRENGTHENING WORDS. Comparatives and superlatives are often
strengthened by a preposition with its case, as by ante, prae, praeter, tupm
(417, 1, note 8). Comparatives are also often strengthened by etiam, even,
still ; multd, much ; and superlatives by longe, multo, by far, much ; vel, even ;
unus, units omnium, alone, alone of all, without exception, far, by far; quam,
quam or quantum with the verb possum, as possible ; tarn quam qui, ut qui,
as possible (lit., as he who) :
Majores etiam varietates, even greater varieties. Cic. Multfi etiam graving queri
tur, he complains even much more bitterly. Caes. Multo maxima pars, by far tin
largest part. Cic. Quam saepissiine, as often as possible. Cic. Cnus omnium doctis-
Jimus, without exception the most learned of men. Cic. Kes una omnium difficilliraa,
a thing by far the moat difficult of all. Cic. Quam maximae copiae, forces as large
as possible. Ball. Quantam maximam potcst vastitatem ostendit, he exhibits the great-
tit possible desolation (lit, as great as the greatest he can). LIT.
CHAPTER IV.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
RULE XXXV. Agreement of Pronouns.
445. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in GENDER,
NUMBER, and PERSON *
Animal qttoo, sanguinem habet, an animal WHICH has blooa. Cic. Ego,
qul te cOnfirmO, T WHO encourage you. Cic. Vis est in virtutibus, can
cxrit a, there is strength in virtues, arouse THEM. Cic.
NOTE. The antecedent is the word or words to which the pronoun refers, and whose
place it supplies. Thus, in the examples under the rule, animal is the antecedent of
yuod ; ego, of qui ; and virtutibus. of c.7*
1. This rule applies to all pronoune when used as nov-ns. Pronouns used
as adjectives conform to the rule for adjectives ; sec 438.
2. When the antecedent is a demonstrative in agreement with a personal
pronoun, the relative agrees with the latter :
Tu es is qui me ornastl, you are the one WHO commendea me. Cic.
3. When a relative, or other pronoun, Tefers to TWO OR MORE ANTECEDENTS,
it generally agrees with them -onjointly, bu it sometimes agrees with tkc
Hearest or the most important:
Fietas, virtus, fides, quorum 1 Eomae templa sunt, piety, virtue, and faith,
WHOSE temples are at Rome. Cic. Peccfitum ac culpa, quae, 1 error and fault,
WHICH. Cic.
1 Qudrum agrees with pietus, virtus, and Jides conjointly, and is accordingly in th
plural ; but quae agrees simply with culpa.
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS. 245
NOTM 1. With antecedents of different (tender*, the pronoun conforms in gender U
the rule for adjectives (439, 2 and 3) :
Pueri innlien'sque qu>, 1 boys and women wuo. Caes. inconstantia et temeritSi
fuae ' digna non sunt deo, inconstancy and ratfinesx WHICH are not worthy of a
god. Cic.
Nor.: 2. With antecedents of different persons, the pronoun prefers the first persoi
to the second, and the second to the third, conforming to the rule for verbs (463. 1) :
Ego ac til inter no a loquimur, you and I converge together. Tac. Et tu et colk'gae
Vni, qul a sperastis, both you and your colleagues, wuo hoped. Cic.
4. By ATTRACTION, a pronoun sometimes agrees with a PREDICATE NOUN
>r an APPOSITIVE instead of the antecedent :
Animal quern (for quod) vocamus hominem, the animal WHICH we call
man. 3 Cic. Thebae, quod (quae) caput est, Thebes, WHICH is the capital. Liv.
Ea (id) erat confessifi, THAT (i. e., the action referred to) teas a confession.
Liv. FlQmen Rhenus, qul, the river Rhine, WHICH. Caes.
5. By SYNESIS, the pronoun is sometimes construed according to the real
meaning of the antecedent, without regard to grammatical form ; and some-
times it refers to the class of objects to which the antecedent belongs :
Quia tessum militem habebat, his quit-tern dedit, as he had an exhausted
wldiery, he gave THEM (THESE) a rest. Liv. Equitatus, qul vlderunt, the cav-
alry WHO saw, Caes. De alia. rC, quod ad me attinet, in regard to another
thing WHICH pertains to me. Plaut. Earura rerum utrumque, EACH of these
things. Cic. Democritum omittamus ; apud istos ; let us omit Deinocritus ;
with SUOH (i. e., as he). Cic.
6. ANTECEDENT OMITTED. The antecedent of the relative is often omitted
when it is indefinite, is a demonstrative pronoun, or is implied in a posses-
sive pronoun, or in an adjective :
Sunt qul censeant, there are some who think. Cic. Terra reddit quod ac-
cepit, the earth returns what it has received. Cic. Vestra, qul cum integri-
tate vlxlstis, hoc interest, this interests you u-ho hace lived with integrity. Cic.
Servilis tumultus quos, the revolt of the slaves whom. Caes.
7. CLAUSE AS ANTECEDENT. When the antecedent is a sentence or clausb,
the pronoun, unless attracted (445, 4), is in the Neuter Singular, but the
relative generally adds id as an appositire to such antecedent :
NOs, id quod dt'bet, patria delectat, our country delights us, as it outjlit
(lit., that which it oire*). Cic. Regem, quod nunquam aiitea acciderat, neca
vf-runt, they put their king to death, which had never before happened. Cic.
8. RELATIVE ATTRACTED. The relative is sometimes attracted into the
case of the antecedent, and sometimes agrees with the antecedent repeated :
Jfldice quo (for quein) n6sti, the judge whom you trnoii>. Hor. Dies Inatat,
Qul agrees with puerl and mulierfs conjointly, and is in the wnsculinf, according
V 439, 2; but quae is In the ntuter, according to 439, 3.
9 2fog, referring to eyo dc tii, is in the firxt person ; while qul, referring to ti'i et col-
ifgae, is ta the secoml person, as is shown by the verb *pfra*tia.
1 In these examples, the pronouns quern, quod, and ea are attracted, to agree witL
their predicate nouns, hominem, caput, and oonfesnio; but qui agrees with iu
live, litimut
246 USE OF PRONOUNS.
quo die, the day is at hand, on which day. Cues. Cumae, quam urbem tene
bant, Cumae, which city they held. Liv.
9. ANTECEDENT ATTRACTED. In poetry, rarely in prose, the antecedent is
sometimes attracted into the case of the relative , and sometimes incorporated
in the relative clause with the relative in agreement with it :
Urbem, quam statuo, vestra est, the city which I am building is yours.
Verg. 1 Malarum, quas amor curas habet, obliviscl (for malarum curdrum
quas), to forget the wretched cares which love has. Hor. 1 Quos vos implorare
debetis, ut, quam urbem pulcherrimam esse voluC-runt, hanc 2 defendant, these
(lit., whom) you ought to implore to defend this city, which they wished to be
most beautiful. Cic.
USE OF PRONOUNS.
446. PERSONAL, PRONOUNS. The Nominative of Personal Pro-
nouns is used only for emphasis or contrast : *
Significamus quid sentiamus, we show what we think. Cic. Ego reges
ejecl, vos tyrannos introducitis, I have banished kings, YOD introduce tyrant*.
Cic.
NOTE 1. With quidem the pronoun is usually expressed, but not with equidem :
Facts amice tu quidem, you act indeed in a friendly manner. Cic. NSn dubitu-
L.am equidem, / did not doubt indeed. Cic.
NOTE 2. A writer sometimes speaks of himself in the plural, using nbs for ego, no#-
ttr for meus, and the plural verb for the singular :
VidSs nfis (for me) multa cOnari, you see that WE (for I) are attempting many
things. Cic. SermO expliciibit nostrum (for meam) sententiam, the conversation trill
unfold OUB (MY) opinion. Cic. Dixiinus (for dlasl) multa, J have said many things.
Cic.
NOTB 8.Nos(ri and vestrl are generally used in an objective sense ; nostrum and
vextrum in a partitive sense :
Habutis ducem memorem vetttri, you have a leader mindful OF TOUE INTERESTS (o
rotr). Cic. Minus haboo virium quam -oestrum utervTs, I have less strength than either
OF yon. Cic. Quls nostrum, who OF us? Cic.
NOTE 4. With ab, ad, or apud, a personal pronoun may designate the residence or
abode of a person :
A nobix egreditur, he is coming FROM OUK HOUSE. Ter. Veni ad mt, I came TO MT
HOUSE. Cic. Kamus ad me, let us go to my house. Ter. Apud te est, he in at your
house. Cic. Run apud se est, he ix at hit residence in the country. Cic. See also
433, I., <((/, apud, etc.
447. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, when not emphatic, are seldom
expressed, if they can be supplied from the context :
Manus lava, wash your hands. Cic. Mihf mea vita cara est, my life is
dear to me.* Plaut.
1 For other examples, see Verg., Aen., V., 28-80; Hor., Sat, I., 10, 16.
3 Qiuim urbem, hanc = hanc urbem, quam.
3 The learner will remember that a pronominal subject is actually oouUined in tin
ending of the verb; see 368, 2, foot-note.
4 For other examples, see Hor., Sat., I., 9, 7, and Cw., I, 8.
* In this example mea is expressed for emphasis.
USE OF PRONOUNS. 247
NOTE 1. Possessive Pronouns sometimes mean favorable, propitious, as alienw
often means unfavorable :
Tetnpore tuo pugnasti, you fought at a favorable time. Liv. Ferunt sua flamina
classem, favorable winds bear the fleet. Verg. Alieno loco proelium committnnt, they
engage, in battle in an unfavorable place. Caes.
NOTE 2. For the Possessive Pronoun in combination with a Genitive, see 398, 8.
For certain other uses of Possessives, see 396, II., N.; III., N. 2.
448. REFLEXIVE USE OF PRONOUNS. Sul and suus have a re-
flexive sense ; * sometimes also the other personal and possessive
pronouns :
Miles 86 ipsum interftcit, the soldier killed himself. Tac. Telo se de-
fendit, he defends himself wtth a weapon. Cic. Sua vl movetur, he is moved
by his own power. Cic. Me consoler, / console myself. Cic. Vos vestra tecta
defendite, defend your houses. Cic.
NOTE. Inter nr>s, inter vos, inter se, have a reciprocal force, each other, one an-
other, together ; but instead of inter se, the noun may be repeated in an oblique case :
Cclloqulmur inter nos, ice converse together. Cic. Amant inter se, they love one
ier>other. Cic. Homines hominibus utiles sunt, men are useful to men (i. e., to each
other). Cic.
449. Sul and suus generally refer to the Subject of the clause
in which they stand :
Sc dlligit, he loves himself. Cie. Justitia propter sese colenda est, justice
*Aould be cultivated for its own sake. Cic. Annulura suum dedit, he gave his
ing. Nep. Per se sib! quisque cams est, every one is in hit very nature
through or in himself) dear to himself. Cic.
1. In SUBORDINATE CLAUSES expressing the sentiment of the principal
subject, sul and mus generally refer to that subject :
Bentlt animus 85 vT sna movSrt, the mind perceive* that it i moved by its own
pmoer. Cic. A mo petlvit ut secum essem, he axked (from) me to be icith him (that I
would be). Cic. Pervestlgat quid sul elves cogitent, he tries to ascertain what hi*
fellow-citizens think. Cic.
1) As mil and SUUH thus refer to subjects, the demonstratives, in, il/e, etc., generally
refer either to other words, or to subjects which do not admit sui and HHUX :
Deum agnoscis ex Ojus operibus, you recognise a god by (from) hi* works. Cic.
Obligat clvitatem nihil eos mQtaturos, he bint/* the state not to change anything (that
they will). Just.
.2) In some subordinate clauses the writer may at pleasure use either the reflexive or
the demonstrative, according as he wishes to preient the thought as that of the principal
subject, or as liiti own :
Persuadent Tulingls utl cum ils a proficTscantur, they persuade the Tulingi to de-
part with them. Caps.
8) 86metimes reflexives and demonstratives are used without any apparent distinction :
1 Sul, of himself; /;?, for himself; se, himself.
* Here cum iix is the proper language for the writer without reference to the senti
merit of the principal subject; necuta, which would be equally proper, would preterit ttic
thought as the sentiment of that nulijett.
248 USE OF PRONOUNS.
Caesar Fabium cum legione eua ' remittit, Caesar sends back fabius and (withi
Ms legion. Caes. Omitto Isocratem discipulosqne ejus, 1 I omit lacerates and his dis-
ciples. Cic.
2. Suus, in the sense of His OWN, FITTING, etc., may refer to subject 01
object :
Tustitia suum cinque tribuit, justice gives to every man his due (his own). Cic.
3. SYNESIS. When the subject of the verb is not the real agent of the
action, sul and sum refer to the agent :
A Caesare invltor sibi ut sim legatus, I am invited by Caesar (real agent) to be his
lieutenant. Cic.
4. THE PLURAL OF Sues, meaning His FRIENDS, THEIR FRIENDS, THEIR
POSSESSIONS, etc., is used with great freedom, often referring to oblique
cases:
Puit hoc luctuosum BUIS, this was afflicting to his friends.* Cic.
5. Sui and Suus sometimes refer to an omitted subject:
DSfonne est dS se praedicare, to boast ofongt getfis disgusting. Cic.
6. Two REFLEXIVES. Sometimes a clause has one reflexive referring to
the principal subject, and another referring to the subordinate subject :
Eespondit neminem secum sine sua pernicie contendisse, he replied that no one had
contended -with him without (his) destruction* Caes.
450. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Hlc, iste, ilk, are often
called respectively demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third
Persons, as Jvic designates that which is near the speaker ; iste, that
which is near the person addressed ; and ille, that which is remote
from both :
Custfts hiijus urbis, the guardian of this city (i. e., of our city). Cic. Muta
islam mentem, change that purpose of yours. Cic. Ista quae sunt a t6 dicta,
those things which were spoken by you. Cic. Si illos, quos vidCre non pos-
sumus, neglegis, if you disregard those (far away, yonder) whom we can not
nee. Cic.
1. Hlc designates an object conceived as near, and ille as remote, whether
in space, lime, or thought :
Non antique illo more, sed hoc nostro fait crudltus, he teas educated, not in that
ancient, but in this our modern way. Cic. Hoc illud fuit, was it (that) thisJ Ver^.
NOTE. The idea of contempt often implied In clausee with iste is not strictly con
tained in the pronoun itself, but derived from the ;ontext : *
Animi est ista mollities, non virtus, THAT is an effeminate spirit, not valor. Caes.
1 Observe that the reflexive is used in the first example, and the demon-stratite, in
the second, though the cases are entirely alike.
4 Here suit refers to an oblique case in the preceding sentence.
3 Here se refers to the subject of re*pon^/it, and sua to neminem, the subject of the
subordinate clause.
4 The idea of contempt is readily explained by the fact that iste is often applied t<r
the views of n opponent, to a defendant before a court of justice, and the like.
USE OF PRONOUNS. 249
2. FORMER AND LATTER. In reference to two objects previously mentioned,
(1) hie generally follows ille and refers to the latter object, while ille refers
to the former ; but (2) hie may precede and may refer to the former, and ille
refer to the latter :
Inimlcl, amici ; illl, hi, enemies, friends ; the former, the tatter. Cic. Certa pax^
spcrata victoria; haec (paw) in tua, ilia in deorum poteslate est, sure peace, hoped-for
victory ; the former is in your power, the fatter in the power ofttte gods. Liv.
NOTE. flic refers to the former object, when that object is conceived of as neater
in thought, either because of its importance, or because of its dose connection with the
subject under discussion.'
3. Hie and ille are often used of what immediately follows in discourse :
His verbis epistulam inisit, he sent a letter in these words (i. e., in the following
words). Nep. lllud intellegO, omnium ora in mS conversa esse, thtf I understand, that
the eyes of all are turned upon me. Sail.
4. Ille is often used of what is WELL KNOWN, FAMOUS :
Medea ilia, that well-known Medea. Cic. Ego, ille ferox, tacul. 7, that haughty one,
wot silent. Ovid.
NOTE 1. Hie is sometimes equivalent to meus or noster, rarely to ego, and hie
homo to ego :
Supra hanc memoriam, before our time (lit., before this memory). Cic. His mei*
litteris, with this letter of mine (from me). Cic. Hie horaost omnium hominum. efc.,
of all men I am, etc. (lit., this man is). Plaut.
NOTE 2. Iflc, ille, and it are sometimes redundant, especially with quidem :
ScIpiO non multum ille dicebat, Scipio did not indeed say much. Cic. Graecl vo-
lant ill! quidem, the Greeks indeed desire it. Cic. Ista tranquillitas ea ipsa est beats
vita, that tranquillity is itself a happy life. 1 * Cic.
NOTE 8. A demonstrative or relative is sometimes equivalent to a Genitive, or to a
preposition with its case : hie amor = amor hujus rei, 'the love of this'; haee eftra =
euro de /toe, * care concerning this.'
NOTK 4. Adverbs derived from demonstrative pronouns share the distinctive mean-
ings of the pronouns themselves :
Hie plus mall est, quam illic boni, tliere is more of evil here, than of good then. Tr.
Bee also 304 ; 3O5.
45 1 . I* and Idem refer to preceding nouns, or are the antece-
dents of relatives :
Dionysius aufugit, is est in provincift, Dionysius hat fled, he is in the
province. Cic. Is qul satis habet, he who has enough. Cic. Eadem audlre
inalunt, they prefer to hear the same things. Liv.
1. The pronoun is, the weakest of the demonstratives, is often understood, especially
before a relative or a Genitive:
Flubat pater de filii morte, de patris filius, the father wept over the death of the son,
the son over (that) of the father. Cic. See also 445, 6.
1 Thui, in the last example, haec refers to eerta pax as the more prominent object
in the mind of the speaker, as he is setting forth the advantage* of a mire pence over n
hoped-for victory.
4 For other examples, see Verg., Aen., I., 8; III., 490; and XI., 809. For the use of
personal pronouns with ytiflfm, see 446, not* 1,
250 USE OF PRONOUNS.
I. /, with a conjunction, is often used for emphasis, like the English, and that loo.
and that indeed :
Unam rein explicabd, eamque maximam, one thing I will eseplain, and that too a
most important one. Cic. Audire Cratippum, idque Athenis, to hear Oratippus, and
that too at Athens. 1 Cic.
8. Idem is sometimes best rendered also, at the same time, at once, both, yet:
Nihil utile, quod non idem honestum, nothing useful, which is not also honorable.
Cic. Cum dicat, negat Idem, though he asserts, he yet denies (the same denies). Cic
R5x Anius, rex Idem hominum Phoeblque sacerdos, King Anius, both king of men and
priest of Apollo. Verg.
4. Is qul means he who, sucfi as, such that;
II sumus, qui esse debemus, ice are such as we ought to be. Cic. Ea est gens quae
neseiat, Hie race is such that it knows not. Liv.
6. Idem qul means the same who, the same as; Idem ac (atque, et, que), Idem
ut, Idem cum with the Ablative, the same as:
Eidem mores, qul, the same manners which or as. Cic. Est Idem ac fuit, he is the
same as he was. Ter. Eodem mecum patre genitus, the son of the same father a I
(with me). Tac.
6. For the DISTINCTION BETWEEN is and sul in subordinate clauses, see 449, 1, 2).
452. Ipse adds emphasis, generally rendered self:
Ipse Pater fiilmina molltur, the Father himself (Jupiter) hurls the thunder-
bolts. Verg. Ipse a dlxit, he himself said it. Cic. Ipse Caesar, Caesar him-
self. Cic. Fac ut te ipsum custodies, see tJiat you guard yourself. Cic.
1. Ipse belongs to the emphatic word, whether subject or object, but with a prefer-
ence for the subject :
Me ipse consoler, / myself (not another) console myself. Cic. Ipse se quisque dlli-
git, every one (himself) loves himself. Cic. Se ipsum interfecit, he killed himself. Tac.
NOTE. Ipse is sometimes accompanied by secum, 'with himself, 1 'alone,' or by per
se, 'by himself, 1 'unaided, 1 'in and of himself, 1 etc.:
Aliud genitor seeum ipse volutat, the father (Jupiter) himself alone ponders an-
other plan. Verg. Quod est rectum ipsumque per se laudabile, which is right, and in
and of itself prai&eicorthy. Cic.
2. Ipse is oftei best rendered by very :
Ipse file Gorgias, that very Gorgias. Cic.
8. With numerals, ipse means just so many, just; so also in nunc ipsum, 'just at
this time'; turn ipsum, 'jnst at that time 1 :
Trlgtnta die's ipsl, just thirty days. Cic. Nunc ipsum sine t6 esse n6n possum, jttst
at this time I cannot be without you. Cic.
4. Ipse in the Genitive with possessives has the force ofoicn, one 1 * own:
Nostra ipsoruin amlcitia, our own friendship. Cic. See 398, 3.
6. Ipse in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the principal subject, like an em-
phatic sul or suus :
Legates nrtsit qul ipsl vitam peterent, fie sent mexfiengers to ask life for himself. Sail.
6. Et ipse and ipse quoque may often be rendered also, likewise, even he: 3
Alius Achilles natus et ipse dea, another Achilles likewise (lit., himself also) born
of a goddess. Verg.
1 Id, thus used, *>f**n refers to a clause, or to the general thought, as in this example.
1 Applied to P7taiKO*8 by hi* disciples. Ipse is often thus used of superior, ai
of a master, teac-ier, et.
' Compare the Greek <.<u ovrrfy.
UKE OF PRONOUNS. 251
T. For the use of the Nominative ipse in connection with the Ablative Absolute, gee
131, note 3.
453. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The relative is often used where
the- English idiom requires a demonstrative or personal pronoun ;
sometimes even at the beginning of a sentence :
Res loquitur ipsa, quae semper valet, the fact itself speaks, and thin
(which) ever has weight. Cic. Qul proelium committunt, they engage in bat-
tle. Caes. Quae curu ita sint, since these things are so. Cic.
1. RELATIVES and DEMONSTRATIVES are often correlatives to each other.
hie qui, isle qui, etc. These combinations generally retain the ordinary
force of the separate words, but see is qui, Idem qvi, 451, 4 and 5.
NOTE. The neuter quidquid, 1 accompanied by an adjective, a participle, or a Geni-
tive, may be used of persons :
Matres et quidquid tecum invalidum est delige, select the mothers and whatever
f'tble persons there are with you (lit , whatever there is with you feeble). Verg.
Quidquid erat patrum, whatever fathers there were. Ldv. See also 397, 8, note 6.
2. In Two SUCCESSIVE CLAUSES, the relative may be (1) expressed in
both, (2) expressed in the first and omitted in the second, (3) expressed in
the first and followed by a demonstrative in the second .
Nos qui sermon! mm interfuisscmus et quibus Cotta sententias tradidisset, we who
had not been present at Vie conversation, and to whom Cotta had reported Vie opin-
ion*. Cic. Dumnorlx qui principatum obtinebat ac plGbi accepcus erat, Dumnoriae, w/w
held the chief authority, and who was acceptable to the common people. Caes. Quae
oec haberemus nee his uterumur, which ire should neither have nor use. Cic.
NOTE 1. Several relatives may appear in successive clauses :
Omrit's qui vestltum, qui tecta, qui cultum vitae, qui praesidia contra feras inTfinti-
rnnt, all who introduced (invented) clothing, houses, the refinements of life, protec-
tion against wild oeaxts. Cic.
NOTE 2. A relative clause with in is often equivalent to a substantive : il qui au-
iiunt = audltorex, ' hearers. 1
3. Two RELATIVES sometimes occur in the same clause :
Arts quas qui tenent, arts, whose possessors (which who possess). Cic.
4. A RELATIVE CLAUSE is sometimes equivalent to the Ablative vfithprO:
SperO, quae tna prudentia est, te valere. I hope you are well, such is your prudence
<which is, et<:.). (Me.
NOTE. Quae tua prudentia est qua es prudentia = pro tua prfidentia, means </<
is your prudence, or you are of such prudence, or in accordance with your pru-
dence, etc.
6. RELATIVE WITH ADJECTIVE. Adjectives belonging in sense to the ante-
cedent, especially comparatives, superlatives, and numerals, sometimes stand
in the relative clause in agreement with the relative :
Vusa, quae pulcherrima viderat, the most beautiful vessel* which he had seen (ves-
sels, which the most beautiful he had seen). Cic. DC servls siriB, quern habuit fidglissi-
mum, mlgit, he sent the most faithful of the slaves that he had. Nep.
6. The neuter, quod, used as an adverbial Accusative, often stands at the beginning
1 Of the ireneral or Indefinite relative quisqui*.
252 USE OF PRONOUNS.
of a sentence or clause, especially before si, nl, nisi, etsi, and sometimes before i/nia,
quoniam, utinam, etc., to indicate a close connection with what precedes. In trans-
lating it is sometimes best omitted, and sometimes best rendered by now, in fact, but,
and :
Quod si ceciderint, but if thy should fall. 1 Cic. Quod si ego reset vissein id prius,
now if J had learned this sooner. ' Ter.
7. Qul dlcitur, qul vocutur, or the corresponding active, quern dicunt, quern vacant
are often used in the sense of so-called, the to-called; what they or you call, etc. :
Vestra quae dlcitur vita, mors est, your so-called life (lit., your, ivhich is called
life) is death. Cic. Lex ista qunin vocas non est lox, that law, as you call if, is not e
law. Cic.
454. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The Interrogative quis is
used substantively ; qul, adjectively :
Quis ego sum, ivTio am If Cic. Quid faciet, what will Tie do? Cic Qul
vir fuit, what kind of a man was he f Cic.
1. Occasionally quis is used adjectively and qul substantively :
Quis rex unquam fuit, what king teas there ever ? Cic. Qul sis, considers, consider
who you are. Cic.
NOTE. The neuter, quid, is sometimes used of persons; see 397, 3, note 5.
2. QOID, why, how is it that, etc., is often used adverbially (378, 2), or stands ap-
parently unconnected : 2 quid, 'why?' 'what?' quid enim, 'why then?' 'what then?'
'what indeed?' quid ita, 'why so? 1 quid quod, 'what of the fact that?' quid si,
' what if? ' :
Quid venisti, ichy have you come? Plaut. Quid enim? metusne conturbet, what
then t would fear disturb its ? Cic. Quid quod dcOwtantur, wtuit of Hie fact that they
are delighted t Cic.
8. Two INTEEEOGATIVKS sometimes occur in the same clause :
Quis quern fraudavit, u'ho defrauded, and whom did he defraud (lit., who de-
frauded whom) 1 Cic.
' 4. Tantus sometimes accompanies the interrogative pronoun :
Quae fuit unquam in Gilo homine tanta cfmstantio, was there ever so great constancy
in any man f Cic.
455. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.* Aliquis, quis, qul, and quispiam,
are all indefinite some one, any one :
Est aliquis, there is some one. Liv. Sensus aliquis esse potest, there may
be some sensation. Cic. Dixit quis, some one said. Cic. Si quis rex, if any
king. Cic. Alia ros quaepiam, any other thing. Cic.
1. Quix and qul are used chiefly after 5, nii, ne. and num. Aliquis and qui* are
generally used substantively, uligui and qul adjectively. Aliquix and aliqul after si
nisi, etc., are emphatic:
91 est aliqui sensus in morte, if there is any sensation ichaterer in death. Cic.
2. Nescid quis and neci6 qu> often supply the place of indefinite pronouns :
1 Here quod refers to something that precedes, and means in reference to which, in
reference to this, in this connection, etc. For other examples, see Caesar, B. G., I., 14,
and VII., 88.
4 In some instances quid is readily explained by the ellipsis of some form of did
-jr of sum.
3 For full illustration of the use of indefinite pronouns, see Draeger, I., pp. 87-108.
USE OF PRONOUNS. 253
Nescid quis loquitur, tome one speaks (lit., I know not who speaks, or one speak*,
I know not icho). Plaut. Nesci6 quid mihi animus praesagit mall, my mind forebode*
gome evil (191, note). Ter.
456. Quldam, ' a certain one, ' is less indefinite than aliquis :
Quldam rhetor antiquus, a certain ancient rhetorician. Cic. Accurrit qul-
dain, a certain one runs up. Hor.
1. Qutdam with an adjective is sometimes used to qualify or soften the statement:
Justitia miriflca quaedam videtur, justice seems somewhat wonderful. Cic.
2. Quidam with quasi, and sometimes without it, has the force of a certain, a kind
of, as it irere :
Quasi alumna quaedam, a certain foster-child, as it were. Cic.
457. Quisquam and ullus are used chiefly in negative and con-
ditional sentences, and in interrogative sentences implying a nega-
tive :
Neque me quisquam agnovit, nor did any one recognize me. Cic. Si quis-
quam, if any one. Cic. Num cSnsSs ullum animal esse, do you think there its
any animal f Cic.
1. NfmH is the negative of quisquam, and like quisquam is generally used substan-
tively, rarely adjectively :
Neminem laesit, he harmed no one. Cic. Nem6 poeta, 110 poet. Cic.
2. Nftllus is the negative of ullus, and is generally used adjectively, but it sometimes
supplies the Genitive and Ablative of nemo, which generally wants those cases :
Nil Hum animal, no animal. Cic. Nullius aures. the ears of no one. Cic.
8. Nfillus and nihil are sometimes used for an emphatic non:
N iillus venlt, he did not come. Cic. MortuI null! sunt, tfie dead are not. Cic.
458. Qmvis, qmlibet, 'any one whatever,' and quisque, 'every
one,' 'each one,' are general indefinites (190):
Quaelibet res, anything. Cic. Tuorutn quisque necessflriorum, each out
of your friend*. Cic.
1. Quinqite with superlatives and ordinals is generally best rendered by all, or by
ever, always ; with primus by tttnj, posnilile :
Epicureos doctissiinus quisque contemnit, all the most learned despise the Kfricn-
reans, or the moxt learned ever de-spise, etc. Cic. Primo quftque die, the earliest day
jiossible, the veryfrst. Cic.
2. Ut quisqneifa with the superlative in both clauses is often best rendered, tlit
more the more :
Ut quisque sibl plurimum confidit, ita maxim^ excellit, the more one conjid** in
jne's self, tli more one easels. Cic.
459. Alms means 'another, other' ; filter, 'the one,' 'the other 1
(of two), 'the second,' ' a second. ' They are often repeated : alini
alius, one another ; alii alii, some others ; alter alter, the
one the other ; alteri alterl, the one party the other :
Legates alium ab alio aggreditur, he tampers with the ambassadors one after
another. Sail. Alii gloriae scrviunt, alii pecuniae, some are slaves to glory,
others to money. Cic. Quidquid negat alter, et alter, whatever one denies, tkt
254 AGREEMENT OF VERBS.
other denies. Hor. Alter erit Tiphys, there will be a second Tipht/s. Verg
Tu mine eris alter ab illo, you will now be next after him. Verg. Alter!
dimicant, alterl timent, one party contend*, the other fears. Cic.
1. Alius or alter repeated in different cases, or combined with alias or aliter, often
involves an ellipsis :
Alius alia via civitatem auxerunt, they advanced the state, one in one way, another
4n another. Liv. Aliter alii vlvunt, some lite in one way, others in another. Cic.
2. After minx, aliter, and the like, atque, ac, and et often mean than:
Non alius essem atque sum, / would not be ofier than 1 am. Cic.
8. When alter alter refer to objects previously mentioned, the first alter usually
refers to the latter object, but may refer to either :
Iniimciis. competitor, cum altero cum altero, an enemy, a rival, wiih the latter
u>ith the former. Cic.
4. Dterque means both, each of two. In the plural it generally means both, each of
two parties, but sometimes both, each of faco persons or things ; regularly so with nouns
which are plural in form but singular in sense:
Utrique victoriam cruduliter exercebant, both parties made it cruel wse of victory
S1L Palmas utrasque tetendit, he extended both his hands. Verg.
CHAPTER V.
SYNTAX OF VERBS.
SECTION I.
AGREEMENT OF VERBS. USE OF VOICES.
RULE XXXVI. Agreement of Verb with Subject.
460. A finite verb agrees with its subject in NUMBER
and PERSON :
Deus mundum aedificSvit, God made (built) the world. Cic. Ego rgggs
ej6cl, v8s tyrannos introducitis, / have banished kings, you introduce ty-
rants. Cic.
1. PARTICIPLES IN COMPOUND TENSES agree with the subject according
to 438. See also 301, 1 and 2 :
ThebanI accusati aunt, the Thebans were accused. Cic.
N>TE 1. In the compound forms of the Infinitive, the participle in urn sometimes
ccurs without any reference to the gender or number of the subject:
Uiffidentia futurum quae imperavisset, from doubt that those things which he had
oommanded would take place. Sail.
NOTE 2. A General or Indefinite subject is often denoted
1) By the First or Third Person Plural, and in the Subjunctive by the Second Person
AGREEMENT OF VERBS. 255
Singular : dicimut, ' we (people) say'; dlcunt, 'they say'; dicds, 'you (any on) may
*ay':
81 beat! esse volumus, if we wish to be happy. Cic. Agere quod gas considerate
decet, you (one) should do considerately whatever you do (one does). Cic.
2) By an Impersonal Passive:
Ad fanum concurritur, they rush to the temple. Cic. Nisi cum virtute vlvatur, un-
less they live (unless one lives) virtuously. Cic.
NOTE 8. For the Pronominal Subject contained in the verb, see 368, 2.
NOTB 4. For the OMISSION OF THE VERB, see 368, 3.
461. SYNESIS. Sometimes the predicate is construed accord
ing to the real meaning of the subject without regard to grammat-
ical gender or number. Thus
1. With collective nouns, pars, multitude, and the like :
Multitude abeunt, the multitude depart. Liv. Pars per agros dllapsl, a
part (some) dispersed through the fields. Liv.
NOTE 1. Here multitude and/>rtr, though singular and feminine in form, are plu-
ral and masculine in sense; see also 438, 6. Conversely, the Imperative singular may b
used in addressing a multitude individually:
Adde defectionena Siciliae, add (to this, soldiers) the revolt of Sicily. Liv.
NOTB 2. Of two verbs with the same collective noun, the former is often e/ingula*
and the latter plural :
Juventus ruit certantque, the youth ninh forth and contend. Verg.
2. With mllia, often masculine in sense :
CaesI sunt tria mllia, three thousand men were slain. Liv.
3. With quisque, ulerque, alius alium, alter altemvm, and the like :
Uterque educunt, they each lead out. Caes. Alter alterum videmus, we
see each other. Cic.
4. With singular subjects accompanied by an Ablative with cum :
Dux cum prlncipibus capiuntur, the leader with his chiefs is taken. Liv.
Quid hue tantum hominum ( = tot homines') ine&dunt, why are so many men
f&ming hither f Plaut. See also 438, 6.
5. With partim partim in the sense of pars pars: '
Bonorum partim necessaria, partim nfin necessaria sunt, of good things
tome are necessary, others are not necessary. Cic.
462. Sometimes the verb agrees, not with its subject, but with
an APPOSITIVE or with a PREDICATE NOUN :
Volsinil, oppidum Tuscoruni, concrematum est, Volsinii, a town of the
Tuscans, 10 as burned. Plin. Non omnis error stultitia eat dlcenda, not every
error should he catted folly. Cic. Puerl Trojanum dicitur agmen, the boys are
called the Trojan band. Verg.
NOTE 1. The verb regularly agrees with the appositive when that is urbs, oppidum,
or ciritds, in apposition with plural names of places, as in the first example.
NOTE 2. The verb agrees with the predicate noun when that is nearer or more em-
phatic than the subject, as in the tocond example.
256 AGREEMENT OF VERBS.
Nor* 8. The verb sometimes agrees with a noun in a subordinate clause after yuan-.
i.w, etc. :
Nihil aliud nisi pax quaesita est, nothing but peace -was sought. Cic.
463. With TWO OR MORE SUBJECTS the verb agrees
I. With one subject, and is understood with the others :
Aut mores spectari aut fortuna solet, either character or fortune it wont to
be regarded. Cic. Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Komam conditam, Hornet
and Hesiod lived (were) before the founding of Rome. Cic.
II. With all the subjects conjointly, and is accordingly in the plural
number :
Lentulus, Scipio perierunt, Lentulus and Scipio perished. Cic. Ego et
Cicerd valemus, Cicero and I are well. Cio. Tu et Tullia valetis, you and
Tullia are well. Cic.
1. With SUBJECTS DIFFERING IN PERSON, the verb takes the first person
rather than the second, and the second rather than the third ; see examples.
2. For PARTICIPLES IN COMPOUND TENSES, see 439.
3. Two SUBJECTS AS A UNIT. Two singular subjects forming in sense a
unit or whole, admit a singular verb :
Senatus populusque intellegit, the senate and people (5. e., the state as a
unit) understand. Cic. Tempus necessitasque postulat, time and necessity
(i. e., the crisis) demand. Cic.
4. WITH AUT OR NEC. When the subjects connected by aut, vel, nee,
neque or sen, differ in person, the verb is usually in the plural ; but when they
are of the same person, the verb usually agrees with the nearest subject:
Haec neque ego neque tu fOcimus, neither you nor 1 have done these things.
Ter. Aut Brutus aut Cassius judicavit, either Brutus or Cassius judged. Cic.
464. VOICES. "With transitive verbs, a thought may at the pleas-
ure of the writer be expressed either actively or passively. But
I. That which in the active construction would be the object must be
the subject in the passive ; and
II. That which in the active would be the subject must be put in the Abla-
tive with a or ab for persona, and in the Ablative alone for things (415, 1. ; 420):
Deus omnia constituit, God ordained all things. A Deo onmia constituta
aunt, all things were ordained by God. Cic. Dei providentia mundum ad-
ministrat, the providence of God rules the world. Dei providentia mundus
administratur, the world it ruled by the providence of God. Cic.
465. The PASSIVE VOICE, like the Greek Middle, 1 is sometimes
equivalent to the Active with a reflexive pronoun :
Lavantur in fluminibus, they bathe (wash themselves) in. the rivers. Caes.
1 Most Passive forms once had both a Middle and a Paxsive meaning, as in Greek:
but in Latin the Middle or Reflexive meaning has nearly disappeared, though retained
to a certain extent in special verbi
TENSES OF INDICATIVE. 257
Non hie victoria vertitur, not upon this point (here) does victory turn ( turn
itself;. Verg.
1. INTRANSITIVE VERBS (193) have regularly only the active voice, but
they are sometimes used impersonally in the passive :
Curritur ad praetorium, they run to the praetorium (it is run to). Cic.
Mihi cum ils vivendum est, I must live with them. Cic.
NOTE. Verbs which are usually intransitive are occasionally used transitively, ep
pecially in poetry :
Ego cur invideor, why am I envied ? Hor.
2. DEPONENT VERBS, though passive in form, are in signification transitive
or intransitive :
Illud inirabar, / admired that. Cic. Ab urbe proficlscl, to set out from
the city. Caes.
NOTE 1. Originally many deponent verbs seem to have had the force of the Greek
Middle voice : glfirior, 'I boast myself,' ' I boast'; vescor, ' I feed myself.'
NOTE 2. SEMI-DEPONENTS have some of the active forms and some of the passive,
without change of meaning; see 268, 3.
SECTION II.
THE INDICATIVE AND ITS TENSES.
I. PRESENT INDICATIVE.
466. The Present Indicative represents the action of the veii>
as taking place at the present tune :
Ego et Cicer6 valemus, Cicero and I are well. Cic. Hfc te rogo, I ask you
for this. Cic.
NOTE. The Present of the Active Periphrastic Conjugation denotes an intended 01
future action ; that of the Passive, a present necessity or duty :
Bellum script urus sum, / intend to write, the history of the war. 1 Sail. Legend uu
ert We orator, this orator ought to be read. 1 Cic.
467. Hence the Present Tense is used
I. Of actions and events which are actually taking place at the present
time, as in the above examples.
II. Of actions and events which, as belonging to all time, belong of
course to the present, as general truths and customs:
Nihil est amabilius virtute, nothing is more lovely than virtue. Cio.
Fortes fortuna adjuvat,/or^w helps the brave. Ter.
III. Of past actions and events which the writer wishes, for effect, to
picture before the reader as present. The Present, when so used, is called
the Historical Present :
1 Scriplfirvt sum may be variously rendered, / intend to write, am about to write,
am to trritf, am (le*tine>t to irritt, etc. ; leyendus ett means he ouyfit to be read, <f#
*rt>* to b read, mu*t be read, etc.
258 TENSES OF INDICATIVE.
Jugurtha vallft moenia circumdat, Jugurtha surrounded the city with a
rampart. Sail.
1. The HISTORICAL PRESENT is used much more freely in Latin than in
English. It is therefore generally best rendered by a past tense.
2. The Present is often used of a present action which has been going on
for some time, especially after jamdiu, jamdudum, etc. :
Jamdiu !gn6ro quid agas, / have not known for a long time what you have
ten doing. Cic.
3. The Present in Latin, as in English, may be used of authors whose
works are extant :
XenophOn facit Socratem disputantem, Xenophon represents Socrates dis-
cussing. Cic.
4. With dum, ' while,' the Present is generally used, whether the action
is present, past, or future :
Dura ea parant, 1 Saguntum oppugnabatur, while they were (are) making
these preparations, Saguntum was attacked. Liv. Dum haec geruntur, Caa
art nuntiatum est, while these things were taking place, it was announced to
Caesar. Caes.
NOTE. But with dum, meaning as long as, the Present can be used only of pnser>i
time.
5. The Present is sometimes used of an action really future, especially in
animated discourse and in conditions :
Quam prendimus arcem, what stronghold do we seize, or are we to seize f Verg.
Si vincimuB, omnia tuta erunt, if we conquer, all things will be safe. Sail.
6. The Present is sometimes used of an attempted or intended action :
Virtutem accendit, he tries to kindle their valor. Verg. Quid me terre*
why do you try to terrify me ? Verg.
II. IMPERFECT INDICATIVE.
468. The Imperfect Indicative represents the action as taking
place in past time :
Stabant nobilissimi juvenes, there stood (were standing) most noble youths.
Liv. Colles oppidum cingebant, hills encompassed the town. Caes. Moturus
exercitum erat, Ite was intending to move his army. Liv.
NOTE. For the Imperfect of the Periphrastic Conjugations in conditional sentences,
see 511, 2
469. Hence the Imperfect is used especially
I. In lively description, whether of scenes or events :
Ante oppidum planities patebat, before the town extended a plain. Caes.
Fulgentes gladios videbant, they saw (were seeing) the gleaming swords. Cic.
II. Of customary or repeated actions and events, often rendered wa&
wont, etc. :
1 Here the time denoted by parant is present relatively to oppugnabalwr, and ther*
fore really past.
TENSES OF INDICATIVE. 259
Paiwanias epulabatur more Persarum, Pamanias was wont to banquet in
the Persian style. Nep.
1. The Iinpeifect is sometimes used of an attempted or intended action:
Sedabant tumultus, they attempted to quell the seditions. Liv.
2. The Imperfect is often used of a past action which had been going on
for some time, especially vf'iihjamdiu,jamdudum, etc. : '
Domicilium Romae multos jam annos habebat, he had already for many
years had his residence at Rome. Cic.
3. The Latin sometimes uses the Imperfect where the English requires the
Present : *
Pastum animantibus natura eum qul cuique aptus erat, comparavit, nature
has prepared for animals that food which is adapted to each. Cic.
NOTE 1. For the Imperfect in LETTERS, see 472, 1.
NOTE 2. For the Descriptive Imperfect in NARRATION, see 471, 6.
NOTE 3. For the Historical Tenses in expressions of DUTY, PROPRIETY, NECESSITY,
etc., see 476, 4.
III. FUTURE INDICATIVE.
470. The Future Indicative represents the action as one which
will take place in future time :
Sen bam ad te, / shall write to you. Cio. Nunquam aberrabimus, wt shaft
never go astray. Cic.
1. In Latin, as in English, the Future Indicative sometimes has the force of
n Imperative :
Curabis et scribes, you will take care and write. Cic.
2. Actions which really belong to future time are almost invariably ex-
pressed by the Future tense, though sometimes put in the Present in English
Naturam si sequS mur, nunquam aberrabimus, if we follow nature, we shaU
ntvtr go astray. Cic.
IV. PERFECT INDICATIVE.
471. The Perfect Indicative has two distinct uses:
I. As the PRESENT PERFECT or PERFECT DEFINITE, it represents
the action as at present completed, and is rendered by our Perfect
with have :
De genere belli dixl, / have spoken of the character of the war. Cic.
II. As the HISTORICAL PERFECT or PERFECT INDEFINITE, it rep-
resents the action simply as an historical fact :
1 Observe that the peculiarities of the Present reappear in the Imperfect. This arises
from the fact that these two tenses are precisely alike in representing the action in its
progrew, and that thfy differ only in time. The one views the action in the present, the
Other transfers it to the past.
* This occurs occasionally in the statement of general truths and in the description
of natural scenes, but in such cases the truth or the scene is viewed not from th present
but from the pant.
260 TENSES OF INDICATIVE.
Miltiadei est accusatus, MiUiades was accused. Nep. Quid facturt falatiB,
what did you intend to do, or what would you have done? Cic.
NOTE. For the Perfect of the F ariphrastic Conjugations in conditional sentences, see
476, 1.
1. The Perfect i8 sometimes used
1) Instead of the Present to denote the suddenness of the action:
Terra tremit, mortalia corda stravit pavor, the earth trembles, fear over-
whelms (has overwhelmed) the hearts of mortals. Verg.
2) To contrast the past with the present, implying that what was true then
is not true now :
Habuit, non habet, he had, but has not. Cic. Fuit Ilium, Ilium was. Verg.
2. The Perfect Indicative with paene, prope, may often be rendered by
might, would, or by the Pluperfect Indicative :
Brutum non minus amO, paene dixi, quam to, / love Brutus not less, I
might almost say, or / had almost said, than I love you. Cic.
8. The Latin sometimes employs the Perfect and Pluperfect where the
English uses the Present and Imperfect, especially in repeated actions, and
in verbs which want the Present (297) :
Meminit praeteritfirum, he remembers > the past. Cic. Cum ad vlllam veni,
hoc me delectat, when I come (have come) to a villa, this pleases me. Cic.
Meinineram Paullum, / remembered Paullus. Cic.
4. Conjunctions meaning as soon as " are usually followed by the Perfect ;
sometimes by the Imperfect or Historical Present. But the Pluperfect is
sometimes used, especially to denote the result of a completed action :
Postquam cecidit Ilium, after (as soon as) Ilium fell, or had fallen. Verg.
His ubi natum prOsequitur 3 dictls, when he had addressed his son with these
words. Verg. Posteaquam consul fuerat, after he had been consul.* Cic,
Anno tertio postquam profugerat, *'/* the third year after he had fled. Nep.
5. In SUBORDINATE CLAUSES after cum (quum), si, etc., the Perfect is some-
times used of REPEATED AOTIOKS, GENERAL TRUTHS, and CUSTOMS :
Cum ad vlllam veni, hoc me delectat, whenever I come (have come) to a
villa, this delights me. Oic.
NOTE. la such cases the principal clause generally retains the Present, as in the
example just given, but in poetry and in late prose it sometimes admits the Perfect :
Tulit pnnctutn qul miscuit utile dulcl, he wins (has won) favor who combines (has
eombined) the useful with the agreeable. Hor.
6. In ANIMATED NARRATIVE, the Perfect usually narrates the leading events,
and the Imperfect describes the attendant circumstances :
Cultum mutavit, vcste Medica utebatur, epulabatur more Persarum, he
changed his mode of life, used the Median dress, feasted in the Persian style.
1 Literally, has recalled, and so remembers, as the result of the act. The Latin pr*
tents the completed act, the English the result.
4 As postquam, ubl, ubl prlmum, ut, ut prlmum, simiti atque (ac), etc.
* Historical present; lit., when he attends.
* And so was then a man of consular rank.
* This use of the Latin Perfect corresponds to the Gnomic Aoritt in Greek
TENSES OF INDICATIVE. 261
Nep. Se in oppida receperunt murtsque 86 tenebant, they betook t/umtelve
into their towns and Jeept themselves within their walls. Liv.
NOTE 1. The Compound Tenses in the Passive often denote the result of the action.
Thus, doctus est may mean either he has been instructed, or he is a learned man (lit.,
an instructed, man) :
Fuit doctus ex disciplina Stoicorum, he was instructed in (lit., out of) the learning
<tf the Stoics. Oic. Navis parata fuit, the vessel was ready (lit., was prepared). Liv.
NOTE 2. For the Perfect in LETTERS, see 472, 1.
NOTE 3. For the Historical Tenses in expressions of DUTY, PBOPBIBTY, NECESSITY.
tc., see 476, 4.
V. PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE.
472. The Pluperfect Indicative represents the action as com-
pleted at some past time :
Pyrrhl temporibus jam Apollo versus facere desierat, in the times of Pyr-
rhus Apollo had already ceased to make verses. 1 Cic. Copias quits pr6 castrts
collocaverat, reduxit, he led back the forces which he had stationed before the
camp. Cue*. Cum esset Demosthenes, multl Oratores dart fuerunt et antea
fuerant, when, Demosthenes lived there were many illustrious orators, and there
had been before. Cic.
1. In LETTERS, the writer often adapts the tense to the tune of the reader,
using the Imperfect or Perfect of present actions and events, and the Pluper-
fect of those which are past : "
Nihil habebam quod scrlberem ; ad tuas omn6s epistulas reecripseram
prldie, 3 1 have (had) nothing to write; I replied to all your letters yesterday.
Cic. Prldie Idas haec scripsl; eodi6 3 apud Pomponium eram cenaturus, 4
I write this on the day before the Ides ; I am going to dine to-day with Pom-
ponies. Cic.
2. The PLUPERFECT after cum, si, etc., is often used of REPEATED ACTIONS,
GENERAL TRUTHS, and CUSTOMS : *
Si hostf-s deterrere nequlverant circumveniebaut, {f they were (had been)
unable * to deter the enemy, they surrounded them. Sail.
NOTE 1. For the Pluperfect in the sense of the English Imperfect, see 471, 8.
NOTE 2. For the ffistorical Tetixes in expressions of DUTY, PROPRIETY, NECESSITY,
etc., see 476, 4.
1 Observe that rletierat represents the action as already completed at the time deslg
nated.
'' This change is by no means uniformly made, but is subject to the pleasure of the
writer. It is most common near the beginning and the end of letters.
8 Observe that the adverbs and the adverbial expressions are also adapted to the tim
of the reader. Iltr'i, 'yesterday,' becomes to the reader pridit, 'the day before ' i. .,
the day before the writing of the letter. In the same way hodif, 'to-day,' 'THIS day,' be-
comes to the reader tf> flit, 'THAT day.'
* The Imperfect of the Periphrastic Conjugation Is sometimes thus used of futurt
vents which are expected to happen before the receipt of the letter. Events whieh will
be future to the reader as well as to the writer must be expressed by the Future.
8 See the similar use of the Perfect, 471, 6.
Tht is. teh.iiraf thtjj were unable.
262 USE OF INDICATIVE,
VI. FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE.
473. The Future Perfect Indicative represents the action as
one which will be completed at some future time :
Romam cum venero, scribain ad te, when I shall have reached Rome, I will
write to you. Cic. Dum tu haec leges, ego illuin fortasse conveners, when
you read this, I shall perhaps have already met him. Cic.
1. The FUTURE PERFECT is sometimes used to denote the complete accoin
plishment of the work :
Ego meuin officium praestiterfl, I shall discharge my duty. Caes.
2. The FUTURE PERFECT is sometimes found in conditional clauses where
we use the Present :
Si interpretarl potuero, his verbls utitur, if 1 can (shall have been able
to) understand him, Tie uses these words. Cic.
VII. USE OF THE INDICATIVE.
RULE XXXVII. Indicative.
474. The Indicative is used in treating of facts :
Deus mundum aedificavit, God made (built) the world. Cic. Nonne
sxpulsus est patria, was he not banisJied from his country ? Cic. Hoc f 6cl
dum limit, I did this as long as it was permitted. Cic.
475. The Indicative is thus used in treating of facts
I. In Principal Clauses, 1 whether Declarative as in the first example
or Interrogative as in the second.
IL In Subordinate Clauses. Thus
1. In Relative Clauses :
Dixit Id quod dlgnissimum re publica fuit, he stated that which was most
worthy of the republic. Cic. Quicquam bonuin est, quod non eum qul id
possidet meliOrem facit, is anything good which does not mate him better who
possesses it ? Cic.
NOTE. For the Subjunctive In Relative Clauses, see 497; 50O; 503; 5O7, 2, etc.
2. In Conditional Clauses:
Si haec clvitas est, civis sum ego, if tliis is a state, I am a citizen. Cic.
NOTE 1. For the special uses of the Indicative in Conditional Sentences, see 5O8.
NOTE 2. For the Sut&unctitttai Conditional Sentences, see 5O9; 51O.
8. In Concessive Clauses:
Quamquam intellegunt, tamen nunquam dicunt, although they understand,
thty never epeak. Cic.
^
Vora. For the Subjunctive in Concetsive Clauses, see 515.
' Including, of course, Ml simple fteutences.
USE OF INDICATIVE. 263
4. In Causal Clauses:
Quoniam supplicatio decreta est, since a thanksgiving has been decreed. Cic.
Quia hon&re dlgnl habentur, because they are deemed worthy of honor. Curt.
NOTE. For the Subjunctive in Causal Clauses, see 516; 517.
6. In Temporal Clauses:
Cum quiescunt, probant, while they are silent they approve. Cic. Prius-
quara lucet, adsunt, they are present before it is Ught. Cic.
NOTS. For the Subjunctive in Temporal Clauses, see 519; 52O; 531.
476. SPECIAL USES. The Indicative is sometimes used where
our idiom would suggest the Subjunctive :
1. The Indicative of the Periphrastic Conjugations is often so used in
the historical tenses, especially in conditional sentences (511, 2):
Haec condici6 nOn accipienda fuit, this condition should not have been ac-
cepted. Cic.
2. The Historical Tenses of the Indicative, particularly the Pluperfect,
are sometimes used for effect, to represent as an actual fact something
which is shown by the context never to have become fully so :
Vlceramus, nisi recepisset Antonium, we should have (lit., had) conquered,
had he not received Antony. Cic. See 511, 1.
3. Pronouns and Relative Adverbs, made general by being doubled or by
assuming the suffix cumque (187, 3), take the Indicative:
Quisquis est, is est sapiens, whoever he is, he is wise. Cic. H5c ultimum,
utcunque initum est, proelium fuit, this, however it was commenced, was the
last battle. Liv. Quidquid oritur, qualecumque est, causam habet, whatever
comes into being, of whatever character it may be (lit., is), it has a cause. Cic.
4. In expressions of Duty, Propriety, Necessity, Ability, and the like,
the Latin often uses the Indicative, chiefly in the historical tenses, in a
manner somewhat at variance with the English idiom :
Non suscipl bellum oportuit, the war should not have been undertaken. 1
Liv. Eum contumclils onerastl, quern colere debebas, you have loaded with
insults one whom you should have (ought to have) revered. Cic. MultOs pos-
Bura bon6s virOs nominare, I might name (lit., / am able to name) many good
men. Cic. Hanc mccum poteras requiSscere noctem, you might rest (might
have rested) with me this night. Verg.
6. The Indicative of the verb turn is often used with longum, aequum,
ncquius, difficile, justum, melius, par, utilius, etc., in such expressions as
longum est, ' it would be tedious,' rnelius erat, ' it would have been better ' :
Longum est persequi utilitates, it would be tedious (is a long task) to re-
count the uses. Cic. Melius fuerat, promissum non ease serviitum, it would
have been better that the promise should not have been kept. Cic.
1 Literally, it was fitting or proper tliat the war should not b* undertaken.
264 SUBJUNCTIVE.
SECTION III.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
AND ITS TENSES.
477. The Latin Subjunctive ' has two principal uses
I. It may represent an action as WILLED or DESIRED :
Animus patriam, LET us LOVE our country. Cic.
II. It may represent an action as PROBABLE or POSSIBLE.
Quaerat quispiam, some one MAY INQUIRE, Cic.
478. TENSES m THE SUBJUNCTIVE do not designate the time of
the action so definitely as in the Indicative.
479. The PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE in principal clauses a embraces
in a vague and general manner both present and future time : 8
Amemus patriam, let u-s love our country (now and ever). Civj. Quaerat
quispiam, some one inay (or will) inquire (at any time). Cic.
480. The IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in principal clauses relates
sometimes to the past and sometimes to the present :
Crederes vlctos, vanquished you would have thought them. Liv. Utinam
possem, would that I were able (now). Cic.
481. The PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in principal clauses relates
sometimes to the past, but more frequently to the present or fu-
ture :
1 The Latin Subjunctive, it will be remembered (p. 117, foot-note 4), contains the
forms and the meaning of two kindred moods, the Subjunctive proper, and the Optative.
In Latin, the forms characteristic of these two moods, used without any difference of mean-
ing, are mode to supplement each other. Thus, In the Present, the Optative forms
are found In the First Conjugation, and the Subjunctive forms in the Second, Third, and
Fourth. In their origin they are only special developments of certain forms of the Pres-
ent Indicative, denoting continued and attempted action. From this idea of attempted
action was readily developed on the one hand desire, mil, as we attempt only what we
desire, and on the other hand probability, possibility, as we shall very likely accomplish
what we are already attempting. These two meanings, united in one word, lie at the
bisis of all Subjunctive constructions in Latin. On the origin, history, and line of the
Subjunctive, see Delbruck, 'Conjunctiv undOptativ'; Curtius, ' Yerbum,' II., pp. 56-95;
Draeger, II., pp. 439-743; Koby, II., pp. 202-848; also a paper by the author on 'The
Development of the Latin Subjunctive in Principal Clauses,' Transactions Am. Phil.
Assoc., 1879.
2 For the tenses of the Subjunctive in Subordinate clauses, see 49O.
* The Present Subjunctive in its origin is closely related both in form and in meaning
to the Future Indicative. Thus, in the Third and Fourth Conjugations, no future forms
for the Indicative have been developed, but Subjunctive and Optative forms supply their
place, as regain, audium (Subjunctive), and regfs, reget, etc., and aitdifs, audiet, eto
(Optative).
SUBJUNCTIVE OF DESIRE. 265
Fuerit malus clvis, he may have been (admit that he was) a bad citizen. Cic.
Ne transierfs 1 Iherum, do not cross the Ebro (now or at any time). Liv.
482. The PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in principal clauses re-
lates to the past :
U tiuam potuissem, would that I had been able. Cio.
SECTION IV.
SUBJUNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES.
RULE XXX V III.- Subjunctive of Desire, Command.
483. The Subjunctive is used to represent the action
NOT AS REAL, but AS DESIRED t
Valeant elves, MAY the citizens BE WELL. Cic. Amemvs patriam, LET us
LOVE our country. Cic. A nobis dilig&tur, LET HIM BE LOVED by its. Cic.
Scrfbere ne pigrere, DO not NEGLECT to write. Cic.
1. The Subjunctive of Desire is often accompanied by utinam, and some-
times, especially in the poets, by ut, si, 6 si :
Utinam conata efflcere possim, may I be able to accomplish my endeavors.
Cic. Ut ilium dl perdant, would that the gods would destroy him. Tor.
2. FORCE OF TENSES. The Present and Perfect imply that the wish may
be fulfilled ; the Imperfect and Pluperfect, that it can not he, fulfilled :
Sint beatl, may they be happy. Cic. Ne transieris Iberum, do not cross tJn,
Ebro. Liv. Utinam possem, utinam potuissem, would that I were able, would
that I hwl been able. Cic.
NOTE. The Imperfect and Pluperfect may often be best rendered should, should
have, ought to have :
H6c dlceret, fie should hare said thin. Cic. Mortem oppetilsse's, you, should have
met death. Cic.
8. NEGATIVES. With the Subjunctive of Desire, the negative is ni, rarely
non ; with a connective, nere, neu, rarely neque :
Ne audeant, let them not dare. Cic. Nfin rccedamus, let us not recede. Cic.
Ames dlcl pater, neu tunas, etc., ma;/ yon love to be called father, and may you
not permit, etc. Hor. Neve minor neu sit productior, let it be neither shorter
nor longer. Hor.
NOTE. tffdum, ' not to say,' ' much less,' Is used with the Subjunctive :
Vlx In tectls fti^us vltatur. nf-dnrn In mnrl sit facile sbosse ab Injurla, the cold in
avoided with rUffli-nlty in our hoiwe*. much lesa in it eitmj to rncfi}>flto be absent from)
injury on the sea. Cic.
4. The first person of the Subjunctive is often found in earnest or solemn
AFFIRMATIONS :
1 Observe that the Perfect thus used does not at all differ in time from th Present
but that It calls attention to the completion of the action.
266 POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
Moriar, si put6, may I die, if I think. Cic. Ne sim salvus, si scribo, may I
not be safe, if I write. Cic. Sollicitat, ita vlvam, as 1 live, it trouble* me. 1 Cic.
5. The Subjunctive of Desire is sometimes used in RELATIVE CLAUSES :
Quod faustum sit, regem create, elect a king, and may it be an auspicious
event (may which be auspicious). Liv. Seuectus, ad quam utinara pervenia-
tis, old aye, to which may you attain. Cic.
NOTE. For the Subjunctive of Desire in Subordinate Clauses, see 486, III., note,
with foot-note.
6. Modo, modo ne, may accompany the Subjunctive of Desire :
Modo Juppiter adsit, only let Jupiter be present. Verg. Modo ne laudent,
only let them not praise. Cic.
484. The Subjunctive of Desire may be in meaning
I. OPTATIVE, as in prayers and wishes :
Sint beati, may they be hajtpy. Cic. Dl bene vertant, may the gods cause
it to turn out well. Plaut.
II. HORTATIVE, as in exhortations and entreaties :
Consulamus bonls, let us consult for the good. Cic.
III. CONCESSIVE, as in admissions and concessions:
Fuerint pertinaces, grant (or admit) that they were obstinate. Cic.
IV. IMPERATIVE, as in mild commands, admonitions, warnings, etc., used
chiefly in prohibitions :
Ilium jocum ne sis aspernatus, do not despise that jest. Cic. Scrlbere ne
pigrere, do not neglect to write. Cic.
NOTE 1. In prohibitions, the Perfect tense is generally used :
Ne transieris Iberum, do not cross the Ebro. Liv.
NOTE 2. Except in prohibitions, the Second Person Singular in the best prose is
used almost exclusively of an indefinite you, meaning one, any one:
Isto bond utare, you should use (i. e., one should use) that advantage. Cic.
V. DELIBERATIVE, as in deliberative questions, to ask what should be :
Huic cedamus, hujus condiciones audiamus, shall we yield a to him, shall
we listen to his terms ? Cic. Quid facerem, what was I to do? 9 Verg.
RULE XXXIX. Potential Subjunctive.
485. The Subjunctive is used to represent the action
NOT AS REAL, but AS POSSIBLE !
Hie quaerat quispiam, Jiere some one MAT INQUIRE. Cic. Ita laudem f-
venias, thus you WILL (or MAT) OBTAIN praise. Ter. Ita amlcos pares, thus
TOU WILL MAKE friends. Ter. Vix dlcere ausim, 1 SHOULD scarcely DARE fc
1 Here ita vlvam means, may I so live (i. e., maj I live only in case this is true).
a Or, ought we to yield, is it your unsh tliat we thould yield f
* Or, w/iat should I have done f
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 267
say. Liv. Crgderes vlctos, vanquished you would have thougld them. Liv.
Forsitan quaeratis^joer/tops you may inquire. Cic. Hoc nemo dlxerit, no
one would say this. Cic. Quis dubitet (= nmo dubitat), who would doubt
(or who doubts = no one doubts) ? Cic. Hoc quis ferre possit, who would
be able to endure this ? Cic.
NOTE 1. In the Potential Subjunctive, the Perfect often has nearly the same foroe as
the Present, and the Imperfect is often used where we should expect the Pluperfect:
dlceres, 'you would have said'; credere*, putdres, 'you would have thought': videres,
c*rneres, ' you would have seen ' :
Tu Platonem laudaverls, you WOULD PRAISE Plato. Cic. Maesti, credere* vlctos,
redeunt in castra, sad, vanquished YOU WOULD HAV K THOUGHT tftem, they returned to
the camp. Liv.
NOTE 2. On Tense*, see also 478-482.
NOTE 8. The Second Person Singular, especially of the Imperfect, is often used of an
indefinite you, meaning one, awy one: crederes, 'you would have thought,' 'anyone
would have thought. 1
486. In the Potential sense, the Subjunctive is used
I. In Declarative Sentences, to express an affirmation modestly, doubtfully,
or conditionally ; see examples.
NOTE 1. Thus, in the language of politeness and modesty, the Potential Subjunctive
is often used in verbs of wishing and thinking : velim, ' I should wish.' for told, ' I
wish ' ; nfMm, ' I should be unwilling' ; mdlim, ' I should prefer' :
Ego censeam, / should think, or / am inclined to think. Liv. Mihl dari velim, 1
hould Wee to have it given to me. Cic.
NOTE 8. The Potential Subjunctive is used in the conclusion of conditional sen-
*nces; see 5O7, 1, with foot-note.
II. In Interrogative Sentences, to ask not what is, but what is likely to
be, what may be or would be, generally implying a negative answer, as in
the last two examples under the rule.
NOTE. The Subjunctive with ut, with or without the interrogative ne, occurs in ques-
tions expressive of impatience or surprise : 9
Te ut ulla res frangat, how should anything subdue you t Cic. Egone ut mentiar,
that I should speak falsely t Plaut
III. In Subordinate Clauses, whatever the connective, to represent the
action as possible rather than real :
Quamquara epulls careat senectus, though old age may be without its feasts.
Cic. Quoniam non possent, since they would not be able. Caes. UbI res pos-
ceret, whenever tfa case might demand. Liv.
NOTE. From the Subjunctive of Desire and the Potential Subjunctive in principal
clauses have been developed the various uses of the Subjunctive In subordinate clauses. 3
1 After forsitan =fors sit an, ' the chance may be whether,' ' perhaps, 1 the Sub-
junctive was originally in an indirect question (529), but it may be best treated as Poten-
tial. So also with forsan &nAfortasse.
a Some grammarians assume an ellipsis of a predicate, as crfdibile est,Jlerf potest, etc.
1 Thus, the Subjunctive of Desirt is used in final, conditional, and concessive
clkuses; toe Potential Subjunctive in clauses of result, and iu various others denoting
268 IMPERATIVE.
i
SECTION V.
THE IMPERATIVE AND ITS TENSES.
RULE XL. Imperative.
487. The Imperative is used in COMMANDS, EXHOBTA
TION8, and ENTREATIES I
Justitiam cole, practice justice. Cic. Tu ne cede malis, do not yield (o
misfortunes. Verg. Si quid in te peccavl, ignosce, if I have sinned against
you, pardon me. Cic.
1. The PRESENT IMPERATIVE corresponds to the Imperative in English :
Justitiam cole, practice justice. Cic. Perge, Catillna, go, Catiline. Cic.
2. The FUTURE IMPERATIVE corresponds to the imperative use of the Eng-
lish Future with shall, or to the Imperative let, and is used
1) In COMMANDS inv olving future rather than present action :
Rem penditote, you shall consider the subject. Cic. Cras petito, dahitur,
ask to-morrow, it shall be (/ranted. Plaut.
2) In LAWS, ORDERS, PRECEPTS, etc., especially in PROHIBITIONS :
Consoles nemini parento, the consuls shall be subject to no one. Cic. fealua
popull suprema lex estO, the safety of the people shall be the supreme law. Cic.
NOTE. The general distinction between the Present Imperative and the Future is
often disregarded, especially in poetry : '
Ubi aciem videris, turn ordincs dissipa, when you shall see the line of battle, then
scatter the ranks. Liv. Quoniam supplicatid decreta est, celebratote illos dies, since a
thanksgiving has been decreed, celebrate those days. Cic.
3. An Imperative clause may be used instead of a Conditional clause :
Lacesse, jam videbis furentem, provoke him (i. e., if you provoke him),
you will at once see Mm frantic. Cic.
4. The place of the Imperative may be supplied by the Subjunctive of De-
sire (483), or by the Future Indicative:
Ne audeant, let them not dare. Cic. Quod optimum videbitur, facies, you
will do ivhat shall seem best. Cic.
488. In prohibitions or negative commands, the negative ne, rarely
nSn, accompanies the Imperative, and if a connective is required, neve or
neu is generally used, rarely neque :
Tu ne cede malls, do not yield to misfortunes. Verg. Homineni mortuum
in urbe ne sepelito, neve uritd, thou shalt not bury nor burn a dead body in tht
city. Cic.
what is likely to be. Moreover, from these two leading uses was developed th idea of a
conceived or assumed action, which probably lies at the foundation of all the other uses
of this mood, as in causal and temporal clauses, in indirect questions, and in th
subordinate clauses of the indirect discourse.
1 Thus the Future is especially common in certain verbs ; and, indeed, in some verbs,
M toiS. meminl, etc.. it is the only form in common use.
or TENSES. 269
489. Instead of ne with the Present Imperative, the best prose writers
generally use
1) Noll and nollte with the Infinitive:
Nollte putare, do not think (be unwilling to think). Cic.
2) Fac ne or cave, with the Subjunctive :
Fac ne quid aliud cures hoc tempore, do not attend to anything else at this
time. Cic. CavS facias, bei are of doing it, or see that you do not do it. Cic.
3) Ne with the Perfect Subjunctive, rarely with the Present; see 484,
IV., note 1.
SECTION VI.
MOODS IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
I. TENSES OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
490. In subordinate clauses the tenses of the Subjunctive con-
form to the following rule :
RULE XLI. Sequence of Tenses.
491. Principal tenses depend upon principal tenses;
historical upon historical :
Nltitur ut vincat, he strives to conquer? Cic. NSmS erit qul cgnseat,
there will be no one who will think. 1 Cic. Quaesieras n5nne putarem, you
had asked whether I did not think. Cic. Ut honSre dlgnus essem labOravi,
/ strove to be worthy of honor. Cic.
492. In accordance with this rule, the Subjunctive dependent upon
a principal tense? present, future, future perfect, is put
1. In the PRESENT, to denote incomplete action:
Quaeritur cur dissentiant, the question is asked why they disagree. Cic.
NemA erit quJ censeat, there will be no one who will think. Cic.
NOTE. Observe that in these examples the action denoted by the Subjunctive belong*
aither to the present time or to the future.
2. In the PKRFKCT, to denote competed action:
Quaeramus quae vitia fuerint, let us inquire what faults there were. C'ic.
Rogitabit mo ubf fuerim, he will ask me where I have been. Ter.
NOTE 1. In the sequence of tenses, the Perfect is occa#ionally treated as a jirin-
sipal tense : a
Oblitus es quid dixerim, you have for gotten what I said. Cic.
NOTE 2. For further illustrations of the sequence offenses, see 403, 2, note 2.
1 The Present Subjunctive generally denotes present time in relation to the principal
yerb. Accordingly, vincat depending upon the present, nititur, denotes present time.
while centutt depending upon the future, erit, denotes future time.
a For the treatment of the Perfect in the sequence of tenses, see 405.
270 SEQUENCE OF TENSES.
493. The Subjunctive dependent upon an historical tense, imperfect^
historical perfect, pluperfect, is put
1. In the IMPERFECT, to denote incomplete action :
Timebam ne evenlrent ea, / was fearing that those things would take place
Ci. e., at some future time). Cic. Quaesieras nonne putarem, you had in-
quired whether I did not think (i. e., at that time). Cic.
NOTE. Observe that in these examples the time of the action denoted by the Sub-
junctive is either the same as that of the principal verb o subsequent to it.
2. In the PLUPERFECT, to denote completed action :
Themistocles, cum Graeciam llberasset, expulsus est, Themistocles wo*
banished, though he had liberated Greece. Cic.
NOTB 1. The Pluperfect after an historical tense, like the Perfect after a principal
tense, may represent the action as completed in future time ; see 496, II.
NOTE 2. The sequence of tenses may be further illustrated as follows : 1
Nescit qnld facias, He knows not what you are doing.
Nesciet quid facias, He will not know what you will do. 3
Nesciverit quid facias, He will not have known what you will do.
Nescit quid feceris, He knows not what you have done, or what you did'
Nesciet quid feceris, He will not know what you will have done. 4
Nesciverit quid feceris, He will not have known what you will have done.
Nesciebat quid faceres, He did not know what you were doing.*
Nescivit quid faceres, He did not know what you were doing.*
Nesciverat quid faceres, He had not known what you were doing.
Nesciebat quid fecisses, He did not know what you had done.
Nescivit quid fecisses, He did not know what you had done.
Nesciverat quid fecisses, He had not known what you had done.
494. The periphrastic forms in rus and dus conform to the genera*
rule for the sequence of tenses :
Incertum est quam longa vita futura sit, it is uncertain how long life loill
continue. Cic. Incertum erat quo missurl classem forent, it was uncertain
whither they would send the fleet. Liv.
495. PECULIARITIES IN SEQUENCE. The following peculiarities
in the sequence of tenses deserve notice :
I. In the sequence of tenses the Latin Perfect is generally treated as
an historical tense, even when rendered with have, and thus admits the
Imperfect or Pluperfect :
Quoniam quae subsidia haberes exposul,' nunc dicam, since I have shown
1 It is not intended to give all the possible meanings of the Subjunctive clauses here
used, but simply to illustrate the sequence of tenses.
2 Or, he will not know what you are doing. Thus, quid fttciax may represent the
direct question, quid fades, 'what shall you dof ' or quidfa&tit, ' what are yon doing? 1
3 Or, what you were doing.
* Or, what you have done, or what you did.
' Or. what you would do. Nescivit may sometimes be rendered, he hav notknoim.
1 Erposui, though best rendered by our Perfect Definite with have, is in the Latir
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 271
wJtat aid* you have, I will now speak. Cic. Haec non ut vos excitarem locu-
tus sum, / have not spoken this to arouse (that I might arouse) you. Cic.
NOTE. For the Perfect as & principal tense, see 492, 2, note 1.
II. The Historical Present (467, III.) is generally treated as an historical
tense, but sometimes as a principal tense :
Persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet, he persuaded Casticus to seize the
government. Caes. Ubil Orant ut sibi parcat, the Ubii implore him to spare
them. Caes.
NOTE. The Historical Present includes the Present used of authors (467, 8), the
Present with dum (467, 4), the Historical Infinitive (536, 1), etc. :
Chrysippus dlsputat Aethera esse ejim quern homines Jovem appellarent, Chrysippus
contends that he whom men call Jupiter is Aether. Cic.
III. The Imperfect Subjunctive, even when it refers to present time, as
in conditional sentences, is generally treated as an historical tense, though
eometimes as a principal tense :
Nisi ineptum putarem, jurarem me ea sentire quae dlcerem, if I did not
think it improper, 1 would take an oath that I believe those things which I say.
Cic. Memorare possem quibus in locls hostes populus Komanus fuderit, 1
might state in what places the Roman people routed the enemy. Sail.
IV. The Perfect Infinitive is generally treated as .an historical tense, bui
the Present and the Future Infinitive, the Present and the Future Participle,
as also Gerunds and Supines, share the tense of the verb on which thej
depend, as they express only relative time (531, 550) :
Satis videor docuisse, hominis niitnra quanto antelret animantes, I think I
have sufficiently shown ho'W much the nature of man surpasses that of tlie other
animals (lit., surpassed animals). Cic. SperO fore ' ut contingat, I hope it will
happen. Cic. N6n speraverat fore ut ad se deficerent, he had not hoped that
they would revolt to him. Liv. Mlserunt DelphSs consulturn quidnam face-
rent, they sent to Delphi to ask what they should do. Nep.
V. Clauses containing a general truth usually conform to the law for
the sequence of" tenses, at variance with the English idiom :
Quanta conscientiae vis esset, ostendit, he showed how great is the power of
conscience. Cic.
VI. Clauses denoting consequence or result generally express absolute
time, and are thus independent of the law of sequence. 8 They thus admit
the Present or Perfect after historical tenses :
Epamlnondas fide sic usus eat, ut possit judicart, 11 Epaminondas used such
treated as the Historical Perfect. The thought is as follows : Since in the preceding
topics I net forth the aids which you have, I will now speak, etc.
I Literally, I hope it will be that it may happen. Here/ore shares the tense of
*ptr6, and is accordingly followed by the Present, contingat; but below it shares the
tense of spfrrirerat, and is accordingly followed by the Imperfect, dffic-tretit.
II This peculiarity arises from the fact that the remit of a patt action may itself be
2TZ 8SQUSNOS OF TEN8JS8.
fidelity thai it may be judged. Nep. Adeo excellebat Aristldes abstiuentia,
ut Justus sit appellatus, Aristides so excelled in self-control^ Mutt he has beeri
called the Just. Nep.
VII. For the sequence of tenses in the indirect discourse, see 525.
496. FUTURE TIME IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE. When the Future is used in
the principal clause, the Future and Future Perfect tenses, wanting in the
Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in the subordinate clauses as follows :
I. The Future is supplied (1) after a principal tense by the PRESENT,
and (2) after an historical tense by the IMPERFECT:
Omnia sic agentur ut bellum sedetur, 1 all things shall be so managed that
the war will be brought to a close. Oic. Loquebantur, etiam cum vellct ' Caesar,
sese non esse pugnaturos, they were saying that the// would not fight even when
Caesar should wish it. Caes.
II. The Future Perfect is supplied (1) after a principal tense by the
PERFECT, and (2) after an historical tense by the PLUPERFECT :
Respondet si id sit factum, 86 nociturum neminl, he replies that if this
should be done (shall have been done) he will harm no one. Caes. Apparebat
regnaturum, qui vlcisset, it was evident that he would be king who should con-
quer. Liv.
NOTE 1. The Future and the Future Perfect tenses are often supplied in the same
way, even when the Future does not occur in the principal clause, provided the idea of
future time can be easily inferred from the context :
Vereor ne laborem augeam, I fear that I ithatt increase the labor. Cic. Quid dies
ferat incertum est, what a day will bring forth is uncertain. Cic. Quid hostes con-
silii caperent, exspectabant, they waited to see what plan the enemy would adopt.
Caes. DelituI, dum vela dedissent, I hid myself until they should have set sail. Verg.
NOTE 2. When the idea of future time must be especially emphasized in the sub-
ordinate clause, the periphrastic forms in rus are used : a
Incertum est quam longa vita futura sit, it is uncertain how long life will continue.
Cic. Incertum erat quo missfiri classem forent, it was uncertain whither they would
*end the fleet. Liv.
NOTE 8. The Future Perfect is sometimes supplied in the Passive byfuturus tint
&nafut&rus essem with the Perfect Participle : a
Non dubito quln confecta jam res futura sit, / do not doubt that the thing will have
been already accomplished. Cic.
prevent, and may thus be expressed by a principal tense. When the result belongs to
the present time, the Present is used : possit judicurl, ' may be judged now ' ; when it
is represented as completed, the Perfect is used : sit appelMtw, 'has been called 1 (i. e.,
even to the present day); but when it is represented as simultaneous with the action
on which it depends, the Imperfect is used in accordance with the general rule (491).
1 Sedetur, referring to the same time as agentur, and vellet, referring to the same
time as esse pfignatfirts, both denote future time.
a Other traditional periphrastic forms, rarely used in either voice, are for the Fr-
t\3KR,futurum it ut with the Present Subjunctive, and futfirum esstt ut with the Im-
perfect; and for the FPTTTKK PBEFIOT, futurum sit ut with the Perfect, and futiirum
eniet ut with the Pluperfect.
SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE. 272
11. SUBJUNCTIVE EN CLAUSES OF PUBPOSE.
RULE XLII. Purpose.
497. The Subjunctive is used to denote PURPOSE : l
i. With the relative qul, and with relative adverbs, as ubi, unde, etc. :
MissI sunt qul (=ut il) consukrent Apollinem, they were sent TO CONSULT
Apollo (who should, or that they should). Nep. MissI sunt delect! qul
Thermopylas occupdrent, picked men were sent TO TAKE POSSESSION OF Ther-
mopylae. Nep. Domum, ubi habitaret, legit, he selected a house where he
might dwell (that he might dwell in it). Cic. Locum petit, unde (= ut
inde) hostem invadat, he seeks a position from which he may (that from it
he may) attack the enemy. Liv.
TT. With ut, ne, qu5. an5minus, qu5 minus :
Enltitur ut vincat, he strives that HE MAY CONQUER. Cic. Punit nepeccetur,
he punishes that crime MAY not BE COMMITTED. Sen. Legum idcirco servl
sumus, ut llbert esse possimus, we are servants of the law for this reason,
that we may be free. Cic. Medico dare quo sit studiosior, to give to the phy-
sician, that (by this means) he may be more attentive. Cic. Non recusavit
qu5minus poenam sublret, he did not refuse to submit to punishment. Nep.
1. Ut orutl and ne are the usual conjunctions in clauses denoting purpose.
A correlative, idea, idcirco, ed, etc., sometimes precedes, us in the third ex-
ample under II.
NOTE. With a connective ne becomes ngce, neu, rarely neque; see 483, 8 :
Lgem tulit n6 quis accusaretur nCve iniiltaretur, he proposed a law that no one
uliould be accunetl or punished. Nep.
2. Quo, ' by which,' ' that,' is sometimes used in clauses denoting purpose,
especially with comparatives, as in the fourth example under II. Quominus,
'by which the less,' ' that thus the less,' 'that not,' is simply <juo with the
comparative minus. It is sometimes used after verbs of hindering, opposing,
and the like, as in the last example under II.
NOTE. Quo sitiun also occurs in the sense of qudminus; see Olc. Inv., II. ,45.
498. CLAUSES OP PURPOSE readily pass into Object Clause**
1 The Subjunctive of Purpose is doubtless in origin a Subjunctive of Desire, express-
ing the dexire or command implied in the action of the principal verb : Te rogo ut eum
juves, I ask you to aid him (I ask you, so aid him). Here the second clause, originally
independent, contains the dexire, tcisfi, involved in rogo. Vereor n<3 laborem augeam,
I. fear that I thalUnorease the labor (I fear, let me not increase the labor). Praestfi
erit pontifex, qul comitia luibeat. the pontiff will be present to hold the comitia (the
pontiff will be present, let him hold the comitia). Liv. See Delbruck, ' Conjunctiv und
Optativ,' pp. 59-62.
2 An Object Clause is ono which has become virtually the objtct of a verb. Thus, In
'opto ut id uuiiiiifix.' the clause ut id audidtit ha become the object of opto, ' I dosiru '
274 - SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE.
but they still retain the Subjunctive. Thus the Subjunctive is
used
I. With verbs signifying DESIRE and its EXPRESSION ; hence decision,
decree, etc. : *
OptO ut id audiatis, I desire (pray) that you may hear this. Cic. Ut mihi
aedes aliquas conducas volo, I wish that you would hire a house for me. Plaut.
Sena tus censuerat, uti AeduOs defenderet, the senate had decreed that he should
defend the Aedui. Caes. Servis imperat ut f Iliam defendant, he commands
his servants to defend his daughter. Cic. Te hortor ut legas, I exhort you to
read. Cic. Te rogO ut eum juves, / ask you to aid him. Cic. A rege peti-
v6runt ne inimicissimum suura secnm haberet, they asked from the king that
he would not keep his worst enemy with him. Nep.
NOTE. Verbs of DETERMINING, DECIDING status, constituS, decerns, etc. generally
take the Subjunctive when a new subject ia introduced, otherwise the Infinitive (533,
I.,D:
Constituerat, ut tribunns quereretur, he had arranged that the tribune should enter
the complaint. Sail. Senatus decrevit, darent operam consules, the senate decreed that
the consuls should attend to it. Sail. Manure decrevit, he decided to remain. Nep.
II. With verbs and expressions denoting EFFORT (striving for a pur-
pose, attaining a purpose) or IMPULSE (urging to effort) : 2
Contendit ut vincat, he strives to conquer. Cic. Curavl ut bene vlverera,
I took care to lead a good life. Sen. Effecit ut imperator mitteretur, he caused
a commander to be sent (attained his purpose). Nep. Movemur ut bonl
simus, we are influenced to be good. Cic.
NOTE 1. Some verbs of ENDEAVORING, STRIVING, as timor, contends, nitor, studeo,
and tents, generally take the Infinitive when no new subject is introduced ; see 533 :
Locum oppugnare contendit, he proceeds to storm tht> city. Caes. Tentabo do h5c
dicere, I will attempt to speak of this. Quint.
NOTE 2. Ut with the Subjunctive sometimes forms -with f ado or ago, rarely with est,
circumlocution for the Indicative : facio ut dlcam = dicO ; facto ut scrlbam scribe :
In vi tus facio ut recorder, I unwillingly recall. Cic.
III. With verbs and expressions denoting FEAR, ANXIETY, DANGER : s
TimeO, ut labOres sustineas, I fear that you will not endure the laborn*
Cic. Tim S bam ne e venire nt ea, I feared that those things would happen. Cic.
Vereor ne labOrem augeam, I fear that I shall increase the labor* Cic. Pencu-
lum est ne ille te verbis obruat, there is danger that he will overwhelm you
with -words. Cic.
NOTE 1. By a difference of idiom, ut must here be rendered by that not, and ne, by
that or lest. The Latin treats the clause as a wish or purpose.*
1 As opto, postulo; censeo, decemo, status, constituo, etc.; volo, mdlo; admonta,
monel), hortor ; oro, rogo ; imperO, praecipio, etc.
8 As enitor, contends, studeo; euro, id ago, operam do, etc.; facio, efficio, *wt-
pttro, consequor, etc. ; cogo, impello, moves, tc.
8 As metuO, timed, vereor; periculum est, cura eet, etc.
4 The Subjunctive of Desire is manifest if we make the subordinate clause iod
SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE: 275
NOTB 2. After verbs of nsABiwa, ne non is sometimes used for ut regularly so after
negative clauses;
Vereor ne non possit, I fear that he witt not be able. Cic.
NOT* 8. Verbs of FEARING admit the Infinitive In the same sense as in English :
Vreor laudare, I fear (hesitate) to praise. ' CHc.
499. PECULIARITIES. Expressions of Purpose present the fol-
lowing peculiarities :
1. Ut ne, rarely ut non, is sometimes used for ne :
Praedlxit, ut ne legates dlmitterent, he charged them, not to (that they
should not) release the delegates. Nep. Ut plura nOn dlcam, not to say more
(i. e., that I may not). Cic.
2. Ut is sometimes omitted, especially after void, note, mate, facio, and
after verbs of DIRECTING, URGING, etc. Ne is often omitted after cave :
Tu velim sis, I desire that you may be. Cic. Fac habeas, see (make) that
you have. Cic. Senatus decrevit darent operam consules, the senate decreed
that the consuls should see to it. Sail. CavS facias, beware of doing it, or see
that you do not do it. Cic.
NOTB. Clauses with ut or ne are sometimes inserted parenthetically In sentences :
Amicos, optlmam vitae, ut ita dlcam, 5 suppeIlectllem,/rien<Z, the best treasure (furni-
ture), so to speak, of life. Cic.
3. Clauses of Purpose sometimes pass into Substantive Clauses, which,
like indeclinable nouns, are used in a variety of constructions :
Per eum stetit quOminus dlmicaretur, 8 it was owing to him (stood through
him) that the battle was not fought. Caes. Vol5 ut mihf respondeau, 8 1 wish
that you would answer me. Cic. Fecit pacem his condicionibus, ne qul ad-
ficerentur exsiliO, 8 he made peace on these terms, that none should be punished
with exile. Nep.
Nora 1. For the Different Form* of Substantive Clauses, see 54O.
Nor 2. Clauses with quominus sometimes lose the original idea of Purpose and
denote Result : *
Non deterret saplentcm more quominus rCI publicae consulat, death does not deter
a wise man from deliberating for the republic. Clc.
pendent, as It was originally : I fear, so may you endure the labors, an affirmative wish;
I fear, may I not increase the labor, a negative wish; hence nf.
1 Compare vereor lauddre, ' I fear TO I-RAISE,' with rereor ne laudem, ' I fear THAT
I SHALL PRAISE.'
3 The Subjunctive in this and similar clauses may be explained either as a Subjunc-
tive of Purpose dependent upon a verb understood, or as a Subjunctive of De*ire; see
483.
' In the first example, the clause quominus dlmicaretur has become apparently the
subject of utetit ; In the second, ut mihl respondents, the object of void ; and in the third.
ni qul adficerentur e&silio, an appositlv* to condicionibus.
* Such a transition from Purpose, denoting an Intended Result, to a Simple Resvtt
ie easy and natural.
276 SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT.
HI. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES OP RESULT.
RULE XLJII. Result.
500. The Subjunctive is used to denote RESULT'
I. With the relative qul, and with relative adverbs, as ubi, unde, cfir
etc. :
Non is sum qul (= ut ego) his utar, I am, not such a one as TO USE these
things. Cic. Innocentia est adfecti6 talis anitni, quae (= ut ea) noceat nemini,
innocence is such a state of mind as INJURES no one, or as TO INJURE no one. Cic.
Neque quisquam fuit uhl nostrum jus obtineremus, nor was there any one
with whom (where) we could obtain our right. Cic. Est vero cur quis Juno-
nem laedere nOlit, there is indeed a reason why (so that) one would be unwill-
ing to offend Juno. Ovid.
II. With ut, ut non, quln :
Ita vlrit ut Atheniensibus esset carissimus, he so lived that HE WAS very
dear to the Athenians. Nep. Ita laudO, ut noupertimescam, I so praise as not
TO FEAR. Cic. Ego in publicis causls ita sum versatus ut defenderim multos,
I have been so occupied in public suits that I have defended many. Cic. Nihil
est tarn difficile quln (ut non) investlgar! possit, nothing is so difficult that it
may not be investigated. Ter.
NOTE 1. Qul is often preceded by is, tdlis, tantus, or some similar word; and ut,
by ita, sic, tarn, adeo, tantopere, or some similar particle ; see examples.
NOTE 2. In Plautus and Terence ut sometimes accompanies qul :
Ita at qui neget, so that he refuses. Ter.
NOTE 8. For the Subjunctive denoting a result after quominus, see 490, 8, note 2.
501. CLAUSES OP RESULT readily pass into Substantive Clauses,
but they still retain the Subjunctive. Thus the Subjunctive is used
I. In SUBJECT CLAUSES. Thus
1. With impersonal verbs signifying it happens, remains, follows, is law-
ful, is allowed, is distant, is, etc. : *
Fit ut quisque delectetur; it happens that every one is delighted. Cic.
Sequitur ut falsum sit, it follows that it is false. Cic. Restat ut doceam, it
remains that I should show. Cic. Ex quo efficitur ut voluptas non sit sum-
mum bonum, from which it follows that pleasure is not the highest good. Cic.
2. With predicate nouns and adjectives :
Mos est ut nOlint, it is their custom not to be willing (that they are un-
willing). Cic. Proximum est, ut doceam, the next point is, that 1 show. Cic.
Non est dubium quln beneficium sit, that it is a benefit, is not doubtful. Sen.
1 The Subjunctive of Result is doubtless in origin a Potential Subjunctive : Non is
turn qul his utar, ' I am not one who would use (or is likely to uxe) these things. 1
Hence this Subjunctive takes the negative non (ut non) like the Potential Subjunctive,
while the Subjunctive of Purpose takes the negative ne like the Subjunctive of Desire.
8 As accidit, contingit, evenit,Jit, restat, sequitur, licet, abest, #t, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT. 277
NOTE. For the Subjunctive with nt, with or without <?, in questions expressive ol
impatience or surprise, see 486, II., note.
II. In OBJECT CLAUSES. Thus
1. In clauses introduced by ut after facid, efficid, of the action of irra-
tional forces :
Sol efficit ut orania fioreant, the sun causes all things to bloom (i. e., pro-
duces that result). Cic. Splendor vester facit ut peccare sine pertculo non
poesltis, your conspicuous position causes this result, that you can not err with-
out peril. Cic. See 498, II.
2. In clauses introduced by quin after verbs of Doubting :
N&n dubitabis quin sint beatl, you will not doubt that they are happy. Cic.
III. In CLADSES IN APPOSITION with nouns or pronouns :
Habet hoc virtus ut delectet, virtue has this advantage, that it delights.
Cic. Est hoc vitium, ut invidia gloriae comes sit, there is this fault, that envy
is the companion of glory. Nep.
NOTB. For the different forms of substantive clauses, see 54O.
502. PECULIARITIES. Expressions of Result present the fol-
lowing peculiarities :
1. Ut is sometimes omitted regularly with oportet, generally with opw
est and necesse est :
Tc oportet virtus trahat, it is necessary that virtue should attract you. Cic.
Causam habeat necesse est, it is necessary that it should have a cause. Cic.
2. The Subjunctive occurs with quam with or without ut :
Llberalius quam ut posset, too freely to be able (more freely than so as to
be able). Nep. ImpOnebat amplius quam ferre possent, he imposed mort
than they were able to bear.
3. After tantum abest ut, denoting result, a second ut of result aome-
times occurs :
Philosophia, tantum abest ut \audetur, ut etiam vituperetur, so far is it
from the truth (so much is wanting) that philosophy is praised, that it it even
censured. Cic.
503. In RELATIVE CLAUSES, the Subjunctive of RESULT
shows the following SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS :
I. The Subjunctive is used in relative clauses to characterize an
Indefinite or General Antecedent : l
Quid est quod t6 delectare possit, what in there which can delight you f
Cic. Nunc dlcis aliquid quod ad rem pertineat, now you state something whick
belongs to the sukjed. Cic. Sunt qul putent, there are some who think. Cic.
N6m6 est qui non cupiat, there is no one who does not desire. Cic.
1 Here tarn, Mlis, or some such word, is often understood.
278 SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT.
NOTE 1. Restrictive clauses with quod, as quod sciam, 'as far as I know, 1 quod
m-eminerim, ' as far as I remember,' etc., take the Subjunctive :
Non ego t6, quod sciam, unquam ante hunc diem vldi, AS FAB AS I KNOW, / have
never seen you before this day. Plaut
NOTE 2. Quod, or a relative particle, ubl^ unde, quo, cftr, etc., with the Subjunctive,
is used after est, there is reason ' ; mm est, nihtt est, ' there is no reason ' ; quid est, ' what
reason is there f ' non habeo, nihil habeo, ' I have no reason ' :
Est quod gaudeas, there is reason why you should rejoice, or so that you may.
Plaut. Non est quod credas, there is no reason why you, should believe. Sen. Nihil
habeo, quod incusem senectutem, / have no reason why I should accuse old age. Cic.
Quid est cur virtus ipsa non efllciat beatos, what reason is there why virtue itself
thould not make men happy f Cic.
NOTE 8. The Indicative is freely used in relative clauses after indefinite antecedents :
1) In poetry l and late prose :
Sunt quos juvat, there are some whom it delights. Hor.
2) Even in the best prose, when the fact itself is to be made prominent:
Snnt qui non audent dicere, there are some who do not dare to speak. Cic. Multa
sunt, qnae dlci possunt, the/re an many things which may be said. Cic.
II. The Subjunctive is used in relative clauses
1. After unus, solus, and the like :
Sapientia est una, quae maestitiam pellat, wisdom is the on ly thing which
dispels sadness (which would dispel). Cic. Soli centum erant qui creari pos-
sent, there were only one hundred who could be appointed (such that they could
be). Liv.
2. After ihgnus, indigmis, idoneus, and aptus :
Fabulae dignae sunt, quae legantur, the fables are worthy to be read (that
they should be read). Cic. Eufum Caesar idoneum judicaverat quern mit-
teret, Caesar had judged Rufw a suitable person to send (whom he might
send). Caes.
3. After comparatives with quam :
Damna majOra sunt quam quae (=ut ea) aestimart possint, the losses are
too great to be estimated (greater than so that they can be). Liv.
504. Quln,* 'who not,' 'that not,' etc., is often used
to introduce a result after negatives and interrogatives
implying a negative.' Thus
1 Especially in early poetry, as in Plautus and Terence.
a Quin is a compound of the relative qui and ne, and appears to be used both as an
indeclinable relative pronoun, who not, and as a relative particle, by tchich not, how not,
etc. Some clauses with quin may perhaps be best explained as indirect questiont
(529, 1.). Quin, meaning why not T often used in independent clauses, is a compound
of the interrogative quis or qui, and ne : Quin tfc hdcfacis, ' why do you not do it ? ' Liv.
8 Aa nemo, nullus, nihil, quis f non dubito, non dubium ett ; non multum abett,
paulum abest, nihil abest, quid abestt non, vise, atgre abttineo; mihl non Umptro;
non retineor; non, nihil praetwmitto ; facere non possum, fieri non pottst; nun-
fuam with a large class of verbi.
SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT. 279
1. Quln is often used in the sense of qul non, quae non, etc., as
after nemo, nullus, nihil, quis f
Adest nemo, quln videat, there is .no one present who does not see. Cic.
Nernd est quln audierit, there is no one who has not heard. Cic. Quis est
quin cernat, who is there who does not perceive ? Cic. N ulla fuit clvitas quln
mitteret, there was no state which did not send. Caes. Nulla plctura fuit
quln (=quam non) InspSxerit, there was no painting which he did not inspect.
Cic. NOllum intermlsl diem, quln (=quo non or ut ed non) aliquid darem,
I allowed no day to pass without giving something (on which I would not giv
something). Cic.
NOTE. Quin can often be best rendered by but or by ^cithout or from with a parti-
cipial noun in -ING : Bee the last example under 1 ; also the last under 2.
2. Quln is often used in the ordinary sense of ut non :
Nm6 est tarn fortis quin perturbetur, no one is so brave as not to be dis-
turbed. Caes. Nihil est tarn difficile quin investlgarl possit, nothing is so
difficult that it may not be investigated. Ter. Retinert n&n poterant quln
tela cAicerent, 1 they could not be restrained from hurling their weapons. Caes.
NOTI. / or id is sometimes expressed after quin :
Nihil est quin id intereat, there is nothing which does not parish. Cic.
3. Quln is used in the sense of ut non or of ut in subject and
object clauses (501) :
1) Withfacere non possum, fieri non potest, etc., in the sense of ut non:
Facere n6n possum quln lltteras mittam, / can not but send a letter. Cic.
Effici non potest quin eos oderini, it can not be (be effected) that I should not
hate them. Cic.
2) With negative expressions implying doubt and uncertainty, in the
sense of ut :
Agamemnon non dubitat quln Troja sit peritura, Agamemnon does not
doubt that Troy will fall (perish). Cic. N&n dubitari debet quln fuerint
poctae, it ought not to be doubted that there were poets. Cic. Quis Ign&rat
quln trie genera sint, who is ignorant that there art three races ? Cic.
4. Quln is sometimes used in the sense of quominus:*
Quin loquar haec, nunquam m6 potes deterrere, you can never deter me
from saying this. Plaut. Non deterret sapientem mors quominus rci publi-'
cae consulat, death does not deter a wise man from deliberating for the repub-
lic. Cic. Non reciisuvit, quominus poenam subiret, he did not refuse to sub-
mit to punishment. Nep. Neque recusaro quin armls contendant, and that
they do not refuse to contend in arms. Caes.
NOTE. For non quin in Causal Clauses, see 510, 3.
1 Pronounced as if written ciijicerent; see 36, 4, with foot-note 1.
1 As after verbs of himle,rin</, reftuimj, and the like. Observe that in the examplei
deterreo and recusO are used both with qulti and with ijwnninui . They also admit tht
Subjunctive with ne or the Infinitive; tee 505, IL
280 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
505. CONSTRUCTION OF SPECIAL VEHBS. Some verbs admit
two or more different constructions. Thus
I. Dubito admits
1. Quln, WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE, if it stands in a negative sentence;
see 504, 3, 2).
2. An INDIRECT QUESTION (529, I.):
Non dubito quid putes, / do not doubt what you think. Cic. Dubitfi an
ponam, I doubt whether I should not place. 1 Nep.
3. The ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE :
Quis dubitat patere Europam, ivho doubts that Europe is exposed? Curt.
4. The simple INFINITIVE, when it means to hesitate--
Non dubitem dicere, I should not hesitate to say. Cic. Dubitamus virtiitem
extendere factls, do we hesitate to extend our glory (valor) by our deeds? Verg.
IL Verbs of hindering, opposing, refusing, and the like, admit
1. The SUBJUNCTIVE WITH ne, quin, or quominus : J
Impedior ne plura dlcam, 1 am prevented from saying (that I may not way)
more. Cic. Sententiam ne dlceret recusavit, he refused to give an opinion.
Cic. Neque recusare quln armls contendant, and that they do not refuse to
contend in arms. Caes. Intercludor dolore quominus plura scribam, / am
prevented by sorrow from writing more. Cic.
2. The ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE, or the simple INFINITIVE :
Num ignobilitas sapientem beatum ease prohibebit, will obscurity prevent
a wise man from being happy ? Cic. Quae facere recusem, which 1 should
refuse to do. Hor.
IV. MOODS IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
506. Every conditional sentence consists of two distinct parts,
expressed or understood the Condition and the Conclusion :
Si negem, mentiar, if I should deny it, I should speak falsely. 3 Cic.
RULE XLJV. Conditional Sentences with si, nisi, ni, sin.
507. Conditional sentences witli si, nisi, ni, sin, take
I. The INDICATIVE in both clauses to assume the sup-
posed case :
1 That is, / am inclined to think that I should place. Observe that dubito an
means 'I doubt whether not'='I am inclined to think.' and dubito num, 'I doubt
whether 1 : Dubito num debeam, ' I doubt whether I ought.' Plin.
2 For the use of qmn, see 5O4. Ne and quominus may follow either
or negatives.
* Here i nege-in is the condition, and mentiar, the conclusion.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 281
Si splritum ducit, vivit, if he breathes, he is alive. Cic. Si tot exempla
firtutis non movent, nihil unquam movebit, if so many examples of valor
do not move (you), nothing will ever move (you). Liv.
II. The PRESENT or PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in both
clauses to represent the supposed case as possible :
Dies deficiat, si velim causam defendere, the day would fail me, if I
thould wish to defend the cause. Cic. Iraprobe feceris, nisi monueris, you
would do wrong, if you should not give warning. Cic.
III. The IMPERFECT or PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in
both clauses to represent the supposed case as contrary to
fact:
Pluribus verbls ad te scrlberem, si re's verba dgslderaret, I should write
to you more fully (with more words), if the case required words. Cic. Si
voluisset, dimicasset, if he had wished, he would have fought. Nep.
1. Two clauses without any conjunction sometimes have the force of a
conditional sentence :
Negat quis, negO, does any one deny, I deny. Ter. Roges me, nihil re-
spondeam, ask me, 1 shall make no reply. Cic. Tu magnain partem, sineret
dolor, haberes, you would have had a large share, had grief permitted. 1 Verg.
Lac8sse ; jam videbis furentem, provoke him (i. e., if you provoke him), you
will at once see him frantic. Cic. a
2. A condition is sometimes introduced by the relative qul, quae, etc.
= si is, si quis, si qul, etc. :
Qul secum loqul poterit, sermSnem alterlus non requlret, if any one (lit.,
he who) shall be able to converse with himself, he will not need the conversation
i Bee 51O, note 2.
9 From these examples It is manifest that a conditional particle is not an essential part
of a conditional sentence. Originally the two clauses, the condition and the conclusion,
were independent, and the mood in each was determined by the ordinary principles
which regulate the use of moods in principal clauses; see 483; 485. Hence the Indica-
tive was used in treating of facts, and the Subjunctive or Imperative in all other cases.
SI, probably the Locative case of a pronoun, meaning (1 ) itt that time or in that manner,
nd (2) at any time or in any manner, has nothing whatever to do with the mood, but
merely denotes that the conclusion is connected with the condition. Thus : negat, nego,
'he denies (i. e.. assume that he denies), I deny'; n~> negat, negf),'he denies at some
time, then I deny ' ; dies deflciat, si velim, etc., ' let me wish (Subjunctive of Desire) at
any time, etc., then the day would fail me.' The Subjunctive in conditions is a Subjunc-
tive of Desire with nearly the force of the Imperative, which may indeed be used for it
when si is omitted, as /aclsse, 'provoke him (i. e., if you provoke him).' In conclusions
the Subjunctive is generally potential, as (lien dejiciat, 'the day would fail,' but some-
times it is the Subjunctive of Desire, for which the Imperative may be substituted ; as,
perearn, *i poterunt, ' may I perish if they shall be able' ; si pec&ivl, Ignosce, ' If I hava
erred, pardon me.' See Delbr'lck, ' Conjunctlv und Optativ,' pp. 70-74; 1T1-NW.
282 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
tf another. Cic. Errat longfi, qul crCdat, etc. , he greatly errs who
etc. (i. e., if any one supposes, he greatly errs). Ter. Haec qul videat,
nOnne cogatur confiteri, etc., if any one should see these things, would he not
be compelled to admit, etc. I Cic.
3. A condition is sometimes introduced by cum:
Ea cum dtxissent, quid responderes, \f (when) they had said that, what
should you reply ? Cic.
NOTE 1. The condition is sometimes ironical, especially with niisi vero, nii forte,
with the Indicative, and with quasi, quasi verb, with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive .
Nisi forte insanit, unless perhaps he is insane. Cic. Quasi vero necesse sit, as if
indeed it icere necessary. Caes.
NOTE 2. Ita ?, ' so if,' means only if. Si quidem, ' if indeed,' sometimes haa
nearly the force of since:
H6c ita jiistum est, si est voluntarium, this is frtst only if (on condition that) it i
voluntary. Cic. Antiquissimum est genus poetarum, si quidem Homerus fuit ante
Romam conditam, the class of poets is very ancient, since Homer lived before the
founding of Home. Cic.
NOTE 8. Nisi or nl, 'if not,' is sometimes best rendered but or except:
Nesci6, nisi h6c video, / know not, but (except that) / observe this. Cic.
NOTE 4. Nisi si means except if, unless perhaps, unless:
Nisi si qul scripsit, unless some one has ^critten. Cic.
NOTE 0. For si to be rendered to see if, to see whether, etc., see 539, 1, note 1.
NOTE 6. For quod si, quod nl, quod nisi, see 453, 6.
NOTE 7. The condition may be variously supplied, as by a participle, by the ablativa
absolute, or by the oblique case of a noun :
Non potestis, voluptate omnia dirigentgB (=#t dlrigitis), retinere virtutem, you
can not retain your manhood, if you arrange all things with reference to pleasure.
Cic. Recte facto ( = si recte factum erit), laus proponitur, if it is (shall be) well done,
praise is offered. Cic. Nem6 sine spe (= nisi spem haberet) se offerret ad mortem,
no one without a hope (if he had not a hope) would expose himself to death. Cic.
NOTE 8. For Conditional Sentences in the INDIRECT DISCOURSE, see 527.
508. FIRST FORM. Conditional sentences with the In
dicative in both clauses, assuming the supposed case as real,
may base upon it any statement which would be admissible
if the supposed case were a known fact :
Si haec cl vitas est, clvis sum ego, if this is a state, lam a citizen. Cic. Si
non licebat, nOn necesse erat, if it was not lawful, it was not necessary. Cic.
Si vis, dabO tib! testes, if you wish, I toill furnish you witnesses. Cic. Pluni
scrlbam, si plus otil habuero, / will writf more if I shall have (shall have
had) more leisure. Cic. Dolorem si non poterO frangere, occultabc, if I shall
not be able to overcome sorrow, I shall conceal it. Cic. Parvl sunt forls arma,
nisi est cCnsilium domi, arms are of little value abroad, unless there is wisdom
at home. Cic. Si domi sum, etc. ; sin forts sum, etc., if I am at home, etc. ;
but if I am abroad, etc. Plaut. Nl puto, if I do not think. Cic.
1 51 from si ne, 'if not,' 'if on the contrary,' 'but if,' properly introduces a condi-
tion in contrast with another condition expressed or. implied. Thus, sin forls U in con
U-ast with si domi, and means but if abroad.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 283
1. The CONDITION is generally introduced, when affirmative, by si, with or without
other particles, as quidem, modo, etc., and when negative, by #1 nfm, nisi, nl.
2. The TIME may be present, past, or future, but it need not be the same in both
clauses. Thus the Present or the Future Perfect in the condition is often followed by
the Future, as in the third and fourth examples. 1
8. Si nfm and nisi are often used without any perceptible difference of meaning; but
strictly >il nan introduces the negative condition on which the conclusion depends, while
nixi introduces a qualification or an exception. Thus, in the Sf cond example above, the
insaning is, if it wot not lawful, it follows that it -was not necesoary ; while in the fourth
the meaning is, arms are of little value abroad, except when there is wisdom at home.
4. The CONCLUSION irrespective of the condition may assume a considerable variety
of form. Thus :
Redargue me si mentior, refute me if I speak falsely. Cic. Moriar, nl put6, may
I die, if I do notthinJc. Cic. Quid timeam, si beatus futures sum, why should I fear
if I am going to be happy f Cic. SI quid habes certius, velim '* scire, if you have any
information (anything more certain), I should like to know it. Cic.
5. GENERAL TRUTHS may be expressed conditionally
1) By the Indicative in both clauses, as in the sixth example under 5O8.
2) By the Second Person of the Subjunctive used of an indefinite you ( = any one) in
the condition, with the Indicative in the conclusion :
Memoria minuitur, nisi earn exerceas, tlie memory is impaired, if you do not (one
does not) exercise it. Cic. Nulla est excusatio peccati, si amici causa peccaveris, it it
n<) eaxusefor a fault, that you have committed it for tlie sake of a friend. Cic.
509. SECOND FORM. Conditional sentences with the
Present or Perfect Subjunctive in both clauses represent
the condition as possible :
Haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your country
should speak thus with you, ought she not to obtain her request ? Cic. ImprobC
fecerfs, nisi monuerfs, you would do wrong, if you should not give warning.
Cic. See also 6O7, II.
NOTK 1. The TIME denoted by these tenses, the Present and the Perfect, is generally
either present or future, and the difference between the two is that the former regards
the action in its progrexn, the latter in its completion. Thus, loqufltur, ' should speak '
(now or at any future time); so of debeat; but /icerfe, though referring to the same
time aa loqudtur, regards the action as completed.*
NOT 2. The Present Suljjunctive is occasionally used in conditional sentences, even
when the condition is in itself contrary to fact:
1 A conditional sentence with the Future Perfect in the condition and the Future in
the conclusion, as plfira scr'ibam, tH pi fit fitii habuero, corresponds to the Greek with
idv orai/ with the Aorist Subjunctive In the condition, and the Future Indicative in tin-
conclusion; as, ce'os a.v iropifcrftf, yfjpa? fi ewflaA^t, if you trill labor while youny,yoit
will have a prosperous old age.
9 Observe that in each of these examples the mood in the conclusion is entirely in-
dependent of the condition. Thus, redargue la a command ; moriar, a prayer, Subjunc-
tive of Desire; quid timeam, a deliberative question (484, V.); and velim, a Potential
Subjunctive (486, note 1).
3 As the Present Subjunctive In point of time is very closely related to the Future
Indicative in conditional sentences, so the Perfect Subjunctive is very closely related to
the Future Perfect Indicative, though it may refer to past tito*.
284 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
Tu Hi We sis, aliter senti&s, if you were 1 (if you were in my place), you would think
differently. Ter.
NOTE 3. When dependent upon an historical tense, the Present and Perfect are of
course generally changed to the Imperfect and Pluperfect, by the law for Sequence of
Tenses (490) :
Metuit ne, si iret, retraheretur, ht feared lest, if he should go, he would be brought
bach. Liv.
510. THIKD FOKM. Conditional sentences with the Im-
perfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses represent
the supposed case as contrary to fact, and simply state
what would have been the result if the condition had been
fulfilled :
Sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret, wisdom would not be sought (as
it is), if it accomplished nothing, Cic. Si optima tenere possemus, baud
sane consilio egeremus, if we were able tn secure the highest good, we should
not indeed need counsel. Cic. Si voluisset, dimicasset, if he had wished, he
would have fought. Nep. Nunquam abisset, nisi sibi viam rnunlvisset, he
would never have gone, if he had not prepared for himself a way. Cic. See
also 507, III.
NOTE 1. Here the Imperfect generally relates to present* time, as in the first and
second examples; the Pluperfect to past time, as in the third and fourth examples.
NOTE 2. The Imperfect sometimes relates to pant time, especially when it expresses
a continued action, or is accompanied by any word denoting past time :
Nee, si cuperes, tibi id facere licuisset, nor wouliJ you have been permitted to do it.
if you had desired. Cic. Num Opimium, si turn essus, temerarium civem putaivs,
would you have thought Opimius an audacious citisen if you had lived at that time f
Cic.
51 1. A CONCLUSION of the FIRST FORM is sometimes combined
with a CONDITION of the SECOND or THIRD FORM. Thus
1. The Indicative is often thus used in the conclusion (1) to denote a
general truth, and (2) to emphasize a fact, especially with a condition in-
troduced by nisi or nl : *
Turpis excfisati6 est, si quis fateatur, etc. , it is a base excuse, if one admits,
etc. Cic. Intrare, si possim, castra hostium volo, I wish to enter the camp of
the enemy, if 1 am able. Liv. Certamen aderat, n! Fabius rem expedisset, a
contest was at hand, but Fabivs (lit., if Fabius had not) adjusted the affair.*
Liv. Nee veni, nisi fata locum dedissent, nor should I have come, had not
the fates assigned the place.* Verg.
1 This use of the Imperfect to denote present time was developed from the ordinary
force of the Subjunctive tenses. Thus the Present denotes that which in likely to be,
the Imperfect that which WAS likely to be, and so by implication that which is not
Compare fuit in the sense of was, but is not, 471, 1, 2).
a Here the condition merely Introduces a qualification or an exception ; see 508. 3.
3 The force of the Indicative can not be easily shown in a translation, hut the Latin
conception is, / hare not come irithout the divine yuislaitctlexnreBRed in the condition).
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 285
NOTE 1 . The future Indicative is sometimes used in the conclusion because of its
near relationship in force to the Present Subjunctive : '
Si tnittat. quid respondebis, if he should' send, what answer shall you give t Lucr.
Nee si cupias, licebit, nor, if you should, desire it, will it be allowed. Cic.
NOTE 2. In a negative conclusion with a negative condition, the verb possum is
generally in the Indicative : a
Neque amicitiain tueri possumus, nisi amicos diligamus, nor should we be able to
preserve friendship, if ice should not love our friend*. Cic.
NOTE 3. The flittorical Tenses of verbs denoting Duty, Propriety, Necessity ',
Ability, and the like, in the conclusion of conditional sentences, are generally in the In-
dicative :
Quern, si ulla in te pietas esset, colere dobebas, whom you ought to have honored
(and would have honored), if thwe were any filial affection in you, Cic. Vix castra,
si oppugnaretur, tutari poterat. he was hardly able to defend the camp, if he should
be attacked. Liv. Deleri exercitus potuit, si persecuti victores essent, the army might
hate been destroyed (and would have been), if the victors had pursued. Liv.
NOTB 4. The Historical Tenses of the Indicative of still other verbs are sometimes
similarly used when accompanied by paene or prope :
Pons iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir raisset, the bridge almost furnished <,
passage to the enemy (and would have furnished it), had there not been one man. Liv.
2. The Periphrastic Forms in rus and dus in the conclusion of condi-
tional sentences are generally in the Indicative : 3
Quid si hostSs veniant, facturl estis, what shall you do if the enemy should
tome f Liv. Si quaeriitur, indicandum est, if inquiry should be made, in-
formation must be given. Cic. Rellctur! agrOs erant, nisi litteras misisset,
they would have left 4 their lands, had he not sent a letter. Cic. Quid futuruin
fuit, si plebs agitarl coepta esset, what would have been the result, if the ple-
beians had begun to be agitated ? Liv. Si verum respondere velles, haec erat
dlcenda, if you wished to answer truly, this should have been said. Cic. Si
moratl essetis, moriendum omnibus ftiit, if you had delayed, you must all
have perished. Liv.
NOTE. When the Perfect Indicative in the conclusion with the Subjunctive in the
condition is brought into a construction which requires the Subjunctive, the tense remains
unchanged, irrespective of the tense of the principal verb :
Adeo est inopta co&ctus ut, nisi timuisset, Oalliam repetiturus fuerit, 8 he teas so
1 See 479, with foot-note 3. A conditional sentence with the Present Subjunctive
in the condition, and the Future Indicative in the conclusion, corresponds to the Greek
iav with the Present Subjunctive In the condition, and the Future Indicative in the con-
clusion: TOWTO iav iricoirrfri, ivprjo-ert, if yon examine this, you will find.
3 Here, too, the use of the Indicative grows out of the relationship between the mean
ing of posum, denoting ability, and that of the Potential Subjunctive denoting pos-
sibility.
* The Indicative is here explained by the close relationship between the ordinary
meaning of the Subjunctive,and that of the forms in rus and dus denoting that something
is about to be done or ought to be done.
4 Lit, were about to leave, and so would have left, had he not, etc.
6 Here repetiturus fuerit is in the Subjunctive, not because it is in a conditional sen
tence, but because it is the Subjunctive of Result with ut ; but it is in the Perfect, tx
cause, if it were not dependent, the Perfect Indicative would have been used.
286 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
pressed by want that, if he had not feared, ht would have returned to Gaul. Lir
Haud dnbium fnit, quln nisi fir mate extrema agminis fuissent, inguns accipienda clade
fuerit, there was no doubt that, had not the rear of the line been made strong, a great
disaster must have been sustained. Liv. Quaeris quid potuerlt amplius assequi, si
Sclpionis fulsset fllius, you ask what more he could have attained, if he had been the
ton of Scipio, Cic.
512. A CONCLUSION of the THIRD FORM (510) is sometimes combined
with a CONDITION of the SECOND FORM (509) :
Si tecum loquantur, quid responderes, if they should speak with you, what
answer would you give ? Cic.
RULE XLV. Conditional Clauses with dum, modo, ftc si,
ut si, etc.
513. Conditional clauses take the Subjunctive
I. With dum, modo, dummodo, 1 ' if only,' ' provided that ' ; dum
ne, modo ne, dummodo ne, ' if only not,' ' provided that not ' : *
Manent ingenia, modo permaneat industria, mental powers remain, if only
industry remains. Cic. Dum res maneant, verba fingant, let them, m/ike
words, if only the facts remain. Cic. Dummodo repellat perlculum, provided
he may avert danger. Cic. Dum ne tibl videar, non laboro, provided I do not
seem so to you, I do not care. Cic.
II. With ac si, ut si, quam si, quasi, tanquam, tanquam si, velut,
velut si, ' as if,' ' than if,' involving an ellipsis of the real conclusion :
Perinde habebO, ac si scripsisses, I shall regard it just as if (i. e., as I
should if) you had written. Cic. Jacent, tanquam omninO sine animd sint,
they He as if (\. e., as they would lie if) they were entirely without mind. Cic.
Quam si vlxerit tfccum, as if he had lived with you. Cic. Miserior es, quam
si ocul&s non haberes, you are more unhappy than (you would be) if you had
not eyes. Cic. Crudelitatem, velut si adesset, horrebant, they shuddered at
his cruelty as (they would) if he were present. Caes. Ut si in siiam rem
aliena convertant, as if they should appropriate others' possessions to their own
use. Cic. Tanquam audiant, as if they may hear. Sen.
NOTE 1. In this form of conditional sentences, the Present ' or Imperfect is used of
present time, and the Perfect 8 or Pluperfect of past time ; see examples above.
1 When not used in conditions, these conjunctions often admit the Indicative : Dum
leges vigebant, while the laws were in force. Cic.
s This Subjunctive is best explained as the Subjunctive of Desire, as indicated by the
negative ne (483, 8). Thus, modo permaneat industria, 'only let industry remain';
dum ne tibl videar, ' let me not meanwhile seem so to you.' After dum and dummodo
the Subjunctive may perhaps be explained as Potential, but the negative ne renders such
an explanation very doubtful.
s The English idiom would lead us to expect only the Imperfect and Pluperfect, as
under 51O; but the Latin often regards the condition as possible, and thus uses the
Present and Perfect, M under 509.
CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 28?
NOTE 2. Cu and slcuti are sometimes used like ac sJ, ut gl , etc. :
Gen bella forent, a* if there were wars. Verg. Sicuti audiri possent, if they could
be /ward. Sail.
V. MOODS IN CONCESSIVE CLAUSES.
514. A concessive clause is one which concedes or admits some-
thing, generally introduced in English by though or although : J
Quamquam itinere fessl erant, tamen procedunt, although they were weary
with the journey, they still (yet) advanced. Sail.
NOTE. The concessive particle is sometimes omitted :
Bed babeat, tamen, etc., but grant that he has it, yet, etc. Cic.
RULE XL VI. Moods in Concessive Clauses.
515. Concessive clauses take
I. Generally the Indicative in the best prose, when
introduced by quamquam :
Quamquam intellegunt, tamen nunquam dlcunt, though they understand,
they never speak. Cic. Quamquam festlnas, non est mora longa, though
you are in haste, the delay is not long. Hor.
II. The Indicative or Subjunctive, when introduced
by etsi, etiamsi, tametsl, or si, like conditional clauses
with si. Thus
1. The Indicative is used to represent the supposed case as &fact:
Gaudeo, etsi nihil scio quod gaudeam, / rejoice, though 1 know no reason
why I should rejoice. Plaut.
2. The Present or Perfect Subjunctive, to represent the supposed case
as possible :
Etsi nihil habeat in se gloria, tamen virtutem sequitur, tiwugh glory
may not possess anything in itself, yet it follows virtue. Cic.
3. The Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive, to represent the supposed
case as contrary to fact :
Etiamsi mora oppetenda esset, doml mallem, even if death ougJd to be
met, I should prefer to meet it at home. Cic.
III. The Subjunctive, when introduced by licet* quam-
vls, ut, ne, cum, or the relative qui:
bear a close resemblance to conditional clauses both in form
and in use. ,*> f optimum e*t, ' if it is best,' is a condition ; etui optimum eat, ' even if (or
though) it is best,' is a concession; the one aKKumen a supposed case, the other a<1mitn
It The Subjunctive in concessive clauses is in general best explained in the same way
&A in conditional clauses; see 5O7, 1, foot-not* 2.
* In origin licet is imply the impersonal verb of tin- MUM.- form, and the SubiuncUre
288 CONCESSIVE CLAUSES.
Licet irrideat, plus tamen ratio valgbit, though he may deride, reason
will yet avail more, Cic. N6n tu possls, quamvls excellas, you would not
be able, although you excel. Cic. Ut dgsint vires, tamen est iaudanda
voluntas, though the strength fails, still tJie will should be approved. Ovid.
N6 sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, though pain may not be the
greatest evil, it is certainly an evil. Cic. Cum domi divitiae adfluerent,
fuere tamen elves, etc., though wealth abounded at home, there were yet
citizens, etc. Sail. Absolvite Verrem, qui (cum is) se fateatur pecunias
cepisse, acquit Verres, though he confesses (who may confess) that he has
accepted money. Cic.
NOTE 1. Quamquam takes the Subjunctive
1) When the thought, irrespective of the concessive character of the clause, requires
that mood :
Quamquam epulis careat senectns, though old age may be without its feasts. Cic.
2) Sometimes, even in the best prose, apparently without any special reason :
Quamquam ne id quidem suspicionem habuerit, though not even that gave rise to
any suspicion. Cic.
8) In poetry and in late prose, the Subjunctive with quamquam is not uncommon.
In Tacitus it is the prevailing construction :
Quamquam invicti essent, although they were invincible. Verg. Quamquam pleri-
que ad senectam pervenlrent, although very many reached old age. Tac.
NOTE 2. Quamquam and etsl sometimes have the force of yet, but yet, and yet:
Qnamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I apeak f Cic. EtsI tibi assentior, and yet
I a/went to you. Cic.
NOTE 8. Quamvls in the best prose takes the Subjunctive almost without exception,
generally also in Livy and Nepos ; but in poetry and in late prose it often admits the
Indicative:
Erat dignitate regia, quamvis carC-bat nomine, he was of royal dignity, though he
teas without the name. Nep.
NOTE 4. Qul and cum, used concessively, generally take the Indicative in Plautus
and Terence, and sometimes even in classical prose :
Audi's praedicare id, domi te esse nunc qui hie ades, do you dare to assert this, that
you are now at home, although you are here present f Plaut Cum tabu] as emunt.
tamen nequeunt, though they purchase paintings, they are yet unable. Sail. Cum
Sicilia vexata est, tamen, though Sicily was disturbed, yet. Oic.
NOTE 5. Utsic, or ut ita, 'though yet' (lit, 'as so'), involving comparison
rather than concession, does not require the Subjunctive :
Ut a proelils quictem habuerant, ita non cessaverant ab opera, though (lit., as) they
had had rest from battles, yet (lit., so) they had not ceased from work. Liv.
NOTE 6. Quamvis and quantumvis, meaning 'as much as you please,' 'however
much,' may accompany licet with the Subjunctive :
Non possis tu, quantumvis licet excellas, you would not be able, however much you
may excel. Cic.
clause which follows, developed from Result (SOI, I.), is its subject Thus, in licet
irrideat (lit., ' that he may deride is allowed'), irrideat is according to the Latin con-
ception the subject of licet. Quam-vls, compounded otquam, ' as,' and vis, ' you wish,'
means as you wish; thus, quamvis excellas means literally excel as you wish (i. e., M
much as you please). The Subjunctive with quamvls, ut, ne, and qui, is the Subjunc-
tive of l>:.,ir< ; that with cum was developed from the temporal clause: see 521.
CAUSAL CLAUSES. 289
VI. MOODS IN CAUSAL CLAUSES.
RULE XL VII. Moods with quod, quia, quoniam, quando.
516. Causal clauses with quod, quia, quoniam,
quando, generally take
I. The INDICATIVE to assign a reason positively , on one's
own authority :
Quoniam supplicatio decreta est, celebriitote illos dies, since a thankt-
yivinff has been decreed, celebrate those days. Cic. Gaude quod spectant t8,
rejoice that (because) they behold you. Hor.
II. The SUBJUNCTIVE to assign a reason doubtfully, or
on (mother's authority : *
SOcrates accusatus est, quo-i corrumperet juventutem, Socrates was ac-
cused, because (on the alleged ground that) he corrupted the youth. Quint.
Aristides nonne expulsus est patria, quod Justus esset, was not Aristides
banished because (on the alleged ground that) he was just? Cic.
1 . By a special construction, the verb introducing a reason on another's
authority is sometimes put in the Infinitive, depending upon a verb of saying
or thinking in the Subjunctive :
Quod s6 bellum gesturos dlcerent (= quod bellum gesturt essent, ut dice-
bant), because they were about, as they said, to wage war. Caes.
NOTE. In the same way the Subjunctive of a verb of Haying or thinking may be
used in a relative clause to introduce the sentiment of another person :
Kmentiendo quae sC- audissa dlcerent, by reporting falsely what they had heard
(what they said they had heard). Sail.
2. NON Quo ETC. Non quo, non quod, non quln, rarely non quia, also
quam quod, etc., are used with the Subjunctive to denote an alleged reason in
distinction from the true reason :
Non quo habC-rem quod scriberem, not because (that) / had anything to
write. Cic. Nan quod dolcant, not because they are pained. Cic. Quia ne-
1 Quod and quia are in origin relative pronouns In the neuter. Thus : gaudl quod
tpectant tf, 'rejoice that (as to that) they behold you. 1 Quoniam = quom-jam, ' when
ix>w,' and quandn = quam-dft (do = die), ' on which day,' ' when.' Df> Is probably from
the same root as ilum ; see p. 145, foot-note 1.
2 Observe that causal clauses with the Indicative state a fact, and at the same time
present that fact as a reason or cause, as In the first example, but that causal clauses
with the Subjunctive rimply axsign a reason without averting an;/ fact. Thus, in the
examples under II., quod corrumperet juventiitem does not state that Sm'rate* cor-
rupted the youth, but simply Indicates the charge made against him; nor does quod
)'itiu etset state that Arintides was Just, but simply indicates the alleged ground of
his banishment. For the development of the Subjunctive in causal clauses, see p. 361
foot-note 8.
290 CAUSAL CLAUSES.
qulverat quam quod Ign&raret, because Tie had been unable, rather than because
he did not know. Liv.
NOTE. Clauses with quod sometimes stand at the beginning of sentences to an-
nounce the subject of remark :
Quod me Agamemnonem aemular! putas, fallens, in thinking (as to the fact that
you think) that 1 emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken. Nep.
RULE XL VIII. Causal Clauses with cum and qui.
517. Causal clauses with cum and qui generally take
the Subjunctive, in writers of the best period :
Necesse est, cum sint dil, animantes esse, since there are gods, it is neces-
sary that there should be living beings. Cic. Cum vita mettts plena sit,
since life is full of fear. Cic. Quae cum ita sint, pe"rge, since these things
are so, proceed. Cic. vis veritatis, quae (cum ea) se defendat, O the
force of truth, since it defends itself. Cic. fortunate adulescCns. qui
(cum lu) tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris, fortunate youth,
since you (lit., who) have obtained Homer as the herald of your valor. Cic.
1. In early Latin, especially in Plautus and Terence, the Indicative is the
prevailing mood in causal clauses with cum and qui, though the Subjunctive
is not uncommon with qui : '
Quom 2 facere officiurn scls tuum, since you know how to do your duty.
Plaut. Quom hoc non possum, since I have not this power. Ter. Qui ad-
venistl, since you have come. Plaut. Tuas qu! virtutes sciam, since 1 know
your virtues. Plaut. Qui neminem videam, since I see no one. Ter.
2. Clauses with either cum or qui admit the Indicative in all writers,
when the statement is viewed as a fact :
Habeo senectuti gratiam, quae mih! sermonis aviditatem auxit, 1 cherish
gratitude to old age, which has increased my love of conversation. Cic. Gratu-
1 Clauses with cum, whether causal or temporal, illustrate the gradual extension of
the use of the Subjunctive in subordinate clauses. Originally they took the Indicative,
unless the thought irrespective of the causal or temporal character of the clause required
the Subjunctive. Thus the Ciceronian sentence, Necesse est, cum sint dil, animantes
tuse, 'since there are gods, it is necessary that there should be living beings,' would in
early Latin have been, Necesse eat, cum sunt dii, animantes esse, and would have con-
tained two distinct statements, viz., there are gods, and it is necessary that there should
be living beings. But in time the causal clause lost so much of its original force as a
separate statement, and became so entirely dependent upon the principal clause, as to be
little more than an adverbial modifier of the latter, like the Ablative of Cause (413) in a
simple sentence. The causal clause then took the Subjunctive, and the sentence as a
whole made but one distinct statement, which may be approximately rendered, in view
tlf (because of) the existence, of the gods, it is necessary that there should be liring
beings. In the same way, temporal clauses with cum sometimes became little more
than adverbial modifiers of the principal verb; see 521, II., 1, with foot-note, and 521,
II., 2, with foot-note. For a special treatment of these clauses, see Hoffmann, ' Die Con
itruction der lateinischen Zeitpartikeln, 1 and Lubbert, ' Die Syntax von Quom. 1
* See 311, 1, with foot-note 4.
TEMPORAL CLAUSES. 291
lor tibi, cum tantum vales, / congratulate you thai (in view of the fact that)
you have so great influence. Cio.
8. When a conjunction accompanies the relative, the mood varies with the
conjunction. Thus
1) The Subjunctive is generally used with cum, qulppe, ut, utpote :
Quae cum ita sint, since these things are M. Cic. Quippe qul blandiatur,
since he flatters (as one who flatters). Cic. Ut qul coldnl essent, since the^
were colonists. Cic.
NOTE. But the Indicative is sometimes used to give prominence to the fact. ID
Ballast the Indicative is the regular construction after quippe :
Quippe qui rfignum invaserat, as fie had laid hold of the kingdom. Sail.
2) The Indicative is generally used with quia, quoniam :
Quae quia certa esse nOn possunt, since these things can not be swe. Cic.
Qui quoniam intellegi uoluit, since he did not wteh to be understood, Cio.
VII. MOODS IN TEMPORAL CLAUSES.'
RULE XLJX. Temporal Clauses with postquam, etc.
518. In temporal clauses with postquam, postedquam?
ubl, ut, simul atque^ etc., ' after,' ' when/ ' as soon as,'
the Indicative is used :
Postquam vldit, etc., castra posuit, he pitched his camp, after he saw,
etc. Caes. Ubi certiOrgs factl sunt, when they were informed. Caes. Id
ut audlvit, as he heard this. Nep. Postquam vident, after they saw. 3 Sail.
Postquam nox aderat, when night was at hand. Sail.
NOTE 1. The tense in these clauses is generally the Perfect or the Historical Pret-
ft. but sometimes the Descriptive Imperfect; * see examples above; also 471, 4.
NOT* 2. The Pluperfect Indicative is sometimes used
1) Especially to denote the result of a completed action :
Posteaquam consul fuerat, after he had been consul.* Oic. Anno tertio postquam
profTigerat. in the third year after he had fled. Nep.
2) To denote repeated action ?
Ut quisque venerat. sole-bat, etc., ax each one came (lit., had come), he wan wont,
etc. Cic.
NOTE 8. Pootrld-ii qvam Is used like pontqiuim :
Postridio quam tfi es profectus, on the day after you started. (Mo.
1. In Livy and the late historians, the Pluperfect or Imperfect Subjunctive
is often used to denote repeated action : *
1 On Temporal Clause*, see Hoffmann, ' Die Construction der lateinischen Zeitparti-
keln.' and Lubbert, ' Die Syntax von Quoin.'
Or post quam and posted quam.
3 See 467, III., with 1.
Bee 469, I.
And was accordingly at the time a man of consular rank.
In this case the Imperfect Indicative is generally used in the principal clause, s n
the example here given.
292 TEMPORAL CLAUSES.
Id ubi dixisset, liastam mittebat, whenever he had said that, he hurled ( WM
wont to hurl) a spear. Liv.
NOTB. As a rare conception, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive occur after
postqwam or postedquam, : l
Posteaquam aedificasset classes, after he had built fleet*. Cic.
2. When the verb is in the second person singular to denote an indefinite
subject, you = any one, one, the Subjunctive is generally used in temporal
slauses :
Nolunt ubi veils, ubi noils cupiunt, they are unwilling when you wish it ( when
one wishes it), when you are unwilling tltey desire it. Ter. Priusquam in-
cipias, cOnsulto opus est, before you begin, there is need of deliberation. Sail.
RULE L. Temporal Clauses with duxn, etc. 1
519. I. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad,
in the sense of WHILE, AS LONG AS, take the Indicative :
Haec fScI, dum licuit, I did this while it was allowed. Oic. Quoad vlxit,
as long as he lived. Nep. Dum Ig6s vigebant, as long as the laws were in
force. Cic. Donee eris fellx, as long as you shall be prosperous. Ov.
Quamdiu in prOvincia fugrunt, as long as they were in the province Cic.
II. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, in
the sense of UNTIL, take
1. The Indicative, when the action is viewed as an
ACTUAL FACT I
Dgllbera hoc, dum ego redeo, consider this until I return. Ter. D6nec
rediit, until he returned. Liv. Quoad renuntiatum est, until it wot (actual-
ly) announced. Nep.
2. The Subjunctive, when the action is viewed as some-
thing DESIRED, PROPOSED, Or CONCEIVED :
Different, dum dSfervSscat Ira, let them defer it till their anger cools
(i. e., that it may cool). Cic. Exspectas dum dicat, you are waiting till he
speaks (i. e., that he may speak). Cic. Ea continSbis quoad tS videam,
you wiU keep them till I see you. Cic.
NOTE 1. In the poets and the historians, dum is sometimes used with the Imperfect
Subjunctive, and donee with the Imperfect and Pluperfect, like cum in narration : '
Dum ea gererentur, helium concitur, while these things tcere in progress (were
done), a war was commenced. Liv. Nihil trepidabant donee ponte agerentur, they did
not /ear at all while they were driven on the bridge. Liv. Donee miss! essent, until
they had been sent. Liv.
Nora 8. Donee, in Tacitus, generally takes the Subjunctive :
i But the text in these cases is somewhat uncertain.
1 See p. 291, foot-note 1. See p. 295, foot-note 1.
TEMPORAL CLAUSES. 293
K&uuus servat violentiam curstis, donee Oceao5 uiisceatu*, th Rhin* prefer f the
tepidity of iU current till it mingle* with the ocean. Te.
RULE LI. Temporal Clauses with antequam and prius
quam.
520. In temporal clauses with antequam and prius-
quam '
I. Any tense except the Imperfect and the Pluperfect
is put
1. In the Indicative, when the action is viewed as an
ACTUAL FACT :
Priusquam lucet, adsunt, they are present before it is light. Cic. Ante-
quam in Siciliam v6m, before I came into Sicily. Cic. Antequam cOgnO-
vero, 8 before I shall have ascertained. Cic. Nee prius respexl quam veni-
mus, nor did I look back until we arrived. Verg.
2. In the Subjunctive? when the action is viewed as
SOMETHING DESIRED, PROPOSED, Or CONCEIVED :
Antequam dS r6 publics dlcam, exponam cQnsilium, 1 will set forth my
plan before I (can) speak of the republic (i. e., preparatory to speaking of
the republic). 4 Cic. N6n prius duces dimittunt, quam ] sit concessum, they
did not dismiss the leaders till it was granted. Caes. Priusquam incipiSs,
cdnsultS opus est, before you begin there is need of deliberation (i. e., as
preparatory to beginning). 8 Sail. Tempestas minatur, antequam sflrgat,
the tempest threatens, before it rises. Sen. Collem, priusquam sentiatur,
co mm unit, he fortified the hill before it was (could be) perceived* Caes.
II. The Imperfect and the Pluperfect are put in the
Subjunctive : '
1 Often written ante quam and priwi quam, sometimes with intervening wonts
between ante or priut and quam. See also p. 291. foot-note 1.
2 The Future is used only In early Latin, as in Plautus and Cato.
Remember that the Future is supplied In the Subjunctive by the Present; see 490.
4 Here the temporal clause involves purpose as well as time, Antequam ificam IH
oearly equivalent to ut ported dlcam : ' I will set forth my views, that I may after-
icard speak of the republic.'
* Remember also that in temporal clauses the second person singular with an indefi-
nite subject, you = any one, one. Is generally In the Subjunctive ; see 518, 2.
Potential Subjunctive ; see 486, 1 1 1.
' The Subjunctive in the Imperfect and Pluperfect tenses is not always to be refer-
red to the same principle. Sometimes, like the Subjunctive after <lum, it is best ex
plained as the Sultftinetire of Purpose, as in the first example and aoinetlmeg like tb*
Subjunctive of the historical tenaet ifter cum ; * p. 29r>, foot-note 1
294 TEMPORAL CLAUSES.
NOn prius ggressus est quam rex eum in fidem reciperet, he did not
withdraw until the King took him under his protection. Nep. Priusquam
peteret consulatum, insanit, he was insane before he souyht the consulship.
Liv. Prius visus est Caesar, quam fama perferretur, Caesar appeared
before any tidings were brought. Caes. Antequam urbem caperent, before
they took the city. Liv. Priusquam d6 meo adventu audire potuissent, in
Macedonian! perrgxi, before they were able to hear of my approach, I went
into Macedonia. Cic. Faucis ante diebus, quam Syracusae caperentur, a
few days before Syracuse was taken. Liv.
NOTE 1. When the principal clause is negative and contains an historical tense, the
temporal clause generally takes the Perfect Indicative, as in the last example under I., 1 ;
but it sometimes takes the Subjunctive, as in the first example under II.
NOTE 2 Prldie quam takes the same moods as primquam :
Pridio quam scrips!, the day before 1 wrote. Cic. Pridie quam periret, somniavit,
he had a dream on the day before he died. Suet.
NOTE 3. For the Subjunctive of the second person with an indefinite subject, see
518, 2.
RULE LII. Temporal Clauses with cum.
521. In temporal clauses with cum '
I. Any tense except the Imperfect and the Pluperfect
is put in the Indicative :
Cum verba faciunt, majores suos extollunt, when they speak, they extol
their ancestors. Sail. Cum quiSscunt, probant, while they are silent they
approve. Cic. LibrSs, cum est otium, legere soleo, wJien there is (eisure,
1 am it/ont to read books. Cic. Ad te scrlbam, cum plus otil nactus ero, /
shall write to you when 1 shall have obtained more leisure. Cic. Omnia sunt
incerta cum a jure discessum est, all things are uncertain when one /MS de-
parted from the right? Cic.
II. The Imperfect and the Pluperfect are put
1. In the Indicative, when the temporal clause ASSERTS
AN HISTORICAL FACT I
Paruit cum necesse erat, he obeyed when it was necessary. 3 Cic. Non-
dum profectus erat, cum haec gerebantur, he had not yet started when these
things took place. Liv. Turn cum res magnas permulti amiserant, Romae
fides concidit, then, when many had lost great fortunes, credit fell at Rome.
Cic. Cum quaepiam cohors impetum fecerat, hostes refugiebant, whenever
any cohort made (had made) an attack, the enemy retreated. Caes.
1 See p. 290, foot-note 1, with the works of Hoffmann and Lubbert there mentioned.
* Discessum e*t is an Impersonal Passive, a departure lias been min/e ; see 3O1, 1.
* Here the temporal clause not only defines the time of pdruit, but also makes a
distinct and separate statement, viz., it was necessary ; see p. 295, foot-note 1 ; ulna,
p. 290, foot-note 1.
TEMPORAL CLAUSES. 295
2. In the Sulywnctwe^ when the temporal clause sim-
ply DEFINES THE TIME of the principal action : *
Cum epistulam complicarem, tabellarii venerunt, while I was folding the
letter (i. e., during the act), the postmen came} Cic. Cum ex Aegypto rever-
teretur, decessit, he died while he was returning (during his return) from
Egypt. Nep. Cum dlmicaret, occlsus est, when he engaged in battle, he wot,
"lain. Nep. Zenonem, cum Athenls essem, audiebam frequenter, / often
heard Zeno when I was at Athens. Cic. Cum trldui viam perf ecisset, nun-
tiatum est, etc., wJien he had accomplished a journey of three days, it was an-
nounced, etc. Caes. Caesar! cum id nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe
proficlscl, when this was (had been) announced to Caesar, he hastened to set
out from the city. Caes.
1) Cum with the force of a relative after tempus, aetds, and the like, takes
(1) Sometimes the Indicative, to state a fact:
Fuit tempus, cum homines vagabantur, there was a time when men led a
wandering life. Cic.
NOTE. Cum is sometimes thus used without tempus, etc. :
Fuit cum hoc did poterat, there wan a time when this could be said. Lir.
(2) Generally the Subjunctive, to characterize the period: 8
Id saeculum cum plena Graecia poetarum esset, that age when (such that)
Greece was full of poet*. Cic. Erit tempus, cum deslderes, the time will come,
when you will desire. Cic.
NOTE 1. Cum is sometimes thus used without tempus, etc. :
Fuit cum arbitrager, there was a time when I thought. Cic.
NOTE 2. Memini cum. ' I remember when,' generally takes the Indicative, but au~
did cum, video cum, and animadverto cum, generally the Subjunctive :
Memini cum mlhl desipere videbSre, I remember when you seemed to me to be un-
witt. Cic. Audivi cum diceret, J heard him say (lit, when he said). Cic.
2) Cum, meaningyVw/i the time when, since, takes the Indicative :
Centum annl sunt, cum dictator fuit, it is one hundred years since he was
dictator. Cic.
NOTK 1. Cum . . . turn, in the sense of 'not only . . . but also,' 'both . . . aud,'
generally takes the Indicatire in both clauses, but in the sense of ' though . . . yet," the
Subjunctive in the first clause and the Indicatire in the second :
Cum antea distinebar, turn hoc tempore distineor, not only was I occupied before,
1 In the Imperfect and Pluperfect tenses the choice of mood often depends not so
much upon the nature of the thought, as upon the intention and feeling of the writer ut
the moment. If he wishes to assert that the action of the temporal clause is an histori-
cal fact, he uses the Indicative; but if he introduces it for the sole purpose of defining
the time of (fie priiutipal action, he uses the Subjunctive. Thus, cum fpislulam com-
pliearenn does not assert that I folded the letter, but, asuumina that as admitted, it
makes use of it in defining the time of ri>>ierunt. See also foot-note under 1 above ; alsc
p. 290, foot-note 1.
3 Like the Subjunctive io relative clauses after indefinite antecedents; oe 5O3. L
296 INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
bvt I am ato occupied now. Cic. Quae cam slot gravia, turn illud acerbiraimnir eet
though these things are severe, that is the most grievous. Cic.
Nor* 2. For cum in Causal clauses, see 517.
NOTE 8. For cum In Concessive clauses, see 515, III.
VIII. INDIKKCT DISCOURSE 0rai# ObUqua.
Moods and Tenses in Indirect Discourse.
522. When a writer or speaker expresses thoughts, whether his
own or those of another, in any other form than in the original
words of the author, he is said to use the Indirect Discourse Ora-
tiS ObUqua : '
PlatOnem ferunt in ftaliam venisse, they say that Plato came into Italy.
Cic. RespondeO te dolorem ferre moderate, I reply that you bear the affliction
with moderation. Cic. Utilem arbitror esse scientiam, I think that knowledge
is useful. Cic.
1. In distinction from the INDIRECT DISCOURSE Ordtid Obtiqua, the original
words of the author are said to be in the DIRECT DISCOURSE Oratio Recta.
2. Words quoted without change belong to the DIRECT DISCOURSE :
Rex ' duumviros ' inquit ' secundum legem facio,' the king said, ' / appoint
duumvirs according to law. 1 Liv.
RULE LIII. Moods in Principal Clauses.
523. The principal clauses of the DIRECT DISCOURSE
on becoming INDIRECT take the Infinitive or Subjunctive
as follows :
I. When DECLARATIVE, they take the Infinitive with a
Subject Accusative.
Dicebat animos esse dlvlnSs, he was wont to say that souls are divine.
Cic. Plat6nem Tarentum venisse reperio, I find that Plato came to Taren-
tum. Cic. Cato mlrari se Siebat, Cato was wont to say tliM hf wondered.
Cic. Hippias gloriatus est, annulum se sufi manu confecisse, 2 Hippias
boasted that he had made the ring u'ith his own hand. Cic.
NOTK. The verb on which the Infinitive depends Is often omitted, or only implied in
some preceding verb or expression ; especially af^r the Subjunctive of Purpose :
1 Thus, in the first example, Platonem in ftaliam veninse is in the indirect dis-
course; in the direct, i. e., in the original words of those who made the statement, it
would be : Plato in ftaliam Tenit.
4 In the direct discourse these examples would read (1) animi <eunt dlvini, (2)
PlatS Tarentum vtnit, (8) tniror, and (4) annulum mea manii confecl. Observe that
the pronominal subjects implied in mlror and etmfecl are expressed with the Infinitive.
M mirdrl xf. se confedtse. But the subject is sometimes omitted when it can be read-
ily supplied; see second example under II., 2. below,
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 297
Pythia praece'pit at Miltiadem imper&torem sftmerent; incepta prospers future,
Pythia commanded that they should, take Miltiades a their commander, (.telling
them) that their efforts would be successful. Nep.
II. When INTERROGATIVE, they take
1. Generally the Subjunctive:
Ad postulata Caesaris respondit, quid sibi vellet, ciir venlret, 1 to the
temands of Caesar he replied, what did he wish, why did lie come ? Caes.
NOTE. Deliberative questions retain the Subjunctive from the direct discourse:.
In spem venerat so posse, etc. ; cur fortunam periclitarOtur, 1 he hoped, (had come
into hope) that he was able, etc. ; why should he try fortune t Oaes.
2. Sometimes the Infinitive with a Subject Accusative,
as in rhetorical questions: 9
DocSbant rem esse testimSniO, etc. ; quid esse levius, etc., they showed
that the fact was a proof (for a proof), etc. ; what was more inconsiderate,
etc. ? Caes. Respondit, num memoriam deponere posse, 3 he replied, could
he lay aside the recollection ? Caes.
III. When IMPERATIVE,* they take the Subjunctive :
Scrtbit LabienO cum legione veniat, he writes to Labienus to come (that
he should come) with a legion. Caes. Redditur responsum, castrls se
tenSrent, the reply was returned that they should keep themselves in camp.
Liv. Mllitgs certiSres facit, 86 reficerent, he directed the soldiers to refresh
themselves. Caes. Orabant ut sibi auxilium ferret, they prayed that he
would bring them help. Caes. Nuntius venit, ne dubitaret, a message came
that he should not hesitate. Nep. Cohortatus est, ne perturbarentur, 6 he
exhorted them not to be alarmed. Caes.
NOTE. An affirmative command takes the Subjunctive without ut, except after verbs
of wishing and asking, but a negative command takes the Subjunctive with ne ; see ex-
amples.
' In the direct discourse these examples would read (1) quid tibl rf*t cur venist
nd (2) cfirpericlitert
* A question used for rhetorical effect in place of an assertion is called a Rhetorical
Question, as num potent, ' can he ? ' = nfm potttt, ' he can not' ; quid tut turpiun, ' what
is baser?' = nihil ext turpiwi, ' nothing is baser.' Here belong many questions which in
the direct form have the verb in the first or in the third person.' As such questions are
aquivalent to declarative sentences, they take the same construction, the Infinitive with
its subject
* Direct discourse (1) quid eat levin* = nihil ext ltvin, and (2) num memoriam
deponere posxum = memoriam tlfpi'mere m~>n ponum.
4 Imperative sentences Include those sentences which take the Subjunctive of Dt-
tire; see 484.
' In tho direct discourse these examples would read (\)cun> Ugwne cenl, (2) rax-
Iris v~i teneU, (3) to* refaiU, (4) nvbii auxilium for, (&) mill dvbitdre, and ($) '
298 INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
RULE LTV. Moods in Subordinate Clauses.
524. The subordinate clauses of the DIRECT DISCOURSE
on becoming INDIRECT take the Subjunctive :
Respondit s id quod in Nerviis fecisset facturum, 1 he replied that he
would do what he had done in the case of the Neroii. Caes. Hippias gloria-
tus est, annulum quern haberet se sua nianii confecisse, 2 Hippias boasted
that he had made with his own hand the ring which he wore. Cic.
1. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is sometimes used. Thus
1) In clauses introduced by the relative pronoun, or by relative adverbs,
ubl, unde, quare, etc., when they have the force of principal clauses (453) :
Ad eum defertur, esse clvem Romanurn qul quereretur, quern (= et eum)
asservatum esse, it was reported to him that there was a Roman citizen who
made a complaint, and that he had been placed under guard. Cic. Te suspi-
cor elsdem, quibus me ipsum, commoverl, I suspect that you are moved by the
tame things as I. Cic.
2) In clauses introduced by cum, quam, quamquam, quia, and some other
conjunctions, especially in Livy and Tacitus :
Num putatis, dlxisse Antonium minacius quam facturum fuisse, do you
think Antony spoke more threateningly than he would have acted? Cic. Dl-
cit, se moenibus inclusos tenere eos, quia per agros vagarl, he says that he
keeps them shut up within the walls, because (otherwise) they would wander
through the fields. Liv. See also 535, I., 5 and 6.
2. The Indicative is used
1) In parenthetical and explanatory clauses introduced into the Indirect
Discourse without strictly forming a part of it :
Referunt silvam esse, quae appellatur Bacenis, 3 they report that there if a
forest which is called Bacenis. Caes. Audio Gellium philosophOs qul tune
erant 8 convocasse, I hear that Gellius called together the philosophers of that
day (lit., who then were). Cic.
2) Sometimes in clauses not parenthetical, to give prominence to the fact
stated, especially in relative and temporal clauses :
Certior factus est ex ea parte vlcl, quam Gallls concesserat, omnes disces-
sisse, he was informed that all had withdrawn from that part of the village
which he had assigned to the Gauls. Caes. Dlcunt ilium diem clarissimum
fuisse cum domum reductus est a patribus, they say that the day when he was
9onducted home by the fathers was the most illustrious. Cic.
525. TENSES IN THE INDIRECT DISCOURSE generally conform
to the ordinary rules for the use of tenses in the Subjunctive and
Infinitive ; * but notice the following special points :
i Direct, faciarn id quod in Nerviis fed.
3 Direct, annulum quern habeO med. manu confecl.
* These clauses, quae appellatur BacSnis and qul tune erant, are not strictly part*
f the general report, but explanations added by the narrator.
See 490-406 and 537
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 299
1. The Present and Perfect may be used even after an historical tense,
to impart a more lively effect to the narrative :
Caesar respondit, si obsides sib! dentur, sese pacem ease facturum, Caesar
replied, that if hostages should be given him, he would makepeace. Caes. Ex-
itus fuit OratiOnis, neque ullos vacare agr6s, qui darl possint, the close of the
oration was, that there were (are) not any lands unoccupied which could (can)
\>e given. Caes.
2. The Future Perfect in a subordinate clause of the direct discourse
'js changed in the indirect into the Perfect Subjunctive after a principal
tense, and into the Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense :
Agunt ut dlmicent ; ib! imperiutn fore, unde victoria fuerit, they arrange
that they shall fight ; that the sovereignty shall be on the side which shall win
the victory (whence the victory may have been). Liv. Apparebat regnaturum
qui vlcisset, 1 it was evident that he would be king who should conquer. Liv.
NOTE. For Tenses in Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse, see 537.
Pronouns and Persons in Indirect Discourse,
526. In passing from the DIRECT DISCOURSE to the INDIRECT,
pronouns of the first and second persons are generally changed to
pronouns of the third person, 2 and the first and second persons of
verbs are generally changed to the third person :
Gl&riatus est, annulum se sua manu cc-nfecisse, 8 he boasted that he had made
the ring with his own hand. Cic. Redditur respSnsum, castrls se tenerent,*
the reply was returned that they should keep themselves in camp. Liv. Re-
spondit, si obsides ab iis sibf dentur, sese cum ils pacem esse factQrum, 6 ht
replied that if hostages should be given to him by them, he would make peace
with them. Caes.
Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse.
527. Conditional sentences, in passing from the DIRECT DIS-
COURSE to the INDIRECT, undergo the following changes :
1 In the direct discourse (1) ibl imperium erit, undt vlcVtria fuerit, and (2) reg
natrit qui vlcerit.
1 Thus (1) ego is changed to sul, sibl, etc^ or to ipse ; meux and noster to sun* ; (2)
t to IK or Hie, sometimes to mil, etc. ; tuus and venter to suits or to the Genitive of in,'
tnd (8) hie and ist to ilfe. But the pronoun of the first person may of course be used
in the indirect discourse in reference to the reporter or author, and the pronoun of the
-rrmni person in reference to the person addressed : Adflrmuvl quidvis m? perpessii-
rutn, / asserted that I would endure anything. Cic. Respondeo ti: dolorem ferre mode-
rate, I reply that YOU bear the affliction with moderation. Cic.
3 Direct, annulum ego mea manu confecl. Ego becomes , and w<7, mid.
4 Direct, catttrw vos tenfte. Vos becomes sf, and tenete, tenerent.
* Direct, si obsides a vobls mihl dabimtur, vfiblscum piicem fa dam. A vobls
becomes ab ils; mihl becomes sibl; voblscum, cum iis; and the implied subject o/
facia m becomes sese, the subject of etse facturum.
300 INDIRECT JfllSUOURSE.
I. In the FIRST FORM, the Indicative is changed to the Subjunctive in tn*
condition and to the Infinitive in the conclusion :
Respondit, si quid Caesar se velit, ilium ad s8 venire oportere, 1 he replied,
if Caesar wished anything of him, he ought to come to him. Caes.
NOTE. In all forms of conditional sentences the conclusion, when imperative, and
generally when interrogative, takes the Subjunctive according to 523 :
Responderunt. si non aequum exlstimaret, etc., cur postularet," etc., they replied, if
Tie did not think it fair, etc., -why did he demand,, etc. Caes. Bum certiorem fecc-
mnt, si suas res manere vellet, Alcibiadem persequeretur, 3 they informed him that if
he wished his institutions to be permanent, he should take measures against Alci-
biades. Nep. Die quidnam facturus fueris, si censor fuisses, 4 say what you would
have done, if you had been censor. Liv.
II. In the SECOND FORM, the Present or Perfect Subjunctive in the con-
dition remains unchanged after a principal tense, but may be changed s to
the Imperfect or Pluperfect after an historical tense, and in the conclu-
sion it is changed to the Future Infinitive:
Kespondit, si stlpendium remittatur, libenter sese recusaturum populi
ROmanl amlcitiam, 6 he replied that if the tribute should be remitted, he would
gladly renounce the friendship of the Roman people. Caes.
NOTE. See note under I.
III. In the THIRD FORM, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive remains
unchanged in the condition, regardless of the tense of the principal verb,
but in the conclusion it is changed to the Periphrastic Infinitive in -rus
fuisse, rarely to that in -rus esse:
Respondit, si quid ipsl a Caesare opus esset, sese ad eum venturum fuisse,'
he replied that if he wanted anything of Caesar, he would ham come to him.
Caes. ClSmitabat, si ille adesset, venturSs esse, 7 he cried out that they would
come if he were present. Caes.
NOTE 1. In the conclusion, the periphrastic form futurum fuisse ut with the Sub-
junctive is used in the Passive voice, and sometimes in the Active:
Nisi nuntil essent allatl, existimabant futurum fuisse nt oppidum amitteretur, 7 they
thought that the town would have been lost, if tidings had not been brought. Caes.
NOTE 2. In conditional sentences with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in
the condition, and with an historical tense of the Indicative in the conclusion
1 Direct, si quid Caesar me vult, ilium ad me venire oportet. For change of pro
nouns see 536, and for the tense of relit see 525. 1.
* Direct, si non aequum esKlstimas, curpostuldst
3 Direct, si tuds res manert vis, Alcibiadem persequere. Notice change in the
pronoun and in the person of the verb; see 526.
* Direct, quidnam fecisses (orfactiirusfuteti), si censor fuisses.
8 But is often retained unchanged according to 525, 1.
8 Direct, si stipendium remittatur, libenter recusem populi Romu.nl amlcitiam.
or si stlpendium remitt?tur, libenter reciisabo populi Romanl amlcitiam. Observe
that these two forms become identical in the indirect discourse.
i Direct (1) si quid mihi ii Caesare opus esset, ad eum vfnissetn ; (2) il 4lh
t. tfnirent : and (3) nifti nftntii essent allatl, oppidum dtninttum esset.
INDIRECT CLAUSES. 301
1) The Indicative is generally changed to the Perfect Infinitive, :
Memento i stain dignitatem te non potuisse consequi, nisi meis cdnsiliis paruissos, 1
"wnember that you, would not have been able to attain that dignity, if you had not
followed my counsels. Cic.
2) The Indicative is changed to the Perfect Subjunctive if the context requires that
mood:
Quis dubitat quin si Saguntinls tulissemus operam, aversuri bellum fuerimus, 1 who
doubts that ice should have averted the war t if we had carried aid'to the Sagun-
ttnes t Liv. Scimus quid, si vixisset, facturus fuerit, 1 we know what he would have
font, if he had lived. Liv.
Indirect Clauses.
528. The indirect discourse in its widest application includes
1. Subordinate clauses containing statements made on the authority of
any other person than the writer; see 516:
Omnes librOs quos frater suus rellquisset mih! donavit, he gave to me all
the books which his brother had left? Cic.
2. Indirect questions ; see 529, I.
NOTB. A. clause which involves a question without directly asking it is called an In-
direct or Dependent Question :
Quaesivit salvusne esset clipeus, he asked whether hi* shield was safe. 3 Cic.
3. Many subordinate clauses dependent upon an Infinitive or upon a
Subjunctive ; see 529, II.
RULE LV.- -Moods in Indirect Clauses.
529. The Subjunctive is used
I. In indirect question:
Quaeritur, cur doctissiml homings dissentiant, it is a question, why the
most learned men disagree. Cic. Quaesierfts, nonne putarem, you had asked
whether I did not think. Cic. Qualis sit animus, animus nescit, tJie soul
knows not what the soul is. Cic. Quid digs ferat incertum est, what a day
will bring forth is uncertain. Cic. Quaeritur quid futurum sit, what will
be, is the question. Cic. Quaerit qulnam eventus, si foret bcllatura, futurus
fuerit, he asks what would have been the result if war had been waged. Liv.
Dubito num debeam, 7 doubt whether I ought. Plin. Incerta feror si Jup-
piter velit, 7 am rendered uncertain whether Jupiter wislies. Verg. Ut te
oblectes sclre cupio, / wish to know how you amuse yourself . Cic. Difficile
1 Direct (1) iittam dignitatem cfmsequl nfm potuititl, nixi me~>* efm-siUlt pdruis-
oft; (2) i Saguntinls tuliwemm operam, bellum avemfiri fuimus ; (8) quid, si
eivisset, facturue fuit t
* That is, which he said his brother had left.
8 Here no question is directly asked. We have simply the statement, 'he ask*d
whether his shield was safe,' but thi statement involves the question, tafansne est
, ' is my shield safe ? '
302 INDIRECT CLAUSES.
dictu est utrum timuerint an dllSxerint, it is difficult to say whether they
feared or loved. Cic.
II. Often in clauses dependent upon an Infinitive 01
upon another Subjunctive :
Nihil indlgnius est quam eum qul culpa careat suppliciS non carere,
nothing is more shameful than that he who is FREE from fault should not be
exempt from punishment. Cic. Utrum difficilius esset negfire tibi an ef-
ficere id quod rogares diu dubitavT, whether it would be more difficult to re-
fuse your request or to do that which YOU ASK, / have long doubted. Cic.
Recordatione nostrae amlcitiae sic fruor ut beate vixisse videar quia cum
Scipione vixerim, I so enjoy the recollection of our friendship that I seem to
have lived happily because I HATE LIVED with Sdpio. Cic. Naevium rogat
ut curet quod dfaisset, he asked Naevius to attend to that which HE HAD MEN-
TIONED. Cic. Vereor ne, dum minuere velim laborem, augeam, I fear that,
while I WISH to diminish the labor, I shall increase it. Cic.
NOTE 1. In clauses dependent upon an Infinitive or upon a Subjunctive, observe
1) That the Subjunctive is used when the clauses are essential to the general
thought of the sentence, as in the examples just given.
2) That the Indicative is used when the clauses are in a measure parenthetical, and
when they give special prominence to the fact stated :
MTlites misit, ut eos qui fugerant persequerentur, he sent soldiers to pursue those
who had fled (i. e., the fugitives). Caes. Tanta vis probitatis est, ut earn, vel in iis quos
nunquam vidimus, diligamus, such is the force of integrity that we love it even in those
whom we have never seen. Cic.
NOTE 2. In clauses introduced by dum, the Indicative is very common, especially in
the poets and historians :
Fuere qul, dum dubitat Scaevmus, hortarentur Ksonem, there were those who ex-
horted Piso, while Scaevinus hesitated. Tac. See also 467, 4.
1. Indirect or dependent questions, like those not dependent (351, 1), are
introduced by interrogative pronouns or other interrogative words, as quit,
qul, quails, etc. ; quid, cur, lie, nonne, num ; rarely by si, ' whether,' and ut,
4 how ' ; see examples above.
NOTE 1. 55. is sometimes best rendered to see whether, to see if, to try if, etc. .
Te adeunt, si quid veils, they come to you to see whether you wish anything. Cic.
NOTE 2. In the poets si is sometimes similarly used with the Indicative :
Inspice si possum donata reponere, examine me to see whether I am ab%e to restort
your gifts. Hor.
NOTE 3. In indirect questions num does not necessarily imply negation.
NOTE 4. An indirect question may readily be changed to a direct or independ-
! >nt question. 1
2. An Accusative, referring to the same person or thing as the subject of the
question, is sometimes, especially in poetry, inserted after the principal verb :
1 Thus the direct question involved in the first example is, our doctissiml homini*
dissentiunt, ' why do the most learned men disagree? 1 In the second, nonne putds,
'do you not think ? '
INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 303
Ego ilium nescid qul fuerit, 7 do not know (him) who he was. Ter. Die
tominem qul sit, tell who the man it. Plaut.
3. Indirect double questions are generally introduced by the same inter-
rogative particles as those which are direct (353). Thus
1) They generally take utrum or -ne in the first member and an in the
second :
Quaeritur virtus suamne propter dignitatem an propter fructus aliquos ex-
petatur, it is asked whether virtue is sought for its own worth, or for certain ad
Vantages. Cic.
2) But they sometimes omit the particle in the first member, and take in
the second an or -ne in the sense of or, and neene or an non in the sense of
. or not :
Quaeritur natura an doctrlna possit efficl virtus, it is asked whether virtue
can be secured by nature, or by education. Cic. Sapientia beatos elficiat necne
quaestid est, whether or not wisdom makes men happy is a guest-ion,. Cic.
NOTK 1. Other forms, as -ne . . . -ne, an . . . an, are rare or poetic:
Qul teneant, homincsne feraene, quaerere, to ascertain who inhabit them, w/iether
men or beast*. Verg.
NOTE 2. An, in the sense of whether not, implying an affirmative, is used after verbs
and expressions of doubt and uncertainty : dubito an, nescid an, hand scio an, ' I doubt
whether not,' ' I know not whether not' = ' I am inclined to think'; dubium est an, in-
certuni est an, ' it is uncertain whether not ' = ' it is probable ' :
DubitO an ThrasybQlum pritnum omnium ponam, I doubt whether I should not
place TTirasybulus first of all (i. e., I am inclined to think I should). Nep.
NOTE 8. An sometimes seems to have the force otaut:
Cum Simonides, an quis alius, 1 polllcerctur, when Simonides or some other one
promised. Cic.
4. The Subjunctive is put in the periphrastic form in the indirect ques-
tion (1) when it represents a. periphrastic form in the direct question, an<?
(2) generally, not always, when it represents a Future Indicative ; see the
fifth and sixth examples under 529, 1.
5. INDIRECT QUESTIONS must be carefully distinguished
1) From clauses introduced by relative pronouns or relative adverbs.
These always have an antecedent or correlative expressed or understood, and
are never, an a whole, the subject or object of a verb, while indirect ques-
tions arc generally so used :
Dlcam quod sentio (relative clause), I will tell that which (id quod) I think*
Cic. Dicam quid intellegam (indirect question), I will tell what J know. Cic.
Quaeramus ub! maleficium est, let us seek there (ib!) where the crime is. Cic.
2) From direct questions and exclamations :
1 Some critics treat an quis alius as a direct question inserted parenthetically : or
v>at it tome other one t
a In the first and third examples, qiiod sentio and ubl . . . est are not questions, but
relative clauses; id is understood as the antecedent of quod, and ibi as the antecedent
or correlative of ubl ; but in the second example, quid intellegam is an indirect ques-
tion and the object otdlcam : I will Ull (what?) what I know (L e., will answer that
question).
304 INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Quid agendum est? nesciS, what it to be done? I know not. 1 Cio. Vide,
quam conversa res est, see ! how changed is the case. Cio.
3) From clauses introduced by nesd6 quiz quldam* ' some one,' nesciii
qvomodo = quodammodo, ' in some way,' mlrum quantum, ' wonderfully
much,' ' wonderfully,' etc. These take the Indicative :
NesciO quid animus praesagit, 3 the mind forebodes, I know not what. Ter.
Id mlrum quantum profuit, this profited, it is wonderful how much (i. e., it
wonderfully profited). Liv.
6. PERSONAL CONSTRUCTION. Instead of an impersonal verb with an indirect
question as subject, the personal construction is sometimes used, as follows :
Perspiciuntur quam sint leves, 4 it is seen how inconstant they are ! Cic.
T. The INDICATIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS is sometimes used in early
Latin and in the poets, especially in Plautus and Terence :
Si memorare velim, quam fidell animo fui, possum, if I should wish to
mention how much fidelity I showed, I am able. Ter.
530. The directions already given for converting the DIRECT DIS-
COURSE, Oratib Recta, into the INDIRECT, Oratio Obllqua, are further illus-
trated in the following passage from Caesar :
DIRECT DISCOUESH. INDIKECT DISCOURSE.
Caesarem obsecrare coepit : ' Ne Caesarem obsecrare coepit, ne quid
quidgravius in fratrem statuerls ; sew gravius in fratrem statueret ; scire si
ilia esse vera, nee quisquam ex eo ilia esse vera, nee quemquam ex eo
plus quam ego doloris capit, propterea plus quam se doloris capere, propterea
quod cum ipse gratia plurimum doml quod cum ipse gratia plurimum donii
atque in reliqua Gallia, ille minimum atque in reliqua Gallia, ille minimum
propter adulescentiam poterat, per me propter adulescentiam posset, per &
crevit ; quibus opibus ac nervls non crecisset ; quibus opibus ac nervls
solum ad minuendam gratiam, sed non solum ad minuendam gratiam,
pa*3ne ad perniciem meam utitur ; sed paene ad perniciem suam utere-
ego tamen et amore fratarno et exls- tur ; s'ese tamen et amore fraterno et
timatione vulgl commoveor. Quod si existimatione vulgl commoveri. Quod
quid el a te gravius accident, cum si quid el a Caesare gravius accidisset,
ipse hunc locum amlcitiae apud te cum ipse eum locum amicitiae apud
teneam, nemo existimdbit, n6n med eum teneret, neminem existimaturum,
volunt&te factum ; qua ex re totius non svd voluntate factum ; qua ex re
Galliae animl a me d/vertentur.'' futurum utl totius Galliae animl a si
dverterentur. Caes., B. G., I., 20.
1 Quid agendum sit nesoio, * I know not what is to be done,' would be an indirect
question.
9 See 191, note.
* Praesagit does not depend upon nescifi, but Is entirely independent. Nescii quid
animus praetagiat would be an indirect question, and would mean, / know not what
the mind forebode*.
4 Lit, they are seen. Observe that this personal construction corresponds to the
Active, perspiciunt ef> quam sint leves, * they perceive (them) how Inconstant they are.'
Se also ego ilium nesoiS qu'< fuerit, 529, 2.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 805
NOTE In this illustration observe the following points:
1) That the Indicative In the principal clauses of the direct discourse to changed to
the corresponding tense of the Infinitive in the indirect, 1 and that the Subjunctive, sta-
tueriv, denoting incomplete action, is changed to the Imperfect Subjunctive after the
historical tense, coepit.
2) That in the subordinate clauses the verbs denoting incomplete action are changed
to the Imperfect Subjunctive, while those denoting completed action are changed to the
Pluperfect Subjunctive. 3
8) That void becomes wire te (I. ., that the subject of the Infinitive is generally ex
Sressed).
4) That the pronouns of the first person are changed to refiexires; and that those of
the second person are changed to is. 3
531. The process by which the INDIRECT DISCOURSE, Oratio Obllqua.
is changed to the DIRKCT, Oratio Recta, is illustrated in the following pas
gages from Caesar :
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. DIRECT DISCOURSE.
Bespondit, translate Rhenum s&e Respondit : ' Transit Rbenum nOn
n6n gitd sponte, sed rogdtum et arces- med sponte, sed rogdtus et arctssit/ix
ntum a Gallls. Se prius in Galliam a Gallls. Ego prius in Galliam vein
venisse quam populum Romdnum. quam populus Romdnvs. Quid tilA
Quid sibl vellet ? Cur in suds posses- vis? Cur in meas possessiones ve-
siones venlret? Caes., B. G., I., 44. nlsf
Ita respondit, eO tibl minus dubi- Ita respondit : ' Eo miM minus
tationis dan quod eas res quas legatl dubitatiOnis datur quod eas res quas
Helvetil commemordssent memoria te- *5, legatl Helvetil, commemordvistis,
n&ret. Quod si veteris contumeliae ob- memoria teneo. Quod si veteris con-
llvlscl vellet, num etiam recentium in- tumeliae obllvlscl rol-o, num etiam re-
juriarum memoriam deponere posse? centium injuriariim memoriam df--
Cum ea ita sint, tamen, si obsides ab ponere possum? Cum Ttaec ita sint,
tit sibl dentur, sese cum Us pftcem es*t tamen, si obsides ft robls miM daburt-
facturum. Caes., B. G., I., 14. tur, vobiscutn pacem/actaj.'
NOTE. In these illustrations observe the following points :
1) That in the principal clauses (1) the fnfinitire* with xe or w, expressed or un-
derstood, are changed to the fimt per/ton of the IixUcafire ; * (2) other Infinitives are
Iso changed to the Indicative, but the person is determined by the context; 5 and (3)
1 Thus ncifi becomes tcire,; capit, capere; commoreor, commoverl ; exlstinitlbit,
teeitftimtitfirum (esse); and ticertentur, fiiti'irum vtl tiverterentur. This last form,
futiirum utl dterterentur, is the Periphrastic Future Infinitive Passive; see 537, 8.
1 Thus poterat becomes posset; titittir, titeretur; teneam, Untrtt; butcre*!< be-
comes crSm'snet; acciderit, acciditset.
* Thus (1) ego Is changed to si; mi to *? ; meam to truam; med to sua; nd (2)
tf to ewn ; hunc to eum.
* Thus trdnmsse sfe is changed to t'-dnsil ; s8 v&nisse to ego venl ; tf.si tue fac-
Iftrum \nfadam ; pnsse, with sf understood, to possum.
* Thus minus dari ^^ becomes minus <latvr; butifthf subject of the Infinitive Is of
the second person, the Indicative will also be of that person. ReitpondtO t dolorem
ferr moderate thus becomes respond eo, * dolorem moder&te /r;' see p. 29V, toot
aotoi.
306 INFINITIVE.
Subjunctives are changed to tbe Indicative after interrogative words,' and to the >m
peratiee in other situations. 3
9) That in the snbordinate clauses the Subjunctive, unless required by the thought
Irrespective of the indirect discourse, is changed to the Indicative. 3
8) That the reflexive pronouns stil, sibl, etc., and suus are changed (1) generally to
pronouns of the first person, but (2) sometimes to those of the second person. 4
4) That is and ille are (1) generally changed to tit or Ale, but (2) sometimes retained. 5
5) That a noun referring to the person or persons addressed may be put in tbu
Vocative preceded by tu or ws.
SECTION VII.
INFINITIVE. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
I. INFINITIVE.
532. The Infinitive is a verbal noun with special character-
istics. Like verbs, it has voice and tense, takes adverbial modi-
fiers, and governs oblique cases. 7
RULE L VI. Infinitive.
533. Many verbs admit an Infinitive to complete or
qualify their meaning :
Audeo dlcere, I dare say (I venture to say). Cic. Haec vTtare cupimus,
we desire to avoid time things. Cic. CCnstituit non progredl, he decided
1 Thus quid vellet is changed to quid vis t cur veniret to cur nenis t Vellet and
cenlret are in the Imperfect simply because dependent upon an historical tense, and are
therefore changed to the Present in the direct discourse. In deliberative questions
(484, V.) the Subjunctive is retained in the direct discourse.
a Thus cum legione venial, under 523, III., becomes cum legiontvenl. The Sub-
junctive may of course be retained in tbe direct discourse whenever the thought requires
that mood.
3 Thus commemordssent, pluperfect after an historical tense, is changed to com-
memordvistis ; tentret to teneo ; vellet to void ; dentur to dabuntur. Sint is retained
unchanged because required in a causal clause with cum ; see 517.
4 Thus (1) trdnsisse sese is changed to transit, with subject implied in the ending;
rud to med ; se vlnisse to ego venl, with emphatic subject ; ud# to metis ; sibl to mihi ;
tette esse factftrum t/ofaciam ; (2) sibl to tibl, in quid sibl relief. As the subject of an
Infinitive (536),. e or sese often corresponds to the pronominal subject implied in the
nding of a finite verb; see p. 187, foot-note 5.
6 Thus (1) ab iis is changed to a vobls; cum iis to vobteoum; ea ita sint to haeo
ita sint; (2) eas res is retained.
Thus legdtl ffelvetii, the subject of commemorassent, is changed to vos, leffiitt
Helvetil
7 Originally the Latin Infinitive appears to have been the Dative case of an abstract
verbal noun, and to have been used to denote the purpose or end (384, 1, 8) for which
inything is or is done. Being thus only loosely connected with the verb of the sentence.
tt readily lost its special force as a case and soon began to be employed with considerabl*
freedom in a variety of constructions. In this respect the history of the Inflnitict resein.
INFINITIVE. 307
not to advanct. Caes. CrSdulI esse coeperunt, they began to be credulous.
Cic. Vincere sds, you know how to conquer (you know to conquer). Liv.
Vlctfiria utl nescis, you do not know how to use victory, Liv. Latlne loqu!
didicerat, he had learned to speak Latin. Sail. D6bes hoc rescribere, you
ought to write this in reply. Hor. Nemo mortem effugere potest, no one is
able to escape death. Cic. Solent cogitare, they are accustomed to think. Cic.
I. The Infinitive is thus used
1. With TRANSITIVE VERBS meaning to dare, desire, determine ; to begin,
continue, end ; to know, learn ; to owe, etc. ; see examples above.
NOTB 1. For the Subjunctive with some of these verbs, see 498, I., note.
NOTE 2. See also 498, II., cote 1.
2. With INTRANSITIVE VEBBS meaning to be able , to be wont, be accustomed,
etc. ; see examples above.
II. In special constructions the Infinitive has nearly the force of *
DATIVE OF PURPOSE OR END '
1. With INTRANSITIVE VERBS:
NOn populare penates venimus, we have not come to lay waste your hornet.
Verg. Conjuravere patriam incendere, they conspired to destroy their country
withfire. Sail.
2. With TRANSITIVE VERBS In connection with the Accusative :
Pecus egit altos vlsere months, he drove his herd to visit the lofty moun-
tains. Hor. Quid babes dicere, what have you to say t Cic. Dederat comam
diffundere ventls, she had given her hair to ih winds to scatter. Verg. 8
3. With ADJECTIVES :
Est paratus audlre, he is prepared to hear (for hearing). Cic. Arid! com-
mittere pugnam, eager to engage (for engaging) in battle. Ovid. Fons rtvc
dare nftmen idOneus, a fountain fit to give a name to the river. Hor.
NOTK 1. This use of the Infinitive is mostly poetical.
NOTE 2. With adjectives and with participles used as adjectives the Infinitive i
rare iti prose, but Is freely used in poetry in a variety of constructions :
Cantare peritus, skilled in singing. Verg. Pglldes ccdere nescins, J'elMfs not
knowing hoic to yield. Hor. Certa morf, determined to die. Verg. DIgnus describl,
worthy to be described. Hor. Vitulus nlveus viderl, 8 a culf snoic-white to view. Hor.
bles that of adverbs from the oblique cases of nouns. As such adverbs are often used
with greater freedom than the cases which they represent, so the Latin Infinitive ofton
appears in connections where, as a Dative, it would not have been at all admissible.
Upon the Origin and History of the Indo-European Infinitive, see Jolly, ' Qeschichte
del Tnfinitivs:
> In these constructions the Infinitive retains Its original force and use; see 532,
foot-not*.
In these examples with transitive verbs observe that the Accusatire and Iii/tn4-
tive correspond to the Accusative and Dative under 384, II., and that the Accusative
Dative, and Infinitive correspond to the Accusatie and two Datives under 39O, IL
Jffotut vidcrl, like the Greek Acvxbt i2e'o-0ai.
308 INFINITIVE.
Piger scribendl ferre laborem, reluctant to bear the labor of writing. Hor. Snum of
ficium facere immemor est, he forgets (is forgetful) to do his duty. Plant.
NOTE 3. The Infinitive also occurs, especially in poetry, with verbal nouns and witt
such expressions as tempus est, cdpia est, etc. :
Cupidd Stygios innare lacus, a desire to sail upon the Stygian lakes. Verg. Qui
bus molliter vivere copia erat, who had the means for living at ease. Sail. Tempus esi
dicere, it is time to speak. Cic.
NOTE 4. The Infinitive is sometimes used with prepositions:
Multurn interest inter dare et accipere, there is a great difference between gtvinQ
and receiving. Sen.
RULE L VII. Accusative and Infinitive.
534. Many transitive verbs admit both an Accusative
and an Infinitive :
T6 sapere docet, he teaches you to be wise. Cic. Eos suum adventuin
exspectare jussit, he ordered them to await his approach. Caes. Pontem
jubet rescindl, he orders the bridge to be broken down. Caes. Te tua friri
virtute cupiraus, we wish you to enjoy your virtue. Cic. Sentimus calere
Tgnem, we perceive thatjire is hot (we perceive fire to be hot). Cic. Regem
tradunt se abdidisse, they relate that the king concealed himself} Liv.
NOTE. In the compound forms or the Infinitive, esse is often omitted, especially in
the future :
AudlvT solitum Fabricium, I have heard that Fabricius was wont. Cic. Spcramus
vobls profuturos, we hope to benefit you. Cic.
1. The corresponding PASSIVE is sometimes personal and sometimes
impersonal : 2
PEBSONAL. Aristides justissimus fuisse traditur, Aristides is said (is re-
ported by tradition) to have been most just. Cic. Solem 5 mundo tollere vi-
dentur, they seem to remove the sun from the world. Cic. PlatSnem audlvissc
dlcitur, he is said to have heard Plato. Cic. Dil beatl esse intelleguntur, the
gods are understood to be happy. Cic.
IMPERSONAL. Traditum est Homerum caecum fuisse, it has been reported
1 Observe that in the first three examples the Accusatives te, ec>x, and pontem, arc
the direct objects of the finite verbs, while in the other examples the Accusatives te, tg-
nem. and regem, may be explained either as the direct objects of the finite verbs, or as
the subjects of the Infinitives. The former was doubtless the original construction, but
n time the object of the principal verb caine to be regarded in many cases as the subject
of the Infinitive. Thus was developed the Subject Accusative of the Infinitive.
8 These two constructions correspond to the two interpretations of the Active men-
tioned in foot-note 1 above. Thus, in the sentence, Ar Ml dem jiifitissimum fuisse tra-
il unt, if Arixt'idem is regarded as the object of tradunt, according to the original concep-
tion, the corresponding Passive will be personal : Aristldes jitstisnimun fuisse, trddititr;
but if Aristldem is regarded as the subject offuisse, and the clause Aristldem jilstissi-
mum fuisse as the object of tradunt, then the same clause will become the subject of th
Passive, and the construction will be impersonal: Aristldem judtissimumfuiMe trddi-
tur, ' it ts reported by tradition that Aristides was most just.'
INFINITIVE. 309
t>y tradition that Honur wot blind. Cic. Unam partem Gal] 6s obtinere dies
turn est, it has been stated that the Gauls occupy one part. Caes. Nuntiatur
ease naves in portu, it is announced that the vessels are in port. Cic.
NOTB 1. The Personal Construction is used (1) regularly in jubeor, netor, and
videor; (2; generally in the simple tenses of most verbs of SAYING, THINKIKO, and the
like, as dicor, trddor, /eror, nuntior, credor, existimor, putor, per/iibeor,ote.; (8)
sometimes in other verbs ; see examples above.
NOTE 2. The Impersonal Construction is especially common in the compound
tenses, 1 though also used in the simple tenses ; see examples above.
535. The ACCUSATIVE AND AN INFINITIVE are used with a great
variety of verbs. Thus
I. With verbs of PERCEIVING and DECLARING :
Sentimus calere Ignem, we perceive that fire is hot. Cic. MibI narravit te
sollicitum esse, he told me that you were troubled. Cic. Scrfpserunt Themis-
toclem in Asiam transisse, they wrott that Themistocles had gone over to
Asia. Nep.
1. VERBS OF PERCEIVING include those which involve (1) the exercise of
the senses : audio, video, sentio, etc., and (2) the exercise of the mind THINK-
ING, BELIEVING, KNOWING : cdgito, put6, existimO, credo, spero intellegd, sci6, etc.
2. VERBS OF DECLARING are such as state or communicate facts or thoughts :
died, ndrrO, n untio, doceO, ostendo, promitto, etc.
3. Expressions equivalent to verbs of perceiving and of declaring, as fdma
fert, 'report says,' testis sum, ' I am a witness '=' I testify,' conscius mihi
sum, ' I am conscious,' ' I know,' also admit an Accusative with an Infinitive :
Nullam mihf relatam esse gratiam, tu es testis, you are a witness (can
testify) that no grateful return has been made to me. Cio.
4. PARTICIPLE FOR INFINITIVE. Verbs of perceiving take the Accusative
with the present participle, when the object is to be represented as actually
een, heard, etc., while engaged in a given action :
Catonem vldl in bibliotheca sedentem, / saw Cato sitting in the Horary
Cic.
5. SCBJECTS COMPARED. When two subjects with the same predicate are
compared, and the Accusative with the Infinitive is ued in the first clause,
the Infinitive may be understood in the second :
PlatOnem ferunt idem scnsisse quod Py thagoram, they say that Plato held
the same opinion as Pythagoras. Cic.
6. PREDICATES COMPARED. When two predicates with the same subject
are compared, and the Accusative with the Infinitive is used in the first
clause, the Accusative may be understood in the second :
Num putatis, dlxisse Antonium minacius quam factflrum fuisse, do you
think Antony spoke more threateningly than lie would have acted? Cic.
NOTK. But the second clause may take the Subjunctive, with or without ut:
1 The learner will remember that the simple tenses are formed simply by inflexional
endings, as dicitur, dicebdtur, but that the compound tenses are formed by th union
of the perfect participle with the verb sum, as dictum est, dictum erat. etc.
310 INFINITIVE.
Aiuleo dicerc ipaOi potius cultores agrOrum fore qnam ut cott prohibeant, I dart oj
that they will themselvet become tillers of the field* rather than prevent th*m from
being tilled. Liv.
II. With verbs of WISHING, DESIRING, COMMANDING, and their op-
posites : *
Te tui frul virtute cupimus, we desire that you should enjoy your virtue.
Cic. Pontem jubet rescindl, he orders the bridge to be broken down (that the
bridge should be broken down). Caes. Lex eum necart vetuit, the law for-
bade that he should be put to death. Liv.
NOTE. Several verbs involving a wish or command admit the Subjunctive when
new subject is introduced, generally with ut or ne ; see 498, 1 :
Opto ut id audiatis, / desire that you may hear this. Cic. Volo ut respondents, J
icish you would reply. Cic. Malo te hostis metuat, I prefer that the enemy should
fear you. Cic. Concede ut haec apta sint, I admit that these things are tuitaUe. Cic.
III. With verbs of EMOTION and FEELING : 2
GaudeO t6 mihl suadgre, / rejoice that you advise me. Cic. Mlramur te
laetari, we wonder that you rejoice. Cic.
NOTE. Verbs of emotion and feeling often take clauses with quod (54O, IV.) to
give prominence to the/aci stated, or to emphasize the ground or reason for the feeling :
Gauded quod to interpellavi, I rejoice that (or because) / have interrupted you. Cic.
Dolebam quod socium amiseram, /was grieving because I had lost a companion. Cic.
IV. Sometimes, especially in POETRY and in LATE PROSE, with verbs
which usually take the Subjunctive : *
Gentem hortor amare focos, I exhort the race to love their homes. Verg.
Cunctl suase runt Italiain petere, all advised to seek Italy. Verg. Soror monet
succedere Lauso Turnum, the sister wabtu Turnus to take the place of Lausus.
Verg.
RULE L, VIII. Subject of Infinitive.
536. The Infinitive sometimes takes an Accusative as
its subject : *
Sentlmus calSre Tgnem, we perceive that fire is hot. Cic. Platonem
Tarentum venisse reperio, I find that Plato came to Tarentum. Cic.
1 As cwpio, opto, volo, ndio, mdlo, etc.; patior, sino; impero, jubeo ; prohibeo,
veto, etc.
4 As gaudeo, doled, mlror, queror, etc. ; also aegrefero, graviter ferO, etc.
3 Many verbs in Latin thus admit two or more different constructions ; see In the
dictionary adigO, censeo, concedo, cogo. constitud, contends, cupio, euro, decernft,
dlco, doceO, ilaboro, enitor,facio, impedio, impero, jubeO, labors, mdlo, mando, mo-
Uor, moneo, nolo, opto, oro, patior, permitto, persuaded, postulo, praecipio, prae-
dlco, prohibeo, sino, ttatuo, studeo, suddeO, veto, video. See also Draeger, II., pp.
230-416.
Remember that the Infinitive, as a verbal noun, originally had no subject, but that
subsequently in special constructions a subject Accusative was developed out of the ob-
ject of the principal verb; see 534, foot-note 1. In classical Latin many Infinitives hav
no subjects, either expressed or understood.
INFINITIVE. 311
1. HISTORICAL INFINITIVE. In lively descriptions the Present Infinitwt is
sometimes used for the Imperfect or the Perfect Indicative. It is then called
the Historical Infinitive, and, like a finite verb, has its subject in the Nomina-
tive :
Catillna in prlma acie versarl, omnia providere, multum ipse pugnare,
saepe hostem ferlre, Catiline was busy in the front line; he attended to every-
thing, fought much in person, and often smote down the enemy. 1 Sail.
NOTE. The Historical Infinitive sometimes denotes customary or repeated action:
Omnia In pGjus mere ac retro refem, all things change rapidly for the worse and
are borne backward. Verg.
2. A PREDICATE NOUN or a PREDICATE ADJECTIVE after an Infinitive agrees
with the noun or pronoun of which it is predicated, according to the general
rule (362). It is thus
1) In the Nominative, when predicated of the principal subject:
Nol6 esse laudator, / am unwilling to be a eulogist. Cic. Beatus esse sine
virtute nem& potest, no one can be happy without virtue. Cic. Parens dlcl
potest, he can be called a parent. Cic.
NOTE. Participles In the compound tenses agree like predicate adjectives :
Polllcitus esse dicltur, A is said to have promised. Cic.
2) In the Accusative, when predicated of a noun or pronoun in the Accusa-
tive:
Ego me Phldiam esse mallem, I should prefer to be Phidias. Cic. Tradi-
tum est, Homerum caecum fuisse, 3 it has been handed down by tradition that
Homer was blind. Cic.
8) In the Dative, when predicated of a noun or pronoun in the Dative :
Patrici& tribflnO plebis fieri non licebat, it was not lawful for a patrician
to be made tribune of the people. Cic. Mihl neglegenti esse n6n licuit, 3 it was
not permitted me to be negligent. Cic.
NOTE. A noun or adjective predicated of a noun or pronoun in the Dative is some-
times put in the Accusative :
fii consulem fieri licet, it is lawful/or him to be made consul. Caes.
537. The TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE Present, Perfect, and
Future denote only relative time. They accordingly represent the
time respectively as present, past, or future, relatively to that of
the principal verb :
PRESENT. Cupift me esse clementein, I desire to be mild. Cic. Maluit so
quam metul, he preferred to be loved rather than feared. Nep.
PERFECT. Platonem ferunt in Italian) venisse, they say that Plato came
into Italy. Cic. Conscius mihl eram, nihil a mg commissum esse, I was con-
scious to myself that no offence /tad been committed by me. Cic.
FUTURE. Bruturn visum Iri a me put6, / think Brutus will be seen by me.
1 Historical Infinitives are generally used In groups, seldom singly.
3 Here Phldiam is predicated of mi (lit., me to be Phidias), and citecum of Ho
mfrum.
' Tribuno Is predicated of ]>atrictf>, and ntglegmtl otmihi.
312 INFINITIVE.
Cic. OraouTum datum erat vlctrtces Athenas fore, an oracle had been given,
that Athens would be victorious. Cic.
NOTE. In general, the Present Infinitive represents the action as taking place at th
time denoted by the principal verb, the Perfect as then completed or past, and the Fu-
ture as then about to take place; but tense is so imperfectly developed in the Infinitive
that even relative time is not marked with much exactness. Hence
1) The Present is sometimes used of future actions, and sometimes with little or no
reference to time :
Cras argentum dare dtxit, he said that he would give the silver to-morrow. Ter.
2) The Perfect is sometimes used of present actions, though chiefly in the poets:
Tetigisse timent poetam, they fear to touch (to have touched) the poet. Hor.
1. After the past tenses of debed, oportet, possum, and the like, the PRES-
ENT IifFtNmvK is used where our idiom would lead us to expect the Perfect ;
sometimes also after memini, and the like ; regularly in recalling what we
have ourselves experienced :
Debuit officiosior esse, he ought to have been more attentive. Cio. Id potuit
facere, he might have done this. Cic. Me Athenls audire memini, I remember
to have heard (hearing) in Athens. Cic.
2. The Perfect Passive Infinitive sometimes denotes the result of the ac-
tion. Thus, doctu9 esse may mean either to "have been instructed or to be a
learned man (lit., an instructed man). If the result thus denoted belongs to
past time,/we must take the place of esse :
Populuin alloquitur, sOpitum fuisse regem ictu, she addresses the people,
saying that the king was stunned by the blow. Liv. See also 471, 6, note 1.
3. Instead of the regular Future Infinitive, the PERIPHRASTIC FOBM, futu-
rum esse ut, or fore ut, with the Subjunctive, Present or Imperfect, is fre-
quently used :
Spero fore ut contingat id nobls, I "hope this will fall to our lot (I hope it
will come to pass that this may happen to us). Cic. Non speraverat Hanni-
bal, fore ut ad s8 deficerent, Hannibal had not hoped tJiat they would revolt
to him. Liv.
NOTE 1. This circumlocution Is common in the Passive, and is moreover necessary
in both voices in all verbs which want the Supine and the participle in rus.
NOTE 2. Sometimes fore ut with the Subjunctive, Perfect or Pluperfect, is used with
the force of a Future Perfect ; and in passive and deponent verbs, fore with the perfect
participle may be used with the same force:
DIco mS satis adeptum fore, I say that I shall have obtained enough. Cic.
538. The Infinitive, with or without a subject, is often used as
the subject of a verb r 1
WITH SUBJECT. Caesart nuntiatum est equit6s accedere, it was announced
to Caesar that the cavalry was approaching. Caes. Facinus est vinclrt clvem
Romanum, that a Roman citizen should be bound is a crime. Cic. Certum
1 This use of the Infinitive as subject was readily developed out of its use as object;
see 534, 1, foot-note. Thus the Infinitive, with or without a subject, finally came to be
regarded as an indeclinable noun, and was accordingly used not only as subject and
object, but also as predicate and appoailive (539, I. and II.), and sometimes even in
the Ablative Ali*f>htte (539, IV.), and in dependence upon prepositions (533, 8, note 4).
INFINITIVE. 313
9st liberOs amarl, it is certain that children are loved. Quint. Legem brevem
esse oportet, it is necessary that a law be brief. Sen.
WITHOUT SUBJECT. Decretum est non dare slgnum, it was decided not to
give the signal. Liv. Ars est difficilis rem publicam regere, to rule a state is
a difficult art. Cic. Carum esse jucundum est, it is pleasant to be held dear.
Cic. Haec sclre juvat, to know these things affords pleasure. Sen. Peccarc
licet neminl, to sin is lawful for no one. Cic.
1. When the subject is an Infinitive, the predicate is either (1) a noun or
adjective with sum, or (2) a verb used impersonally ; see the examples above.
2. The Infinitive, with or without a subject, may be the subject of another
Infinitive :
Intellegi necesse est esse deos, 1 it must be understood that there are gods.
Cic.
3. The Infinitive sometimes takes a demonstrative as an attributive in
agreement with it :
Quibusdam hoc displicet philosopharl, this philosophizing (this to philos-
ophize) displeases some persons. Cic. Vivere ipsum turpe est nobls, to live
is itself ignoble for us. Cic.
539. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. The Infinitive with a subject 2
is sometimes used
I. As a PREDICATE ; see 362 :
Exitus fuit OratiOnis sib! nullam cum his amlcitiam esse, 5 the close of his
oration was that he had no friendship with these, Caes.
NOTE. An Infinitive without a subject may be used as a Predicate Nominative:
Vivere est cogitare, to live is to think. Cic.
II. As an APPOSITIVE ; see 363 :
Oraculum datum erat vlctrices Athenas fore, an oracle had been given,
that Athens would be victorious. Cic. Illud soleo mlrarl, non m6 accipere
tuas litteras, 8 / am accustomed to wonder at this, that I do not receive your
letter. Cio.
III. In EXCLAMATIONS; see 381 :
Te s!c vexart, that you should- be thus troubled/ Cic. MCne incepto de-
slstere vlctam, that 7, vanquished, should abandon my undertaking t * Verg.
IV. In the ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE; see 431, note 1 :
Audlto Darlum movisse pergit, having heard that Darius had withdrawn
(that Darius had withdrawn having been heard), he advanced. Curt.
1 Ense dew Is the subject of intelleffl, and intellegl e,**e dei'm of tut.
* Including the modifiers of each. Thus in the example the whole clause, sibl nfil-
fam cum hie amlcitiam esse, is used as a Predicate Nominative in agreement with the
subject eecitus ; see 302.
' In the examples, the clause rlctrfcen Athendsfore Is in apposition with onlculum,
and the clause nfm mf accipere tui'is lltterfia, in apposition with illud.
4 This use of the Infinitive conforms, It will be observed, to the use of the Accasatlr*
nd Nominative in exclamations (381, with note 8).
314 GERUNDS.
II. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
540. In Latin, clauses which are used as substantives take one of
four forms. They may be
I. INDIRECT QUESTIONS:
Quaeritur, cur dissentiant, it is asked why they disagree. Cic. Quid agen-
dum sit, nesci6, 1 do not know what ought to be done. Cic.
NOTE. For the use of Indirect Questions, see 5139, 1.
II. INFINITIVE CLAUSES :
i
Antecellere contigit, it was his good fortune to excel (to excel happened).
Cic. Magna negotia voluit agere, he wished to achieve great undertakings. Cic.
NOTB. For the use of Infinitive Clauses, see 534 ; 535.
III. SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES, generally introduced by ut, ne, etc. :
Contigit ut patriam vindicaret, it was his good fortune to save his country,
Nep. Vol6 ut mih! respondeas, I wish you would answer me. Cic.
NOTE. For the use of such Subjunctive Clauses, see 498; 499, 8; 501.
IV. CLAUSES INTRODUCED BY quod:
Beneficium est quod necesse eat mori, it is a blessing that it is necessary to
die. Sen. GaudeO quod te interpellavl, / rejoice that (because) I have inter-
rupted you. Cic.
NOTE. Quod-clauses, used substantively, either give prominence to the/ac< stated,
or present it as a ground or reaxon. They may be used as the subjects of impersonal
verbs, as the objects of transitive verbs, especially of such as denote emotion or feelwiQ,
end as appositvces : 1
Hue accedebat quod exercitum luzuridse habnerat, to this was added the fact that
he had kept the army in lua-ury. Sail. Adde quod ingenu&s didicisse artes emoliit
mores, odd the fact that to learn liberal arta refines manner*. Ovid. Bene facis quod
me adjuvas, you do well that you, assist me. Cic. Dolebam quod socium amlseram, 7
was grieving because I had lost a companion. Cic. See also 535, III., note.
SECTION VIII.
GERUNDS, GERUNDIVES," SUPINES, AND PARTICIPLES.
I. GERUNDS.
541. The GERUND is a verbal noun which shares so largely the
character of a verb that it governs oblique cases, and takes ad-
verbial modifiers :
1 Quod-clauses occur (1) as the subject of acoedit, accidit, appdret, ei:enit. Jit,
nocet, obest, occurrit. pr<>dest, etc. ; also of est with a noun or adjective, as causa est,
titium est, etc., griitum est, ind'ignum est, mlruni est, etc.; and (2) as dependent upon
aecftso, adilo, adiced (p. 20, foot-note 1), admlror, antmadverto, angor. bene facto,
detector, doled, eseci~it<>,facid, gaudet\ glorior, laetor, mlror, mitto, omitto, praeterefi,
queror, etc. They are sometimes used lik the Accusative of Specification. See 618,
I, note.
" * The Gerund and the Gerundive were oricinally identical. The former i the nei*
GERUNDS. 315
Jfl vocandl ' senatum, the right of ewmrruming the senate. Liv. Beats
Vivendi ' cupiditas, the desire of living happily. Cic.
NOTE. In a few instances the Gerund has apparently a passive meaning:
Neque habent propriam percipiendl notam, nor have they any proper mark of di-
tinction (i. e., to distinguish them). Cic.
542. The GERUND has four cases the Genitive, Dative, Accusa-
tive, and Ablative used in general like the same cases of nouns.
Thus
I. The GENITIVE OF THE GERUND is used with nouns and adjectives : *
Are Vivendi, the art of living. Cic. StudiOsus erat audiendi, he was de-
sirous of hearing. Nep. Cupidus te audiendi, desirous of hearing you. Cio.
Artem vera ac falsa dijudicandl, the art of distinguishing true things from
false. Cic.
NOTE 1. The Gerund usually governs the same case as the verb, but sometimes, by
virtue of its substantive nature, it governs the Genitive, especially the Genitive of per-
sonal pronouns mel, nostrl, twi, vestri, sul :
Copia placand! tui (of a woman), an opportunity of appeasing you. Ov. Sul con-
servandi causa, for the purpose of preserving themselves. Cic. Vestri adhortandi
causa, for the purpose of exhorting you. Liv. RSiciendi ' jiidicum potestas, the power
of challenging (of) the judges. Cic. Lucis tuendl copia, the privilege of beholding the
light. Plaut.
NOTB 2. The Genitive of the Gerund Is sometimes used to denote purpose or ten-
dency:
Legs pellendi darts vlrfis, laws for (lit., of) driving away illustrious men. Tac.
II. The DATIVE OF THE GERUND is used with a few verbs and adjectives
which regularly govern the Dative :
Cum Bolvendo n6n essent, since they were not able to pay. Cic. Aqua
Qtilis est bibendo, water is useful for drinking. Plin.
Now. The Dative of the Gerund Is rare; * with an object it occurs only in Plautus.
III. The ACCUSATIVE OF THE GERUND is used after a few prepositions : &
Ad discendum propensl sumus, we are inclined to learn (to learning). Cic.
Inter ludendum, in or during play. Quint.
ter of a participle used substantively, while the latter is that same participle used adjec-
tirrly. Moreover, from this participle the Gerund developed an active meaning and the
Gerundive & passive. On the Origin and Use of Gerund* and Qemindires, see Jolly,
Geschichte des Inflnitivs,' pp. 198-200- Draeger, II., pp. 789-828.
1 Vocandl as a Genitive Is governed byji'io, and yet it governs the Accusative Ktvii-
lum ; Vivendi is governed by cupiditas, and yet it takes the adverbial modifier fiet'itf.
3 The adjectives which take the Genitive of the Gerund are chiefly those denoting
DESIRE, KNOWLEDGE, SKILL, RKCOLi.KCTiO!, and their oppositcs - . ovidus, cupidim, ttu-
diotut; cfrnsciim, gndrus, ignarus; perltus, imperitus, inmetus, etc.
1 Pronounced as if written rejiciendl ; see p. 20, foot-note 1.
* According to Jolly, 'Geschlchte des Infinltivs. 1 p. 200, the Gerund originally had
only one case, the Dative, and was virtually an Infinitive.
* Most frequently after ad ; sometimes after inter and oh ; very rarely after ante,
eircii, and in.
316 GERUNDIVES.
NOTE 1. The Accusative of the Gerund with ft direct object is rare:
Ad placandum deos pertinet, it tends to appease the gods. Cic.
NOTE 2. The Gerund with ad often denotes purpose:
Ad imitandum mihl proposition est exemplar illud, that model has been set before
me for imitation. Cic.
IV. The ABLATIVE OF THE GERUND is used (1) as Ablative of Means,
and (2) with prepositions : '
Mens discendo alitur, the mind is nourished by learning. Cic. Salutern
hominibus dando, by giving safety to men. Cic. Virtutes cernuntur in
agendo, virtues are seen in action. Cic. Deterrere a scrlbendo, to deter from
writing. Cic.
NOTE 1. After prepositions, the Ablative of the Gerund with a direct object is ex-
ceedingly rare :
In tribuendo' suum cuique, in giving every one his own. Cic.
NOTE 2. Without a preposition, the Ablative of the Gerund denotes in a few in-
stances some other relation than that of means, as lime, separation, etc. :
1 ucipiendo refugi, / drew back in the very beginning. Cic.
II. GERUNDIVES.
543. The GERUNDIVE, like other participles, agrees with nouns
and pronouns :
Inita sunt cOnsilia urbis delendae, plans have been formed for destroying the
city (of the city to be destroyed). Cic. Numa sacerdotibus creandis animuni
adjecit, Numa gave his attention to the appointment oj priests. Liv.
NOTE. A noun (or pronoun) and a Gerundive in agreement with it form the Ge-
rundive Construction.
544. The GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION may be used
1. In place of a Gerund with a direct object. It then takes the case
of the Gerund whose place it supplies :
Libid6 ejus videndl ( = libido eum videndl), the desire of seeing him (lit. ,
of Mm to be seen). Cic. Platonis audiendi (= Platonem audiendl) studiosus,
fond of hearing Plato. Cic. Legendls Oratoribus (=legendo oratores), bji
reading the orators. Cic.
NOTE. The Gerundive Construction should not be used for the Gerund with a neu'
ter pronoun or adjective as object, as it could not distinguish the gender :
Artera vera ac falsa dijudicandl, the art of distinguishing true things from faint
Cic.
2. In the Dative and in the Ablative vrith a preposition :
Locum oppido condendo ceperunt, they selected a place for founding a city
Liv. Tempora demetendis fructibus accommodata, seasons suitable for gath
ering fruits. Cic. Brutus in liberanda patria est interfectus, Brutus wasslai*
in liberating his country. Cic.
1 Th Ablative of the Gerund is used most frequently after a (b), de, eas (6), in;
rarely after cum, pro, and super.
SUPINES. 317
NOTE 1. The learner will remember that in the Dative (543, II., note) and in the
Ablative with a preposition (543, IV., note 1) the Gerund with a direct object is ex-
ceedingly rare. The Gerundvve Construction supplies its place.
NOTE 2. The Gerundive Construction sometimes denotes purpose or tendency, es-
pecially in the Accusative after verbs of girting, permitting, talcing, etc. :
Attribuit Italiam vastandam (for ad vastandum) Catilinae, he assigned Italy to Cat-
iline to ravage (to be ravaged). Cic. Firmandae valGtudinl in Campaniam concessit,
fie withdrew into Campania to confirm his health. Tac. Haec tradendae Hannibal!
victoriae snnt, these things are for the purpose of giving victory to Hannibal. Liv.
ProficTscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis, he sets out for the purpose of studying antiq-
uity. Tac.
NOTE 3. The Gerundive Construction in the Dative occurs after certain official
names, as decemviri, triumviri, comitia : l
Decemviros legibus scribendis creavimus, we have appointed a committee of ten to
prepare lairs. Liv.
NOTE 4. The Gerundive Construction in the Ablative occurs after comparatives :
Nullum officiatn referenda gratia magis necessarium est, no duty is more necessary
than that of returning a favor. Cic.
NOTE 5. The Gerundive Construction is in general admissible only in transitive
verbs, but it occurs in fitor,fruor,fungor, potior, etc., originally transitive :
Ad munus fungendum, for discharging the duty. Cic. Spes potiundorum castro-
rum, tlit hope of getting possession of t?w camp. Caes.
III. SUPINES.
545. The SUPINE, like the Gerund, is a verbal noun. It has a
form in um and a form in u.
NOTE 1. The Supine in um is an Accusative; that in u is generally an Ablative,
though sometimes perhaps a Dative. 3
NOTB 2. The Supine in um governs the same case as the verb :
LSg&toi mittunt rogatum auxilium, they send ambassadors to ask aid. Caes.
RULE LIX. Supine in Um.
546. The Supine in um is used with verbs of motion
to express PURPOSE :
LSgfttl vSngrunt re's repetltum, deputies came to demand restitution. Liv.
Ad Caesarem congrfttulatum convcngrunt, they came to Caesar to congrat-
ulate him. Caes.
1. The Supine in um occurs in few instances after verbs which do not directly ex-
press motion :
Flliam Agrippae nuptum dedit, he gave hit daughter in marriage to Agrippa.
Suet.
2. The Supine in um with the /erb eo is equivalent to the forms of the first Periphras-
tic Conjugation, and may often be rendered literally :
Bonos ornnr-s perditum cunt, they are going to destroy all the good. Sail.
1 But in most instances the Dative may be explained as dependent either npon tho
verb or upon the predicate as a whole; see 384, 4.
* See Hiibschmann, p. 223; Draeger, II., p. 838; Jolly, p. 201.
318 PARTICIPLES.
NOT. But in subordinate clauses the Supine in wm with the verb rf> is often used
for the simple verb :
Ultum Ire (= ulclflel) injurias festlnat, he hastens to avenge the injuries. Sail.
8. The Supine in urn with iri, the Infinitive Passive of eO, forms, it will be remem-
bered (222, HI., 1), the Future Passive Infinitive:
Brutum visum iri a me puto, / think Brutus will be seen by me. Cic.
4. The Supine in um is not very common ; l but purpose may be denoted by other
constructions :
1) By ut or gul icith the Subjunctive; see 497.
t) By Gerunds or Gerundives; see 542, 1., note 2, and III., note 2; 544, 2, note 2.
8) By Participles; see 549, 8.
RULE LX. Supine in u.
547. The Supine in u is generally used as an Ablative
of Specification (424) :
Quid est tarn jucundum audltu, what is so agreeable to /tear (in hearing) ?
fie. Difficile dictu est, it is difficult to tell. Cic. De genere mortis difficile
dictu est, it is difficult to speak of the kind of death. Cic. Clvitas incredi-
bile memoratu est quantum creverit, it is incredible to relate how much (he
stale increased. Sail. Pudet dictu, it is a shame to fell. Tac.
NOTE. The Supine in u never governs an oblique case, but it may take an Ablative
with a preposition, as in the third example above.
1. The Supine in ft is used chiefly with jucundus. optimus: facilis, prdcl'rw, dif
fic.ili; incredibili*. memor<~,bili>i ; Fiontstus, turpis; d'ignus, indlgnus; /<7, nefdt,
opus, and scelus ; rarely with verbs.
2. The Supine in u is very rare. The most common examples are audltfi, dictf/,
factUi natu, visu; less common, cognitii, intelleetu, inventu, memoratu, relMtu.^
scitu^tractatu, vwtu.*
IV. PARTICIPLES.
548. The PABTICIPLE is a verbal adjective which governs the
same cases as the verb :
Animus s8 nOn vidSns alia cernit, the mind, though it does not see itself
(lit., not seeing itself ), discerns other things. Cic.
NOTB l."For Participle* used substantively, see 441.
NOTE 2. Participles used substantively sometimes retain the adverbial modifiers
which belonged to them as participles, and sometimes take adjective modifiers:
Non tarn praemia sequi recte factorum quam ipsa recte facta, not to seek the rewards
of good deeds (things rightly done) so much as good deeds themselves. Cic. Praecla-
rum atqne divinum factum, an excellent and divine deed. Cic.
549. PARTICIPLES are often used
1. To denote TIME, CAUSE, MANNER, MEANS:
1 According to Draeger, II., p. 829, the Supine in um is found in only two hundred
and thirty -six verbs, mostly of the First and Third Conjugations.
3 According to Draeger, II., p. 83$, the Supine in u is found in one hundred and nine
verbs.
PARTICIPLES. 319
Plato scrlbcns mortuus est, Plato died while writing. Cic. Iturt in proe-
lium canunt, they sing when about to go into battle. Tac. Sol oriens diem
conficit, the sun by its rising causes the day. Cic. Mllites renuntiant, se per-
fidiam veritos revertisse, the soldiers report that they returned because they
feared perfidy (having feared). Caes.
2. To denote CONDITION or CONCESSION :
Mendaci hominl ne verum quidem dlcenti credere non solgmus, we are
not wont to believe a liar, even if he speaks the truth. Cic. Reluctante natura,
irritus labor est, if nature opposes, effort is vain. Sen. Scrlpta tua jam difl
exspectans, non audeo tamen flagitare, though I have been long expecting your
work, yet I do not dare to ask for it. Cic.
3. To denote PURPOSE :
Perseus rediit, belli casum tentaturus, Perseus returned to try (about to
try) the fortune of war. Liv. Attribuit nos trucldandds Cethego, he assigned
un to Cethegus to slaughter. Cic.
4. To supply the place of RELATIVE CLAUSES :
Omnes aliud agentes, aliud simulantes, improbl sunt, all who do one thing
and pretend another are dishonest. Oic.
6. To supply the place of PRINCIPAL CLAUSES :
Classem devlctam cepit, he conquered and took the fleet (took the fleet con-
quered). Nep. R3 cOnsentientes, vocabulls differfibant, they agreed in fact,
but differed in words. Cic.
NOTE 1. A participle with a negative is often best rendered by a participial noun
and the preposition without :
Miserum est, nthil proflclentcm angl, it i sad to be troubled witfiout accomplish-
ing anything. Cic. Non Grubescuns, without blushing. Cic.
NOTE 2. The perfect participle is often best rendered by a participial or
verbal noun with of :
Homerus fuit ante ROmam conditam, Homer lived (was) before the found-
ing of Rome (before Rome founded). Cic.
550. The TENSES OP THE PARTICIPLE Present, Perfect, and
Future denote only relative time. They accordingly represent
the time respectively as present, past, and future relatively to that
of the principal verb :
Oculus s6 n6n vidfins alia cernit, the eye, though it does not see itself (not
seeing itself), discerns other thing*. Cic. Plato scrlbens mortuus est, Plato
died while writing. Cic. Ova maturata dulcescit, the grape, when it hdf
ripened (having ripened), becomes sweet. Cic. Sapiens bona semper placituru
laudat, the wise man praises blessings which will always please (being about to
please). Sen.
NOTB 1. The perfect participle, both in deponent and in passive verbs, is sometimes
ased of present time, and sometimes in passive verbs it loses in a great degree its forc
ON a tense, aud is best rendered by a verbal noun :
320 PARTICLES.
Elsdem ducibus Cisus Numidas mittit, employing the same persons at guides, h*
tmt the Numidians. Caes. Incensas perfert naves, he reports the burning of tht,
ships (the ships set on fire). Verg. See also 544.
NOTE 2. In the compound tenses the perfect participle often becomes virtually a
predicate adjective expressing the result of the action :
Causae sunt cdgnitae, the causes are knoicn. Caes. See also 471, 6, note 1.
NOTE 8. For the Perfect Participle with habef), see 388, 1, note.
NOTE 4. The want of a perfect active participle is sometimes supplied by a temporal
tlause, and sometimes by a, perfect passive participle in the Ablative Absolute :
Caesar, postquam venit, Rhenum translre constituit, Caesar, having arrived, de-
cided to cross the Rhine. Caes. Equitatu praemisso subsequebatur, having sent for-
ward his cavalry, he followed. Caes. See also 431 ; 519.
NOTE 6. The want of a present passive participle is generally supplied by tem-
poral clause :
Com a Catone laudabar, reprehend! me a cSteris paticbar, being praised by Cat-o, 1
allowed myself to be censured by the others. Cic.
CHAPTER VI.
SYNTAX OF PARTICLES.
RULE LXI. Use of Adverbs.
551. Adverbs qualify VEKBS, ADJECTIVES, and other
ADVERBS :
SapientSs f Sllciter vivunt, the wise live happily. Cic. Facile doctissimuS,
unquestionably the most learned. Cic. Haud aliter, not otlierwise. Verg.
NOTE 1. For predicate adverbs with sum, see 360, note 2 ; for adverbs with
nouns used adjectively, see 441, 3; for adverbs in place of adjectives, sec 443, notes
3 and 4; for adverbs with participles used substantively, see 548. note 2.
NOTE 1. Sic and ita mean 'so,' 'thus.' Ita has also a limiting sense, 'in so far,' as
in ita si (5O7, 8, note 2). Adeo means 'to such a degree or result'; tarn, tantopere,
' so much' tarn used mostly with adjectives and adverbs, and tantopere with verbs.
552. The common negative particles are non, ne, Jmud.
1. Non is the usual negative ; ne is used in prohibitions, wishes, and purposes (483,
8; 488; 497), and hand, in haud scid an, and with adjectives and adverbs : hand mi-
rabile, not wonderful ; haud aliter, not otherwise. Nl for ne is rare. N't. non after
iridt is often best rendered whether.
2. In non modo non and in non sdlum non the second non is generally omitted be-
fore sed or verum, followed by ne quidem or via; (rarely etiam), when the verb of the
second clause belongs also to the first :
AssentatiS non modo amico, sed nS Ilber8 quidem digna est, flattery is not only not
worthy of a friend, but not even of a free man. dc.
8. Minus often has nearly the force of non ; si minus si non. Sin aliter hJ
nearly the same force as i minus. Minimi often means 'not at all,' 'by no means.'
CONJUNCTIONS. 321
553. Two NEGATIVES are generally equivalent to an affirma-
tive, as in English :
Nihil n6n arroget, let him claim everything. Hor. Neque hoc ZenCi non
vldit, rtor did Zeno overlook this. Cic.
1. Non before a general negative gives It the force of an Indefinite affirmative, but
after such negative the force of a general affirmative :
N6nnem6, some one ; nonnihil, something; nfmniinquam, sometimes /
NStnO non, every one ; nihil non, everything; nunquam non, always.
2. After a general negative, nfijuidem gives emphasis to the negation, and nequt
-^neque, neve neve, and the like, repeat the negation distributively :
Non praetereundnm est nO id quidem, we must not pass by even thit. Cic. Nfim6
unquam neque poeta neque orator fuit, no one wa ever either a poet or an orator. Cic.
NOTE. For the Use of Prepositions, see 432-435.
554. COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS unite similar constructions
(309, 1). They comprise five classes.
I. COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS denote UNION :
Castor et Pollux, Castor and Pollux. Cic. Senatus populusque, tht stnatt
and people. Cic. Nee erat difficile, nor was it difficult. Liv.
1. For list, see 310, 1.
2. Et simply connects ; que implies a more Intimate relationship; atque and ac gen-
erally give prominence to what follow*. Neque and nee have the force of et non. Et
and etiam sometimes mean even.
NOTB. Atque and dc generally mean at, than, after adjectives and adverbs of like-
ness and nnlikeness: tdUsdo 'such as'; aeque ac, ' equally as '; aUter atque, 'other-
wise than. 1 gee also 451, 5.
8. Que is an enclitic, and ac In the best prose is used only befor consonants.
4. Ktiam, quoque, adeo, and the like, are sometimes associated with <>/, atque. Ac,
and que, and sometimes even supply their place. Quoque follows the word which it
connects : it quoque, ' he also. 1 Etiam, ' also,' ' further,' ' even,' often adds a new cir-
cumstance.
5. Sometimes two copulatives are used : et et, que que, 1 et que, queet, que
atque, 1 turn turn, cum turn, ' both and ' ; but cum turn gives prominence to the sec-
ond word or clause; nbn solum (non modo, or n6n tantum) ed etiam (vCmm etiam),
'not only but also'; neque (nee) neque (nee), 'neither nor'; neque (nee) et (que),
' not but (and) ' ; et neque (nc), ' and not.'
6. Between two words connected copulatively the conjunction is generally expressed,
though sometimes omitted, especially between the names of two colleagues. Between
several words it is in the best prose generally repeated or omitted altogether, though
que may be used with the last even when the conjunction is omitted between the others :
pda> et tranquill&ttls et concordia, or pdas, tranquiHitdt, concorilia, or pax, tranquil-
litas, concordiaque.
NOTB 1. Et is often omitted between conditional clauses, except before nfm..
NOTE 2. A series may begin with prlmum or prlmfi, may be continued by detndt
followed by turn, posted, praeterea, or some similar word, and may close with dfniqiit
1 Que '/nt is rare, except in poetry; que atque, rr even In poevry; fee Verg.
A-eu., I., 18; Oeor., 1., 188.
322 CONJUNCTIONS.
or posti'emn. 1 Deinde may be repeated several times between prlmnim and denique ot
postremd." 1
IL DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS denote SEPARATION :
Aut vestra aut sua culpa, either your fault or Ms own. Liv. Duabus tri-
busve hOrls, in two or three hours. Cic.
1. For list, see 31O, 2.
2. Aut denotes a stronger antithesis than vel, and must be used if the one supposition
excludes the other: aut verum autfalsum, ' either true or false.' Vel implies a differ-
ence in the expression rather than in the thing. It is generally corrective, and is often
followed by potius, etiam, or dloam : lauddtur, vel etiam amatur, ' he is praised, or
even (rather) loved.' It sometimes means even, and sometimes for example. Velut
often means/or example. Ve for vel is appended as an enclitic.
NOTE. In negative clauses aut and ve often continue the negation : non honor aut
virtue, ' neither (not) honor nor virtue.'
3. iSlve (si ve) does not imply any real difference or opposition ; it often connect*
different names of the same object : Pallas sine Minerva, ' Pallas or Minerva ' (anothe*
name of the same goddess).
NOTE. Disjunctive conjunctions are often combined as correlatives: aut aut, ve>,
vel, etc., 'either or.'
III. ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS denote OPPOSITION or CONTRAST :
CupiO me esse clementem, Bed me inertiae condemno, 7 wish to be mild,
but I condemn myself for inaction. Cic. Magnes ferrum ad se trab.it, ratio-
nein autem adferre uon possumus, the magnet attracts iron, but we can not
assign a reason. Cic.
1. Fo: list, see 31O, 3.
2. Sed and verwn mark a direct opposition; autem and verb only a transition; m
emphasizes the opposition ; atqul often introduces an objection ; ceterum means ' bu %
mill,' -as to the rest ' ; tomm, 'yet.'
NOTE. Sed and verum are sometimes resumptive ; see IV., 8, blow :
Sed age, responde. but some : ej/ii/. Plaut.
3. Attamen, Kedtamen, vfruntamen, 'but yet,' are compounds oftamen.
4. Autem and vfro are postpositive, i. e., they are placed after one or more w^rds
in their clauses.
IV. ILLATIVE CONJUNCTIONS denote INFERENCE :
In umbra igitur pugnabimus, we shall therefore fight in the shade. Cic.
1. For list, see 31O, 4.
2. Certain other words, sometimes classed with adverbs and sometimes with conjunc-
tions, are also illatives, as ef>, idef>, idcirefi, propteretl, quamobrem, quapntpter, qiu'irf,
quocircd.
8. Igitur generally follows the word which it connects : hie igitur, ' this one there-
fore.' After a digression, igitur, sed, sed tamen, verum, verum tamen, etc., are often
used to resume an interrupted thought or construction. They may often be rendered ' I
say ' : Sed si quitt, ' if any one, 1 say.'
1 For examples, see Cic., Fam., XV., 14; Div., II., 56.
2 Cicero, Inv., II., 49, has a series of ten members in which primum introduces the
flrst member, postrfwo the last, and delude each of the other eight.
CONJUNCTIONS. 323
V. CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS denote CAUSE :
Difficile est consilium, sum enim solus, counsel is difficult, for I am alone.
Cic. Etenim jus amant,/or they love the right. Cic.
1. For list, see 31O, 5.
2. Etenim and namque denote a closer connection than enim and nam.
3. Enim is postpositive; see 554, III., 4.
555. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS connect subordinate with
principal constructions (309, 2). They comprise eight classes.
I. TEMPORAL CONJUNCTIONS denote TIME:
Paruit cum necesse erat, he obeyed when it was necessary. Cic. Dum ego
in Sicilia sum, while I am in Sicily. Cic. See also 311, 1 ; 518-521.
I. Dum added to a negative means yet; nondum, 'not yet'; virdum, ' scarcely yet. 1
II. COMPARATIVE CONJUNCTIONS denote COMPARISON :
Ut optusti, ita est, it is as you desired. Cic. Velut si adesset, as if he wert
present. Caes. See also 311, 2; 513, II.
1. CORKELATIVES are often used : Tain quam, 'as,' 'so as, 1 'as much as'; tarn
quam quod ma&ime, ' as much as possible ( ; nfm minun quam, ' not less than ' ; noti
mayis quam, 'not more than. 1
Tarn quam and ut ita with a superlative are sometimes best rendered by the with
the comparative : ut mdxime, ita mdtrimP, 'the more the more.'
III. CONDITIONAL CONJUNCTIONS denote CONDITION :
Si peccavl, Ignosce, if I have erred, pardon me. Cic. Nisi est consilium
doml, unless there is wisdom at home. Cic. See also 311, 3 ; 5O6-513.
1. yisi, 'if not, 1 in negative sentences often means 'except' ; and nisi quod, 'except
that, 1 may be used even in affirmative sentences. Ni#i may mean ' than. 1 Nihil aliud n*fi
= ' nothing further ' (more, except) ; nihil aliud quam = ' nothing else 1 (other than).
IV. CONCESSIVE CONJUNCTIONS denote CONCESSION :
Quamquam intellegunt, though they understand. Cic. EtsI nihil habeat,
although he has nothing. Cic. See also 311, 4; 514; 515.
V. FINAL CONJUNCTIONS denote PURPOSE :
Esse oportet, ut vivas, it is necessary to eat, that you may live. Cic. See
also 311, 5; 497-499.
VI. CONSECUTIVE CONJUNCTIONS denote CONSEQUENCE or RESULT :
Atticus ita vlxit, ut Atheniensibus esset carissimus, Atticus so lived that
he was very dear to the Athenians. Nep. Sec also 311, 6 ; 5OO-5O4.
VII. CAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS denote CAUSE :
Quae cum ita sint, since these things areso. Cic. See also 311, 7 ; 516 ; 517.
VIII. INTERROGATIVE CONJUNCTIONS or Particles denote INQUIRY or QUES-
TION:
Quaesieras, nonne putarem, you had asked whether I did not think. Cic.
See also 311, 8 ; 351-353 ; 52.
324 RULES OF SYNTAX.
556. INTERJECTIONS are sometimes used entirely alone, as
' alas ! ' and sometimes with certain cases of nouns; see 381, with
note 3.
557. Various parts of speech, and even oaths and imprecations,
sometimes have the force of interjections :
Pax (peace), be still.' miserum, miserabUe, sad, lamentable/ Oro, pray !
age, agite, come, well! mehercules, by Hercules! per deum fldem, in tAt
name of the gods ! sddes = si audes (for audies), i/ you will heart
CHAPTER VII.
RULES OF SYNTAX.
558. For convenience of reference, the principal Rules of Syn-
tax are here introduced in a body.
AGREEMENT OF NOUNS.
I. A noun predicated of another noun denoting the same person
or thing agrees with it in CASE (362) :
Brutus cffstos llbertatis fuit, Brutus was the guardian of liberty.
II. An Appositive agrees in CASE with the noun or pronoun
which it qualifies (363) :
Clullius rex moritur, ChiiUus fh Icing dies.
NOMINATIVE. VOCATIVE.
III. The Subject of a Finite verb is put in the Nominative (368) :
Servius rggnavit, Servius reigned.
IV. The Name of the person or thing addressed is put in the
Vocative (369) :
Pfirge, Laell, proceed, Latlvue,
ACCUSATIVE.
V. The DIRECT OBJECT of an action is put in the Accusative
(111):
Deus mundum aedificavit, (rod made (built) the world.
VI. Verbs of MAKING, CHOOSING, CALLING, REGARDING, SHOW-
ING, and- the like, admit two Accusatives of the same person 01
thing (3T3) :
Hamilcarem imperatOrem ftcfcrunt, they made Hamilcar commander.
RULES OF SYNTAX. 325
VII. Borne verbs of ASKING, DEMANDING, TEACHING, and CON-
CEALING admit two Accusatives one of the person and the other
of the thing (3T4) :
Me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion.
VIII. A verb or an adjective may take an Accusative to define
its application (3T8) :
Capita velamur, we have our "heads veiled.
IX. DUBATION OF TIME and EXTENT OF SPACE are expressed by
the Accusative (3T9) :
Septem et trlginta regnavit ann6s, he reigned thirty-seven years. Qumque
milia passunin ambulare, to walk five miles.
X. The PLACE TO WHICH is designated by the Accusative (380) :
I. Generally with a preposition ad or in :
LegiOnes ad urbem adducit, he is leading the legions to or toward the city.
II. In names of towns without a preposition :
Nuntius Romam redit, the messenger returns to Rome.
XI. The Accusative, either with or without an interjection, may
be used in Exclamations (381) :
lieu me miserum, nh me unhappy !
DATIVE.
XII. The INDIKECT OBJECT of an action is put in the Dative.
It is used (384)
I. With INTRANSITIVE and PASSIVE verbs :
Tib! servio, I am devoted to you.
II. With TRANSITIVE verbs, in connection with the DIRECT OBJKCT :
AgrOs plebl dedit, he gave lands to the common people.
XIII. Two Datives the OBJECT TO WHICH and the OBJECT or
END FOR WHICH occur with a few verbs (390) :
I. With INTRANSITIVE and PASSIVE verbs :
Malo eat hominibus avaritia, avarice is an evil to men.
II. With TRANSITIVE verbs in connection with the ACCUSATIVE:
Qumque cohortes castrts praesidio rellquit, he left five cohorts for the de-
fence of the camp.
XIV. With adjectives, the OBJECT TO WHICH the quality is di-
rected is put in the Dative (391) :
Omnibus caruni eat, it is dear to all.
326 RULES OF SYNTAX.
XV. The Dative is used with a few special nouns and adverbs
(392):
I. With a few nouns from verbs which take the Dative :
Justitia est obtemperati6 legibus, justice is obedience to laws.
II. With a few adverbs from adjectives which take the Dative :
Congruenter naturae vivere, to live in accordance with nature.
GENITIVE.
XVI. Any noun, not an Appositive, qualifying the meaning of
another noun, is put in the Genitive (395) :
Catonis orationes, Colo's orations.
XVII. Many adjectives take a Genitive to complete their mean-
ing (399) :
Avidus luudis, desirous of praise.
XVIII. A noun predicated of another noun denoting a different
person or thing is put in the Genitive (401) :
Omnia hostium erant, all things belonged to the enemy.
XIX. The Genitive is used (406)
I. With misereor and miserescO :
Miserere labOrum, pity the labors.
II. With recorder, memini, reminiscor, and oblivlscor :
Meminit praeteritOrum, he remembers the past.
III. With refert and interest :
Interest omnium, it is the interest of all.
XX. The ACCUSATIVE of the PERSON and the GENITIVE of the
THING are used with a few transitive verbs (409) :
I. With verbs of reminding, admonishing :
Te amicitiae eommonefacit, he reminds you of friendship.
II. With verbs of accusing, convicting, acquitting:
Viros scelerls arguis, you accuse men of crime.
III. With miseret, paenitet, pudet, taedet, and piget:
Eorum nOs miseret, we pity them.
ABLATIVE PROPER.
XXI. The PLACE FROM WHICH is denoted by the Ablative (412):
I. Generally with a preposition a, ah, de, or ex :
Ab urbe proficiscitur, he sets ovtfrom the city.
RULES OP SYNTAX.
II. In NAMES OF TOWNS without a preposition :
Platonem Athenls arcgsslvit, he summoned Plato from Athens.
XXII. Separation. Source, and Cause are denoted by the Abla-
tive with or without a preposition (413) :
Caedem a vobls depello, / ward off slaughter from you. Hoc audlvl de
parente meo, / heard this from my father. Are utilitate laudatur, an art is
praised because of its usefulness.
XXni. Comparatives without QUAM are followed by the Abla-
tive (41T):
Nihil est amabilius virtute, nothing is more lovely than virtue.
INSTRUMENTAL ABLATIVE.
XXIV. The Ablative is used (419)
I. To denote ACCOMPANIMENT. It then takes the preposition cum :
Vlvit cum Balbo, he lives with Balbus.
II. To denote CHARACTERISTIC or QUALITY. It is then modified by an
Adjective or by a Genitive :
Summa virtute adulescens, a youth of the highest virtue.
III. To denote MANNER. It then takes the preposition cum, or is mod-
ified by an Adjective or by a Genitive :
Cum virtute vlxit, h-e lived virtuously.
XXV. INSTRUMENT and MEANS are denoted by the Ablative (420) :
Cornibus taurl se tutantur, bulls defend themselves with their horns.
XXVI. The Ablative is used (421)
I. With titor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds :
Plurimls rebus fruimur et utimur, we enjoy and use very m<iny thinyx.
II. With VERBS and ADJECTIVES OF PLENTY :
Villa abundat lacte, caseo, mclle, the villa abounds in milk, cheese, and honey.
III. With dlgnus, indlgnus, and contentus :
Dlgnl sunt amlcitia, they are rrorthy of friendship.
XXVII. PRICE is generally denoted by the Ablative (422) :
Vendidit aur6 patriam, he sold his country for gold.
XXVIII. The MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE is denoted by the Ab-
lative (423) :
Un6 die longiorcm mensem faciunt, they make the month one day longer.
XXIX. A noun, adjective, or verb may take an Ablative to de-
fine its application (424) :
Nomine, non potentate, fuit rex, he was king in name, not in power.
328 RULES OF SYNTAX.
LOCATIVE ABLATIVE.
XXX. The PLACE IN WHICH is denoted (425)
I. Generally by the Locative Ablative with the preposition in :
Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal wag in Italy.
II. In NAMES OF TOWNS by the Locative, if such a form exists, other-
wise by the Locative Ablative :
Romae fuit, he was at Home.
XXXI. The TIME of an action is denoted by the Ablative
(429):
Octogesimo anno est mortuus, he died in his eightieth year.
XXXII. A noun and a participle may be put in the Ablative to
add to the predicate an attendant circumstance (431) :
Servio regnante viguerunt, they flourished in the reign of Serving.
CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
. The Accusative and Ablative may be used with prepo-
sitions
Ad amicum, to a friend. In Italia, in Italy.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, AND VERBS.
XXXIV. An adjective agrees with its noun in GENDER, NUM-
BER, and CASE (438) :
Forttina caeca est, fortune is blind.
XXXV. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in GENDER, NUM-
BER, and PERSON (445) :
Animal, quod sanguinem habet, an animal which has blood.
XXXVI. A finite verb agrees with its subject in NUMBER and
PERSON (460) :
Ego r&gSs eject, I have banished kings.
USE OP THE INDICATIVE.
XXXVU. The Indicative is used in treating of facts (474) :
Deus mundum aedificavit, God made (built) the world.
MOODS AND TENSES EN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES.
/
XXXVIII. The Subjunctive is used to represent the action NOT
AB REAL, but AS DESIRED (483) :
Valeant elves, may the citizens be well.
RULES OF SYNTAX. 329
XXXTX. The Subjunctive is used to represent the action NOT AS
REAL, but AS POSSIBLE (485) :
Hie quaerat quispiam, here some one may inquire.
XL. The Imperative is used in COMMANDS, EXHORTATIONS, and
ENTREATIES (487) :
Justitiam cole, practice justice.
MOODS AND TENSES IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
XLI. Principal tenses depend upon principal tenses ; historical
upon historical (491) :
Enitit ur ut vincat, he strives to conquer.
XLII. The Subjunctive is used to denote PURPOSE (497)
I. With the relative qul, and with relative adverbs, as ubl, unde, etc. :
Missl sunt qul (= ut iX) c6nsulerent Apollinem, they were tent to consult
Apollo.
II. With ut, no, quo, quominus :
Enltitur ut vincat, he strives that he may conquer,
XLIII. The Subjunctive is used to denote RESULT (500)
I. With the relative qtd, and with relative adverbs, as ubl, unde, ciir,
etc. :
Non is sum qul (= ut ego) his utar, / am not such a one as to use these
things.
II. With ut, ut ii5n, quln :
Ita vlxit ut AthSniensibus esset carissimus, he so lived that he was vtry
dear to the Athenians.
XLIV. Conditional sentences with si, nisi, nl, sin, take (507)
I. The INDICATIVE in both clauses to assume the supposed case :
Si splritum d licit, vlvit, if he breathes, he is alive.
II. The PRESENT or PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in both clauses to represent
the supposed case as possible :
Dies deficiat, si velim causam defendere, the day would fail me, if I should
wish to defend the cause.
III. The IMPERFECT or PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVK in both clauses to rep-
resent the supposed case as contrary to fact :
Pluribus verbls ad tfc scriberem, si res verba dCsideriiret, /should write tc
you more fully (with more words), if the case required words.
XLV. Conditional clauses take the Subjunctive (518)-
330 RULES OF SYNTAX.
I. With dum, modo, dummodo, ' if only,' ' provided that ' ; dum nS,
modo ne, dummodo ne, ' if only not,' ' provided that not ' :
Manent ingenia, modo permaneat industria, mental powers remain, if only
industry remains.
II. With ac si, ut si, quam si, quasi, tanquam, tanquam si, velut,
velut si, ' as if,' ' than if,' involving an ellipsis of the real conclusion :
Perinde habebo, ac si scrtpsisses, / shall regard it just as it (i. e., as i
should if) you had written.
XL VI. Concessive clauses take (515)
I. Generally the INDICATIVE in the best prose, when introduced by
quamquam :
Quamquam intellegunt, though they understand.
II. The INDICATIVE or SUBJUNCTIVE when introduced by etsl, etiamsi,
tametsl, or si, like conditional clauses with si :
Etsl nihil scio quod gaudeam, though I knoiv no reason why I should rejoice.
III. The SUBJUNCTIVE when introduced by licet, quamvls, ut, ne, cum, or
the relative qul.'
Licet irrideat, though he may deride.
XL VII. Causal clauses with quod, quia, quoniam, quando, gen-
erally take (516)
I. The INDICATIVE to assign a reason positively on owe's own authority :
Quoniam supplicati6 decreta est, since a thanksgiving has been decreed.
II. The SUBJUNCTIVE to assign a reason doubtfully, or on another's au-
thority :
S6crates accusatus est, quod corrumperet juventutem, Socrates was accused,
because he corrupted the youth.
XLVIII. Causal clauses with cum and qul generally take the
Subjunctive in writers of the best period (517) :
Cum vita metus plena sit, since life is full of fear.
XLIX. In temporal clauses with postquam, postedquam, uM, ut,
#imul atque, etc., 'after,.? 'when,' 'as soon as,' the Indicative is
used (518) :
Postquam vidit, etc. , castra posuit, he pitched his camp, after he saw, etc.
L. I. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, in the sense
of WHTLE, AS LONG AS, take the INDICATIVE (519) :
Haec f6cl, dum licuit, I did this while it was allowed.
II. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, in the sens*
of UNTIL, take
RULES OF SYNTAX. 331
1. The INDICATIVE, when the action is viewed as an ACTUAL PACT:
Dellbera hoc, dum ego redeo, consider this until I return.
2. The SUBJUNCTIVE, when the action is viewed as something DESIRED,
PROPOSED, OF CONCEIVED :
Different, dum defervescat Ira, let them defer it till their anger cools.
LI. In temporal clauses with antequam and priusquam (520)
I. Any tense except the Imperfect and Pluperfect is put
1. In the INDICATIVE, when the action is viewed as an ACTUAL FACT:
Priusquam lucet, adsimt, they are present before it is light.
2. In the SUBJUNCTIVE, when the action is viewed as SOMETHING DE-
BIRED, PROPOSED, OF CONCEIVED:
Antequam de rC publica dlcam, before /(can) speak of the republic.
II. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are put in the SUBJUNCTIVE :
Antequam urbem caperent, before they toolc the city.
LII. In temporal clauses with cum (521)
I. Any tense except the Imperfect and the Pluperfect is put in the
INDICATIVE :
Cum quiSscunt, probant, while they are silent, they approve.
II. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are put
1. In the INDICATIVE, when the temporal clause ASSERTS AN HISTORICAL
PACT:
Paruit cum necesse erat, he obeyed when it was necessary.
2. In the SUBJUNCTIVE, when the temporal clause simply DEFINES THE
TIMK of the principal action :
Cum epistulam complicarem, while I was folding the letter.
LIII. The principal clauses of the DIRECT DISCOURSE on becom-
ing INDIRECT take the INFINITIVE or SUBJUNCTIVE as follows (523) :
I. When DECLARATIVE, they take the Infinitive with a Subject Accusative :
Dlcebat animOs ease dlvlnOs, he was wont to say that souls are divine.
II. When INTERROGATIVE, they take
1. Generally the Subjunctive:
Ad postulate Caesaris respondit, quid sib! vellet, cur venlret, to the de-
mands of Caesar he replied, what did he wish, why did he come f
2. Sometimes the Infinitive with a Subject Accusative, as in rhetorical
questions :
Docebant rem ease testimOnio, etc. ; quid ease levius, they showed that tht
fact was a proof, etc. ; what was more inconsiderate?
332 RULES OF SYNTAX.
III. When IMPERATIVE, they take the Subjunctive :
Scrtbit Labieno cum legi&ne veniat, he writes to Labienus to vmt (that he
should come) with a legion.
LIV. The subordinate clauses of the DIRECT DISCOURSE, on be-
coming INDIRECT, take the Subjunctive (524) :
Respondit se id quod in Nervils fecisset facturum, he replied that he would
do what he had done in the case of the Nervii.
LV. The Subjunctive is used (529)
I. In indirect questions :
Quaeritur, cur dc-ctissimi homines dissentiant, it is a question, why the
most learned men disagree.
II.- Often in clauses dependent upon an Infinitive or upon another Sub-
junctive :
Nihil indlgnius est quam eum qul culpa careat supplicio non carSre, noth-
ing it more shameful than that he who is free from fault should not bt ex-
empt from punishment,
INFINITIVE.
LVI. Many verbs admit an Infinitive to complete or qualify then
meaning (533) :
Haeo vltare cupimua, we desire to avoid these things.
LVII. Many transitive verbs admit both an Accusative and an
Infinitive (534):
Te sapere docet, he teaches you to b wise.
LVIII. The Infinitive sometimes takes an Accusative as its sub
ject (536) :
Platdnem Tarentum venisse reperio, I find that Plato came to Tarentuni.
SUPINE.
LIX. The Supine in um is used with verbs of motion to express
PURPOSE (546) :
LegatI venerunt res repetltum, deputies came to demand restitution.
LX. The Supine in u is generally used as an Ablative of Speci
fication (547) :
Quid est tarn jucundum auditu, what is so agreeable to hear (in hearing) ?
ADVERBS.
LXI. Adverbs qualify VERBS, ADJECTIVES, and other ADVERBS
(551) :
Sapientee ffellciter vlvunt, the wise live happily
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 333
CHAPTER VIII.
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND
CLAUSES.
559. The Latin admits of great variety in the arrangement of
the different parts of the sentence, thus affording peculiar facilities
both for securing proper emphasis, and for imparting to its periods
that harmonious flow which characterizes the Latin classics. But
with all this freedom and variety, there are certain general laws of
arrangement which it will be useful to notice.
L ARRANGEMENT OP WORDS.
general Rules.
560. The Subject followed by its modifiers occupies the first
place in the sentence, and the Predicate preceded by its modifiers
the last place :
Sol oriens diem conficit, the tun rising makes the day. Cic. Animus aegcr
semper errat, a diseased mind always errs. Cic. Miltiades Athenas liberavit,
Miltiades liberated Athens. Nep.
561. EMPHASIS and EUPHONY affect the arrangement of words.
L Any word, except the subject, may be made emphatic by being placed
at the BEGINNING of the sentence :
Silent leges inter arraa, laws ABE SILENT in war. Cic. Nwnitori Remus
deditur, Remus is delivered TO NCIOTOR. Liv.
II. Any word, except the predicate, may be made emphatic by being
placed at the END of the sentence :
Nobls nOn satisfacit ipse D'emottheneg, even DEMOSTHENES doe* not satisfy
*. Cic. COnsulatum petlvit nunquam^ he NEVER soutjlit the consulship. Cic.
III. Two words naturally connected, as a noun and its adjective, or a
noun and its Genitive, are sometimes made emphatic by SEPARATION :
Objwrgdtidnes nonnunquam incidunt necessarian, sometimes necessary RE-
PROOFS occur. Cic. Justitiae fungiitur officils, let him discharyt the duties of
Cic.
NOTK. A word may be made emphatic by being placed between the part* of a com
pound tense :
Magna adhlblta cura est, great care ha* been taken. Cic.
562. CHIASMUS.' When two groups of words are contrasted,
the order of the first is often reversed in tin- second :
> So called from the Greek letter X.
334 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.
Fragile corpus animus sempiternus movet, the imperishable soul moves tht
perishable body. Cic.
563. KINDRED WORDS. Different forms of the same word, or
different words of the same derivation, are generally placed near
each other:
Ad senem senex de senectute scrips!, /, an old matt, wrote to an old man
in the subject of old age, Cic. Inter sS alias alii prosunt, they benefit each
Iker. Cic.
564. A word which has a COMMON RELATION to two other wordvS
connected by conjunctions, is placed
I. Generally before or after both :
Pacis et artSs et gloria, both the arts and the glory of peace. Liv. Belli
pacisque artes, the arts of war and of peace. Liv.
NOTE. A Genitive or an adjective following two nouns may qualify both, but it
more frequently qualifies only the latter :
Haec percunctatio ac denuntiatiO belli, this inquiry and this declaration of war. Liv.
II. Sometimes directly after the first before the conjunction :
Honoris certamen et gloriae, a struggle for honor and glory. Cic. Agrf
onrnes et maria, all lands and seas. Cic.
Special Rules.
565. The MODIFIERS OP A NOUN generally follow it. They
may be either adjectives or nouns :
Populus Romanus decrevit, the Roman people decreed. Cic. Herodotus,
pater historiae, Herodotus, the father of history. Cic. Liber de offlcils, thr
took on duties. Cic.
1. Modifiers, when emphatic, are placed before their nouns:
Tuscus ager Romano adjacet the TUSCAN territory borders on the Roman. Liv.
2. When a noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a Genitive, the usual order
Is, Adjective Genitive, noun:
Magna clvium penuria, a great scarcity of citizens. Cic.
3. An adjective is often separated from its noun by a monosyllabic preposition :
Magn5 cum periculo ease, to be attended with great peril. Cic.
4. In the poets an adjective is often separated from its noun by the modifier of another
aoun:
InspCrata tuae veniet pluma luperbiae, the unexpected down shall come upon your
pride. Hor.
566. The MODIFIERS OF AN ADJECTIVE generally precede it,
but, if not adverbs, they may follow it :
Facile doctissimus, unquestionably the most learned. Cic. Omni aetfttl
communis, common to every aye. Cic. Avidus laudis, desirous of praise,
Cic.
567. The MODIFIERS OF A VERB generally precede it :
ARRANGEMENT OF WWRDS. 335
Gloria virtutem sequitur, glory follows virtue. Cic. Mundus deO paret,
the world is subject to God. Cic. Vehementer dlxit, he spoke vehemently. Cic.
1. When the verb is placed at the beginning of the sentence, the modifiers, of course,
follow; see the first example under 561, I.
2. An emphatic modifier may of course stand at the beginning or at the end of the
sentence (561):
FacUlime" cognoscuntur adulOscentOs. most easily are the young men recognised. Cic.
3. Of two or more modifiers belonging to the same verb, that which in thought is
most intimately connected with the verb stands next to it, while the others are arranged
as emphasis and euphony may require :
Mors propter brevitatem vitae nunquam longe abest, death is never far distant, in
consequence of the shortness of life. Cic.
568. The MODIFIERS OF AN ADVEKB generally precede it, but
a Dative often follows it:
Valde vehementer dlxit, he spoke very vehemently. Cic. Congruenter
nuturae vivit, he lives agreeably to nature. Cic.
569. SPECIAL WORDS. Some words have a favorite place in
the sentence, which they seldom leave. Thus
I. The Demonstrative generally precedes its noun :
CostCs hujus urbis, the guardian of this city. Cic.
1. lilt in the sense of well-known (450, 4) generally follows its noun, if not acoon-
pauicd by an adjective:
MOdOa ilia, that well-known Medea. Cic.
2. Pronouns are oftn brought together, especially quisque with swus or sul :
Juatitia sunm cuique tribnit,/j<tc gives to every man his due (hia own). Cic. Qu!
scse student praestarc, etc., who are eager to excel, etc. Sal)
IL Prepositions generally stand directly before their cases, but tenus
and versus follow their cases :
In Asiain profugit, Tie fled into Asia. Cic. Collo tenus, up to the neck. Ov.
1. The preposition frequently follows the relative, sometimes other pronouns, and
tometimes even nouns, especially in poetry :
Res qua de agitur, the subject of which ire are treating. Cic. Italiam contra, over
against Italy. Verg. Corpus in Aeacidae, into the body of Aeacides. Verg.
2. For cum appended to an Ablative, see 184, 6; 187, 2.
8. Genitives, adverbs, and a few other words sometimes stand between the preposi-
tion and its case. In adjurations per is usually separated from its case by the Accusa-
tive of the object adjured, or by some other word ; and sometimes the verb >~ro is omitted :
Post Alexandri mugni mortem, after Me death of Alexander the Great. Cic. Ad
bene vivenduin, for living well. Cic. Per ego has lacriuias te 6r6, / implore you by
these tears. Verg. Per ego vos deoi (= per deos ego vos 6ro), / pray you in VIA name
of the gods. Curt.
III. Conjunctions and Relatives, when they introduce clauses, generally
stand at the beginning of such clauses ; but autem, enim, quidc.m, yuoque,
verS, and generally igitur, follow some other word :
Si peocavl, ignOsce, if 1 have erred, pardon me. Cic. Il qul superiores
836 ARRANUEMKflT OF (JLAUtMS.
sunt, tJuKt who are superior. Cio. Ipse autem omnia videbat, but h* h^m*tl)
taw all things. Cic.
1. A conjunction may follow a relative or an emphatic word, and a relative may follow
an emphatic word :
Id ut audivit, a* he heard this. Nep. Quae cum ita sint, since these things are so.
Cic. Trojae qul primus ab Oris venit, who came first from the shores of Troy. Vergf.
NOTE. Certain conjunctions, as et, nee, serf, and even aut and rel, are more frequent! 1
emoved from the beginning of the clause in poetry than in prose :
Compressus et omnis impetus, and all violence was cheeked. Verg.
1. We quidem takes the emphatic word or words between the two part g :
Ne in oppidls quidem, not even- in the towns. Cic.
8. Quidem often follows pronouns, superlatives, and ordinals:
Ex me quidem nihil audiet, from me indeed he will hear nothing. Cic.
4. Que, ve, ne, introducing a clause or phrase, are generally appended to the flrex
word; but if that word is a preposition, they are often appended to the next word :
In foroque, and in the forum. Cic. Inter uosque, and among us. Cic.
IV. Non, when it qualifies some single word, stands directly before that
word ; but when it is particularly emphatic, or qualifies the entire clause,
it sometimes stands at the beginning of the clause, and sometimes before
the finite verb or before the auxiliary of a compound tense :
Hac villa carere non possunt, they are not able to do without thit villa. Cic.
Non fuit Juppiter metuendus, Jupiter was not to be feared. Cic. Fas non
putant, they do not think it right. Cic. Pecunia soluta n6n est, the money
has not been paid. Cic.
1. In general, in negative clauses the negative word, whether particle, verb, or noun,
la made prominent:
Nepal quemquam posse, he dtnies that any one is able. Cic. Nihil est melius,
nothing is better. Cic.
V. Inquam, sometimes aid, introducing a quotation, follows one or more
of the words quoted. The subject, if expressed, generally follows its verb :
Nihil, inquit Brutus, quod dlcam, nothing which I shall state, said Brutus.
Cic.
VI. The Vocative rarely stands at the beginning of a sentence. It
usually follows an emphatic word :
PSrge, Laell, proceed, Laettm. Cie.
II. AKKANGEMENT OP CLAUSES.
570. Clauses connected by "coordinate conjunctions (554) fol-
low each other in the natural order of the thought, as in English :
86l ruit et monies umbrantur, the sun hastens to its setting, and the moun-
tains are shaded. Verg. Gyges a nullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat,
Gyges was seen by no one, but he himself saw all things. Cic.
571. A clause used as the SUBJECT of a complex sentence (348)
generally stands at the beginning of the sentence, and a clause used
as the PREDICATE at the end :
ARRANGEMENT OF CLAUSES. 337
Quid dies ferat incertum est, -what a day may bring forth is uncertain. Cic.
Exitus fuit orationis, sibi nullara eura his amlcitiam ease, the close of the ora-
tion was, that he had no friendship with these men. Caes.
1. This arrangement is the same as th.it of the simple sentence; see 560.
2. Emphasis and euphony often have the same effect upon the arrangement of clauses
da upon the arrangement of words; see 561.
572. Clauses used as the SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS of complex
sentences admit three different arrangements :
I. They are generally inserted within the principal clause, like the sub-
ordinate elements of a simple sentence :
HostCs, ubf prlmum nostros equites consp6x6runt, celeriter nostros per-
turbavgrunt, the enemy, an noon as they taw our cavalry, quickly put our men
to rout. Caes. Sententia, quae tiitissima videbatur, vlcit, the opinion wJiich
seemed the safest prevailed. Liv.
II. They are often placed before the principal clause :
Cum quiSscunt, probant, while they are quiet, they approve. Cic. Quails
sit animus, animus ne.-cit, the soul knows not ivhat the soul is. Cic.
NOTE. This arrangement is generally used when the subordinate clause either refers
back to the preceding sentence, or is preparatory to the thought of the principal clause.
Hence temporal, conditional, and concexzive clauses often precede the principal clause.
Hence also, in sentences composed of correlative clauses with Mqui, tdlis qudlin,
t<i>/tiii /juantus, turn cum, itn ut, etc., the relative member, i. e., the clause with
>/>ti, qudlix, quantus, cum, ut, etc., generally precedes.
III. They sometimes follow the principal clause:
Knltitur ut vincat, he strives that he may cony tier. Cic. Sol efflcit ut omnia
flOreant, the sun causes all things to bloom. Cic.
NOTE. This arrangement is generally used when the subordinate clause is either
intimately connected in thought with the following sentence, or explanatory of the prin-
cipal clause. Hence, clauses of Purpose and Result generally follow the principal clause,
as in the examples.
573. LATIN PERIODS. A complex sentence in which two or
more subordinate clauses are inserted within the principal clause is
called a PERIOD in the strict sense of the term.
NOTE 1. The examples given under 572, I., are short and simple example! of Latin
Periods.
NOTK 2. Many Latin periods consist of several carefully constructed clauses so united
as to form one complete harmonious whole. For examples, see Cicero's Third Oration
against Catiline, XII., '8ed quoniam . . . prdvidere 1 ; also Livy, I., rt, 'Numitor, inter
primum . . . ostendit.'
NOTE 8. In a freer sense the terra Period is sometimes applied to all complex sen-
tences which end with principal clauses. In this sense the examples given under 57%.
II., are Periods. Many carefully elaborated Latin sentences are constructed in this way ;
see Cicero's Oration for the Poet Archias, I., ' Quod si haec . . . di-btSinus ' ; also the Pint
Vrttion against Catiline, XIII., ' Ut saepe homines . . . ingravSscet'
81
338 RULES OF QUANTITY
PART FOURTH.
P E O S O D T.
574. Prosody treats of Quantity and Versification.
CHAPTER I.
QUANTITY.
575. The time occupied in pronouncing a syllable in poetry
is called its quantity. 1 Syllables are accordingly characterized as
long, short, or common."*
I. GENERAL RULES OP QUANTITY.
576. A syllable is LONG IN QUANTITY
I. If it contains a DIPHTHONG or a LONG VOWEL, or is
the result of CONTRACTION :
haec, foedus ; duco; cogo (for coigo), occldo (for oceaedo), nil (/V>rnihil).
I. Prae in composition is usually short before a vowel : praeacutus.
II. If its vowel is followed by X or Z, or any Two CON-
SONANTS except a mute and a liquid : 9
major, dux, servus, sunt, regunt, regnum, agmen.
1. But one or both of the consonants must belong to the same word as the
vowel: db* sede, per 4 saxa.
NOTE 1. H has no tendency in combination with any consonant to lengthen a pre-
ceding syllable. Hence in such words as AekaeiM, AtMnae, the first syllable is short.
NOTE 2. In the early pools a short final syllable ending in * remained short before
a word beginning with a consonant ; sometimes also short final syllables ending in other
consonants : imaginteformam, e/rwm vero, erat dicto.*
1 In many cases the quantity of syllables may be best learned from the Dictionary,
hat in others the student may be greatly aided by certain general statements or rules.
2 That is, sometimes long and sometimes short.
8 Here the syllable is long by nature if the vowel is long, but long only by position
If the vowel is short. For the quantity of vowels before two consonants or a double coii
tenant, see 651.
4 Here db becomes long before in sede, and per before in sama.
6 Here the syllables it, /', and at remain short
RULES OF QUANTITY. 339
NOTE 3. In the early poets many syllables Ions by position in the Augustan poets
are sometimes short, as the first syllable of ecce, eryo, Hie, inter, oittnin, wide, uxor.
NOTB 4. A final syllable ending in a vowel is occasionally, though rarely, lengthened
by consonants at the beginning of the following word.
NOTE 5. In Greek words a syllable with a vowel before a mute and a nasal is some-
times short : cycniis, Tecmessa.
2. A syllable before ,;' is long, except in bijugus, is, quadrijuyus, is ; see
16, N. 2.
577. A syllable is SHORT IK QUANTITY if its vowel is
followed in the same word by another VOWEL, by a DIPH-
THONG, or by the aspirate H :
dies, doceo, viae, nihil.
I. The following vowels, with the syllables which contain them, are
long by EXCEPTION :
1. A (1) in the Genitive ending SI of Dec. I.: aulal ; (2) m proper
names in aius : O&ius (Gajus) ; (3) before ta, ie, to, iu, in the verb aio.
2. E (1) in the ending el of Dec. V. when preceded by a vowel : diel ;
and sometimes when preceded by a consonant : fdei, rel ; often in the Da-
tive Singular of the pronoun is; ll/ (2) in proper names in eius: Pom-
peius ; (3) in eJieu, and in Rhea*
3. I (1) in the verb flG, when not followed by cr: flam, flebatn, but
fieri /* (2) in dlus, a, urn (for dlvus, a, Mm); (3) generally in the Genitive
ending IMS : allus, illlits ; (4) sometimes in Diana.
4. O sometimes in dhe.
6. In Greek words vowels are often long before a vowel, because long
in the original : 03r, AenZOs, Brlseis, Meneldus, TrSes.
NOTB. This often occurs in proper names In ea, la, $us, lus, iWn, Ifm, <Jt, <tit,
diiw: Medea, Alexandria, Peneue, Darius, Orion.
578. A syllable is COMMON IN QUANTITY if its vowel,
naturally short, is followed by a mute and a liquid :
ager, agrl ; pater, patris ; duplex, triplex.
NOTE 1. A syllable ending In a mute In the first part of a compound before a liquid
at the beginning of the second part is long : n/i-rumpn, ob-rog<>.
NOTF, 2. In I'lautus and Terence a syllable with a short vowel before mute tnd a
liquid is short.
n. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES.
579. Monosyllables are long :
a, da, te, Be, de, si, qul, do, pro, tu, d6s, pCs, sis, b&s, sfls, par, s&l.
1 The name of the daughter of Numitor, and of a priceless in Vergil. In Rhea, anoth-
er name for Cybelf, the e is short.
* Sometimes fieri in Plautus and Terence.
340 RULES OF QUANTITY.
I. The following are short by EXCEPTION :
1. Enclitics : que, ve, ne, ce, te, pse, pie.
2. Monosyllables in b, d, 1, m, t : ab, ad,fel, sum, et ; except xdl, *0l.
3. An, bix, cis, cor, es, fac, fer, in, is, nee, as (ossis), per, ter, qua (indef-
inite), quix, vir, vas (vadis), and sometimes file and hoc in the Nominative
and Accusative.
580. In words of more than one syllable
I. The final vowels i, o, and u are long; a, e, and y,
short : '
marl, audl, servo, omuino, fructii, coruu ; via, maria, mare, misy.
II. Final syllables in c are long ; in d, 1, m, n, r, t, short :
alec, illue ; illud, consul, amem, carmen, amor, caput.
NOTB 1. Ddnec and lien are exceptions.
NOTE 2. Final syllables in n and r are long In many Greek words which end long
in the original : as Titan, AnchlsZn, Hyiiien, Dtlphin, air, aelMr, crater.
III. The final syllables as, es, and os are long ; is, us,
ys, short :
amas, mensas, mones, nubes, servos; avis, urbis, bonus, chlamys.
NOTE 1. The learner will remember that short final syllables like is, v, etc., may
be lengthened by being placed before a word beginning with a consonant ; see 57O, II.
NOTE 2. Plautus retains the original quantity of many final syllables usually short
in the Augustan age. Thus the endings a, e, dl, ar, dr, Is, Us, &t, ?t, It, often stand in
place of the later endings a, e,al, ar,or, is, us, at, et, it('i\ ). Some of these early forms
are retained by Terence, and some of them occasionally occur in the Augustan poets.
NOTB 3. - Plantus and Terence, in consequence of the colloquial character of com-
edy, often shorten unaccented final syllables after an accented short syllable: ama,
abi, dedi, domi, domo, tiro, pedex.
NOTE 4. - In Plautus and Terence ihe doubling of a letter does not usually affect
the quantity of the syllable : II in ille, mm in iininS, pp in opportuiii.
581. Numerous exceptions to the general rule for the
quantity of final syllables occur even in classical Latin :
I. I fined, usually LONG, is sometimes SHORT or COMMON
1. SHORT in nisi, quasi, cui (when a dissyllable), and in the Greek ending
jriof the Dative and Ablative Plural.
2. COMMON in mihl, tibl, sibl, tin, ubl, and in the Dative and Vocative
Singular of some Greek words.
II. O final, usually LONG, is SHORT
1 . In duo, ego, ttcto, eJio, in the adverbs cito, llico, modo, and its compounds,
dummodo. quomodo, etc., in cedo, and in the old form endo.
-fis short in indu&nd /<!/<. Contracted syllables are long, according to 576,1.
RULES OF QUANTITY. 341
2. Sometimes (1) in nouns of Dec. III. and (2) in verbs, though very
rarely in the best poets.
III. A. final, usually SHORT, is LONG
1. In the Ablative : mSnsd, bond, ilia.
2. In the Vocative of Greek nouns in as: AenSd, Palld. 1
3. In Verbs and Particles: amd, curd; circd.juxta, anted, fr&stra. Ex-
cept ita, qvia, eja, heja, andpwta used adverbially.
IV. f* final, usually SHOKT, is LONG
1. In Dec. I. and V., 7 and in Greek plurals of Dec. III. : epitome, rS, die;
tempi, melS.
2. Generally in the Dative ending I of Dec. III. : aeri = aeri.
3. In the Singular Imperative Active of Conj. II.: mong, doce. But e is
sometimes short in cave, iridJl, etc.*
4. \\\ fere, fei-rne, ohe, and in adverbs from adjectives of Dec. II.: docti,
recte. Except bene, male, Inferne, interne,- superne.
V. As final, usually LONG, is SHORT
1. In ana* and in a few Greek nouns in as : Areas, tempos.
2. In Greek Accusatives of Dec. III. : Arcadas, herdax.
VT. Es final, usually LONG, is SHORT
1. In Nomr .?.tives Singular of Dec. ITL with short increment (588) it
the Genitive: miles (itis), obses (idis), interpres (etis). Except abtia, aries,
paries, Ceres, and compounds of pes, as bipes, tripes, etc.
2. In penes and the compounds of es, as ades, potes.
3. In Greek worda (1) in the plural of those which increase in the Geni-
tive: Arcades, Trdades ; (2) in a few neuters in es: Jlippomeiiet ; (3) in u
few Vocatives Singular : Demosthenes.
VII. OB final, usually LONG, is SHORT
1. In compos, impost, exes.
2. In Greek words with the ending short in the Greek : Delox, melos.
VIII. Is final, usually SHORT, is LONG
1. In plural cases : mentis, sercls, rdbis. Hence foris, gratis, inyrdtis.
2. In Nominatives of Dec. III. increasing long in the Genitive: Quint
(His), Salttmis (Inis).
3. In the Singular Present Indie. Act. of Conj. IV. : awli*.
NOTE. Mil-vis, qulvl*, utervln, follow the quantity of rl.
4. In the Singular Present Subj. Act. : po*sls, veils, ndhs, malls.
1 Sometimes In the Vocative of Greek nouns in an and in.
* Hence, in the cotnjKjiinds, hodir, pridte, postrldif, rjutirf
' lu the comic poets many dissyllabic Imperatives with a short penult shorten the
ultimate: as habt, ju.be. -none, move, face, tene. etc.
342 RULES OF QUANTITY.
6. Sometimes in the Singular of the Future Perfect and of the Perfect
Subjunctive : amdveris, docutris.
IX. Us Jinal, usually SHORT, is LONG
1. In Nominatives of Dec. III. increasing long in the Genitive; virtu*
(utis), tellus (uris).
NOT. But palus (u short) occurs in Horace, Ars Poetica, 65.
2. In Dec. IV., in the Genitive Singular, and in the Nominative, Accusa-
tive, and Vocative Plural : friictv*.
3. In Greek words ending long in the original : Panthiis, Sipphus, tripus.
NOTE. But we have Oedipus and polypits,
III. QUANTITY IN INCREMENTS.
582. A word is said to increase in declension, when it has in
any case more syllables than in the Nominative Singular, and to
have as many increments of declension as it has additional syllables :
sermd, sermonis, sermonibus. 1
583. A verb is said to increase in conjugation, when it has in
any part more syllables than in the second person singular of the
Present Indicative Active, and to have as many increments of conju-
gation as it has additional syllables : amas, amdtis, amdbatis.*
584. If there is but one increment, it is uniformly the penult ;
if there are more than one, they are the penult with the requisite
number of syllables before it. The increment nearest the begin-
ning of the word is called the first increment, and those following
this are called successively the second, third, and. fourth increments. 3
Increments of Declension.
585. In the Increments of Declension, a and o are long ;
e, i, u, and y, short : *
aetes, aetatis, aetatibus ; sermo, sermonis ; puer, puerl, puerorum ; fulgur,
fulguris ; chlamys, chlamydis ; bonus, bonfirum, bonorum ; ille, illarum, il-
lOrum ; miser, miserl ; supplex, supplicis ; satur, saturl.
I. A, usually LONG in the increments of declension, is SHORT in the first
Increment 6
1 Sermonis, having one syllable more than termd, has one increment, while aermoni-
l>ux has two increments.
a Amutii has one increment, amabiitia two.
12 11$
* In ger-mon-i-buz, the first increment is mdn, the second i ; and in mon-u-t-rd-mu,
the first is u, the second e, the third rd.
* Y occurs only in Greek words, and is long in the increments of noons in yn and of
few others.
6 Observe that the exceptions belong to the flrtt increment.
RULES OF QUANTITY. 343
1. Of masculines in al and ar : Hannibal, Jfannibalis ; Caesar, C'aesaris.
2. Of nouns in s preceded by a consonant: daps, dapis ; Arabs, Arabia;
hiems, Tiiemis.
3. Of Greek nouns in a and as : poema, poematis ; Pallas, Palladia.
4. Of (1) baccar, nepar, jubar, Idr, nectar, par, and its compounds; (2)
anas, max, vas (vadis) ; (3) sal, fax, and a few rare Greek words in ax.
II. O, usually LONG in the increments of declension, is SHORT in the firsl
increment '
1. Of Neuters in Declension III. : aequor, aeqvoris ; tempus, temporis*
Except os (oris), odor (adoris), and comparatives.
2. Of words in s preceded by a consonant : inops, inopis. Except Cyclop*
and hi/drop*.
3. Of arbor, bos, lepus ; compos, impos, memor, immemor ; Allobrox, Cap-
padox, praecox.
4. Of most Patrials : MacedO, Macedonia.
5. Of many Greek nouns (1) those in or: rhetor, Hector ; (2) many in
and on increasing short in Greek : aedon, aedonis / (3) in Greek compounds
mpus or pus : tripus (odis), Oedipus.
III. E, usually SHORT in the increments of declension, is LONG in the
first increment
1. Of Declension V. : diet, dierum, diebus, rebus. But in the Genitive and
Dative Singular sometimes short after a consonant : fid&i, spii.
2. Of nouns in , mostly Greek lien, Uenis ; Siren, Sirenis. So Anib,
Anienis.
3. Of Celtyber, Her, ver, heris, locufles, merces, quiett, ir , t xtes, reqwies, plebg,
lex, rex, alec, dlex, vervex.
4. Of a few Greek words in eg and er : lebte, lebetis ; crater, erdterit. Ex-
cept aer and aether.
IV. I, usually SHORT in the Increments of declension, is LONG in the
first increment
1. Of most words in tx : radix, rddicis ; fel/iar^feUcis^
2. Of dis, gUs, lls, vix, Quirls, fiamnis.
3. Of delphin, and a few rare Greek words.
NOTE. For quantity of i in the ending lit*, see 577, 8.
V. U, usually SHORT in the increments of declension, is LONG in the
first increment
1. Of nouns in ut with the Genitive in uris, titis, udit : jus, juris ; salux.
salutis ; palus, paludis.*
2. Offwr,frux, lwr.,plw, Pollux.
1 See p. 842, foot-note 5
* But short in appendix, caliat, Oilti 1 , fiHys, forniot, nto, pia, Httfttr, affix. tm<\ a
few others, chiefly proper names.
* But short in intercut, Ligwi. pecut.
344 RULES OF QUANTITY.
Increments of Conjugation.
586. In the Increments of Conjugation (583), a, e, and
o are long ; i and u short :
amamus, amemus, amatote ; regimus, surnus.
NOTE 1. In ascertaining the increments of the irregular verbs,/ro, volo, and theif
compounds, the fall form of the second person, feris, volis, etc., must be used. Thus
In fertbam and rolebam, the increments are re and K.
NOTB 2. In ascertaining the increments of reduplicated forms (255, I.), the r-
duplication is not counted. Thus dedimus has but one increment, di.
I. A, usually LONG in the increments of conjugation, is SHORT in the
first increment of do : dare, dabam, circumdabam.
II. E, usually LONG in the increments of conjugation, is SHORT before r
1. In the tenses in ram, rim, ro: amaveram, amdverim, amaverO; rexerat,
rexerit.
2. In the first increment of the Present and Imperfect of Conjugation III. :
regere, regeris, regerem, regerer.
3. In the Future ending beris, here : amaberis or -ere, moneberis,
4. Rarely in the Perfect ending erunt: steterunt for steterunt; see 236,
note ; also Systole, 6O8, VI.
III. I, usually SHORT in the increments of conjugation, is I>ONG, except
before a vowel
1. In the first increment of Conjugation IV., except imus of the Perfect :
audire, audivi, audit inn ; sentlre, sentimm ; sensimus (Perfect).
2. In Conjugation III., in the first increment of Perfects and Supines in
ivi and itum (278), and of the parts derived from them (except irnus of
the Perfect: trivimus) : cupivi, cupiverat, cupUus ; petivi, petttus; capteslvi,
cap&ttturus. Gavisus from gauded follows the same analogy.
3. In the endings imw and Uis of the Present Subjunctive: simw, sUit ;
velimus, vdttis (24O, 3).
4. In nolUe, nolitd, ndlttote, and in the different persons of ibam, ibo, from
ed (895).
5. Sometimes in the endings rimut and rUis of the Future Perfect an<?
Perfect Subjunctive : amdverimus, amdverltio.
IV. U, usually SHORT in the increments of conjugation, is LONG in the
Supine and the parts formed from it : voltttum, volutui'us, amaturus.
IV. QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVE ENDINGS.
587. The most important derivative endings may be classifieC
according to quantity as follows :
I. Derivative endings with a LONG PENULT:
1. 5brum. acrum, atrum:
flfibrum, simulacrum, aratrum.
RULES OF QUANTITY. 345
2. d8, Id6, ud6 ; ag6, Ig6, ug6:
dulcedo, cupldo, sSlitudo ; vorago, orlgo, aerug8.
3. ais, eia, ois, otia, Ine, one" in patronymics : l
Ptolemais, Chryseis, Minois, Icariotis, Nerlne, AcrisiOne
4. ela, lie ; alia, elis, ulis :
querela, ovile ; mortalis, fidelis, curOlis.
5. anus, enus, onus, onus ; ana, ena, ona, una :
urbanus, egSnus, patronus, tribunus; membrana, habena, annfina, la-
ofiaa.
6. aria, arus ; orus, 5sus ; avus, Ivus :
salGtSris, avarus ; canorus, animosus ; octavus, aestlvus.
7. atus, etus, itus, otus, utus ; atim, Itim, utim ; etum, eta :
alatus, facetus, turrftus, aegrotus, cornutus ; singulatim, vintim, tribii-
tbn ; querc6tum, inouOta.
8. enl, Inl, onl in distributives:
septfinl, qulnl, octOnL
II. Derivative endings with a SHORT PENULT
1. ades, iades, ides in patronymics *
Aeneadcs, Laertiadus, Tantalidgs.
2. iacus, icus, idus : 4
Corinthiacus, modicus, cupidus.
3. olus, ola, olnm ; ulus, ula, ulum ; culus, cula, culum in diminu
'ives:
flliolus, flliola, atriolum ; hortulus, virgula, oppidulum; fldsculus, pai-
ticula, mtlnusculuni.
4. etas, itas in nouns ; iter, itua in adverbs:
pietas, veritas ; fortiter, dlvlnitus.
6. atilis, ilia, bills in verbals; inua in adjectives denoting material
or time:*
versatilis, docili., amabilis ; adatnantinus, cedrinus, crastinua, diutinus.
NOTE 1. His in adjectives from nouns usually has the penult long : civ
eri/it, virW#.
NOTE 2. Inus denoting- characteristic (33O) usually has the penult long : caninux,
, marinus.
1 Except Daiiain, Phficait, Thfbaix,
9 Except (1) anhelitufi, fortuitus, grdtn\tw, halitwt, hospitux, xpiritu* ; (2) adfn-
Um. Htatlm, and adverbs in itus, as divlnitut; and (8) participles provided for by 58ft
* Except (1) those In Idea from nouns in eus and en: as, Pffidfs (I'eleus), Neo.
I'm--.-. (Neocles); and (2) AmpMardldeg, Amycttdea, Jiflidt*, Corfmldett, Lycwrglde*.
4 Except amlcus, antteus, aprlcus, mendlcwt, poetic-mi, jntd.lou9.
' Except infitiitinwi. rtpentlniM, vetpertlniM-
346 RULES OF QUANTITY
III. Derivative endings with a LONG ANTEPENULT .
1. aceus, uceus, aneus, arius, arium, orius :
rosaceus, pannuceus, subitaneus, cibarius, columbarium, censoriuB.
2. abundus, acundus ; abilis, atilis, aticus :
nrirabundus, Iracundus ; amabilis, versatilis, aquaticus,
3. aginta, igintl, esimus in numerals :
n5naginta, vigintl, eentesimus.
4. imonia, imonium ; t orius, sorius ; toria, torium :
querimonia, alimonium ; amatSrius, censorius ; victoria, auditorium.
IV. Derivative endings with a SHORT ANTEPENULT :
1. ibilis, itudd, olentus, ulentus :
credibilis, solitude, vlnolentus, opulentus.
2. urio in desideratives :
Ssuno, empturio, parturiO.
V. QUANTITY OF STEM-SYLLABLES.
588. All simple verbs in id of the Third Conjugation (2 IT]
have the stem-syllable 1 short:
capiO, cupio, facio, fodio, fugio.
589. Most verbs which form the Perfect in ul have the stem-
syllable short:
dome, seed habeo, moneo, alo, col6.
NOTE. Ponii, <f-ebed, jtoreo, pared, and several inceptive verbs, are exceptions.
590. Dissjllabic Perfects and Supines have the first syllable
long, unless short by position :
juvo, juvi, julum; foveo, fbvl, fotum.
1. Eight I'erfocts and ten Supines have the first syllable short:
bibi, dedi, fidi, liqui^ scidi, stetl, stiti, lull; citum, datum, ititm, litum^
quitum, ratuii, iiitum, satum, situm, statum.*
591. TrisyHabic Reduplicated Perfects have the first two syl-
lables short :
cado, cecidi; cano, cecinl; disco, didicl.
NOTE 1. Cadf> has cecidl in distinction from cecidi from cado.
NOTK 2. The second syllable may be made loner by position : cucurrl, momordl.
592. In general, inflected forms retain the quantity of stem-syl
lables unchanged : *
1 That is, the syllable preceding the characteristic.
* Liqm from liquef> ; linqtu> has llqul. Statum from sisto ; sto has nkltum.
But see rHstifllabic Perfects and Supine*, 390.
RULES OF QUANTITY. 34?
avis, avem; nubea, nubium; levis, levior, levisaimus; moneO, monebam
monul.
NOTE 1. Position may, however, affect the quantity : ager, agri; possum, potvfl;
nolno, tolutum; vohio, vottitum. 1
NOTE 2. Glgnd gives genui, gentium., and pond, posul, positum.
593. Derivatives generally retain the quantity of the stem-syl-
ables of their primitives :
bonus, bonitas ; timeO, timor ; animus, animosus ; civis, clvicus ; cura, euro.
1. Words formed from the same root sometimes show a variation in the
quantity of stem-syllables :
dice,
dux, ducis,
died,
duco,
persono,
reg6,
persona,
rex, regis, regula,
fides,
fldo,
secus,
seam,
homd,
hum&nus,
sedeo,
sedes, sedulua,
lateO,
laterna,
serd,
semen,
lego,
lex, legis,
sopor,
sopio,
macer,
macero,
suspicor,
susplcio,
moved,
mObilis,
tego,
toguhi,
nota,
notum,
vadum,
vado
odium,
Odl,
VOC6,
vox, vocis.
NOTE 1. This change of quantity in some instances is the result of contraction, ac
moniMlvi, moibilw, mobilit, and in others it serves to distinguish words of the same
orthography, as the verbs legis, leges, regis, reges, sedes, from the nouns lifts, Uget,
regis, reges, tedes, or the verts ducts, dvces,/ides, from the nouns ducis, ditces,Jldee.
NOTE 2. A few derivatives shorten the long vowel of the primitive : deer, acerbus ;
'uced, tueerna ; moles, molestux.
594. Compounds generally retain the quantity of their elements :
ante-ferO, de-ferO, de-duco, in-aequalis, prO-duco.
1. The change of a vowel or diphthong does not affect the quantity :
de-lig6 (legO), oc-cidd (cadd), oo-cldo (caedd).
2. The Inseparable Prepositions di, se, and vi are long, re short ; ne some-
times long and sometimes short :
dlduco, seduco, vecors, reducO; nedurn, nefas:
NOTE \.-Di is short in dirimi) and disertus.
NOTE 2. Ne is long in nUdwrn, nemo, nequam, nlqu&quam, nequiquam, n&fuitfai,
and neve. In other words it is short.
NOTK 8. Re is sometimes lengthened In a few words : rtligifi, rlUqiidae, rtperit
f.pulit, ritulit, etc.
3. In a few words the quantity of the second element is changed. Thua
JurO gives -jerO ; notus, -nitus ; nufjd,-nvta: de-jero, cdg-nitus, prO-nulm.
4. Prae in composition is usually short before a vowel : praeacutut, prae-
Ottiu.
5. Prd is short in the following words :
1 Here the first syllable is short in ager, but common in agrl (578); long In pan
>um, tvli-H, lalrn (576, II.), but short in potul, Holiitu/ia, an
348
RULES Of
procella, procul, prof anus, profari, profecto, profestus, prqficfocor, profiteor^
prqfugio, profugus, prqfundv-s, pronepos, proneptis, vrotervus, and in most
Greek words, as propteta ; generally also m prtfundd, propck/8, propagb,
propind, rarely in prdcuro, propello.
6. At the end of a verbal stem compounded with facio or fid, e is gener-
ally short :
calefacio, calef 10, labefaci&, patefacio.
7. / is usually long in the first part of the compounds of diis ;
meridies, prldie, postrldie, cotldie, triduum.
8. is long in contro-, intro-, retro-, and quando- in composition :
controversia, introducd, retrdvertd, quandoque ; but qitanddquidem.
9. The quantity of the final i in ibi, ubi, and utl is often changed in com-
position :
ibidem, ibique ; ubique, iibinam, tibivis, ulUcunque, nembi, stcubt ; utinam,
vtique, sicuti.
10. Hodie, quasi, quoque, and siquidem have the first syllable short.
595. The Quantity of Stem-Syllables in cases not provided for
by any rules now given will be best learned from the Dictionary.
By far the larger number of such syllables will be found to be
short. For convenience of reference, a list of the most important
primitives with long stem-syllables is added : *
acer
celo
deleo
fortuna
Ignis
adulor
cera
dlco (ere)
fretus
letum
fier
cicada
dirus
fumus
liber (era, erum)
ala
clvis
dives
funis
Hb6
alea
clamo
dlvus
funus
lllium
altare
clarus
dSnec
furor (art)
limen
amarus
ciavus
dfinum
gleba
limes
anclle
clemens
duco
gloria
llnum
anhelus
cllvus
dudum
gram en
llveo
antlquus
C6dex
durus
gratus
lorum
ara
comis
extremus
hamus
Iud6
area
comO
fagus
heres
lugea
area
Conor
fama
heros
lumen
ater
conus
fanum
hora
lima
avOna
copia
fan
Ic6
malO
bills
coram
fecundus
imago
mane
bruma
corona
fellx
inams
manes
bftb6
cratfer
femina
Ira
manf)
cacumen
crates
fetus
janua
mater
cfillgo
creber
fldo
jucundus
maturud
camlnus
credo
ftgo
iflro
meta
oanus
crinis
flfius
labor (i)
metior
caper
crudus
fllum
lamentum
miles
carlna
cura
* finis
lana
mlror
carus
curia
flavus
latus (a, um)
mitis
cede (ere)
debeo
flumen
I6g6 (are)
moles
Including a few derivatives and compounds
VERSIFICATION.
349
miigeo
munio
munus
murus
i au.- a
inuto
mutus
naris
navis
nidus
nitor (1)
nodus
DODUS
nubes
nubo
nudus
nuto
olim
omen
opAcus
oplmus
ora
6ro
otium
pagus
pal or
pan is
pa re 6
penates
perltus
pilum
piu us
planus
plenus
pluma
poeta
pom urn
pone
pono
poto
pratum
pravus
primus
pnvus
prom 6
prora
puber
sedo
punio
serenus
purus
serus
qualis
sido
radix
sincerus
rado
solor
ramus
solus
rarus
soplo
remus
spica
rideo
spina
ripa
spiro
rltus
spuma
rivus
squaleo
robu*
stlpo
rodo
strages
ruga
strenuus
rumor
strldeo
rupee
sudo
sanus
tabes
sea lac
talis
8crTb6
telum
scutum
temS
sedes
^
tibia
totus
trudo
uber
udus
umeo
UDUS
uro
Qtor
uva
uvidus
vado
vanus
vates
velox
velum
vena
veiienum
venor
verus
vilis
vluum
Vivo
CHAPTER II.
VERSIFICATION.
SECTION I.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT.
596. Latin Versification is based upon QUANTITY. Syllables
are combined into certain metrical groups called Feet, and feet,
singly or in pairs, are combined into Verses. 1
1. Tn quantity or time the unit of measure is the short syllaMe, indicated
either by a curve w or by nn eighth note in music, ^ . A long syllable
1 Modern versification is based upon ACCENT. An English verse I- a regular com-
bination of accented and unaccented syllables but a Latin verse is a similar combina-
tion of long and xhorf syllable?. The rhythmic accent or ictus (599)in Latin depends
entirely upon quantity. Compare the following linen :
monm'-ful
emp'-ty
Tell' me
Life' i
not', in
but' an
TrO'-di
At' fl-
mim'-bers,
dream'.
tnr' di- Ss' di-
dSs' et in'-ge- nl'.
Observe that In the English lines the accent or ictus falls upon the same syllables as
in prose, while in the Latin it falls uniformly upon lonir syllable's On Lat'n Vfrxi.ft-
cation. see Ramsay's ' Latin Prosody '; Schmidt's Rhythmik mid Metrik.' translated
by Professor White ; Christ's ' Metrik.'
350 METRICAL FEET.
has in general twice the value of a short syllable, 1 and is indicated either
by the sign , or by a quarter note in music, J. This unit of measure is
also called a time or mora.
NOTE 1. A long syllable is sometimes prolonged so as to have the value
(1) of three short syllables, indicated by the sign i , orj^ ; or (2) of fcnir
short syllables, indicated by i > , or ! .
NOTE 2. A long syllable is sometimes shortened so as to have the value
of a short syllable, indicated by the sign >, <,r J\ A syllable thus used
is said to have irrational time.
597. The feet of most frequent occurrence in the best Latin
poets are
I. FEET OF FOUR TIMES OF FOUR MORAE.
Dactyl, one long and two short, *-* -^ I J*J* carinina.
Spondee, two long syllables, I I leges.
II. FEET OF THREE TIMES OR THREE MORAE.
Trochee, 8 one long and one short, J t* legis.
Iambus, one short and one long, ^ h I parens.
Tribrach, three short syllables, ^ *~> ^ f* r* J* dominus.
NOTE 1. To these may be added the following:
Pyrrhic, -~- pater.
Anapaest, ~ ^ bonitas.
JJaeclnus, dolores.
Cretic, ^ milites.
Diiainbus, amoenitas.
Ditrochee, - clvitatis.
Dispoiidee, praeceptores.
Greater Ionic, sententia.
Lesser Ionic, adolescens.
Choi-iambus, ~ impatiens. 3
NOTE 2. A Dipody is a group of two feet ; a Tripody, of three feet ; a Tetrapody of
four, etc. A Trihemimeris is a group of three half feet, i. e., a foot and a half; a Pen-
themimeris, of two and a half ; a Hephthemimeris, of three and a half, etc.
598. METRICAL EQUIVALENTS. A long syllable may be re-
solved into two short syllables, as equivalent to it in quantity, or
two short syllables may be contracted into a long syllable. The
forms thus produced are metrical equivalents of the original feet.
NOTE. Thus the Dactyl becomes a Spondee by contracting the two short syllables
into one long sylb Die ; the Spondee becomes a Dactyl by resolving the second syllable,
or an Anapaest by resolving the first. Accordingly, the Dactyl, the Spondee, and tho
Anapaest are metrical equivalents. In like manner the Iambus, the Trochee, and the
Tribrach are metrical equivalents.
1 See foot-note 1, p. 349.
2 Sometimes called Choree.
3 The feet here mentioned as having four syllables are only compounds of disyllabic
feet. Thus the Diiambus is a double Iambus ; the Ditrocliee, a double Trochee ; the
Dispondee, a double Spondee ; the Greater Ionic, a Spondee and a Pyrrhic ; the Lesser
Ionic, a Pyrrhic and a Spondee ; the Ckoriambus, a Trochee (Choree) and an Iambus.
ICTUS. ARSIS AND THESIS. VMRSES. 351
1. Its certain kinds of verse admitting irrational time (596, 1, note 2),
Spondees, Dactyls, and Anapaests are shortened to the time of a Trochee or
of an Iambus, and thus become metrical equivalents of each of these feet.
1) A Spondee used for a Trochee is called an IRRATIONAL TKOCHEE, and is
marked >.
2) A Spondee used for an Iambus is called an IRRATIONAL IAMBUS, and ie
marked > .
3) A Dactyl used for a Trochee is called a CYCLIC DACTYL, and is marked
4) An Anapaest used for an Iambus is called a CYCLIC ANAPAEST, and is
marked w w~.
599. ICTUS OK RHYTHMIC ACCENT. As in the pronunciation of
a word one or more syllables receive a special stress of voice called
accent, so in the pronunciation of a metrical foot one or more syl-
lables receive a special stress of voice called Rhythmic Accent or
Ictus.
1. Feet consisting of both long and short syllables have the ictus uniform-
ly on the long syllables, unless used as equivalents for other feet
NOTE. Thus the Dactyl and the Trochee have the ictus on the first syllable; the
Anapaest and the Iambus on the last.
2. EQUIVALENTS take the ictus of the feet for which they are used.
NOTE 1. Thus the Spondee, when used for the Dactyl, takes the ictus of the Dactyl
i. e., on the first syllable ; but when used for the Anapaest, it takes the ictus of the
Anapaest i. e., on the last syllable.
NOTE 2. Feet consisting entirely of long or entirely of short syllables are generally
aied as equivalents, and are accented accordingly.
NOTE 8. When two short syllables of an equivalent take the place of an accented
ong syllable of the original foot, the ictus properly belongs to both of these syllables, but
' marked upon the first. Thus a Tribrach used for an Iambus is marked <-> \l *-;.
600. ARSIS AND THESIS. The accented part of each foot is
called the Arsis (raising), and the unaccented part, the Thesis
(lowering)*
601. VERSES. A verse is a line of poetry (596). It has one
characteristic or fundamental foot, which determines the ictus for
the whole verse.
NOTE 1. Thus every dactylic verse has the ictus on the first syllable of each foot
because the Dactyl has the ictus on that syllable.
1 Greek writers on versification originally used the terms dpo-t? and W<ri of raising
and putting dmcn the foot in marching or in beating time. Thus the Thesis was the
accented part of the foot, and the Arsis the unaccented part. The Romans, however, ap
plied the terms to raising and lowering the voice in reading. Thus Arsis came to
mean the accented part of the foot, and Thesis the unaccented part. The terms hnv.-<
now been so long and so generally used in this sense that it is uot deemed advisable t
Ktenapt to restore them to their original
35^ NAMES OF VERSES.
NOTB 2. Two verses sometimes unite and form a compound verse ; see 628, X
NOTB 8. Metre means measure, and is variously used, sometimes designating tin.
neavure or quantity of syllables, and sometimes the foot or measure ' of a verse.
602. CAESURA OR CAESURAL PAUSE. Most Latin verses are
divided metrically into two nearly equal parts, each of which
forms a rhythmic series. The pause, however slight, which nat-
urally separates these parts is called
1. A Caesura,* or a Ca^sural Pause, when it occurs within a foot ,
see 611.
2. A Diaeresis, when it occurs at the end of a foot; see 611, 2
and 3.
NOTE. Some verses consist of three parts thus separated by caesura or diaeresis,
while some consist of a single rhythmic series.'
603. The full metrical name of a verse consists of three parts.
The first designates the characteristic foot, the second gives the
number of feet or measures, and the third shows whether the verse
is complete or incomplete. Thus
1. A Dactylic Hexameter Acatalectlc is a dactylic verso of six feet (Jlexa-
mtter), all of which are complete (Acatalectic).
2. A Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic^ is a trochaic verse of two measures
(Dimeter), the last of which is incomplete (Catalectic).
NOTE 1. A verse with a Dactyl as its characteristic foot is called Dactylic ; with a
Trochee, Trochaic; with an Iambus, Iambic, etc.
NOTE 2. A verse consisting of one measure is called Monometer ; of two, Dimeter;
of three, Trimeter; of four, Tetrameter; of five, Pentameter; of six, Hexameter.
NOTE 3. A verse which closes with a complete measure is called Acatalectic; 4 with
an incomplete measure, Catalectic; 4 with an excess of syllables, Hypermetrical.*
NOTE 4. The term Acatalectic is often omitted, as a verse may be assumed to be
complete unless the opposite is stated.
NOTE &. A Catalectic verse is said to be Catalectic in syllabam, in disi/llabnm, 01
i >i trisyllabum, according as the incomplete foot has one, two, or three syllables.
NOTE 6. Verses are sometimes briefly designated by the number of feet or measure)
which they contain. Thus Hexameter (six measures) sometimes designates the Dactylic
Hexameter Acatalectic, and Senarius (six feet), the Iambic Trimeter Acatalectic.
604. Verses are often designated by names derived from cele-
brated p^ets.
NOTE 1. Thus Alcaic is derived from Alcaeus; Archilochian, from Archilochm ;
Sapphic, from Sappho ; Glyconie, from Glycon, etc.
1 In dactylic verses a measure is a single foot, but in trochaic and iambic verses it
is a dipody or a pair of feet.
* Caesura (from caedo, to cut) means a cutting ; it cuts or divides the foot and the
rerse Into parts.
* A yerse consisting of a single series is called Monocolon ; of two, Dicolon ; at
three, Tricolon.
* From the Greek dxaToArjicTos, *aTaATi<rTuc.k,
Fl GURUS OF PROSODY. 353
NOTE 2. Verses sometimes receive a name from the kind of subjects to which the}
were applied : as Heroic, applied to heroic subjects; I'aroemiac, to proverbs, etc.
605. The FINAL SYLLABLE of a verse may generally be either
long or short at the pleasure of the poet.
606. A STANZA is a combination of two or more verses of dif-
ferent metres into one metrical whole ; see 631.
NOTE. A stanza of two lines or verses is called A Distich ; of three, a Tristich ; of
Sour, a Tetrastich.
607. RHYTHMICAL READING. In reading Latin verse care must
be taken to preserve the words unbroken, to show the quantity of
the syllables, and to mark the poetical ictus.
Nor*. Scanning consists in separating a poem or verse into the feet of which it is
oomposed. *
608. FIGURES OF PROSODY. The ancient poets sometimes al-
lowed themselves, in the use of letters and syllables, certain liber
ties generally termed Figures of Prosody.
I. ELISION. A final vowel, a final diphthong, or a final m with the pre-
ceding vowel, is generally elided * before a word beginning with a vowel
or with h :
Monstr horrend um Inferm* ingens, for Monstrum horrendum InfOrme
ingens. Verg.
NOTK 1. For Exception*, Bee ffiatv-a, II., below.
NOTTS 2. Final t in the interrogative tie is sometimes dropped before * consonant :
Pyrrhln' connQbla servas? for I'yrrlrine connubia serves? Verg,
NOTE 8. In the early poets final a is olten dropped before consonant*
Ex omnibu' r6bus,/or ex omnibus r^bus. Liter
NOTI 4. The elision of * final //< with the preceding rowel it sometimes called
EcttMpsis. 3
NOTE 5. The elision of a final vowel or diphthong, or of a final m with the preceding
rowel, Is sometimes called Synaloepha, 3 or, if at the end of a line, Synapheia.*
II. HIATUS. A final vowel or diphthong is sometimes retained before
a word beginning with a vowel. Thus
1. The interjections 0, heu, and prO are not elided; see Verg., Aen., X.,
18; Geor., II., 486.
2. Long vowels and diphthongs are sometimes retained, especially in tho
\rsis of a foot; see Verg., EC., III., 6; VII., 52.
> In school this is sometimes done In a purely mechanical way, sacrificing words to
feet; but even this mechanical process is often useful to the beginner, as it makes hluj
familiar with the poetical ictns.
* That Is. partially xupjtretKed. In reading, it should be lightly and tadiatinctl
oonded, and blended with the following syllable, as in English poetry
" Th<- eternal Tears of God are hers."
* From the Greek K0AiJ/i, crvyaAoi4j, au<i o-vvd^tt*
354 DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.
NOTE 1. This is most common in proper names.
NOTE 2. Vergil employs this form of hiatus more freely than the other Latin po*t&
nd yet the entire Aeneid furnishes only a short list of examples.
NOTE 3. In the thesis a final long vowel or diphthong is sometimes shortened befor*
short Towel instead of being elided ; see Verg., Aen., 111., 211 ; VI., 507.
SOTE 4. Hiatus with a short final vowel is rare, but occurs even in Vergil ; see Aen..
T., 405; EC., II., 58.
III. SYNAERESIS. Two syllables are sometimes contracted into one :
aurea, deTnde, dSmceps, ndeia, Jisdem, eaedem, prohibeat (pronounced
NOTE 1. In the different parts of desum, ee is generally pronounced as one syllable:
deesse, deest, deerat, deerit, etc. ; so e>i in the verb anteed : cmtelre, anteirem, anteis,
anteit.
NOTE 2. /and u before vowels are sometimes used as consonants with the sound of
yand '. Thus abiete and ariete become abyet* and ari/cte; genua and tenuft be-
come genwa and tenwes.
NOTE 3. In Plautus and Terence, Synatrem* is used with great freedom.
NOTE 4. The contraction of two syllables into one is sometimes called Synietsis.
IV. DIAERESIS. In poetry, two syllables usually contracted into one
are sometimes retained distinct :
ftural for aurae, Orpheus for Orpheus, soluendus/or solvendus, silua/jr
silva.
NOTE. Diaeresis properly means the resolution of one syllable into two, but the
Latin poets seldom, if ever, actually make two syllables out of one. The examples gen.
erally explained by diaeresis are only ancient forms, used for effect or convenience.
V. DIASTOLE. A syllable usually short is sometimes long, especially
in the arsis of a foot :
PriamidSsyb?' Priamides.
NOTE 1. This poetic license occurs chiefly in proper names and in final syllables.
NOTE 2. Vergil uses this license quite freely. He lengthens gin sixteen instances.
VI. SYSTOLE. A syllable usually long is sometimes short :
tulerunt for tulerunt, steterunt for steterunt (236, note), vide'n far
videsne.
Nor*. This poetic license occurs most frequently In final vowels and diphthongs.
VII. SYNCOPE. An entire foot is sometimes occupied by a single long
syllable ; see 614.
SECTION n.
VARIETIES OF VERSE.
I. DACTYLIC HEXAMETEK.
609. All Dactylic Verses consist of Dactyls and their metrical
equivalents, Spondees. The ictus is on the first syllable of every
foot.
DACTYLHJ HEXAMETER. 355
610. The Dactylic Hexameter ' consists of six feet. The first
four are either Dactyls or Spondees, the fifth a Dactyl, and the
sixth a Spondee (60S). 2 The scale is, 3
Quadrupe- | dante pu- | trem soni- | tu quatit I ungula | campum. Verg.
Anna vi- | rumque ca- | no Tro- | jae qul ' primus ab | orls. Verg.
Infan- j dum re- | gma ju- | bes reno- | vare do- | lorem. Verg.
IllI 5 in- | ter se- | se mag- | na vi | bracchia | tollunt. Verg. 6
1. The scale of dactylic hexameters admits sixteen varieties, produced by
varying the relative number and arrangement of Dactyls and Spondees. Thus
a verse may contain
1) Five Dactyls and one Spondee, as in the first example above.
2) Four Dactyls and two Spondees, admitting four different arrangements.
3) Three Dactyls and three Spondees, admitting six different arrangements.
4) Two Dactyls and four Spondees, admitting four different arrangements.
6) One Dactyl and five Spondees, as in the fourth example.
2. EFFECT OF DACTYLS. Dactyls produce a rapid movement, and are
adapted to lively subjects. Spondees produce a slow movement, and are
adapted to grave subjects. But generally the best effect is produced in suc-
cessive lines by variety in the number and arrangement of Dactyls and Spon-
dees.
3. SPOKDAIO LINK. The Hexameter sometimes takes a Spondee in the
1 This Is at once the most important and the most ancient of all the Greek and Ro-
man metres. In Greece it attained its perfection in the poems of Homer. It was intro-
duced into Italy in a somewhat imperfect form by the poet Ennlus about the middle of
the second century before Christ; but it was improved by Lucretius, Catullus, and oth-
ers, until It attained great excellence in the works of the Augustan poets. The most
beautiful and finished Latin Hexameters are found in the works of Ovid and Vergil.
* The Dactylic Hexameter In Latin is here treated as Acatalectic, as the Latin poets
eem to have regarded the last foot as a genuine Spondee, thus making the measure
complete. See Christ, 'Metrik der Grlcchen und Reiner, 1 pp. 110, 164.
* In this scale the sign ' marks the ictus (590), and _ c^c/ denotes that the original
Dactyl, marked ^ ^, may become by contraction a Spondee, marked - L ., that
Spondee may be used for a Dactyl (598).
4 Expressed in musical characters, this scale is as follows .
The notation J *J means that, instcui at the original measure J JJ, the i'iir
lent J J may be used.
The final I of //// Is elided; see 6O8, 1.
With these lines of Ve/gil compare the following Hexameters from the Evangelic*
if Longfellow :
"This is the forest primeval ; but where are the hearts that beneath it
Leaped like the roc, when he bean in the woodland the voice of the huntsman T"
356 DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.
fifth place. It is then called Spondaic, and generally has a Dactyl as its
fourth foot :
Cara de- | urn sobo- | les mag- 1 num Jovis | incre- | mentum. Verg.
NOTE. In Vergil, spondaic lines are used much more sparingly than in the earlier
poets, ] and generally end in words of three or four syllables, as in incrementum above.'''
611. CAESURA, OR CAESURAL PAUSE. --The favorite caesural
pause of the Hexameter is after the arsis, or in the thesis, of the
third foot : *
Anna- | tl ten- | dunt ; || it | clamor et | agmine | facto. Verg.
Infan- | dura, re- | tana, || ju- | bes reno- | vare do- | lorem. Verg.
NOTE. In the first line, the caesural pause, marked II , is after tendunt, after the
arsis of the third foot ; and in the second line after rtrfina, in the thesis (naju) of
the third foot. The former is called the Masculine Caesura, the latter the Feminine
Caesura. 4
1. The CAESURAL PAUSE is sometimes in the fourth foot, and then an ad-
ditional pause is often introduced in the second :
Credide- | rim; II ver | illud e- | rat, II ver | magnus a- | gebat. Verg.
2. BUCOLIC DIAERESIS. A pause called the Bucolic Diaeresis, 6 because
originally used in the pastoral poetry of the Greeks, sometimes occurs at the
end of the fourth foot :
Ingen- | tern cae- | 16 soni- | turn dedit ;ll inde se- | cutus. Very.
NOTE. The Bucolic Diaeresis was avoided by the best Latin poets, even in treat-
ing pastoral subjects. Vergil, even in his Bucolics, uses it very sparingly.
3. A DIAERESIS at the end of the third foot without any proper caesural
pause is regarded as a blemish in the verse :
Pulveru- | lentus e- | quis furit ; llomnes | arma re- | qulrunt. Verg.
1 A single poem of Catullus, about half as long as a book of the Aeneid, contains
more spondaic lines than all the works of Vergil.
" But Vergil has two spondaic lines ending et magnvs (fix ; see Aen., III., 12, and
VIII., 679.
3 That is, the hrst rhythmic series ends at this point. This pause is always at the
2nd of a word, and may be so very slight as in most cases not to interfere with the
sense, even if no mark of punctuation is required ; but the best verses are so con-
structed that the caesural pause coincides with a pause in the sense ; see Christ,
' Metrik,' p. 184. According to r-ome writers, the Dactylic Hexameter had its origin
in the union of two earlier dactylic verses, and the caesural pause now marks the
point of union ; see Christ, p. 173.
4 The Masculine Caesura is also called the Strong, or the Syllabic, Caesura, the
Feminine the Weak, or the Trochaic, Caesura. Caesuras are often named from the
place which they occupy in the line. Thus a caesura after the arsis of the second
foot is called Trihemimeral ; after the arsis of the third v Punltixinimeral ; afterthe
arsis of the fourth, Hephthemimeral.
6 Aleo called the Bucolic Caesura, as the term caesura is often made to include
diaeresis.
DACTYLIC HEXAMETER. 35?
4. The ending of a word within a foot always produces a caesura. A line
may therefore have several caesuras, but generally only one of these is
marked by any perceptible pause :
Arma vi- | rumque ca- | no, ll Tro- | jae qui | primus ab | orls. Verg.
NOTE. Here there is a caesura in every foot except the last, but only one of these,
that after cand, in the third foot, has the caesura! pause. '
5. The caesura, with or without the pause, is an important feature in
every hexameter. A line without it is prosaic in the extreme :
Romae | moeuia | terruit | impiger | Hannibal | armls. EMI.
NOTE 1. The Pent/iemimeral a caesura has great power to impart melody to the
verse, but the best effect is produced when it is aided by other caesuras, as above.
NOTE 2. A happy effect is often produced
1) By combining the feminine caesura in the third foot with the hephthemimeral
and the trlhemimeral :
DOnec e- 1 ris fC- 1 llx, || mul- 1 tOs nnme- 1 rabis a- | mlcos. Verg.
2) By combining the Itephthemlmeral with the trihemimtral :
Inde to- 1 ro pater | Aen5- 1 fts sic j Orsus ab | alto. Verg.
NOTB 3. The union of the feminine caesura with the trikemimeral, common in
Greek, is somewhat rare in Latin, bat it sometimes produces an harmonious verse :
Prat'cipi- 1 tat, sna- 1 dentque ca- 1 dentia | sldera I somnos. Very.
NOTE 4. In the last two feet of the verse there should in general be no caesuru
whatever, unless it falls in the thesis of the fifth foot ; but when that foot contain!-
two entire words, a caesura is admissible after the arsis.
612. The ictus often falls upon unaccented syllables. Thus
1. In the first, second, and fourth feet of the verse it falls some-
times upon accented and sometimes upon unaccented syllables ; see
examples under 610.
2. In the third foot it generally falls upon an unaccented sylla-
ble ; see examples under 610.
3. In the fifth and sixth feet it generally falls upon accented syl-
lables ; see examples under 610.
613. The LAST WORD OF THE HKXAMETER is generally either
a dissyllable or a trisyllable ; see examples under 610 and 611.*
1 The caesura with the pause is variously called the chief caetotra, the caesura of
the verse, the caesura of tfte rhythm, etc. In distinction from this any other caesura
may be called a caexura, a caenuraofthefoot, or a minor caesura.
a See p. 850, foot-note 4.
3 The learner should be informed that the niceties of structure which belong to fin
ished Latin hexameters must be sought only in the poems of Vergil and Ovid. The
happiest disposition of caesuras, the best adjustment of the poetical ictus to the prose
accent, and the most approved structure in the closing measures of the verse, can not be
expected in the rude numbers of Kim ins. in the scientific discussions of Lucretius, or
even in the familiar Satires of Horace. Those interested in the pocilliaritles of Latin
hexameters in different writers will find a discussion of tlit-Kiibjert. in I.iiriim Mlillcr'a
work.' De rG metrics poGtHrum LutTnormn praeter Plautuin ctTcrciitiiim lilirl septem.'
858 DACTYL.1U VERSE
Note 1. Spondaic lines are exceptions; see 61O, 8, not*.
NOTE 2. Two monosyllables at the end of a line are not particularly objeotionabl*
and sometimes eren product' a happy effect :
Praecipi- | tant cu- | rae, II tur- | bataque | funere | mOns est. /erg.
NOTE 3. Est, even when not preceded by another monosyllable, may stand at the
and of a line.
NOTE 4. A single monosyllable, except est, is not often used at the end of the line,
except for the purpose of emphasis or humor:
Prrturi- | unt mon- | tes, || nas- | cetur | ridicu- | lus mns. ffor.
NOTB 5. In Vergil, twenty-one lines, apparently hypermetrical (6O3, note 8), art
supposed to elide a final vowel or a final em or urn before the initial vowel of the next
Hue ; see Aen., L, 882 ; Geor., I., 295. See also 6O8, 1., note 5.
II. OTHER DACTYLIC VERSES.
614. DACTYLIC PENTAMETER.* The Dactylic Pentameter con-
sists of two parts separated by a diaeresis. Each part consists of
two Dactyls and a long syllable. The Spondee may take the place
of the Dactyl in the first part, but not in the second :
Admoni- | tu coe- | pi 1 1 fortior | esse tu- ( 0. Ovid.
615. ELEGIAC DISTICH. The Elegiac Distich consists of the
Hexameter followed by the Pentameter :
Semise | pulta vi- | rum 1 1 cur- | vis feri- | untur a- | ratrlB
Ossa, ru- | Ind- | sas 1 1 occulit | herba do- | mus. Ovid.
NOTB 1. In reading the Elegiac Distich, the Pentameter, including pauses, should
of course occupy the same time as the Hexameter.
NOTE 2. Elegaic composition should be characterized by grace and elegance. Both
members of the distich should be constructed in accordance with the most rigid rules of
metre. The sense should be complete at the end of the couplet. Ovid furnishes us the
best specimens of this style of composition.
616. The DACTYLIC TETRAMETER is identical with the last four
feet of the Hexameter :
Ibimus | soci- 1 1, oomi- | tesque. ffor.
1 The name Pentameter is founded on the ancient division of the line into five feet.
consisting of two Dactyls, or Spondees, a Spondee and two Anapaests.
a Thus in reading, a pause may be introduced after the long syllable in the third foot,
or that syllable may be prolonged to fill out the measure. A pause or rest equal to a
short syllabi' is marked A ; a pause equal to a long syllable, A .
In musical characters the scale of this verse is as follows :
J r Q ..I |JJ3 JJ3J
TROCHAIC VERSE. 359
NOT*. In compound verses, as In the Greater Architochlan, the tetrameter in
imposition with other metres has a Dactyl in the fourth place; see 628, X.
617. The DACTYLIC TRIMETER CATALECTIC is identical with
the second half of the Dactylic Pentameter :
Arbori- | busque co- | mae. Hor.
Nor*. The Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic is also known as the Lester ArchilocMan.
HI. TROCHAIC VERSE.
618. The TROCHAIC DIPODY, the measure in Trochaic verse, 1
consists of two Trochees, the second of which is sometimes irra-
tional (598, 1, 1) ) i. e., it hasthe/wm of a Spondee with the time
of a Trochee : , k , K
^-*-b or JJ*J/
Nor* 1. By the ordinary law of equivalents (598), a Tribrach ^i> *-> *~> may take the
place of the Trochee *- <-/, and an apparent Anapaest * w > the place of the Irrational
Trochee -*- > . a In proper names a cyclic Dactyl -A^ ^ (598, 1,8)) may occur in either
foot.
NOTE 2. In the Trochaic Dipody, the first foot has a heavier ictus than the second.
NOTE 8. A syllable is sometimes prefixed to a Trochaic verse. A syllable thus used
la called Anacrusis (upward beat), and is separated from the following measure by the
mark .
619. The TROCHAIC DIMETER CATALECTIC consists of two Tro-
chaic Dipodies with the last foot incomplete. In Horace it admits
no equivalents, and has the following scale :
-%-. -^ l-^-w*
Aula dlvi- | tern manet. Hor,
NOTE. A Trochaic Trvpody occurs in the Greater Archilochlan ; e 628, X.
1. The Alcaic Enneasyllabic verse which forms the third line in the Al-
caic stanza is a Trochaic Dimeter with Anacrusis:
> : j.^,-t\-L^~^
Pu- er quis ex au- | la capillls. Hor.
620. The TROCHAIC TETRAMETER CATALECTIC consists of four
Trochaic Dipodies with the last foot incomplete. There is a diae-
resis (002, 2) at the end of the fourth foot, and the incomplete dipody
admits no equivalents :
*w-fc|--w-&!|-tw-&|-twA.
Primus ad ci- | bum vocatur, 1 1 prlmO pulmen- | turn datur. Plaut.
1 See 6O1, note 8, with foot-note.
9 Thus in the second foot of a Trochaic Dipody the poet may use a Trochee, a Tribrach,
t Spondee, or an Anapaest ; but the Spondee and the Anapaest are pronounced in UM
irne time as the Trochee or the Tribrach i. e., they have irrational tim.
' Only the leading ictus of each dipody is here mtrked
360 IAMBIC VERSE.
NOTB 1. This Is simply the union of two Trochaic Dimeters, the first acatalectie
tnd the second cataleetic, separated by diaeresis. 1
NOTE 2. In Latin this verse is used chiefly in comedy, and accordingly admits great
licence in the use of feet. The Irrational Trochee (598, 1, 1) ) and its equivalents may
occur in any foot except in the last dipody.
NOTB 8. The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic also occurs in the earlier poets :
Ipae rammls | sans fixus il aspens 6- 1 viaceratus. Enn.
IV. IAMBIC VERSE.
621. The IAMBIC DIPODY, the measure of Iambic verse, consists
of two Iambi, the first of which is sometimes irrational (598, 1,2))
i. e., it has the form of a Spondee with the time of an Iambus :
NOTE 1. The Tribrach tor the Iambus, and the Dactyl or Anapaest * for the Irra-
tional Iambus, are rare, except in comedy.
NOTE 2. In the Ionic Dipody, the first foot has a heavier ictus than the second.
622. The IAMBIC TRIMETER, also called Senarius, consists of
three Iambic Dipodies. The Caesura is usually in the third foot,
but may be in the fourth :
&-<-v^-|e,--w-|-*-~**
Quid obsera- | tls || auribus | fundis preces? HOT.
Neptunus al- | to 1 1 tundit hi- | bernus salo. ffor.
Has inter epu- | las 1 1 ut juvat j pastas oves. ffor.*
1. In PROPER NAKES, a Cyclic Anapaest is admissible in any foot excep*
the last, but must be in a single word.
2. In HORACE the only feet freely admitted are tjie Iambus and the Spon
dee ; their equivalents, tiie Tribrach, the Dactyl, and the Anapaest, are used
very sparingly. The Tribrach never occurs in the fifth foot and only once
in the first. The Anapaest occurs only twice in all.
3. In COMEDY great liberty is taken, and the Spondee and its equivalent*
are freely admitted in any foot except the last.
1 Compare the corresponding English measure, in which the two parts appear as
teparate lines ; u Llveg , of great men ( a) ,, remlnd U8
We' can make our | lives' sublime,
And', departing, | leave' behind us
Foot'prints on the | sands' of time."
1 The Dactyl thus used has the time of an Iambus and is marked > vi. \^\ the Ana-
paest is cyclic (598, 1, 4), marked ^ ^-^-.
* This same scale, divided thus, ^, j - -^> ^\- f -^ ^\- e -^ A, repre-
sents Trochaic Trimeter Catalectic with Anacrusis. Thus all Iambic verses may lx
treated as Trochaic verses with Anacrusis.
* Compare the English Alexandrine, the last line of the Spenserian stanza
When PboeTwa lifts I his head' out of ! the win'tsr 1 * wv
IONIC VERSE. 361
4. The CBOLLAJTBUS is a variety of Iambic Trimeter with a Trochee hi the
rixthfoot: 1
Miser Catul- | le desinas | ineptlre. Catul.
623. The IAMBIC TRIMETER CATALECTIC occurs in Horace with
the following scale :
e,^^_|>^^_ | v^-to
Vocatus at- | que non voca- | tus audit, ffor.
NOTE. The Dactyl and the Anapaest arenot admissible ; the Tribrach occurs only
in the second foot.
624. The IAMBIC DIMETER consists of two Iambic Dipodies :
O-i-w I 5 .. \_/
Queruntur in | silvis aves. floor,
Imbres nives- | que comparat. HOT.
Ast ego vicis- j sim rlsero. Hor.
NOTE 1. Horace admits the Dactyl only in the first foot, the Tribrach only in the
second, the Anapaest not at all.
NOTE 2. Iambic Dimeter is sometimes catalectic.
625. The IAMBIC TETRAMETER consists of four Iambic Dipo
dies. It belongs chiefly to comedy :
Quantum intellex- | I modo senis 1 1 sententiam | de nflptiin. Ter.
NOTE. lambio Tetrameter is sometimes catalectic :
Quot commodas | res attuH? I! quot autem ad6 | ml eiirfts. Ter.
V. IONIC VERSE.
6S6. The Ionic Verse in Horace consists entirely of Lesser
Ionics. It may be eifher Trimeter or Dimeter :
Neque pugno | neque segnl | pede victus ;
Catus Idem | per apertum. Hor.
Rom 1. In this verse the last syllable is not common, but is often long only *'.
porftion (p. 838, foot-note 3). Thus w> in vlctus ii long before < in catus.
NOTE 2. The Ionic Tetrameter Catalectic^ also called Potadfan Vernt^ occur*
ihiefly In comedy. It consists in general of Greater Ionics, but in Martial it bus a Ditr-
;hoe as the third foot :
-t_^,^jj:_ w ^ / |^.wc; s ^| --^7\
Has cum geml- ] nfi compede | dudicat ca- 1 tenas. Mart.
1 CttoliambuH, or Season, means lame or Umping fambus, and is so called from
(ts Umping movement. It is explained as a Trochaic Trimeter Acntalectic with Anacru-
lis. and with syncope (6O8, VII.) in the fifth foot. Th example here given may be rep-
' iMitod thus : ^ ! -t^ ^l^..^ ^! i/. <^
362 LOQAOED1C VERSE.
VI. LOQAOEDIC VERSE.
627. Logaoedic ' Verse is a special variety of Trochaic Verse.
The Irrational Trochee j. >, the Cyclic Dactyl -^ ^/, and the Syn-
copated Trochee i (608, VII.) are freely admitted. It has an ap-
parently light ictus."
NOTE. Logaoedic verses show great variety of form, but a fov. general types will in-
dicate the character of the whole.
628. The following Logaoedic verses appear in Horace :
I. The ADONIC :
Montis i- | mag6. Hor.
II. The FIRST PHERECRATIC ' or the ARISTOPHANIC :
Ciir neque | mlli- | taris. EOT.
NOTE. Pherecratic is the technical term applied to the regular Logaoedic Tripody
It is called the First or Second Pherecratic according as its Dactyl occupies the first or
the second place in the verse In each form it may be acat-alectic or eataUcHc :
1) -^ *., | -^ ^/ | -L o or catalectic : -A., ^ | *- ^ \ ^ A
2) .A > | -^ ^ | -i. c or catalectic. -t-> \ -A_, ^ \ & A
In Logaoedic verse the term basix or bane, marked x , is sometimes applied to the foot or
feet which precede the Cyclic Dactyl. Thus, in the Second Pherecratic, the first foot _ >
is the base.
III. The SECOND GLYCONIC 8 CATALECTIC :
Donee | gratus e- | ram ti- | b!. Hor.
NOTE 1. Glyconic is the technical term applied to the regular Logaoedic Tetrapody.
U is called the First, Second, or Third Glyconic according as its Dactyl occupies the first,
second, or third place in the verse. In each form it may be either acatalectic or catalectic.
NOTB 2. The Second Olyconio sometimes has a Syncope 1 608, VII.) in the third foot.
IV. The LESSER ASCLEPIADEAN * consists of two Catalectic Ph-
recratics, a Second and a First :
^> |^^|I_||^.,|^^|^A
Maece- | nas ata | vis 1 1 edite | rggi- | bus. Hor.
1 From Adyof. proM, and 00167), ong, applied to verses which resemble prose.
1 The free use of long syllables in the thesis causes the poetical ictus on the arsis tc
appear less prominent
1 Pherecratic. Glyconic, and Asclepiadean verses may be explained as Choriambic :
Pherecratic, -^^^-*-|^-*-|OA
First Glyconic. -* ^ ^ J- \ ^ -t- \ ^ ^
Atfclepiadean, -t> |-t^^^.|^. v ^._,^.| w sfc
LOGAOEDIC VERSK 363
V. The GREATER ASCLEPIADEAN consists of three catalectic
verses, a Second Pherecratic, an Adonic, and a First Pherecratic :
-<-> |^~ | i_ |i -^v_ | L_ ||-t^^|^^|^A
Seu plu- | res hie- | rues, || seu tribu- | it II Juppiter | ulti- | mam. Hor.
VI. The LESSER SAPPHIC consists of a Trochaic Dipody and a
First Pherecratic :
-*-_ |^- > | -^. " -t^ | -to
Namque | me sil- | va lupus | ir. >a- | Dlna. Hor.
VII. The GREATER SAPPHIC consists of two Catalectic Glyconics,
a Third and a First with Syncope .
-L^\-L> |^^|l_|l-A^_|-t w ||_|*A
Inter | acquit- | lt-s equi- | tat, 1 1 Gallica | nee lu- | pa- | tib. Hor.
VIII. The LESSER ALCAIC consists of two Cyclic Dactyl* and
two Trochees:
-L^, ^ | -A_ ^ | J- ^, | -t. o
Purpure- | van- | us co- | lore. EOT.
IX. The GREATER ALCAIC consists of a Trochaic Dipody with
Anacrusis and a Catalectic First Pherecratic:
> : ^i^fci^^i^i* A
Vi- j des ut | alti | stet nive | candi- | dum. HOT.
X. The GREATER ARCHILOCHIAN l consists of a Dactylic Tetra-
meter (616) followed by a Trochaic Tripody. .The first three feet
are either Dactyls or Spondees ; the fourth, a Dactyl ; and the last
three, Trochees :
-t- OO I -f- CX2 I -t- CX7 I -t- ^, ^,\\ -t- ^, \ --^1 -tO
I 'I \ V-'V-^M v-X| *-s I
Vltae | summa bre- | vis spem | nfis vetat, 1 1 incho- | are | longam. Hor.
NOTE. This verse may b explained either as Logaoedic or as Compound With the
first explanation, the Dactyls are cyclic and the Spondees have irrational time: with the
wcond explanation, the first member of the verse has the Dactyl as its characteristic foot
arid the second member the Trochee; see 6O1, note 8.
629. The following Logaoedic verses not used in Horace de-
serve mention :
I. The PHALAECIAN is a fogaoedic Pentapody: *
*Z, | -^^ \J.^\J.^\J.*3
NOn cat | vivere, 1 sed va- | l6re | vita. Mart.
1 For the Le**tr Ar'tiitoch-ian, see 617, not*.
2 This verse differs from the Leaner StippMc In having the Dactyl in the second foot,
while the latter hai the Dactyl in the third.
364 LYRIC METRES OF HO RACK.
II. The SECOND PRIAPEAN consists of two Catalectic Second
Olyconics with Syncope :
^.|-^^|-*-^|I_H-->|.A_^|L_ |^A
Quercus | arida | rusti- | ca 1 1 confer- | mata se | cu- | rl. Gatul.
SECTION III.
THE VERSIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPAL LATIN POETS
630. Vergil and Juvenal use the Dactylic Hexameter ; Ovid,
the Hexameter in his Metamorphoses and the Elegiac Distich in his
Epistles and other works ; Horace, the Hexameter in his Epistles
and Satires, and a variety of metres in his Odes and Epodes.
LYRIC METRES OP HORACE.
631. For convenience of reference, an outline of the lyric
metres of Horace is here inserted.
Stanzas of Four Verses or Lines.
I. ALCAIC STANZA. First and second lines, Greater Alcaics (628, IX.) ;
third, Trochaic Dimeter with Anacrusis (619, 1); fourth, Lesser Alcaic
(628, VIII.):
3 2/ : ^ v> I ^ ^
. \^ | '-^ | x ' I
In thirty-seven Odes : I., 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; II., 1, 3, 5,
7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; III., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; IV.,
4, 9, 14, 15.
II. SAPPHIC STANZA. The first three lines, Lesser Sapphics (628, VI.);
the fourth, Adonic (628, I.) :
2. } - w I - >
8.
In twenty-six Odes: I., 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 26, 30, 32, 38; II., 2, 4, 6, 8,
10, 16; III., 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27 ; IV., 2, 6, 11 ; and Secular Hymn.
III. GREATER SAPPHIC STANZA. First and third lines, First Glyconica
Catalectic with Syncope in the third foot (608, VII.) ; second and fourth
lines, Greater Sapphics :
LYRIC METRES OF HORACE. 365
In O.le I., 8.
IV. FIRST ASCLEPIADEAN GLYCONIC STANZA. The first three lines.
Lesser Asclepiadeans (28, IV.) ; the fourth . Second Glyconic Catalectic
(28, IIL) : j
3. )
In nine Odes : I., 6, 15, 24, 33 ; II. 12 ; III., 10, 16; IV., 5, 12
V. SECOND ASCLEPIADEAN GLYCONIC STANZA. The first two lines,
Lesser Asclepiadeans (628, IV.) ; the third, Second Glyconic Catalectic with
Syncope in the third foot (628, III., note 2) ; the fourth, Second Glyconic
Catalectic (628, III.) :
1.1 , , , - , w
2.)
In seven Odes : I., 5, 14, 21, 23 ; III., 7, 13 ; IV., 13
VI. GLYCONIC ASCLKPIADHAN STANZA. First and third lines, Second
Glyconics Catalectic (628, III.); second and fourth, Lesser Asclepiadeans
(628, IV.) :
> I-- IL.H-WW |-^ |" A
In twelve Odes : I., 3, 13, 19, .36; III., 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28 IV., 1,3.
VII. LESSKR ASCLEPIADEAN STANZA. Four Lo^er Asdepiadeans :
A
In three Odes :!.,!; III., 30; TV., 8.
VIII. GREATER AsrLEFiADKAN STANZA. Four
(628, V.) :
i
In three Odes : I., 11, 18 ; IV., 10.
366 LYRIC METRES OF HORACE.
IX. DOUBLE ALCMANIAN STANZA. First and third lines, Dactylic Hexa
meters (610); second and fourth, Dactylic Tetrameters '816):
1
3. )
oo -00 - -*
In two Odes : I., 7, 28.
NOTE. This stanza is formed by the union of two A Ionian ian stanzas; see XIX. below.
X. TROCHAIC STANZA. First and third lines, Trochaic Dimeter Catalec-
tic (619); second and fourth, Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (623):
H i- *
3. i
In Ode II., 18.
XL DACTYLIC ARCHILOCHIAN STANZA. First and third lines, Dactylic
Hexameters ; second and fourth, Catalectic Dactylic Trimeters (617, note):
I
8.)
ti-
4.
In Ode IV., 7.
XII. GREATER ARCHILOCHIAN STANZA. First and third lines, Greater Ar.
chilochians (628, X.) ; second and fourth, Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (623):
1.
3.
In Ode I., 4.
NOT*. The second and fourth lines are sometimes read with syncope, as follows:
XIII. IONIC STANZA. First and second lines, Ionic Dimeters (626) ;
third and fourth, Ionic Trimeters (626) :
if
if
In Ode III., 12.
NOTK This ode is variously arranged in different editions, sometimes in stanzas of
three lines and sometimes of four.
LYRIC METRES OF flORACE. 367
Stanzas of Three Lines.
XIV. FIRST ARCHILOCHIAN STANZA. First line, Hexameter; second,
Iambic Dimeter; third, Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic:
1, oo I oo 1 oo I oo 1 \^ \^ I ^
2. >_^-|>,-^~
O I I <^ A
In Epode 13.
NOTE. In some editions, the second and third lines are united.
XV. SECOND ARCHILOCHIAN STANZA. First line, Iambic Trimeter ; sec-
ond, Dactylic Trimeter Catalectic ; third, Iambic Dimeter :
1. - ^ | & *-> |^ ^^
In Epode 11.
NOTE. In some editions, the second and third lines are united.
Stanzas of Two Lines.
XVI. IAMBIC STANZA. First line, Iambic Trimeter; second, Iambic-
Dimeter: . > _ _i>_ _i>_ ^
2. 2, ^ I ^/ ^ ^
In the first ten Epodes.
XVII. FIRST PYTHIAMBK: STANZA. First line, Dactylic Hexameter ;
second, Iambic Dimeter (624):
1. oo | oo I oo I oo I ^ ^ I ^
In Epodes 14 and 15.
XVIII. SECOND PYTHIAMBIO STANZA. First line, Dactylic Hexameter;
second, Iambic Trimeter :
1. oo | oo J oo | oo | _ ,_, ^ | _ w
2 >, ^ i >, _ ^ l^, ^^
In Epode 16.
XIX. A i. CM AM AN STANZA. First line, Dactylic Hexameter ; second.
Dactylic Tetrameter :
2. -oo|-oo|-_|_w
In Epode 12.
Not grouped into Stanzas.
XX. IAMBIC TRIMETER:
IB Epode 17.
368
METRES OF CATULLUS.
632. INDEX TO THE LTBIC METRES OF HORACE.
The Roman numerals refer to articles in the preceding outline, 6
ODV8.
1 . .
BOOK I.
MBTKES.
VII.
HUMS.
4 .
METRES. ODES.
II. 26 ..
MKTRKH,
I.
5
I
27 .
II.
2 . .
II.
6 .
II. 28
VI.
3 ..
VI.
7 .
I.
29 ..
I.
4 . .
XII.
8 .
II.
30 ..
VII
5
V.
9
I.
1 . .
BOOK IV.
VI
6 .
rv.
10 .
II.
7
IX.
11 .
. I.
8 .
III.
12 .
... IV.
2
. . II.
9 . .
I.
13 .
I.
3 . .
VI.
10 ..
II.
14 .
I.
4 . .
I.
11 . .
VIII.
16 ..
I.
5 ..
IV.
12 ..
II.
16 ..
II.
6 . .
II.
13 ..
.... VI.
17 .
I.
7 ..
XI.
14
V.
18 .
X.
8 . .
... . VII.
16 .
IV.
19 .
I.
9 ..
I.
16 .
I.
20 .
I.
10 ..
VIII.
17
I.
1 .
BOOK III.
I.
11 . .
.... II.
18 . .
VIII.
12 ..
IV.
19 ..
VI.
18 ..
V.
20 . .
II.
2 .
I.
14 .
I.
21 . .
V.
3 .
I.
15 ..
I.
22
. . II.
4 .
I.
EPOPBS.
1
EPODES.
METBKS.
XVI.
23 . .
.... V.
5 .
I
24 ..
IV.
6 .
I.
25
II.
7
... V
26 . .
I.
8 .
II
2 .
XVI.
27
I.
9
VI
3 .
4 .
.... XVI.
28 .
IX.
10
.... IV.
. . . . XVI.
29 ..
I.
11 .
II.
6 . .
XVI.
30 ..
II.
12 .
XIII.
6 . .
XVI.
31 . .
I.
13 .
V.
7 ..
XVI.
32 . .
II.
14 .
.... II.
8 ..
XVI.
33 . .
IV.
15
VI.
9 . .
XVI.
34 ..
I.
16 .
IV.
10 . .
XVI.
36
I.
17 .
I.
11
XV.
36 ..
Vi.
18
II.
12 . .
XIX.
37
I.
19
VI
13 .
XIV
38 .
II.
20 .
... n. 14 . .
XVII.
1
BOOK II.
I
21
I. ' 15 . .
XVII.
22 .
II. 16 ...
XVIII.
23
I i 17
XX.
2
.... II.
24 .
VI.
8
I.
VI. ' SECTLAR HYMN. II.
633. The metres of the following poets must be briefly men-
tioned :
I. CATULLUS uses <thiefly (1) the Elegiac Distich (G I. '); (2) Phalaecian
METRES 0V MARTIAL, PLAUTUS, ETC 369
Trse (620, I.) ; (3) Choliambus or Scazon (628, 4) ; (4) Iambic Trimeter
(622) ; (5) Priapean (629, II.).
II. MARTIAL uses largely the Choliambus or Scazon and the Phalaecian
verse.
NOTE 1. Martial also uses Iambic and Dactylic measures.
NOTE 2. -Seneca in his choral odes imitates the lyric metres of Horace. He ufs
Sapphics very freely, and often combines them into systems closing with the Adonic.
NOTE 8. Seneca also uses Anapaestic ' verse with Spondees and Dactyls as equiv-
alent*. This consisto of one or more dipodies :
Venient annis | saecula sens.
HI. Plautus and Terence use chiefly various Iambic and Trochaic me.
tree, but they also use
1. BACCHIAC" METRES, generally Tetrameter or Dimeter:
Multas' res | simi'ta in | meo' cor- | de vor'sfi. Plant,
At ta'inen ubf | fides' ? si | roges', nil | pendent' hie. Ter.
NOTE. The Molossus, , may take the place of the Bacchius, as in multfo ri,
od the long syllables may be resolved, as in a* tamen ubi.
2. CRKTIC ' METRES, generally Tetrameter or Dimeter :
Nam' doll | nOn* doll | aunt', nisi as- | tu' colas. Plavt.
Dt' malls | gau'deant | at'que ex in- | com'modls. Ter.
Nora 1. Plautns also uses Anapaestic metres, especially Dimeters :
Quod ag6' subit, ad- | secuG' sequitur. Plant.
This measure admits Dactyls and Spondees, rarely Proceleusmatics, ^ ^ ^ ^
NOTE 2. For Trochaic and Iambic Metre* in Comedy, see 62O, note 2; 682, 8.
NOTB 8. For Special Peculiarities in the prosody of Plautus and Terence, see
576, notes 2 and 8; 578, note 2; 58O, notes 2, 3, and 4."
NOTE 4. On the free use of Sy-ntteretit in Comedy, see 6O8, III., note 8.
1 See 603, note 1; 507, note 1.
1 For a rail account of the metres of Plautus and Terence, see editions of those poeU ;
as the edition of Plautus by Ritschl, of a part of Plautus by Harrington, the edition of
Terence by Wagner, and the edition by Crowell; also Spwgel, 'PUutiu : Kritik, Pro-
aodie, Metrik:
370 APPENDIX.
APP E1ST DIX.
L FIGUUES OF SPEECH.
634. A Figure is a deviation from the ordinary form, eonstntictwn, fi
ignification of words.
NOTE. Deviations from the ordinary forms are called Figures of Etymology ; from
the ordinary constructions, Figures ty' Syntax; and from the ordinary significations,
Figures of Rhetoric.
635. The principal FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY are
1. APHAKKKSIS, the taking of one or more letters from the beginning ot a word : '/
for eat.
*. SYNCOPE, the taking of one or more letters from the middle of a word : dlfe for
dtotsse.
ft. APOCOPE, the taking of one or more letters from the end of a word : tun' for tune.
4. EPKNTHBSIS, the insertion of one or more letters in a word : Alcumina. for Alf
m?na, fiMtuum for ffHtum,
METATHESIS, the transposition of letters : pistris for pri&U
6. See also FIGURES OF PROSODY, 608.
636. The principal FIGURES OP SYNTAX are^
I. ELLIPSIS, the omission of one or more words of a sentence :
Ilabitabat ad Jovis (sc. templum), he divelt near the temple of Jupiter. liv.
Hie illius anna (fu~erunt\ hie currus fuit, here were her arms, here her chariot.
Verg.
1. ASYNDETON is an ellipsis of a conjunction : i
YCnL, vldl, vlcl, I came, I saw, I conquered. Suet. Sec also 554, 1., 6, with note 1.
2. For the ELLIPSIS otfaoio, died, oro, see 368, 3, note 1 ; 523, L, note; 569, 11., 8
8. For APOSIOPBSIS or RBTICENTIA, aee 637, XL, 3
II. BRACHYLOGY, a concise and abridged form of expression:
Nostri Graece nesciunt nee Graecl Latino,* our people do not Icnow Greet
ind the Greeks (do) not (know) Latin. Cio. Natura hominis beluls antece-
dit, s the nature of man surpasses (that of) the brutes. Cie.
1. Zeugma employs a word in two or more connections, though strictly
applicable only in one :
Pacem an bellum ger6ns, whether at peace or waging war. Sail. DucCs
plctasque exure carinas, slay the leaders and burn the painted ships. Verg.
1 Asyndeton is sometimes distinguished according to its use, as Adversative^ Ex-
vHcative, Enumerative, etc. ; see Nagelsbacb, ' Stilistik,' 200.
9 Here nesciunt suggest* sciunt, and beluls in the second example i e a'vj.k-ut. to
beiiMrum naturae.
' Gerent, applicable only to bell-urn, .'. ber* need alo of zxic*".
FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 37]
3. Syllepst* is the use of an adjective with two or more nouns, or of a vert
with two or more subjects :
Pater et mater mortul sunt, father and mother ar dead (439). Ter. Tt
rt Tullia valetis, you and Tullia art well. Cic.
ILL PLEONASM is a full, redundant, or emphatic form of expression : *
Erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus exlre possent, there were two ways b$
vhich ways they might depart. Caes. Eurusque Notusque ruuut, both Ewrm
ind Notua rush/orth. Verg.
1 POLYSYNDETON Is a pleonasm in the use of conjunction?", as in the test example.
2. HKNDIAD YS is the use of two nouns with a conjunction, instead of a noun with at
adjective or genitive :
Annls virisque for virls armatls, with armed men. Tac,
8. ANAPHORA ia the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses:
MS c&ncta Italia, mO universa civitis cOnsulem declaravit, me all Italy, me ff>*
whole state declared consul. Cic.
4. EPIPBOBA ia the repetition of a word at the end of successive clauses :
Laelius navus erat, ductus erat, Ladiu* wot diligent, was learned, do.
6. EPIZEUXIS is the emphatic repetition of a word :
Fuit, fuit quondam in hue ru publici virt&S, tlwe was, there wa/orm*rly virtu*
in this reptubiic. Cic.
6. Monosyllabic prepositions are often repeated > Tore successive nouns, regularly so
with etet:
Et in bellicls et f n cirfllbus offlclls, both in military and in civil qfflces. Cic.
NOTE. Other prepositions are sometimes repeated.
7. A demonstrative pronoun or adverb *'</, hoc, illud, ?c, iiate often used some-
what redundantly to represent a subsequent clause. Bo also quid, in quid censes with
a clause:
Hind K GrG nt dTDgens sTs, Task you (that thhig) to lie (that yon be) diligent. C*
& Pronouns are often redundant with quidem ; see 45O, 4, note 2.
9 Pleonasm often occurs with licet:
Ut Hcent permittltur = Hcet, it it lawful (Is permitted that it 1s, etc.). Oc.
19. Circumlocutions with r<~, ffenus, modus, and ratio are common.
IV. ENALLAOB is the substitution of one part of speech for another, 01
of one grammatical form for another :
Popnlus late rex (for regndns), a people of extension tway (ruling extensive-
ly). Verg. Serns (&ro) in caelum redeas, may ymt return late to heaven. Hor.
Vina cadis (ctnte cadOe) onerSre, to Jill th flash with wine. Verg. CursviF
jflstl (fastiis) arnnia, (he regular course of the rirer. Liv.
1. ANTIMBRTA is the use of one part of speech for another, a In the first two examples.
2. HTPALT.AOE is the use of one case for another, as in the last two examples.
8. PROLEPSIS or ANTICIPATION Is the application of an epithet In anticipation of the
tction of the verb :
Scuta tatentia condunt, they conceal their hi/Idem shield . Verg. See also 440, S.
4. STNESIS Is a construction according to sense, without regard to grammatical forma
SW examples, see 438, 6: 445,0; 461.
^ Pleonasm, a fun or emphatic expression, differs widely from Tavtotv^i/ wmcfc V
weediest repetition of tbe same meaning in dtfferen'- word
372 APPENDIX.
5. ATTRACTION unites in construction words not united in sense :
Animal quern (for quod) vocStnus hominem, the animal which we call man. Cic.
See also 445, 4, 8, and 9.
6. ANACOLUTHON is a want of harmony in the construction of the different parts
of a sentence :
SI, nt dlcunt, omnfls GraiOs esse (Graft sunt), if, as they say, all are Greeks. Cic.
V. HYPKRBATON is a transposition of words or clauses :
Praeter arraa nihil erat super (supererat), nothing remained, except their
arms. Nep. Valet atque vivit (mvit atque valet), he is alive and well. Ter
Subeunt luco, fluviumque relinquunt, they enter the grove and leave the river.
Verg.
1. ANASTBOPHK is the transposition of words only, as in the first example.
2. HYSTERON PROTEROK is a transposition of clauses, as in the last example.
3. TMESIS is the separation of the parts of a compound word :
Nee prius respSxI quam vgnimng, nor did Hook back before (sooner than) we ar-
rived. Verg.
4. CHIASMUS is an inverted arrangement of words in contrasted groups ; see 563 .
637. FIGURES OF RHETORIC comprise several varieties. The follow-
ing are the most important : '
I. A SIMILE is a direct comparison :
Manus effugit imag8 par levtbus ventis volucrique simillima somno, the
image, like the swift winds, and very like a fleeting dream, escaped my hands.
Verg.
II. METAPHOR is an implied comparison, and assigns to one object the
appropriate name, epithet, or action of another :
Rel publicae vulnus (for damnum), the wound of the republic. Cic. Nau-
fragium f ortunae, the wreck of fortune. Cic. Aures vgritatl clausae sunt,
his ears are closed against the truth. Cic.
1. Allegory Is an extended metaphor, or a series of metaphors. For an
example, see Horace, I., Ode 14 : O navis . . . occupS portum, etc.2
III. METONYMY is the use of one name for another naturally suggested
by it :
Aequo Marte (for proelio) pugnatum est, they fought in, an equal contest.
Liv. Furit Vulcanus (ignis), the fire rages. Verg. Proximus ardet Ucale-
gon (domus Ucalegontis), Ucalegon burns next. Verg.
NOTE. By this figure the cause is often put for the effect, and the effect for the
cause ; the property for the possessor, the place or age for the people, the sign for the
thing signified, the material for the manufactured article, etc. : 'Mars for be/lum,
Vulcanus for ignis, Bacchus for vlnum, ndbilitas for ndbUes, Graecia for Graecl,
laurea for vlctdria, argentum for vSsa argentea, etc.
1 On Figurative Language, see the eighth and ninth books of Quintilian , ' DS Insti-
tntiOne OratOrifl,' and the fourth hook of ' Auctor ad Herenninm ' in Cicero's works.
In this beautiful allegory the poet represents the vessel of state as having been
well-nigh wrecked in the storms of the civil war, but as now approaching the haven
of peace.
FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 373
1. Autonomasia designates a person by some title or office, as eversor
Karthdginis for ScipJX, Bomanae eloquentiae prlncepsfor Cicero.
IV. SYNECDOCHE is the use of a part for the whole, or of the whole for
a part; of the special for the general, or of the general for the special :
8tatl5 male flda carlnls (navibus), a station unsafe for ships. Verg.
V. IRONY is the use of a word for its opposite :
Legates bonus (for mains) imperator vester non adiulsit, your good com-
mander did not admit the ambassadors. Liv. See also 5 O 7, 3, note 1.
NOTE. Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony are often called Tropes.
VI. CLIMAX (ladder) is a steady ascent or advance in interest:
AfricSno industria virtutem, virtus gloriam, gloria aemulas comparavit,
industry procured virtue for Africamts, virtue glory, glory rivals. Cic.
VII. HYPERBOLE is an exaggeration :
Ventis et fulminis ocior alls, swifter than the winds and the wings of the
lightning. Verg.
VIII. LITOTES denies something instead of affirming the opposite :
Non opus est = perniciosum est, it is not necessary. Cic.
IX. PERSONIFICATION or PROSOPOPEIA represents inanimate objects as
living beings :
Ciijus latus ille mucrS petebat ? whose side did that weapon seek? Cic.i
X. APOSTROPHE is an address to inanimate objects or to absent persons-
\"0s, AlbanI tumuli, vos impl&rO, / implore you, ye Alban hiln. Cic.
XI. The following figures deserve brief mention :
1. ALLITERATION, a repetition of the same letter at the beginning of
successive words :
VI vlcta vis est, force was conquered by force. Cic. FortissimT virt virtus,
the virtue of a most brave man. Cic.
2. APOPHASIS or PARALKIPSIS, a pretended omission : *
Nfin dlco te pecunias accepisse ; raplnas tuas omnes omitto, [do not elate
that you accepted money ; I omit all your acts of rapine. Cic.
3. APOSIOPESIS or RETICENTIA, an ellipsis which for rhetorical effect
leaves the sentence unfinished :
QuOs ego sed mOtos praestat componere flflctfls, whom I but it is better
to calm the troubled waves. Verg.
4. EUPHEMISM, the use of mild or agreeable language on unpleasant
subjects :
Si quid mihl humanitus accidisset, if anything common to the lot of man
thould be/all me i. e. } if 1 should die. Cic.
> Bee also First Oration against Catiline, VII. : Qua* Wcum . . . taclta loquitur, etc.
Sometimes called ooovpdtH.
374 APPENDIX.
5. ONOMATOPOEIA, the use of a word in imitation of a special sound-
Boves mugiunt, the cattle low. Liv. Murmurat unda, the wave murmurs
Verg.
6. OXYMORON, an apparent contradiction ?
Absentes adsnnt et egente s abundant, the absent are present and the need},
\ave an abundance. Cie.
7. PARONOMASIA or AGNOMINATION, a play upon words :
1 1 in ic avium dulcedd ducit ad avium, 1 the attraction of birds leadt him tt
the pathless wood. Cic.
II. LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
638. The Latin derives its name from the Latinl or Latins, the ancien*
inhabitants of Latium in Italy. It belongs to the Indo-European or Aryan
family, which embraces seven groups of tongues known as the Indian or
Sanskrit, the Persian or Zend, the Greek, the Italian, the Celtic, the Slavomc,
and the Teutonic or Germanic. The Latin is the leading member of the
Italian group, which also embraces the Uinbrian and the Oscan. All these lan-
guages have one common system of inflection, and in various respects strik-
ingly resemble each other. They are the descendants of one common speech
spoken by a single race of men untold centuries before the dawn of history.
NOTTS 1. In illustration of the relationship between the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, ix!
English, compare the following paradigms of declension : *
SIKG0LAK.
SANSKRIT.
GREEK.
LATIN.
ENGLISH.
Stem.
pad,
wot,
ped,
foot
Nom.,\
Foe. i
-pad,
irovs,
I**,
foou
G&n.
padas,
ffoSof,
pedis,
of foot
Pat.
pade,
voSi,
pedi.
to a foot.
Ace.
partam,
v6Sa,
pedem,
foot.
AM.
Ing.
padas,
pada,
pede,
from a foot
with a foot
Loc.
padi,
in afoot
PLURAL.
Norn., \
Foe i
'padas,
rife*
pcdes,
feet
Gen.
pad am,
foSStv,
pedum,
effect
flat.
padbhyas,
root,
pedibus,
to feet
Ace.
padas,
ardSae,
pedes,
feet.
Abl.
padbhyas,
pcdibus,
from feet
Inn.
padbhis,
with feeV
Loo.
patsu.
in feet.
' The pun, lost in English, is in the use of Swum, remote or pathless place, with
a^v^um,, of birds.
* See also p. 71, foot-note 2; p. 83.. foot-note 8.
* The Ablative, the Instrumental, and the Locative are lost In Greek, but thelt
places are supplied by the Genitive and the Dative.
* The final consonant, probably /, of the original Ablative ending is changed to in
pad OK and dropped in pede. The Instrumental and the Locative are lost in Latin,
>ut their places are supplied by the Ablative
LATIA LAMGUAGS. 876
NOTE 8. In these paradigms observe that the Initial p in pad, not, ped, become* /
ii] foot, and that the final d becomes /. This change is in accordance with Grimm's
Law of the Rotation of Mutes in the Germanic languages. This law is as follows :
The Primitive Mutes, which generally remain unchanged in Sanskrit, Greek, and
Latin, are changed in passing into the Germanic languages, to which the English belongs.
Thus the SONANTS, d, ff, in passing into English, become SURDS. <, k ; the SCRDS, c, A,
p. t, become ABPIRATES, h, wh^f (for pfi), th; the ASPIBATES, bh, 1 dhj gh* become
SONANTS, b, d, g?
NOTE 8. The relationship between the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and English may be
abundantly illustrated by comparing the forma of familiar words in these different lan-
guages. 8
639. The earliest specimens of Latin whose date can be determined are
found in ancient inscriptions, and belong to the latter part of the fourth cen-
tury before Christ or to the beginning of the third. Fragments, however,
of laws, hymns, and sacred formulas, doubtless of an earlier though uncer-
tain date, have been preserved in Cato, Livy, Cicero, and other Latin writers. 4
1 Bh generally is represented in Latin by ft or /; dh by <1 or /, and gh by g h, or /;
dee Schleicher, pp 244-251.
* For an account of Grimm's Law, with its applications, see Max Mailer. ' Sciencf
f Language,' Second Series, Lecture V. ; Pupil Ion, pp. 85-91.
* Compare the following:
SANSKRIT. OKF.F.K. LATIN. ENGLISH.
dvsu, 4vo, duo, two
trayas, rp<t, Ire's. three,
sat", <, sex, six.
sapta, en-rd, septem, seven,
daca, 6<<ca, decein, ten.
dris, 6t, bis, twice,
tris, rpt'j, ter, thrice,
mats, /irjnjp, iiiatiT, mother,
pita, TaTTJp, pater, father,
nans, vaCc, navis, navy.
vSk, 6<j>, vox, voice.
* Such are the ancient forms of prayer found in Cato and other writers, the fragments
of Salian hymns, of the formulas of the Ketial priests, and of ancient laws, especially ol
the taw* of the Twelve Tables. The following inscription on the tomb of the Scipion
shows some of the peculiarities of early Latin :
HONO OINO . PLOIRTMK . OON8ENTIONT . B
DVONORO . OPTVMO . FVISB . VIRO
LVCIOM . 8CIPIONE . FILIOS . BARBATI
OON80L . CENSOR . AIDILI8 . HIC . KVET . A
UK'' . CEPIT . OOB8ICA . ALERIAQVB . VKHK
DKIIKT . TEMPESTATEBC8 . AIDE . HERETO
In ordinary Latin :
Hunc Qnnin pluriml cflnsentinnt Rfrmdl
bonfirum optimum ftilsse virum tirortim,
LOcium Sclpionem. Fllins BarbaH
consul, cCnsor, aedllls hie full apud Tfo.
Hie c^plt Corsicam Aleri.imque urbcm pilffnandfi
dedlt teuipest&tibns aedem merits votam,
8 Wordsworth, 'Early Latin,' Part II.; P. D. Allen, 'Early Latin'; Roby, I., p. 418.
376 APPENDIX.
640. The history of Roman literature begins with Livius Andronicus
a writer of p/ays, and the earliest Roman author known to us. It em-
braces about eight centuries, from 250 B. c. to 650 A. D., and has been
divided by Dr. Freund into three principal periods. These periods, with
their principal authors, are as follows :
I. The ANTE-CLASSICAL PERIOD, from 260 to 81 B. c. :
Ennius, Plautus, Terence, Lucretius.
TI The CLASSICAL PERIOD, embracing
1, The Golden Aye, from 81 B. c. to 14 A. D. :
Cicero, Nepos, Horace, Tibulltts,
Caesar, Livy, Ovid, Propertiu*.
Sallust, Vergil, Catullus,
2. The Silver Age, from 14 to 180 A. D. :
Phaedrus, The Plinies, Quintilian, Persius,
Velleius, Tacitus, Suetonius, Lucap,
The Seneca s, (Jurtius, Juvenal, Martial.
III. The POST-CLASSICAL PERIOD, embracing
1. The Brazen Aye, from 180 to 476 A. D. :
Justin, Eutropius, Lactantius, Claudian,
Victor, Macrobius, Ausonius, Tereatian.
2. The Iron Age, from 476 to 550 A. D. :
Boethlus, Cassiodorus, Justinian, Prisclan.
HL THE ROMAN CALENDAR.
641. The Julian Calendar of the Romans is the basis of our own, and
is identical with it in the number of months in the year and in the num-
ber of days in the months.
642. PECULIARITIES. The Roman calendar has the following pecu-
liarities :
L The days were not numbered from the beginning of the month, as with
us, but from three different points in the month :
1. The Calends, the first of each month.
2. The Nones, the fifth but the seventh in March, May, July, and
October.
3. The Ides, the thirteenth but the fifteenth in March, May, Jnly, and
October.
II. From these three points the days were numbered, not forward, but
backward.
NOTE. Hence, after the Ides of each month, tho days were numbered from the
Calends of the following month.
III. In numbering backward from each of these points, the day before
ROMAN CALENDAR.
377
each was denoted by prldie Kalendds, Ndnds, etc. ; the second before each by
did tertio (not seconds) ante Kalendas, etc. ; the third, by die quArtii, etc. ; and
so on through the month.
1. This peculiarity in the use of the numerals, designating the second day before the
Calends, etc., as the third, and the third as the fourth, etc., arises from the fact that the
Calends, etc., were themselves counted as the first. Thus prldie KalendCix, the day
before the Calends ; diS tertio ante JCalendda, the second day before the Calends.
2. In dates the name of the month is added in the form of an adjective in agreement
with Kalendfa, Nf>nda, etc., as, die quarto ante Nfm&s Jdnuiirias, often shortened to
quarto ante Nf>nas Jan., or IV. ante Nonas Jan., or without ante, as, IV. Nonas Jiln^
the second of January.
8. Ante diem is common, instead of die ante, as, ante diem quartum Nonas Jiln.
for die qudrtd ante Nfindt Jan.
4. The expressions ante diem Kal., etc., prldie Kal., etc., are often used as inde-
clinable nouns with a preposition, as, e ante diem V. Idiis Oct., from the llth of Oct
Lie. Ad prtdie Nona Maias, till the 6th of May. Oic.
643. CALENDAR FOB THE YEAH.
Dmysof
UM
Month.
Much, My, July,
October.
Juiuvy, August,
December.
April, June,
September, November.
February.
1
K \ 1 E M >K *
KALKNIHS.
KALKNKIS.
KALENDlS.
2
VI. Nonas.'
IV. Nonas.
IV. Nonas.
IV. Nonas.
8
V.
III.
III.
IIL
4
IV.
Prldio NOnas.
Pridig Nonas.
Prldi Nonai.
5
III.
NONlB.
NONls.
NONls.
6
PridiC Nonas.
VIII Id&s.
VIII. Idus.
VII I. Idas.
I
NONls.
VII.
VII.
VII.
8
VIII. Idtta.
VL
VI.
VI.
9
VII.
V. w
V.
V.
10
VL
IV. "
IV.
IV.
11
V.
III. "
III.
III.
11
IV.
PridiC Idfts.
Pridli- Idas
Prldifi Idfls
18
III.
IDIBUS.
IDIBIM.
IDIHTJS.
14
Prldio Idus.
XIX. Kalend.'
XVIII. Ka end.'
XVI. Kal nd.'
15
IDIBUB.
XVIII. "
XVII.
XV.
16
XVII. Kalend*
XVII.
XVI.
XIV.
17
XVI.
XVI.
XV.
XIIL
18
XV.
XV.
XIV.
XIL
19
XIV. *
XIV. u
XIIL
XL
20
XIII. *
XIII.
XII.
x
21
XIL
XII. u
XI.
IX.
22
XL
XL *
X.
VIII.
28
X. **
X. *
IX.
VII.
24
IX.
IX.
VIIL
VL
26
VIII.
VIII.
VII.
V. (VI.)
28
27
VII. "
VI. -
VII. "
VI.
VI.
V.
IV. (V.)
in. (iv.) "
28
V. "
V. *
IV.
Prid.Kal.(III.Kal.)
29
IV.
IV.
III.
(Prld. Knl.)
80
III.
III.
Pridltj Kalend.
(
31
Pridid Kalend.
Prtdie Kalend.
1 To the Calends, Nones, etc., the name of the month roust of course be added. Be-
fore Nonas, Idus, etc., ante. Is sometimes used and sometimes omitted (642, III., 2).
9 The Calends of the following month are of course meant; Uiu Kith of March, fur
Instance, Is XVII. Kalenda* Aprilet.
* The Inclosed forms apply to Jeap-yar.
878 APPENDIX.
644. ENGLISH AND LATIN DATES. The table (643) wiD furnish th
fearner with the English expression for any Latin date, or the Latin ex-
pression for any English date ; but it may be convenient also to have the
following rule
I. If the dav is numbered from the Nones or Ides, subtract the number
diminished bj ine from the number of the day on which the Nones or Ides
fall:
VIIL ante Idus Jan. = 13 (8 - 1) = 18 1 = 6th of January.
II. If the day is numbered from the Calends of the following month, sub-
tract the number diminished by two from the number of days in the current
month :
XVIIL ante Kal. Feb. = 31 (18 2) = 31 - 16 = 15th of January.
NOTE. In leap-year the 24th and the 25th February are both called the sixth before
the Calends of March, VI. Kal. Mart. The days before the 24th are numbered as if
the month contained only 28 days, but the days after the 25th are numbered regularly
for a month of 29 days : V^JV., HI. Kal. Mart., and pndie Kal. Mart.
645. The Roman day, from sunrise to sunset, and the night, from
sunset to sunrise, were each divided at all seasons of the year into twelve
hours.
1. The night was also divided into four watches of three Roman hours
each.
2. The hour, being uniformly '/,j of the day or of the night, of course varied
in length with the length of the day or night at different seasons of the year.
IV. ROMAN MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASUBES.
646. The principal Roman coins were the as, of copper; the sestertius,
fulnarius, denarius, of silver ; and the aureu$, of gold. Their value in the
classical period may be approximately given as follows '.
Is 1 to 2 cents.
SfcHtertius 5
Quinarius 10
Denarius 20
Aureus = 25 denarii $5.00
1. The ds, the unit of the Roman currency, contained originally a pound
jf copper, but it was diminished from time to time till at last it contained
nly J / M of a pound.
NOTE. An as, whatever its weight, was divided Into twelve unotae.
2. The stttertivs contained originally 2}^ asses, the quindriw 5, and the
ifenarius 10 ; but as the as depreciated in value, the number of asses in these
.Toins was increased.
8. The &s is also used as a general unit of measure. Thus
1) In Weight^ the ds is a pound, and the flneia an ounce.
2) In Measure, the a* is a foot or a jQgerum (648, IV. and V.), and the
Uncia is '/ia of a foot or of a jugerum.
8) In Interest, the at is the unit of interest L e. t 1 pr cent, a month.
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. ,379
or 12 per cent, a year ; the uncia is "/u P er cent. a month, or 1 per cent, a
year; and the semis is / ia per cent, a month, or 6 per cent, a year, etc.
4) In Inheritance, the as is the whole estate, and the undo, V ia of it : heres
ex asse, heir of the whole estate ; Jieres ex dodrante, heir of /
647. COMPUTATION OF MONEY. In all sums of money the common unit
of computation was the sestertius, also called nummus ; but four special
points deserve notice :
I. In all sums of money, the units, tens, and hundreds are denoted by
sestertii with the proper cardinals :
Qulnque sestertii, 5 sesterces ; vigintl sestertii, 20 sesterces ; ducentl ses-
tertii, 200 sesterces.
II. One thousand sesterces are denoted by mllle sestertn, or mllle sester-
tium.
III. In sums less than 1,000,000 sesterces, the thousands are denoted either
(1) by imUa sestertium (gen. plur.), or (2) by sestertia :
Duo mllia sestertium, or duo sestertia, 2,000 sesterces ; qulnque mllia ses-
tertium, or qulnque sestertia, 5,000 sesterces.
NOTE. With sesUrtia the distributives are generally used, as, Vina sestertia.
IV. In sums containing one or more millions of sesterces, sestertium with
the value of 100,000 sesterces is used with the proper numeral adverb, decies,
vlcies, etc. Thus
Decies sestertium, 1,000,000 (10 x 100,000) sesterces; vlcies sestertium,
2,000,000 (20 x 100,000) sesterces.
1. SBBTERTIUM. In the examples under IV., sestertium is treated as a neuter noun
in the singular, though originally it was probably the genitive plural of sestertius, and the
full expression for 1,000,000 sesterces was Deciea centena mllia sestertium . Centfna
mllia was afterward generally omitted, and finally sestertitim lost its force as a genitive
pluraL, and became a neuter noun in the singular, capable of declension.
2. Sometimes sestertium is omitted, leaving only the numeral adverb : as, decifx,
1,000,000 sesterces.
3. The sign HS is often used for sfjtertil, and sometimes for sestertia, or sestertium :
Decem HS = 10 sesterces (HS = sCstertii). D6na HS = 10,000 sexterce* (HS = ses-
tertia). Decies H8 = 1,000,000 sesterces (HS = sestertium).
648. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The following weights and measures
doserve mention :
I. The Libra, also called As or Pvndd, equal to about 11} ounces avoir-
dupois, is the basis of Roman weights.
I. The Libra, like the ('in in money, is divided into 12 parts.
II. The Modius, equal to about a peck, is the basis of dry measure.
III. The AmpTu>ra, containing a Roman cubic foot, equivalent to about
seven gallons, is a convenient basis of liquid measure.
IV. The Koman Pen or Foot, equivalent to about 11.6 inches, is the basis
ot'long measure.
NOTK. Cubitut is equivalent to 1 # Roman feet, pasinui to 5, and stadium to 625.
380
APPENDIX.
V. The Jugerum, coutaiuing 28,800 Roman square feet, equivalent to
about six tenths of an ncre, is the basis of square measure.
V. ROMAN NAMES.
64Q. -A- Human citizen usually had three names. The first, or prae-
nrimen, designated the individual; the second, or nomen, the yens or tribe;
and the third, or cognomen, the family. Thus, Puh/ius Corntlivs Sclpio
was PuMius of the SclpiS family of the Cornelian gens, and G'H'US Jf/lius
Caesar was Gaius of the Caesar family of the Julian gens.
1. The praenomen was often abbreviated :
S. (Sex.) = Sextus.
Ser. = Servius.
Sp. = Spurius.
T. = Titus.
Ti. (Tib.) = Tiberius.
A. = Aulus. M. = Marcus.
Ap. = Appius. M'. = Munius.
C. = Gains. Mam. = Mamercus.
Cn. = Gnaeus. N. = Numerius.
D. = Decimus. P. = Publius.
L. = Lucius. Q. (Qu,) = Quintus.
2. Sometimes an agndmen or surname was added. Thus SclpiS received
the surname Africdnus'from his victories in Africa : Publius Cornelius S&pifi
Africanus.
3. An adopted son took (1) the full name of his adoptive father, and (2)
an agnomen in anus formed from the name of his own gens. Thus Octavim
when adopted by Caesar became Gains Julius Caesar Octavianm. After-
ward the title of Augustus was conferred upon him, making his full name
O&ius Julius Caesar Octaviamis Augustus.
4. Women were generally known by the name of their gens. Thus the
daughter of Julius Caesar was simply Julia ; of Tullius Cicero, Tullia ; of
Cornelius Sclpio, Cornelia. Three daughters in any family of the Cornelian
gens would be known as Cornelia, Cornelia Secunda or Minor, and Cornelia
Tertia.
650. Various abbrev
A. D. = ante diem.
Aed. = aedilis.
A. U. C. = anno urbis
conditae.
Cos. = consul.
Coss. = consulfis.
D. = divus.
D. D. = dono dedit.
Des. = designatus.
D. M. = dils manibus.
D. S. = df; suo.
D. S. P. P. = de sua
pecunia posuit.
Eq. Rom. = eques Ro-
manus.
F. = fllius.
iations occur in classical
F. C. = faciendum cii-
ravit.
Id. = Idus.
Imp. = imperfltor.
K. (Kal.) = Kalendae.
Leg. = ICgatus.
Non. = Nonae.
O. M. = optimus mfix-
imus.
P. C. = patres conscrlp-
tl.
Pont. Max. = pontifey
maximus.
P. R. = populus R6-
mftnus.
Pr. = praetor.
authors :
Praef. = praefectus.
Proc. = proconsul.
Q. B. F.F. Q.S. =quod
bonum, felTx, faus-
tumque sit.
Quir. = Quirltes.
Resp. = res pnblica.
S. = senatus.
S. C. = senatus c&usul-
tum.
S. D. P. = sal fit era dicit
plurimam.
S. P. Q. R. = senatus
popul usque Roman us.
Tr. PI. = tribunus pl6-
bis.
APPENDIX. 381
VI. VOWELS BEFORE TWO CONSONANTS OR A DOUBLE CONSONANT.
651. On the natural quantity 1 of vowels before two consonants, or a.
double consonant, observe
I. That vowels are long before ns, nf, gn, gin, and generally before j :
conscius, consensus, consul, inscribe, insequor, instaus, insula, amans,
inonens, regens, auditing ; confero, conflcio, infelix,infeusus, infero; benig-
nus, magnus, regnum, signum, agmen, segmentum, hujus.
II. That all vowels which represent diphthongs, or are the result of
contraction, are long : a
existimo, amasse, audissem, intrSrsum,* intr6rsu8,pr5rsus,qu6rsuin, rur-
sum, sursuin, malle, miillem, nolle, nollem, nullus, ullus, 3 Mars,* Martis.
III. That the long vowels of Primitives are retained in Derivatives
1. In asco, esco, and isco in Inceptives :
gelasco, labasco, acesco, aresco, florfisco, latesco, patesco, silesco,
virf-sco, edormlsco, obdormlsco, scisco, cOnscisco.
2. In large classes of words of which the following are examples :
cras-tinus, due-tills, fas-tus, ue-fas-tus, flos-culus, jus-tus, in-jus-tus,
jus-tissimus, jus-titia, matr-imouium, 6s-culum, os-culor, os-tium, palus-
ter, ras-trum, r6s-trum, rus-ticus, sallc-tum.
IV. That vowels are long in the ending of the Nominative Singular of
nouns and adjectives with long increments in the Genitive :
frux, Itlx, lux, pax, plt-bs, rex, thorax, vox.
V. That e is long before x in the Perfect Active in exi :
rfixi, rfixit ; texl, txerunt ; vexl, vexitnus ; diltlxit, dilCxfirunt.
> Itls often di Hie nit. and sometimes absolutely impossible, to determine the natural
qnantiiyof vowels before two consonants, but, the subject has of late received special
attention from German orthoepists. An attempt has been made in this article to colled
the most important results of these labors. The chief sources of information upon this
snbjectare (1) ancient inscriptions, (2) Greek transcriptions of Latin words, (3) the tes-
timony of ancient grammarians, (4) the modern languages, (5) the comic poets, and (6)
etymology. Kee Brngmann/Grundrissder Vergleichendon Grmnmatik'; OsthofF/Zur
Geschlchtedes Perfects im Indo-germanischcn '; Heelm din, 'Die AiiKsprache dot* La-
tein'; Stolz, ' Lateinische Grammatik'; Vanicek. ' Etymolojjlsches \VOrierbucli derlu-
teinischenSpraclie'; Bouterwekuntl Tegge, ' Die altsprncliliehe Orthoepie '; Biinger,
' DielateinUche Quantitat in positionelaugen Silt>en '; Wiggert, ' Znrlateinischen Or-
thoepie' ; Marx, 'Die Auscprache clcr lateinischen Vocale in po-Mtionslancen Silbon ' ;
Schmitz, ' Beitriige '; Kitsch], ' Rlieinisches Museum.' vol. xxxi., pp. 481-192 ; SchOll,
' ActaSocietfltisPhilologaeLipslCnsis,' vol. vi., pp. 71-215: Mdller, ' Ortliograpliiaect
ProsOdiaeLatTnaeSurnmarium'; Foerster.'Rheinisches Museum, 'xxxiii., pp. 201 -2!K.
5 Though, like other long vowels, they were probably sometimes shortened before
certain consonants : duOrum, dnflm,dnum : nostrOrnm, nostrOni, nostrum ; see VII.
below, also 580, II.
* Intrdrgum from intr&verwm ; QUne from tlnuliis ; M8,n from Mavort.
382
APPENDIX.
VI. That long vowels occur in the following words and in their deriva
tives :
actifc
fllctus
nuntius
rostrum
actito
flixi
nupsl
sescentl
actor
forma
nuptiae
sestertius
fictum
formosus
n upturn
Sestius
actus
fractus
nutrid
structor
anxiu:-
fructus
nutrtx
structflra
aratrum
illustris
6rdior
structus
arde6
junctiC
6rdo
struxi
atrium
junctus
ornamentum
sumpsl
axilla
junxl
6rno
sumptus
bestia
lectit>
Ostia
taxillus
bus turn
lector
oetium
tector
calumnia
lectus
pastor
tectus
capesso
lictor
pastua
trlstis
classis
luctor
paxiilus
ulterior
compsl
luctus
Pollio
ultimun
comptus
luxl
prlnceps
ultra
crlspus
lustro
prlscue
unctid
cunctus
lustrum
prOmpsi
unctito
custodio
Marcus
prOmptUB
unctor
custos
maxilla
proplnquus
unctura
dSlormis
maximus
punctus
unctus
dlxl
mllle
purge
unxi
duxl
mlstus
quartue
ustus
ebrius
mixtus
qulnque
usurpo
6mpti6
narrO
quintus
Vestinus
emptus
nascor
rastrum
vfixillum
facesso
Ndrba
recti6
vlctus
festus
norma
rector
villa
Festus
nosco
rectus
Vlpsanius
festlvus
nundinae
Boscius
vlxl
VII. That vowels are probably short before nt and nd
amant, amantis, monentis, prudentis, prudentia, amandus, regendus.
VIII. That the short vowels of Primitives are retained in Derivatives :
inter-nus, juven-tus, llber-tas, munus-culum, super-bus, vir-tus.
IX. That vowels are generally short in the ending of the Nominative
Singular of nouns and adjectives with short increments in the Genitive:
adeps, calix, dux, grex, hiems, jtidex, nex, nux.
Nor*. Vowels before final ns are of course excepted.
X. That the first vowel in the following endings is short
1. ernus ernius, erninus ; urnus, urnius, urnlnus .
maternus, Liternius, Llterninus, taciturnus, Saturnius, Saturninus.
2. ustus, estus. ester, estis, esticus, estinus. estris
robustus, venustus, vetustus, honestus, modestus, campester, Silvester,
agrestis, caelestis, domesticus, clandestlnus, terrestris.
XI. That all vowels are to be treated aa short unless there are good
reasons for believing them to be long.
INDEX OF VERBS.
INDEX OF VERBS.
THIS Index contains an alphabetical list, not only of all the simpk
rerbs in common use which involve any important irregularities, but also
of such compounds as seem to require special mention. In regard to
compounds of prepositions (344) observe
1. That the elements preposition and verb often appear in the com-
pound in a changed form ; see 344, 4-6,
2. That the stem-vowel is often changed in the Perfect and Supine ;
see 221.
Al-lici&, ere, lexi, Icctum, 217, 2 ; p.
130, foot-note 8.
Alo, ere, alui, alitum, altum, 278.
Amb-igo ; see agd, 271, 2.
Amb-io, 295, N. 2.
Amicio, Ire, ul (xi), turn, 285.
Amo, 205.
Amplector, I, amplexus sum, 283.
Ango, ere, anxi, , 272, N. 1.
An-nu6, ere, i, , 272, N. 1.
Ante-capi6, p. 128, foot-note 14
Apage, def., 297, III.
Aperio, ire, ui, turn, 285.
AplBcor, i, aptus sum, 283.
Ap-pareo; see pared, 262; 301.
Ap-pet6 ; see pelo, 278.
Ap-plic6; see plied, 258.
Ap-p&no; scepdnd, 273.
Arcisso, ere, IvI, Hum, 278.
Arded, ere, arsi, arsutn, 265.
Aresco, ere, iirul, , 281.
Arguo, ere, ui, utum, 279.
Ar-ripid; see rapid, 274.
A-Bcendo ; see scandd, 272, 8.
A-spergo ; see spargd, 270.
A-spicio, ere, spexl, spcctum, 217, 2
As-sentior, Irt, sensus sum, 288, 2
As-sideo ; see seded, 267, 2.
At-texc ; see texd, 274.
At-tined; see tened, 263.
At-ting6; see tango, 271.
At-tollo ; see (olio, 271.
Audeo, ere, ausus sum, 268, 8.
Audio, 211.
Au-fer6, 292, ?,.
Augeo, ere, auxi, auctum, 264.
Ave, aef. ; see havr, 2!7, III.
Ab-dS, 1 ere, didl ; ditum, 271.
Ab-iei6i wejacw, 271, 2.
Ab-igO ; see ago, 271, 2.
Aboleft, ere, evi, itum, p. 124, foot-
note 2.
Abolfesco, ere, olevl, olitum, 277.
Ab-ripi6; see rapid. 274.
Abs-condo ; see abao, 271.
Ab-suin, 290, I.
Ac-cendo, ere, I, censum, 272, 8.
Ac-cido ; see cado, 272; 301.
Ac-cin6 ; see cand, 271.
Ac-cipiO ; see capid, 271, 2.
Ac-col6 ; see cold, 274.
Ac-cumbo, ere, cubul, cubitum, 273.
Acesco, ere, acui, , 281.
Ac-qulro ; see yuaero, 278.
Acuo, ere, ui, utum, 279.
Ad-d( - > ; see abdo } 271 ; 255, 1., 4.
Ad-tari, p. 142, foot-note 5.
Ad-fer6, 292, 2.
Ad-imo; see emd, 271, 2.
Ad-iplscor, i, adeptus sum, 283, foot-
note 1.
Ad-olesco ; see abolescd, 277.
Ad-orior ; see orior, 288, 2.
Ad-spicio ; see aspicio, 217, 2.
Ad-sto, 259, N. 2.
Ad-sum, 290, I.
Ag-gredior ; see gradior, 281
A-gnosco ; see ndscd, 278.
Ago, ere, egl, actum, 271, 2
Ai6, def., 297, 11.
Albe6, ere, , 262, N. 2.
Alged, ere, alsi, , 265.
1 Final n ID verbs ie (ometlinei shortened, though rarely in tha best wr<trt
364
INDEX OF VERBS.
8
Balbutio, Ire, , 284, N. 8.
Batuo, ere, I, , 272, N. 1.
Bibo, ere, I, , 272, N. 1.
Blandior, Iri, HUH sum, 288.
Cad6 4 ere, cecidi, casum, 272.
Caecuti6, ire, . 284, N. 2.
Caedo, ere, cecldi, caesura, 272.
Calesco, ere, calul, , 281.
Calves, ere, , 262, N. 2.
Candeo, ere, ui. 262, N. 1.
Cando, p. 129, foot-note 14.
Caned, ere, , 262, N. 2.
Cano, ere, cecinl, cantum, 271.
CapBsso, ere, Ivl, Hum, 278.
Capio, ere, cepi, captum, 217 ; 218 ;
271, 2.
Carpo, ere, si, turn, 269.
Caveo, ere. cavl, cautum, 266.
CSdo, ere, ccssi, cessum, 270.
Cedo, def., 297, III.
Cell6, obs. ; see excello, 273, N.
Cen6, 257, N. 2.
Censeo, ere, ui, censum, 268.
Cern6, ere, crevi, cretum, 277.
Cieo, ere, civi, citum, 265, N.
Cing6, ere, cinxi, cinctum, 269.
Cio, 265, N.
Circum-ago, p. 128, foot-note 13.
Circum-do, 255, I., 4; 259, N. 1.
Circum-sisto ; see sisto, 271.
Circum-sto, 255, I., 4.
Clango, ere, , 272, N. 2.
Claudo, ere, clausi, clausum, 270.
Claudo, ere, (to be lame), 272, N. 2.
Co-arguo ; see arguo, 279.
Co-emo, p. 128, foot-note 15.
CoepI, def., 297.
Co-gnosco ; see nosed, 278.
C6go, ere, coegi, coactum: see ago.
271, 2.
Col-lido ; see latdo, 270.
Col-ligo; see lego, 271, 2.
Col-luceo ; see liiceo, 265.
Col6, ere, ui, cultum, 274.
Com-edo, 291, N. 3.
Com-minlscor, i, commentus sum, 283.
Com-moveo ; see moved, 266.
Com-parco (perco) ; Bee pared, 272.
Comperio, ire, peri, pertum, 287, N.
Compesco, ere, pescui, , 273, N.
Com-pingo; seepango, 271.
Com-plector. I, plexus sum.
Com-pleo, ere, evl, etum ; 261.
Com-prim6 ; see premd, 270.
Com-pungo, ere, punxl, puiictum ;
, 271.
Con-cid6 ; see cadd, 272.
Con-cldo ; see caedd, 272.
Con-oino ; see cand, 271.
Con-cludo ; see claudo, 270.
Con-cupisco, ere, cuplvi, oupltum,
281, N.
Con-cutio ; see quatid, 270.
Con-do; see abdo, 271.
Con-fercio ; seefarcid, 286.
C6n-fero, 292, 2.
C&n-fici6 ; see/add, 271, 2.
C6n-fit, def., 297, III.
Con-fiteor; seefateor, 268, 2.
C6n-fringo; see frangd, 271, 2.
Con-gruo, ere, I, , 272, N. 1.
COnlveo, ere, nivl, nixi, , 265;
267, 3.
Conor, 260.
Cdn-sero; see tero, 277, N.
Con-sisto; see sistd, 271.
Con-spicio, ere, spexi, spectum, 817, 2.
C6n-stituo ; see statud, 279.
Con-sto, 301 ; see sto, 259.
Consulo, ere, ui, turn, 274.
Con-temno ; see temnd, 272, N. 2.
Con-texO ; see texo, 274.
Con-tingo ; see tango, 271; 301.
Convalesce, ere,valul, valitum, 281, N.
Coquo, ere, coxl, coctum.
Cor-ripio ; see rapid, 274.
Cor-ruo ; see rub, 279.
CrebrSsco, ere, crebrui, , 282, N.
Credo, ere, crcdidi, creditum, 271.
Crepo, are, ui, Hum, 258.
Cresco, ere, crevi. cretum, 277.
Cubo, are, ui, itum, 258.
Cudo, ere, cudi, cusum, 272, 3.
Cumbo ; see accumbo, 273.
Cupio, ere, Ivl, itum, 217, 1 ; 278.
CurrO, ere, cucurri, cursum, 272.
D
Debeo, 262.
De-cerpo, ere, si, turn, p. 127, foot
note 2.
Decet, impers., 299.
De-do; see abdo, 271.
De-fend6, ere, I, fenum, 272, 8.
De-fetlscor ; seefatftcor, 288.
De-fit, def., 297, III.
Dego, ere, degi ; see ago, 271, 2.
Delecto, impers., 301.
Deleo, ere, evi, etum, 261.
De-ligo ; see lego, 271, 2.
D6-mico ; see mico, 258.
Demo, ere, dempsi, demptuna
D6-pango ; see pango, 271.
De-primo ; see premd, 270.
DepsO, ere, ui, itum, turn, 278.
Di-scendo , see u-<m*d t 272, 8
INDEX OP VERBS.
385
De-silip ; see solid, 285.
De-sipi6 ; see sapid, 278.
De-sum, 290, 1.
De-tendo ; see tendd, 271.
De-tineo ; see teneo, 263.
De-vertor; see vertd, 272, 3.
Dico, ere, dlxl, dictum, 238.
Dif-fero, 292, 2.
Di-gnosco ; see nosed, 278.
Di-ligo ; see legd, 271, 2
Di-mico ; see micd, 258.
D'-rigo. ere, rexl, rectum, p. 127,
foot-note 2.
DiscO, ere, didicl, , 271.
Dis-orepo ; see crepd, 258.
Dis-cuinbo; see accumbd, 273.
Dis-pertior ; see partior, 288.
Dis-pliceo ; see placed, 262.
Dis-sideo ; see sedeo, 267, 2.
Dl-stinguo ; see exstingub^ 269.
Dl-sto, 259, N. 2.
DitSsco, ere, , 282.
Dlvido, ere, vlsl. visum, 270.
Do, dare, dedi, datum, 259.
Doceo, ere, ul, doctum, 263.
Dolet, imperg,, 301.
Domft, are, ui, itum, 258.
Dono, 259.
Dflco, ere, duxl, ductum, 269 ; 238.
Dulcesco, ere, . 282.
Duplico, p. 123, foot-note 6.
Diiresco, ere, durul, , 282, N.
E
Pdo, ere, edl, esura, 272, 2; 291.
Ef-farl, p. 142, foot-note 5.
Egeo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
E-Hcio, ere, ul, itum, 273.
R-ligo ; see legd, 271, 2.
K-raico ; see micd, 258.
fimineo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Emo, ere, eml, emptum, 271, 2.
E-neco, are, ul, turn, 258.
Eo, Ire, I vl, itum, 295.
Ksurio, ire, , Hum, 284, N. 2.
E-vado, ere, vasl, vasum, 270.
Ex-ardescd, ere, arsi, arsum, 281, N.
Excello. ere, ui (rare), , 273, N.
Ex-clud& ; see claudd, 270.
Ex-curro; see currd, 272.
Ex-olese<> ; see abolisco, 277.
Expergiscor, I, experrectus sum, 283.
Ex-perior, Irl, pertus sum, 288, 2.
Ex-pleO ; see compleo, 261.
Ex-plico ; see pfacd, 258.
Ex-pl6do ; see plaudo, 270.
Ex-stinguo, ere, stinxl, stinctum, 269.
Ex-sto, 259, N. 2.
Ex-tendo ; see tendd, 271.
Ex-tollo ; see tollo. 271.
FacSsso, ere, IvI, I, Itum, 278.
FaciO, ere, feel, factum, 217, 1: 238:
271,2.
Fallo, ere, fefelli, falsum, 272.
Farcio, Ire, farsl, fartum, farctum, 286
Fan, def., 297, II.
Fateor, erl, fassus sum. 268, 2.
Fatisco, ere, , 272, N. 2.
Fatiscor, 1, , 283.
Faveo, ere, favl, fautum, 266.
FendO, obs. ; see defendo, 272, 8
Ferio, Ire, , 284, N. 2.
Fero, ferre, tull, l;itum, 292.
Ferocio, Ire, , 284, N. 2.
Ferveft, ere, fervl, ferbul, , 267, 1.
Fld5, ere, flsus sum, 283.
Fig6, ere, fixi, flxum, 270.
Findft, ere, fidl, flssum, 272, 8.
Fingo, ere, finxl, fictum.
FlniO, 284.
Flo, fieri, factus sum, 294
Flavefi, ere, , 262, N. 2.
Flecto, ere, flexl, tiexum, 270.
Fle6, ere, evi, etum, 261.
Floreo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Floresco, ere, florul, , 281.
Fluo, ere, fluxl, fluxum, 279, N.
Fodi6, ere, fodl, fossum, 217, 1 ; 272, 2.
Forem, def., 204, 2; 297, 111, 2.
Foveo, ere, fovi, fotum, 266.
Frango, ere, fregl, fractum, 271, 2.
Fremo, ere, ul, itum, 273.
Frendo, ere, , frcssum, fresum, 270.
Frico, are, ul, atum, turn, 258.
Frigeo, ere, frlxl (rare), . 265.
Frondeo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Fruor, I, frflctus, fruitus Hum, 288.
Fugio, ere, fugl, fugituoi, 217, 1 ;
271, 2.
Fulcio, ire, fulsl, fultum, 286.
Fulgeo, ere, fulsl, , 265.
Fulg<"), 265, foot-note 5.
Fulminat, impers., 300.
Fundo, ere, ffldl, lusum, 272, 2.
Fungor, I, functus sum, 288,
Furo, ere, ul, , 273, N.
G
GanniA, Ire, -, 284, N. 2.
GaudeO, ere, gavinus sum, 268, .
Gemo, ere, u , itum, 273.
Gero, ere, gessl, gcstum, 269.
Gigno, ere, genui, genitum, 273.
Gllscp, ere, , 272, N. 2.
Gradior, I, gresHus sum, 217, 8; 288
GrandSsco, ere, , 282.
Grandinat, impern., 3(K).
(iravesco, ere.
386
INDEX OF VERBS.
H
Habed, 262.
Haereo, ere, haesl, haesum, 265.
Haurio, Ire, hausl, haustum, haustu-
rus, hausurus, 286.
Have, def., 297, III.
Hebe6, ere, , 262, N. 2.
Hlsco, ere, , 272, N. 2.
HonorO, 257.
Horreo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Hoi-tor, 232 ; 260.
HflmeO, ere, , 262, N. 2.
IcO, ere, Id, ictum, 272, 3.
I-gnosco ; see nosed, 278.
Il-licio, ere, lexl. lectum, 217, 2.
Il-lld6 ; see laedo, 270.
Imbuo, ere, ul, utum, 279.
Immineo, ere, , 262, N. 2.
Im-parco ; see pared, 272.
Im-pertior; seepartior, 288.
Im-pingo ; see pango, 271.
Im-pleO, p. 124, foot-note 1.
In-cendO ; see accendd, 272, 3.
Ineesso, ere, Ivl, 1, , 278.
In-cido ; see cado, 272.
In-cido ; see caedo, 272.
In-crepo ; see crepo, 258.
In-cresco ; see crescd, 277.
In-cumbO ; see accumbo, 273.
In-cutio ; see quatio, 270.
Ind-igeo, ere, ul, ; see eged, 262, N.I.
Ind-iplscor ; see apiscor, 283.
In-do; see abdd, 271.
Indulged, ere, dulsl, dultum, 264.
Ineptio, Ire, , 284, N. 2.
In-fero, 292, 2.
Intit, def., 297, III.
Ingruo, ere, I, , 272, N. 1.
In-notesco, ere, notui, 282, N.
In-olescO : see abolesm, 277.
Inquam, def., 297, II.
In-sidep ; see sedeo, 267, 2.
In-spicio, ere, spexl, spectum.
In-sto ; see sto, 259.
Intel-lego; see lego, 271, 2.
Interest, impers., 301.
Jnter-nQsco ; see nosed, 278.
In-veterasco, ere, ravl, ratuni, 281, N.
Irascor, I, , 283.
Ir-ruo ; see rud, 279.
JaciO, ere, J8cl, jactum, 217, 1 ; 271, 2.
JubeO, ere, jussl, jussum, 265.
Juro, 257, N. 2.
JuvenescO, ere, .
Juvo, are, juvl, jfltuin, 259; 2 ; 301.
Labor, I, lapsus sum, 283.
LacessO, ere, Ivl, Itum, 278.
Lacio, obs. ; see allicio, p. 130, foot-
note 8 ; 217, 2.
Lacteo, ere, , 262, N. 1.
Laedo, ere, laesl, laesum, 270.
Lambo, ere, I, , 272, N. 1.
Langued, ere, I, , 267, 3.
Largior, irl, itus sum, 288.
Lateo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Lavo, are, lavl, lautum, lotum, lavfi-
tum, 259, 2.
LegO, ere, legl, lectum, 271, 2.
Lemo, 284.
LlberO, 257.
Libet, impers., 299.
Liceor, erl, itus sum, 268.
Licet, impers., 299.
Lino, ere, llvl, levl, litum, 278.
LinquO, ere, llqul, , 271, 2.
Liqueo, ere, liqui (licul), 267.
Liquet, impers., 299.
Liquor, 1, , 283.
Loquor, 1, locutus sum, 283.
Luceo, ere, luxl, , 265.
Lucgscit, impers., 300.
Ltido, ere, lusl, lusum, 270.
Lugeo, ere, luxl, , 265.
Luo, ere, lul, .
M
MacrescO, ere, macrul, , 282, N.
MadeO, ere, ul, , 262, .N. 1.
Madesco, ere, madul, .
Maereo. ere, , 262, N. 2.
MalO, malle, malul, , 293.
MandO, ere, I, mansum, 272, 3.
ManeO, 6re, mansl, mansum, 265.
Maturesco, ere, maturul, , 282, N.
Medeor, erl, , 268, 2.
Meminl, def., 297, 1.
Mentior, Iii, Itus sum, 288.
Mereor, erl, itus sum, 268.
Mergo, ere, mersl, mersum, 270.
Metior, Irl, inensus sum, 288, 2.
MetO, ere, messul, messum, 275.
Metu6, ere, ul, , 272, N. 1.
Mico, are, ul, , 258.
Minlscor, obs. ; see comminiscor, 283.
Minuo, ere, ul, utum, 279.
Mlror, 260.
Misced, ere, miscul, mlstum, nilxtum,
263.
Misereor, ert, itus or tus sum, 268, 2.
Miseret, impers., 299.
Mltesco, ere, , 282.
MittO, ere, mis!, missum, 270.
Mclior, Irl, Itus sum, 288.
INDEX OF VERBS.
387
Molleao6, ere, , 282.
Molo, ere, ul, itum, 273.
Moneo, ere, ul, itum, 207 ; 262.
Mordeo, ere, momordl, moreum, 267.
Morior, I (Irt), mortuus sum, 217, 3;
283.
MoveO, ere, movl, motum, 266.
Mulceo, ere, mulsl, mulsum, 265.
Mulgeo. ere, raulsl, mulsum, 265.
Multiplied, p. 123, foot-note 6.
Munio, 284.
N
Nanclscor, I, nactus (nanctus) sum,
283.
Nascor, I, natus sum, 283.
Neco, p. 123, foot-note 4.
Necto, ere, n5xl, nexul, nexum, 270 ;
275.
Neg-legS, ere, lexl, lectum ; see lego,
271,2.
Ned, ere, nevi, netum, 261.
Ne-queo, Ire, ivl, itum, 296.
Nigresco, ere, nigrul, .
Ningo, ere, nlnxl, , 272, N. 1.
Niteo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Nitor, i, nlsus, nlxus sum, 283.
Noceo, 262.
Nolo. nolle, nolul, , 293.
Nommo, 257.
Nosco, ere, n6vl, notum, 278.
Nubo, ere, nupsl, nuptum, 269.
NapturiO, Ire, Ivl, , 284, N. 2.
O
Ob-do; seeatad, 271.
Ob-dormlsco, ere, dormlvl, dormltum.
281, N.
OblivlMor, I, oblltus sum, 283.
Ob-mfitSsco, ere, mutul, , 282, N.
Ob-sideo ; see sedeo, 267, 2.
Ob-Bolesc6 ; see abolescd, 277.
Ob-sto : see std, 259.
Ob-suraJsco, ere, surdul, .
Ob-tineo ; see tened, 263.
Oc-cid6 ; see cadd, 272.
Oc-cldo ; see caedd, 272.
Oc-cino ; see can6 } 271.
Oc-cipio ; see capw, 271, 2.
Occulo, ere, ul, turn, 274.
OdI. def., 297, I.
Of-fendo ; see defendo, 272, 8.
Of-fero, 292, 2.
Oleo, ere. ul, , 262, N. 1.
Olesco, obsolete ; see abolescd, 277.
Operio, Ire, ul, turn, 285.
Oportet, impers., 299.
Op-perior, Irt, pertus, petltua sum,
288, 2.
Ordior, Irt, ftrsus sum, 288, 2.
Orior, Iri, ortus sum, 288, 2.
Os-tendo ; see tendo, 271.
Ovat, dtf., 297, III.
P
Pacfscor, I, pactus sum, 283.
Paenitet, impers., 299.
Palleo,ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Pando, ere, I, pansum, passum, 272, 3.
Pango, ere, pepigl, pactum, 271.
Pango, ere, panxi, pegi, panctum,
pactum, 271.
Parco, ere, peperci (parsi), parsutn,
272.
Pareo, ere, ul, itum, 262.
Pario, ere, j>eperl, partum, 217, 1 ;
271.
Partior, Irt, Itus sum, 288.
Parturio, Ire, ivl, , 284, N. 2.
Pasco, ere, pavl, pastum, 276.
Pated, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Patior, I, passus sum, 217, 3 ; 283.
Paved, ere, pavl, , 266.
Pecto, ere, pexl, pexum, 270.
Pel-lici6, ere, lexl, lectum, 217, 2.
Pello, ere, pepull, pulsum, 272.
Pendeo, ere, pependl, pensum, 267
Pendo, ere, pependl, pensum, 272.
Per-ag6, p. 128, foot-note 13.
Per-cell6 ; see excello, 273, N.
Per-censeO ; see censed, 263.
Per-do, ere, didl. ditum : see aftod
271.
P5rg (for per-rigO), ere, perrexl
perrectum ; see regd, 269.
Per-petior ; see patior, 283.
Per-st^ : see sto, 259.
Per-taedet, p. 143 ; foot-note 8.
Per-tine6 ; see tenet), 263.
Pessum-do, 259, N. 1.
Petn, ere, Ivl, Itum, 278.
Piget, impers., 299.
PingO, ere, plnxl, plctum.
Plnso (plafi), ere, I, ul, plnsitum,
plstum, plnsum, 272, 3; 273.
Placeo, 262; 301.
Plaudo, ere, si, sum, 270.
Plecto, ere, plexl, plexum, 270.
Plector ; see amplector, 283.
Pleo, obsolete ; see com pled, 261 .
Plico, are, avl, ul, atum, itum, 258. '
PluO, ere, I or pluvl, , 272, h- 1
300.
PolleO, t-re, , 2fi2, N. 2.
Polliceor, en, itus sum, 268.
POnO, ere, posul, positum, 278.
Posco, ere, poposcl, , 272.
Pos-sideo ; see seded, 267, 2.
Possum, posse, potul, , 290, IL
Potior, Iri, Hus sum, 288,
388
INDEX OF VERBS.
Poto, are, avl, atum, um, 257, N. 1.
Prae-cino ; see cano, 271.
Prae-currp ; see curro, 272.
Prae-sideo ; see sedeo, 267, 2.
Prae-sto ; see sto, 259 ; 301.
Prae-sum, 290, I.
Prae-vertor ; see v^rto, 272, 3.
Praudeo, ere, 1, pransum, 267, 3.
Prehendo, ere, I, hensum, 272, 3.
Premo, ere, pressl, pressum, 270.
Prendo, p. 130, foot-note 1.
Prod-igo ; see ago, 271.
Pro-do ; see abdo, 271.
Proflciscor, 1, profectus sum, 283.
Pro-fiteor; seefateor, 268, 2.
Promo, ere, prompsi, promptum.
Pro-sum, prodesse, profui, , 290,
Pro-tendo ; see tendo, 271.
Psallo, ere, 1, , 272, N. 1.
Pudet, impers., 299.
Puerasco, ere, , 282.
Pugno, 257.
Pungo, ere, pupugl, puiictum, 271.
PCinio, 284.
Quaero,ere, quaeslvl,quae6itum, 278.
Quaeso, def., 297, III.
Quatio, ere, quassl, quassum, 217, 1 :
270.
Queo, ire, Ivi, itum, 296.
Queror, I, questus sum, 283.
Quiesco, ere, quievl, quietum, 277.
R
Rado, ere, rasl, rasum, 270.
Rapio 1 ere,rapui, raptum, 217,1; 274.
Raucio, ire, rausl, rausum, 287.
Re-censeo ; see censed, 263.
Re cido ; see cado, 272.
Re-cldo ; see caedo, 272.
Re-crudesco, ere, crudul, 282, N.
Red-arguo ; see argud, 279.
Red-do ; see a&do, 271.
Re-fello ; see/ate, 272.
Re-fero ; see fero, 292.
Refert, impers., 301.
Rego, ere, rexl, rectum, 209 ; 269.
Re-linquo ; see linquo, 271. 2.
Re minlscor, 1, , 283.
Remdeo. ere, , 262, N. 2.
Reor, rerl, ratus sum, 268, 2.
Re-pango ; see pango, 271.
Re-parco ; see parco, 272
Re-perio, Ire, perl, pertum, 287, N.
Re-plico, p. 123, foot-note 6.
Bte-sideo ; see sedeo, 267, 2.
; see sapid, 278.
Re-son 6 ; see sond, 258.
Re-spergo ; see spargd, 270.
Re-spondeo, 255, I., 4.
Re-tendo ; see tendo, 271.
Re-tineo ; see teneo, 263.
Re-vertor ; see verto, 272, 3.
Re-vlvlsco, ere, vixl,vletum, 281, N.
RIdeo, ere, rlsl, risum, 265.
Ringor, I, rictus sum, 283.
j Rodo, ere, rosl, rosum, 270.
' Rorat, impers., 300.
Rubeo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Rudo, ere, ivi, Itum, 278.
Rumpo, ere, rupi, ruptum, 271, 2.
Ruo, ere, rul, rutum, ruiturus, 279.
3
Saepio, ire, psi, ptum, 286.
! Sagio, Ire, , 284, N. 2.
: Salio, ire, ul (il). turn, 285.
! Salve, def., 297, III.
1 8ancio,Ire,sanxI,sancitum, sanct.iiiii
286.
Sapio, ere, ivi, ul, , 217, 1 ; 278.
i Sarcio, ire, sarsi, sartum, 286.
Sat-ago ; see ago, 271, 2.
i Satis-do. 259, N. 1.
i Satis-facio, p. 129, foot-note 1.
Scabo, ere, scabi, , 271, 2.
j Scando, ere, di, scansum, 272, 3.
j Scindo, ere, scidl, scissum, 272, 3.
Scio, 284.
Scisco, ere, sclvl, scltum, 281, N.
Seco, are, ul, turn, 258.
Sedeo, ere, sedl, sessuni, 267.
Se-ligo ; see lego, 271, 2.
Sentio, ire, sensi, sensum, 287.
Sepelio, Ire, Ivi, sepultum, 284.
Sequor, I, secutus sum, 283.
Sero, ere, sevl, satum, 277, N.
Sero, ere, serul, serturn, 274.
Sldo, ere, i, , 272, N. 1.
Sileo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Sino, ere, sivi, situm, 278.
Sisto, ere, stitl, statum, 271.
Sitio, ire, ivi, , 284.
Soleo, ere, solitus sum, 268, 3.
Solvo, ere, solvi, solutum, 272, X.
Sono, are, ul, itum, 258.
Sorbeo, 6re, ul, , 262, N. J.
Sortior, Iri, itus sum, 288.
Spargo, ere, sparsl, sparsum 270.
Specio, obs., 217, 2.
Sperno, ere, sprevi, spretum, 277.
SpCrn, 257.
Splendeo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Spondeo, ere. spopondi, sponsuin
267.
Squaleo, ere, , 262, N. 2.
INDEX OF VERBS.
389
Statuo, ere, ui, fitum, 279.
Stern6, ere, strfivi, stratum, 276.
Sternuo, ere, I, . 272, N. 1.
Sterto, ere, ui, ,' 273, N.
Stinguo, ere, , p. 127, foot-note 3.
Sto, are, stetl, statum, 259.
Strepo, ere, ui, itum, 273.
Strldeo, ere, stridl, , 267, 8.
Stride, ere, i, , 272, N. 1.
Struo, ere, struxi, structum, 279, N.
Studeo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Stupeo, ere, ui, , 266.
Suadeo, gre, si, sum, 265.
Sub-do, ere. didi, ditum ; see abdo,
271.
Sub-igo ; see ago, 271, 2.
Sub-silio ; see salio, 285.
Suc-cgdo ; see cedo, 270.
Suc-cendo ; see accendd, 272, 3.
Suc-censeo ; see censed, 263.
Suc-cido ; see cado, 272.
Suc-cido ; see caedo, 272.
Sue-crgsco ; see cresco, 277.
Sugsco, ere, suevi, sugtum, 277.
Suf-fero, 292, 2.
Suf-ficio ; see/aci5, 271, 2.
Suf-fodio ; see/odio, 272, 2.
Sug-gero ; see gerO, 269.
Sum, esse, ful, , 203, 1 : 204.
Sumo, ere, psl, ptum, 269.
Superbio, ire, , 284, N. 2.
Super-jacio, p. 129, foot-note 2.
Supplico, 258, foot-note.
Sup-pono ; see pOnd, 273.
Surgo (for sur-rigo), ere, surrexl,
surrgctum ; see regO, 269.
Taceo, 262.
Taedet, imjxrx., 299.
Tango, ere, tetigi, tactum, 271.
TeniiH), ere, , 272, N. 2.
TendC, ere, tetendl, tentum, tfinsum.
271.
Teneo, gre, ui, turn, 263.
Tepesco, ere, tepui, , 281.
Tergeo, ere, tersi, tersum,265; p.
128, foot-note 3.
Tergo, ere, tersi, tersum, 270.
Tero, ere, trivi, tritum, 278.
Texo, ere, ui, turn, 274.
Timeo, ere, ui, , 262, N. 1.
Tollo, ere, sustull, sublatum, 271.
Tondeo, ere, totondi, tousum, 267.
Tono, are, ul (itum), 258 ; 300.
Torpeo, 6re, ui, , 262, N. 1.
Torqueo, gre, torsi, tortum, 264.
Torreo, gre, torrui, tostum, 263.
Tra-do ; see abdo, 271.
Trah 6, ere, traxi, tractum, 269.
Tremo, ere, ui, , 273, N.
Tribno, ere, ui, utum, 279.
Trudo, ere, trusi, trusum, 270.
Tueor, erl, tuitus, tutus sum, 268.
Tundo, ere, tutudl, tunsum, tusum,
272.
Turgeo, ere, tursi (rare), , 265.
Tusslo, Ire, 284, N. 2.
U
Ulciscor, i, ultus Rum, 283.
"rgeo, ere, ursi, , 265.
ro, ere, ussi, ustum, 269.
'tor, I, usus sum, 283.
Vado, ere, , 272, N. 2.
Vagio, Ire, ivi, , 284.
Velio, ere, vexi, veetum, 269.
Velio, ere, velll(vulsl),vu)sum, 272,3.
Vendo, ere, dial, ditum, 271.
Veu-eo, 295, 8.
Venio, Ire, vein, ventum, 287, N.
Venum-do, 259, N. 1.
Vereor, erl, veritus sum, 268.
Vergo, ere, , 272, N. 2.
Verro, ere, verri, versum, 272, 3.
Verio, ere, ti, sum, 272, 3.
Vertor ; see vcrlo, 272, 3.
Vescor, T, , 283.
Veterftsco, ere, iTivi, , 276.
Veto, are, ul, itum, 258.
Video, Ore, vidl, vlsum, 267, 2.
VIlOsco, ere, vllui, , 282, X.
Vincio, Tre, vinxi, vinctum, 286.
Vinco, ere, vlci, vielum, 271, 2.
Vireo, ere, ul, , 262, N. 1.
Viresco, ere, virul, , 281.
Viso, ere, I, um, 272, 3.
Vivo, ere, vlxl, vTctum, 2(59.
Voco, 257.
Volo, velle, volui, , 393.
Volvo, ere, volvl, voluiiim, 272, 3.
Vomo, ere, ul, itum, 273.
Voveo, 6re, vovl, votum, 260.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
NOTE. The numbers refer to articles, not to pages. Ace, or accus, = accusative ;
vljs. = adjectives ; comp. = composition ; compds. = compounds ; conj. = conjugation ;
tonjuno, = conjunction ; constr. = construction ; jf. = and the following ; gen. or genit.
= genitive ; gend. = gender ; ger. = gerund ; foe. or local. ~ locative ; preps. = prepo-
sitions ; w, = vvitlu
It has not been thought advisable to overload this index with such separate words as
may be readily referred to classes, or to general rules, or even with such exceptions as
may be readily found under their respective heads. Accordingly, the numerous excep-
tions in Dec. III. are not inserted, as they may be best found under the respective end-
ings, 69-115.
A, a, sound, 5 ; 10 ff. A final short-
ened, 21, 2. -A in nom., accus., and
voc. pi., 46, 2, 1). ^1-nouns, Decl.
L, 48 ; o-verbs, 205. Nouns in -a,
Decl. III., 69; quant, of increm.,
585, L, 3; gender, 111. -A, adverbs
in, 304, L, 3. -A, prepositions in, p.
145, foot-note 11 ; p. 149, foot-note
2; adverbs in, 304, II., 2. -A,-&,
suffix, 320. 'A, derivatives in, 326,
2. A, changed in compds., 344, 4,
N. 1. A or a, final, 580, I. ; 580,
in., -N. 2 ; 581, III. ; in increm. of
_decl., 585; 585, 1.; conj., 586; 586, 1.
A, ab, abs, in compds., 344, 5; in
compds., w. dat., 386, 2; w. abl.,
434, N. 1. Ab, as adverb, 379, 2,
N. A, ab, abs, with abl., 434 ; 434,
L; of agent, 388, 2 ; 415, 1. A, ab,
abs, 434, N. 2. A, ab, abs, desig-
nating abode, 446, N. 4. A, ab, w.
ger., p. 316, foot-note L
Abbreviations, 649, 1 ; 650.
Abhinc, denoting interval, p. 230,
foot-note 2 ; 430, N. 3.
Abies, es in, 581, VI., 1.
-abilis, a in, 587, III., 2.
A.BLATIVE, sing., original ending of,
p. 20, foot-note 5. Abl. sing, in
Decl. III., 62, II. ff. ; 63, 2 ; 64, N.
3 ; in adjs., 154, notes 1 and 2; 157,
N. Abl. plur., Decl. L, 49, 4:
Decl. III., 68, 5 ; Decl. IV., 117.
ABLATIVE, translation of. 48, w. foot-
note 4. Relations denoted, 367.
Syntax, 411 ff. Abl. w. locat.. 363,
4, 2) ; w. adjs., 391, II.. 3 : 400, 3 ;
w. refert, 408, I., 2: w. verbs of
accusing, etc., 410, II., 3 ; w. verbs
of condemning, 410, III. Abl. of
place, 412 ; 425, ff. ; separation,
source, cause, 413 ff. Abl. w. com-
parat.,417. Instrumental abl., 418
ff. Abl. of accompaniment, 419 ;
means, 420. Abl. in special con-
structions, 421. Abl. of price, 422 ;
difference, 423 ; specification, 424.
Locative abl., 425 ff. Abl. of time,
429. Abl. abs., 431. Abl. w. preps.,
432; 434; 435; w. compds., 434,
N. 1 ; w. adverbs, 437. Infin. in
abl. abs., 439, IV.
Ablative sing, in a, 581, III., 1.
-aLrum. a in, 587, L, 1.
Abs, in compds., 344, 5. Abs w. abl.,
434 ; 434, N. 2.
Absente, constr.. 438, 6, N.
Absolute Abl., 431.
Absolvo, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Absque, w. alb., 434.
Abstineo, constr., p. 211, foot-note 5.
Abstract nouns, 39, 2, 2) ; plur., 130,
2and 3. Abstract nouns from adjs.,
325.
Absum, w. dat., p. 200, foot-note 2.
Abest, constr., p. 276, foot-note 2.
Abunde, w. gen., p. 209, foot-note 3.
-abundus, n. in, 587, ill., 2.
-alms for -is, Decl. I., 49, 4.
Ac, 310, 1 ; 554, I. ; meaning as, 451,
5 ; than, 459, 2 ; 554, I., 2, N. Ac
si, 311, 2; w. subj. in conditions,
513, II.
Acatalectic, 603, N. 3.
Accent, rhythmic, 599.
Accentuation, 17 ff.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
391
Accidit, constr., p. 276, foot-note 2.
AccingO, constr., 377.
Accommoddtus w. dat., p. 205, foot-
note 1.
Accompaniment, ab). of, 418 ff.
ACCUSATIVE, formation of, Decl. II.,
51, 2, 6); Decl. III., 58, 1, 5): 62,
II. ff. ; 63, 1; 64, N. 2; 67, N. 2;
68, 2 and 6; in adjs., 154, N. 1;
158, 1.
\CCUSATIVE, syntax of, 370 ff. Direct
object, 371 ff. j cognate, 371, I. and
II. : ace. of effect, 371, I., 2, 2); w.
verbal adis. and nouns, 371, 1., N. ;
w. compos., 372. Two aces., 373
ff. Predicate ace., 373, 1. Poetic
ace., 377. Adverbial ace., 378 ff'.
Ace. of specification, 378 ; of time
and space, 379 ; of limit, 380 ; poet-
ical dat. for, 380, 4. Ace. in exclam.,
381. Ace. for gen., 407. Ace. w.
r'efert and interest, 408, I., 3 ; w.
preps., 432; 433; 435; w. adverbs,
437 ; as object, w. infin., 534. Ace.
as subj. of mfin., 536. Ace. of ger.,
542, III.
Accusative, Greek, in -at. 581, V., 2.
Ace. plur. in -us, 681, IX., 2.
Accusing, constr. w. verbs of, 409,
_ II.; 410, II.
Acer, decl.. 153.
aceus, adjs. in, 329; din, 587, III.,1.
Acits^ decl., 122, 2.
Acquitting, constr. w. verbs of, 409, II.
acrum, a in, 587, 1., 1.
Action, repeated, in temp, clauses,
518, N. 2, 2) ; 518. 1.
Active voice, 195. Active and passive
constr., 464.
-acundus, a in, 587, III., 2.
Acus^ decl., 117, 1 ; gend., 118.
Ad in compds., 344, 5; in compda.
w. two aces., 876; w. dat., 386.
Ad w. ace., 433 ; 433, I. ; after
adjs., 391, II., 1 ; w. rifert and in-
terest, 408, 1., 3. Ad designating
abode, 446, N. 4. Ad w. ger., p.
315, foot-note 5; denoting purpose,
542, III., N. 2.
Adefi, 551, N. 2: 554, 1., 4.
ades, a in, 587, II., 1.
Adfatim w. gen., p. 209, foot-note 3;
ouant. of pen., p. 345, foot-note 2.
Adticin w. abl., 420, 2.
Adfinis w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 3 ;
p. 210, foot-note 3.
Aavplscnr w. gen., 410, V., 8,
Adjaced w. ace. or dat., p. 202, foot-
note 1.
AWECTIVE, 146 ; decl of, 147 ff. ; Ir-
regular, 151 ; 159. Compar., 160
ff. Numerals, 172 ff. ; dec!, of, 175
ff. Demon., 186. 4. Eel., 187, 4.
Inter., 188, 4. Derivation, 328 ff.
Composition, 342. W. dat., 391 :
400, 1 ; w. gen. . 397, 3 ; 399 : of
gerund, p. 315, foot-note 2. Adj.
for gen., 395, N. 2. Adj. w. abl.,
400," 3; 414, III.: 416; 420; 421.
Agreement, 438 ff. Use, 440. W.
forceof substantives, 441 ; of clauses,
442 ; of adverbs, 443. Compar.,
use, 444. Adj. separated from
noun. 565, 3 and 4. Position of
modifiers of adj., 566; of adj. w.
gen., 565, 2.
Admisceo w. dat., 885, 8; p. 201,
foot-note 1.
Admodum, 304, I., 2.
Ad'.noneo, constr., 374, 2 ; p. 274, foot-
note 1.
Admonishing, constr. w. verbs of,
409, 1. ; 4i'0, 1.
Adolescens, compar., 168, 4.
Adonic verse, 628, I.
Adopted son, how named, 649, 3.
Ador, quant, of increm., 585, II., 1.
Adiilor w. ace. or dut., p. 202, foot-
note 1.
Adulter., decl., 51, 4, 3).
Adverbial ace., 378. Adverbial com-
parison, 170.
ADVEKBS, 303 ff. Numeral adverbs,
181. Compar., 806. Adverbs w.
nouns, 359, N. 4; 443, N. 4; w.
dat., 392; w. gen.. 397, 4. Adverbs
as preps., 437. Adverbs for adjs.,
443, N. 3. Dse of adverbs, 551 if.
Position of modifiers of adverb, 568.
Adverb between prep, und case, 56'J,
II., 8. -E. in adverbs, 581, IV., 4.
Adverb redundant, 636, III., 7.
Adversative conjuncs., 310, 8 ; 554,
III. Advers. asyndeton, p. 370,
foot-note 1.
Adversum, adverints, w. aec., 433.
Ae, sound, 6; 12; changed to i, 844
4. N. 2
Aedes, sing, and plur., 182.
Aeger, decl., 150.
Aegreferd, coustr., p. 810, foot-note 2.
Aeneas, decl., 50.
Aequ&li* w dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Aequi facere, 401, N. 4.
Atr, quant, of increm,, 585, III., 4.
Aetdt, decl., 58.
Aether, quant, of increm., 685, III. ,4.
-aeus, adjs. in., 331.
Age, expression of, p. 222, foot- note 4
Ages of Lat. literature, 640.
392
INDEX OF SUBJECTS,
Age, in ten., p. 152, foot-note 4.
Agent, abl. of, with a or ab, 388, 2 ;
415, I. Dat. of, 388.
Ager, decl., 51.
-aginta, quant, of antepen., 587,
_ m., 3.
Agnomen, 649, 2 and 3.
Agnomination, 637, XL, 7.
Ago ut, 498, II., N. 2 ; idagb w. subj.,
p. 274, foot-note 2.
ago, nouns in, 324, N. ; 327, 4, N. ;
a in, 587, L, 2.
Agreeable, dat. w. adjs. signifying,
391, I.
AGREEMENT, of Nouns, 362 ff. Fred,
noun, 362; in gend., 362, 1. Ap-
positive, 363; in gend., 363, 1. Of
adject., 438 ff. ; w. clause, 438, 3 ; \
synesis, 438, 6; w. one noun for |
another, 438, 7 ; w. two or more i
nouns, 439; w. part, gen., 397, 3, [
N. 1. Of pronouns, 445 ; w. two
or more antecedents, 445, 3 ; attrac- i
tion, 445, 4 ; synesis, '445, 5 ; w. j
clause, 445, 7. Of verbs, 460 ff. ; |
synesis, 461 ; w. appos. or pred.
noun, 462 ; w. compd. subject, 463.
Ah, aha, 312.
-31 for -ae, 49, 2 , & in, 577, L, 1, (1 ).
Aid for agio. p. 19, foot-note 8 ; posi-
tion, 569, V.
Sis in prop, names, d in, 577, 5, N. ;
587, L, 3.
-al final shortened, 21, 2, 2). Nouns
in -al. 63; 65, 2; quant, of increm.,
585, L. 1. -Al in Plautus for -al.
580, III., N. 2.
Alacer, decl., 153, N. 1 ; superlat.
wanting, 168, 3.
Albut, without compar., 169, 4.
Alcaic verse, 604, N. 1: 628, VIII.
and IX. ; 619. 1. Alcaic stanza,
631, 1.
41cmanian stanza, 631, XIX. ; 631,
IX.
Alee, alex, quant, of increm., 585, III.,
3.
-alia, names of festivals in, 136, 3.
Alicum, alicunde, 305.
Alienus w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1 ;
w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 3.
Aliqud, ahquam aliqitandO, 305.
Aliquantus, 191.
Aliqm, use, 455, 1.
Aliquis, 190, 2 ; 191 ; use of, 455.
Aliqud, 305, II.
Aliouct, 191.
Aliquotims. aliq-udvorsum, 305.
-alls, adjs. in, 330; compar., 168, 2;
169,3. Jin-d/w, 587, I.,4-
; Aliud nihil aliud nisi, nihil aliud
quam, 555, III., 1.
Alius, decl., 151 ; w. abl., 417, 1, N.
4. Use of alius, 459. Alius alivm
w. pi. verb, 461, 3.
Allegory, 637, II., 1.
I Alliteration, 637, XI., 1.
i Allobrox, quant, of increm., 585,11., 3.
Alphabet, 2 ff. Letters of. indecl.,
128, 1.
Alter, dec}., 151. Alter for secundus,
p. 66, foot-note 4. Use of a Uer, 459.
Alter alterum, w. pi. verb, 461. 3.
Alteruter, decl., 151, N. 2.
Alvus, gend., 53, 1.
-am in adverbs, 304, L, 3, 2).
Amdns, decl., 157.
Ambi, amb, Insep. prep., 808; in
compds., 344, 6.
Ambo, dec!., 175, N. 2.
Amicus w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Jin amlcits, p. 345, foot-note 4.
Amnis, decl., 62, IV.
Amphiaraides. I in, p. 345, foot-note 3.
Amphora, 648, III.
Amplius without quam, 417, 1, N. 2.
Amyclides. I in, p. 345, foot-note 3.
An, 310, 2, N. ; 311, 8 ; 353. An =
'whether not,' 529, II., 3, N. 2;
= aut, 529, II.. 8, N. 3. A in an,
579, 3.
-an, suffix, 320, I.
-ana, a in, 587, I., 5.
Anacoluthon, 636, IV., 6.
Anacrusis, 618, N. 3.
Analysis of verbal endings, 241 ff.
Anapaest, 597, N. 1 ; cyclic, 598,1,4).
Anaphora, 636, III., 3.
Anas, as in, 581, V., 1 ; quant, of iti-
crem., 585, I., 4, (2).
Anastrophe, 636, V., 1.
Ancient forms of pronouns, 184, 5 ;
of verbs, 240.
Annie, decl., 136, 3.
AndrogeOs, decl., 54.
-ancus. a in, 587, III., 1.
Anguis, decl., 62, IV.
AnhelUus, i in, p. 345, foot-note 2.
Animal, decl., 63.
Animl, constr., 399, III., 1; 410, V.,2.
Anw, quant, of increm., 585, III., '2.
Annon, 310, 2, N.; 353, 2, N. 3.
Answers, 352.
-ant, suffix, 320, 1.
Antu in compds., 344, 5 ; in compds.
w. dat., 386. Ante w. ace., 433 ;
433, I. ; denoting interval, 430.
Ante w. ger., p. 315, foot-note 5.
Anted, 304, IV., N. 2.
Antecedent, 445, N.; omitted, 445, 6.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
393
Clause as anteccd., 445, 7. Ante-
oed. attracted. 445, 9.
Antecedd w. ace. or dat., p. 202, foot-
note 1.
Ante-classical period, 640, I.
Anteed in synaeresis, 608, III., N.I;
w. ace. or dat.. p. 202, foot-note 1.
Antehdc, 304, IV., N. 2.
Antequam, 311, 1 ; in temp, clauses,
520.
Anticipation, prolepsis, 440, 2; 636,
IV., 3.
Antlcus, I in, p. 345, foot-note 4.
Antimeria, 636, IV.. 1.
-anus, adjs. in, 330 ; 331 ; a in, 587,
I., 5.
Anxiety, constr. w. verbs of, 498, III.
aon in prop, names, a in, 577, 5, N.
Apage, interj., 312, 4.
'Aphaeresis, 635, 1.
Apis, genit. plur., p. 36, foot-note 8.
Apocope t 635, 3.
Apophasis, 637, XI., 2.
Aposiopesia, 636, 1., 8; 637, XL, 8.
Apostrophe, 637, X.
Apparent agent, 388.
Appendix with short increm., p. 343,
foot-note 2.
Appendix, 634 ff.
Apposition, partitive, 864. Clauses
in apposition, 501, III.
Appositional genitive, 396, VI.
Appositive, 359, N. 2 ; agreement of,
363 : in gend., 363, 1 ; force of, 363,
3. Infin. as appos., 539, II.
Apricus, I in, p, 345, foot-note 4.
Aptut w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1.
Aptut qul w. subj., 503, II., 2.
Apud w. ace., 433 . 433, 1. ; designat-
ing abode, 446, IS. 4.
ar final shortened, 21, 2, 2). Nouns
in ar. 63 ; 65, 2 ; quant, of increm.,
585, I., 1. Gend. of nouns in ar,
ar, 111; 112. -Ar in Plautus for
-ar, 580, III., N. 2.
Arar, Araris, a eel., 62, III., 1.
Arbor, quant, of increm., 585, II., 3.
Arced w. dat., p. 200, foot-note 2.
Archilochian verse, 604. N. 1 ; 628,
X.; 016, N.: 617, N.J 619, N. ;
stanza, 631, XI. and XII. ; 631,
XIV. and XV.
Arcus, decl., 117, 1.
Arenae, locat.. 426, 2, N.
Aries, es in, 681, VI., 1.
aris, adjs. in, 330; conipar., 169, 8.
Am -d'rif, 587, I., 6.
Aristophanic verse, 628, II.
arium, nouns in, 323; d in, 687,
111., 1.
-arius, nouns in, 324 ; adjs. in, 830 :
d in, 587, III., 1.
AKBANGEMENT OF WORDS AND
CLAUSES, 559 ff. ; words, 560 ff. ;
gen. rules, 560 ff. ; effect of empha-
sis and euphony, 561 ; chiasmus,
562 ; kindred words, 563 ; words w.
com. relationj 564 ; special rules,
565 ff. ; modifiers of nouns, 565 ;
adjs., 566 ; verbs, 567 ; adverbs, 568 ;
special words, 569; demon., 569.
I.: preps., 569. II.; conjuncs. ana
relat., 569, III. ; ndn, 569, IV. ;
inquam, did, 569, V. ; voc.. 569,
VI.; clauses, 570 ff.; as subj. or
pred., 571; subord. elements, 672;
periods, 573.
Arsis, 600.
Article, 48, 6.
Artus, dec!., 117, 1, 2); p. 50. foot-
note 1.
-arus, d in, 587, 1., 6.
Arx t decl., 64.
Aryan languages, 638.
-ftS in genit., Decl. 1., 49, 1 Nouns
in -as, Decl. I., 50; Decl. III., 64,
2, 3); decl., 79. Gender of nouns
in -as, -as, 105, 106. -As in ad-
verbs, 304. I., 8, 2). -As, suffix,
320,1. -As, adjs. in, 331. Quant,
of -as, -as, 580, III. ; 581, V. d in
voc. of nouns in, 581 t III. ,2. Quant.
of increm. of nouns in -as, 585, 1., 3.
A, 646 ; 648, I.
Asclepiadean verse, 628, IV. and V. ;
631, IV.-VI1I.
Asking, construction w. verbs of, 874.
Asper, decl., 150, N.
AspergO, constr., p. 198, foot-note 1.
Aspirate, 3, 11., 3.
, -assim in pen. aubj., 240, 4.
! Assimilation of vowels, 25; of con
sonants, 33 ; 84.
Assimilis w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 8.
Astis, constr., p. 213, foot-note 8.
asso in fut. perf., 240, 4.
i Asyndeton, 636, 1.. 1.
,4*. 310, 3; 554, III., 2.
-at, neut. sterna in, 58, 2. -At in
Plautus for -at, 580, III., N. 2.
Atat, interj.. 312, 1.
-aticus, d in, 587, 111., 2.
atilis, quant, of pen., 687, II., 5;
antepen., 587, III., 2.
-atim, d in, 587, I., 7.
At(jue, 310, 1 ; 554, I. ; meaning a*
451, 5; than, 459, 2; 554, L, 2, N.
Que ntque, 554, I., 5.
Atqul, 310,3; 554, III., 2.
atrura, d in, 587, 1., !
894
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
Attamen, 554, III., 3.
Attraction, 636, IV., 5 ; of pron., 445,
4 and 8 ; ofanteced., 445, 9.
Attributive adj., 438, 2.
-at us, nouns in, 324 ; d in, 587", I., 7.
Au, interi., 312, 3.
Au, souna.6 ; 12 ; changed in compds.,
344, 4, N. 3.
Auddx, decl., 156.
Audiens w. two data., 390, N. 3.
Audio w. pred. noun, 362, 2, N. 1 ;
w. infin., 535, 1., 1.
Aureus, 646.
Ausim for auserim, 240, 4.
Aut, 310, 2: 554, II., 2. Autaut,
554, II., N. Position of aut in
poetry, 569, III., N.
Autem : 310, 3; 554, III., 2 and 4;
position, 569, III.
Authors, Latin, 640.
Autonomasia, 637, III., 1.
AKxilium, auxilia, 132.
Aversion, gen. w. adjs. of, 399, I., 1.
Avidus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3;
p. 815, foot-note 2 ; other constrs.,
400.
Avis, decl., 62, IV.
-avus, d in, 587. I., 6.
-ax, gen. of nouns in, 91 ; verbals hi,
333; w. ger., 399 2 11. Quant, of
increm. or words in -ax* 585, 1., 4,
(3).
Axo for egerd, 240, 4.
B
B, sound, 7, N. : changed to , 33, 1 ;
to m, 33, 3, N. ; 34, 3. Quant, of
monosyl. in, 579, 2.
Baccar, quant, of increm., 585, 1., 4,
Bacchius, 597, N. 1.
Becoming, two dats. w. verbs of, 890,
N. 1, 1).
Beginning, constr. w. verbs of, 533, 1.,
1. Beginning of sentence emphatic,
561, 1.
Being, two date. w. verbs of, 890, N.
1, 1). Being able, wont, accus-
tomed, constr. w. verbs of, 533, 1., 2.
Betides, i in, p. 345. foot-note 3.
Believing, verbs of, w. dat., 385, II.
Infin. w. verbs of, 535, I., 1, (2).
Helium, decl., 51, 8. Belli, locat., 51,
8 ; 426, 2.
Belonging to, gen. w. adjs. signifying,
391, 4.
Bene, compar., 306, 2; compds. w.
dat., 384, 4, N. 1. E final in bene,
581, IV., 4.
Benefiting, verbs of, w. dat., 385, I.
-ber, p. 155, foot-note 1 ; namen ol
months in, 65, 1, 1).
Bibl, i in, 590, 1.
Bili, decl., 62, IV.
-bills, p. 155, foot-note 1 ; verbals in,
333 ; w. dat., 391, 1. compar., 168, 1.
Quant, of pen. of -bills, 587, II., 5.
Bis, i in, 579, 3.
Boiil facere,c6nsulere, 401, N. 4.
Bonus, decl., 148, compar., 165.
Bos. decl., 66; quant, of increm., 581,
It, 3.
Brachylogy, 636, II.
Brazen age, 640, III., 1.
-brum, nouns in, 327.
-bs, decl. of nouns in, 86.
Bubae, interj., 312, 1.
Bucolic diaeresis, 611, 2; bucol. caesu-
ra, p. 356, foot-note 5.
-bulum, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 1 ;
nouns in, 327.
-bundus. verbals in, 333.
Buris, decl., 62, 11.
Buying, gen. w. verbs of, 405.
C In place of (?, 2, 1 and 3. Sound ol
c, 7 ; 13. C changed to ^, 33, 2 ;
dropped, 36, 3. Nouns in c, 74.
Gend. ,111. Quant, of fi nal sy llables
in c, 580, II., w. N. 1.
-C&, suffix, 320, II.
Caecus, superl. wanting, 168, 3.
Caelum, plur., 143, 1.
Caesura, caesural pause, 602.
Calcar, decl., 63.
Calendar, Roman, 641 ff.
Calends, 642, I., 1.
Calix w. short increm., p. 343, foot-
note 2.
Calling, verbs of, w. two aces., "73.
Campester.decl., 153, N. 1.
Cants, decl., p. 36, foot-note 3.
Capiti* w. verbs, 410, 111., N. 2.
Cappadox, quant, of increm., 585, II.,
3.
Capso for c'tperd, 240, 4.
Caput, decl., 58.
Carbasus, gend., 53, 1 ; plur., 142.
Career, car ceres, 132.
Cardinals 172 ; 174 ; decl., 175 S.
Carmen, decl., 60.
Card, decl.. 64, N. 1.
Cdrus w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1 ; w.
abl., p. 226, foot-note 1.
CASES, ETYMOLOGY OF, 45 ff. Cases
alike, 46, 2. Case suffixes, 46, 1 ;
in Peel. III., 57; 67. Case eud-
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
395
ings, 47, N. 3 ; in Decl. I., 48 ; Decl.
II., 51, 2, 3); Decl. in., 67; for i-
stems, 62. I., 2; Decl. IV., 116;
Decl. V., 120; pronouns, 184, 1.
Irregular case endings, Decl. I. , 49;
Decl. II., 52; Decl. III., 67, N. ;
Decl. IV., 117; Decl. V., 121.
OASES, SYNTAX OP, 362 ff. General
view, 365. Nominat., 368. Vocat.,
369. Accusat.,370ff. Dat., 382 ff.
Gen., 393 ff. Abl., 411 ff. Cases
w. preps., 432 ff.
Castrum, castra, 132.
Catalectic, 603, notes 3 and 5.
Causa, p. 221, foofc-note 2.
Causal adverbs, 305, N. 2, 4) ; con-
junctions, 310, 5^ 311, 7; 554, V. ;
555, VII. Causal clauses, 516 ; 517 ;
w. quod, etc., 516; w. cum and qui,
S17
Cause, gen. of, 399, III., 2 ; abl., 413 ;
416. Cause expressed by particip. ,
549, 1.
Caveo, constr., 385, 1. CavS w. subj.
forimperat., 489, 2) ; w. ne omitted,
499, 2. E in cavt, 581, IV., 3.
-oe, appended, 186, 1 and 2.
C'ecldi, quant, of pen., 591, 1.
Cede, o in, 581, II., 1.
Celeber, celer, decl., 153, N. 1.
Cm, constr., 374, 2.
Celtiber, decl., 51, 4. 3) ; quant, of
increm., 585, III., 3.
-Gen, compds. in, 341, 1.
Censeo, constr,, p. 274, foot-note 1.
-oeps, genit. plur. of adjs. in, 158, 2,
3) ; compds. in, 342, 1.
-cer, suffix, p. 155, footnote 1.
Ceres, ea in, 581, VI., 1.
Certo w. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1.
Certus, w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
CSter, ceterus, ' defective, 159, II. ;
meaning, 440, N. 2.
Cfterum, 310, 3 ; 554, III., 2.
Ch, sound, 7, N. ; 13, I., 2.
Changes in consonants, 30 ff.
Characteristic, stem-characteristic,
nouns, 46, 3 ; verbs. 201. Gen. of
characteristic, 396, V. ; abl., 419,
II. ; 419, 2.
Chiasmus, 562; 636, V., 4.
Chief caesura, p. 357, foot-note 1.
Choliambus, 622, 4. .
Choosing, verbs of, w. two aces.,
373 ; w. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2).
Choree, p. 350. foot-note 2.
Choriambus, 597, N. 1.
-citla, compds. in, 341. 1.
Cilix, w. short inerem., p. 343, foot-
note 2.
Cingo, constr., 377.
-oino, suffix, p. 156, foot-note 8.
-oinus, adjs. in, 330, 1.
-cifi, nouns in, 321, N.
Circa, p. 149, foot-note 2; w. ace.,
433 ; 433, I. ; of ger., p. 315, foot-
note 5.
Circiter w. ace.. 433 ; 433, I.
Circum, p. 149, foot-note 2; in
compds., 344, 5; compds. w. ace.
372; w. two aces., 376; w. dat.,
386, 2. Circum w. ace., 433;
433,1.
Circumdo, eircumfundo, constr., p.
198, foot-note 1.
Circumlocutions w. res, genus, modus,
ratti, 636, III., 10.
Cis w. ace., 433 ; 433, I. ; i in, 579, 3.
Citerior, compar., 166.
Cities, plur. in names of, 131, N.
Cito, o in, 581, II., 1.
Citra, p. 149, foot-note 2; w. ace.,
433; 433,1.
Cit-iim, i, in, 590, 1.
Civis, decl., 62, IV.
Clam w. ace. or abl., 437, 3.
Clans, Roman, how designated, 331,
N. 2.
Classical period, 640, II.
Classification of letters, 3; verbs,
257 ff.
Cldssis, decl., 62, IV.
Claudus, not compared, 169, 4.
CLAUSES, 348, N. 1 : as nouns, gend.,
42, N. Prin. and sub. clauses, 348,
N. 2. Clause as object, 371, IV. ; as
abl., abs., 431, N. 1; as anteced.,
445, 7. Object clauses of purp.,
498. Subst. clauses of purp., 499,
3 ; of result, 501. Restrictive clauses
w. quod, 503, I., N. 1. Conditional
clauses,513; concess.,514 ff. ; temp.,
518 ff. ; principal, in indir. disc.,
523; subord., 524. Indirect clauses,
528 ff. Substantive clauses, 532 ff. ;
540. Relat. clauses supplied by
particip., 549, 4. Prin. clauses sup-
plied by particip., 549, 5. Arrang.
of clauses, 570 ff.
Clavis, decl., 62, III.
Cliens, decl., 64.
Climax, 637, VI.
Close vowels, 3, I., 3.
Clothing, constr. w. verbs of, 377.
-co, suffix, 320, II.
Cognate ace., 371, I. and II.
CognOmen, 649.
Cdgo, constr., 380, N. ; p. 274, foot-
note 2.
Coins, Roman. 646.
396
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
-cola, compds. in, 341, 1.
Collecting, constr. w. verbs of, 380. N.
Collective nouns, 89, 2, 1) ; w. plur.
verb, 461, 1.
ColUs, decl., 62, IV.
CollocO, constr., 380, N.
Colus } gend., 53, 1 ; 118 ; decl., 119, 2.
Com in compds., 344, 5 ; w. dat., 386.
Coming together, constr. w. verbs of,
380, N.
Comitium, comitia, 132.
Command, dat. w. verbs signifying to,
385, 1. ; infin. after, 535, II. Subj.
of command, 483 ff.
Commiseresctt. commiseretur. constr.,
410, IV., N. 1.
Common nouns, 39, 2. Common quan-
tity, 16, III. ; 575.
Commums w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 3.
Commuto, constr., 422, N. 2.
COMPARATIVE conjuncs., 311, 2; 555,
II. Comparat. degree, 160: decl.,
154 ; wanting, 167 ; formed by ma-
gis, 170. Comparat. w. gen., 397,
3; w. abl., 417; w. guam, 417, 1.
Use ; 444. Comparat. w. guam and
subj., 503, II., 3. O in mcrem. of
comparat., 585, II., 1.
Comparative view of conjugations,
213 ff.
COMPARISON of adjs., 160 S. ; modes
of, 161; terminational, 162; irreg., !
163; defect., 166; adverbial, 170; !
of adverbs, 306. Use of compar.,
444. Dat. w. verbs of comparison, ;
385, 4, 3).
Compes, decl., p. 36, foot-note 4.
CompleQ, constr., 410, V., 1; p. 225, '
foot-note 3.
Complex sentences, 348 ; elements,
357, 2 ; subject, 359 ; predicate, 361.
Compliir'es, decl., 154, N. 1.
Compos w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3; ,
-os in, 581, VIL, 1 ; quant, of in-
crem., 585, II., 3.
Composition of words, 340 ff.
COMPOUND WORDS, 313, N. 2 ; pro- j
nunciation, 8, 3 ; p. 8, foot-note 1 ; i
18, 2. Compel, nouns, decl., 125 ff. i
Compd. interrog., 188, 3 ; nouns,
341; 343; adjs., 342; 343; verbs,
221 ; 344. Compd. sentences, 349.
Compds. of preps, w. ace. , 372 ; w.
two aces. , 376 ; w. dat. , 386. Quant,
in compds., 594. Compd. verse, 601,
N. 2.
Computation of money, 647.
Concealing, verbs of, w. two aces., 874.
Concession expressed by particip.,
549,2.
CONCESSIVE conjunctions, 311. 4 ; 555
IV. ; concess. subj. of desire, 484,
III. Concess. clauses, 514 ff. ; posi-
tion of, 572, II., N.
Condemning, constr. w. verbs of, 410,
Condicd w. gen., 409, N. 3.
Condition expressed by imperat., 487,
3 ; by particip., 549, 2.
CONDITIONAL conjuncs., 311, 3; 555,
III. Cond. sentences, 506 ff. ; first
form, 508 ; sec. form, 509 ; third
form, 510 : combined forms, 511 ;
512. Condit. clauses w. dum^ etc.,
513. Condit. sentences in indir.
disc., 527. Position of condit.
clauses, 572, II., N.
Confido w. abl., 425, 1, 1), N.
Gomtor, constr. , p. 202, foot-note 1.
CONJUGATION, 201 ff. ; of sum, 204.
First con]., 205 ff. ; 223 ff. ; 257 ff. ;
second, 207 ff. ; 225 ff. ; 261 ff. ;
, in imperat., 581. IV., 3 ; third, 209
ff. ; 227 ff. ; 269 if. ; fourth, 211 ff. ;
229 ff. : 284 ff. ; is in pres. indie.,
581, VIII., 3 : verbs in id of Conj.
III., 217. Periphrastic, 233 ff.
Peculiarities, 235 ff. Comparative
view, 213. Irreg. verbs, 289 ff. ;
defect., 297 ff. ; impers., 298 ff. In-
crem. of conj., 583 ; 584 ; quant., 586.
Conjunctions, 309; coord., 554; sub-
ord., 555. Conj. omitted, 554, 1., 6.
Place of conj. in sentence, 569, III.
Conor , constr., 498, II., N. 1.
0^nsc^w w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3 ;
p. 315, foot-note 2; other constrs.,
400. Conjoins mihl sum w. infin.,
535, I., 3.
Consecutive conjs., 311, 6 ; 555, VI.
Consequor, constr., p. 274, foot-note 2.
Convimilis'w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 3.
Consonant nouns, 55 ff. Consonant
stems, 57 ff. Consonant verbs, 209.
Consonants, 3, II. ; double, 3, N. 2 ;
sounds of, 7 ; 13 ; 15, 2 : phonetic
changes in, 30 ff. ; interchanged w.
vowels, 28 ; 29 ; assimilated, 33 ; 34 ;
dissimilated, 35 ; omitted, 36.
Consors w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Constituo, constr., 498, 1., N. ; p. 274,
foot-note 1.
"Constd w. abl., p. 226, foot-note 1.
Consul, decl., 60.
Cdnsulo, constr., 374, 2; 885, 1.
Consultus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Contendo w. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1;
w. infin., 498, II., N. 1 , w. subj.,
p. 274, foot-note 2.
Contention, dat. w. verbs of, 386, 4, 3)
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
397
Content w. abl., 420 ; 1,4); 421, III.
Continental pronunciation of Latin,
15.
Contingit, constr., p. 276, foot-note 2.
Continuing, constr. w. verbs of, 533,
I., 1.
Contra, p. 149, foot-note '? w. ace.
433 ; 433, A .
Contraction of vowels, 23 ; in conju-
gation, 235. Quant, of syllables in
contract., 576, I.
Contrariu* w. gen., p. 205, foot-note 3.
Contro- in compels., 594, 8.
Gonvenio, constr., 380, N.
Convicting, constr. w. verbs of, 409,
II. ; 410, II.
CorwooO, constr., 380, N.
Coordinate conjs., 309, 1 j 554.
Copia, copiae, 132. C'opw est w. in-
fin., 533, 3, N. 3.
Copulative conjs., 310, 1 ; 554, 1.
CopuU w. dat., p. 201, foot-note 1.
Cor, defective, 133, 5 ; o in, 579, 3.
Coram, p. 149, foot-note 2 : w. abl.,
434.
Corna, decl., 116.
Coronldes, I in, p. 345, foot-note 3.
Corpus, decl., 61.
Correlative pronouns, 191 ; adverbs,
305. Correlat. compar. conjuncs.,
555, II., 1. Position of correlat.
clauses, 572, II., N.
Cos, defective, 183, 5.
cosus. adjs. in, 328.
Uotidfcj local., 120, N.
Countnes, names of, gend., 42, Ii. 2 ;
constr., 380, 3.
Credor, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
Orlmine, constr., 410, II., 1.
crum, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 1 ;
nouns in, 327.
Cubitus, 648, IV., N.
Ouicuimodl, 187, 4.
Cujat, c&jus, 185, N. 8.
Cujusmodi, cujmcumquemodi, 187, 4,
cula, nouns in, 321 ; u in, 587, II., 3.
-culo, suffix, p. 156, foot-note 8.
culum, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 1 ;
nouns in, 321 ; 327 ; cu in t 587, II., 3.
culus, nouns in, 321 ; adjs. in, 382 ;
u in pen., 587, II., 3.
Cum, _prep., p. 149, foot-note 2; ap-
pended, 184, 6; 187, 2; com in
compds., 344, 5. Cum w. abl.,
434 ; 484, I. ; of accompaniment,
419 ; of manner, 419, III. ; after
idem, 451, 5; w. pi. verb, 461, 4.
Oum w. ger., p. 216, foot-note 1.
Own, quum, p. 75, foot-note 1 ; 305,
IV.; 311, 1 and 4; p. 151, foot-
notes 1 and 4; 311, 7; w. perf. in-
die., 471, 5 ; w. plup. indie., 472, 2;
introducing a condition, 507, 3; a
concession, 515, III. ; 515, N. 4 ; a
causal clause, 517; a temp, clause,
521. Oum w. infinit., 524, 1, 2).
Oumtwn, 554, 1., 5.
cumque, p. 75, foot-note 3; 305,
N. 1.
Cumulo, constr., p. 225, foot-note 3.
Cuncti w. part, gen., 397, 3, N. 4.
-cundus, verbals in, 333.
Cupidus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3 ,
p. 315, foot-note 2.
Cupiens w. dat. of possessor, 387,
N.3.
Cupid, constr., p. 310, foot-note 1.
Cura est w. subj., p. 274, foot-note 3.
Curd, constr., p. 274, foot-note 2.
-cus, adjs. in, 330 ; 333, 5.
Cyclic dactyl, 598, 1, 3); anapaest,
598, 1, 4).
Cyclops, quant, of increm., 585, II., 2.
D
D for t, 32, N. 1. D changed to L 32 ;
assimilated to u or , 34, 1 ; to /, 34.
2 ; dropped before s, 36, 2. D final
dropped, 36, 5, 2). Quant, of final
syllables in d, 579, 2 ; 580, II.
d, -da, nouns in, 322.
Dactyl, 597, I. : cyclic, 598, 1, 3).
Effect of dactyls, 610, 2.
Dactylic verse, 603, N. 1 ; 614 ff. ;
hexameter, 609 ff.
Ddmma, gend., 48, 5.
Danais, quant, of pen., p. 845, foot-
note 1.
Danger, constr. w. expressions of, 498,
Daps, d<ipix, defective, 138, 3.
Dare litleras, 385, 1, N. Dare ope-
ram w. subj., p. 274, foot-note '2.
E'm dedi, a in datum, 500, 1.
Daring, constr. w. verbs of, 533, J., 1.
Dates, Eng. and Lat., 644.
DATIVE, Decl. I., 4!, 4; Decl. III.,
58, 2 ; 66, 2 ; 67, N. 1 ; 68, 5 ; Decl.
IV., 117, 1; Decl. V., 121,1.
DATIVE, syntax of, 382 ff. Dat. for
ace., 380, 4. Dat. in exclamations,
381, N. 3, 3) ; w. verbs, 384 ff. ; w.
compdw., 386 : of possessor, 387 ; of
agent, 388. Ethical dat., 389. Two
dats., 390. Dat. w. adjs., 391 ; 399.
I., 3, N. 1 ; 400, 1 ; w. nouns ana
adverbs, 392 ; w. rffert and interest,
408, 1., 3. Dat. of penalty, 410, III.,
398
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
N. 1. Dat. of ger., 542, II. ; ge-
rundive, 544, 2. ..
Dative sing, in , 581, I., 2. E in
dat., Dec! III., 581, IV., 2.
' Daughter,' apparent ellipsis of, 398,
I., N. 2. Names of daughters, 649, 4.
Day, Rom. division of, 645.
D'e in compds. w. dat., 386; w. abl.,
434, N. 1. De w. abl., 434 : 434,
I. ; for genit., 397, N. 3. D'e w.
ger., p. 316, foot-note 1.
Dea, decl., 49, 4.
Debed w. pres. infin., 537, 1.
Decay, pnonetic, p. 12, foot-note 1.
Decerno, constr., 498, I., N. ; p. 274,
foptr-note 1.
Decipio, constr., p. 217, foot-note 5.
Declarative sentence, 350; in indir.
disc., 523, 1.
Declaring, constr. w. verbs of, 535, 1.
DECLENSION, 46; first, 48; sec., 51;
third, 55 ; fourth, 116 ; sec. and
fourth, 119; fifth, 120; compds.,
125. -0 in Decl. HI., 581, II., 2.
-E in Decl. I. and V., 581, IV., 1.
Increm. of decl., 582; 584; quant.,
585.
Dedoceo, constr., 374, 2.
Defective nouns, 122 ; 127, II. ; 129 ff. ;
adjs., 159, II. Def. compar., 166 ff.
Def. verbs, 297.
Degree, adverbs of, 305, N. 2, 3).
Degrees of comparison, 160.
Deinde, in series, 554, 1., N. 2.
Delecto, constr., 385, II., N. 1.
Deliberative subj.. 484, V. Delib.
questions, 523, II., 1, N.
Delos. decl., 54.
DelpMn, quant, of increm., 585, IV., 3.
Demanding, constr. w. verbs of, 374.
DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns, 186 ; use
of, 450 ff. ; 449, 1. Demon, roots,
314, II. Demon, adverbs, 450, N. 4.
Demon, w. infin., 538, 3. Position
of demon., 569, 1. Demon, redun-
dant, 636, HI., 7.
Denarius, 646.
D'enique, in series, 554, 1., N. 2.
Denominatives, 335.
Dental stems, Decl. El., 58.
Dentals, 3, II. , 3, N. 1, 1. 2.
Dependent clauses, 348, N. 2. De-
pend, questions, 528, 2, N.
Deponent verbs, 195, 2 ; 231 ; 465, 2.
Depriving, constr. w. verbs of, 414, 1.
Derivation, 821 ff. ; of nouns, 821 ff. ;
adjs., 328 ff. ; verbs, 335 ff.
Derivatives, quant, in, 598.
-d.es, nouns in, 322.
Descent, names of, 322.
Descriptive genit., 396, V. ; abl., 419,
II., N. Descrip. imperf. in temp.
clauses, 518, N. 1.
Desideratives, 284, 2 ; 338.
Desino, constr., p. 217, foot-note 5.
Desire, subj. of, 483 ff. ; for imperat.,
487, 4.
Desiring, gen. w. adjs. of, 399, I., 1 ;
p. 315, foot-note 2 ; w. verbs of, 410,
V., 2. Subj. after verbs of, 498, 1. ;
infinit., 533,1., 1; 535, II.
D'esisto, constr., p. 217, foot-note 5.
D'ezp'erd w. ace., 371, III., N. 1 ; w.
dat. or ace., p. 202, foot-note 1.
Destitute of, constr. w. adjs. signify-
ing, 414, m.
De&um, synaeresis in, 608, III., N. 1.
Desuper vr. ace., 437, 1.
Deterior, comparison, 166.
Deterius, comparison. 306, 3.
Determinative compos., 343, 1.
Determining, constr. w. verbs of, 533.
I., 1.
D'eterred, constr., p. 279, foot-note 2.
Deus, decl., 51, 6.
-dex, compds. in, 341, 1.
Dexter, decl., 150, N. 1); dextrA,
constr., 425, 2.
Di, dis, insep. prep. , 308 ; in compds..
344, 6 ; I in di, 594, 2.
Diaeresis, 602, 2 ; 608, IV.
Diana, l in, 577, 1., 3, (4).
Diastole, 608, V.
Die for dice, 238.
Dicid, defective, 134.
Dicolon, p. "52, foot-note 3.
Dicor, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
Dicto audiens, 390, N. 3.
-dicus, compds. in, 342, 1 ; compar.,
164.
Dldd, decl., 68.
Dies, decl., 120; 122, 1; gend., 123;
i in compds., 594, 7.
Difference, abl. of, 417. 2 ; 423.
Differing, dat. w. verbs of, 385, 2;
385, 4, 2).
Di/erp w. dat,, p. 200, foot-note 2.
Infficilis, compar., 163, 2 ; w. dat., p.
205, foot-note 1 ; w. supine, 547, 1.
Dignor, constr., 421, N. 2.
Diqmui, constr., 421, III. ; 421, N. 8.
Dlgnus qm w. subj., 503, II., 2.
Dignus w. supine, 547, 1.
Diiambus, 597, N. 1.
Dimeter, 603, N. 2.
Diminutive nouns, 321; adjs., 332;
verbs, 339.
Diphthongs, 4 ; sounds of, 6 ; 12 ; 15,
1 ; weakening of, 23, N. ; quant.
of syllab. w. diphth., 576, I. ; final
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
399
diphth. elided 608, I. ; shortened
in hiatus. 608, II., N. 3.
Dipody, 597, N. 2.
DIBECT object, 370 ff. Direct disc.,
522, 1; cnanged to indir., 530; in-
dir. to direct, 531.
Directing, constr. w. verbs of, 499, 2.
Direction, how expressed, 384, 3, 1) ;
385, 4, 1) : 386, 3.
Dirimo, di in, 594, 2, N. 1.
Dig, quant, of increm., 585, IV., 2.
Dis, di, insep. prep., 308 ; in compels.,
344 6.
Disertw^ di in, 594, 2, N. 1.
Disjunctive conjunctions, 310, 2 ; 554,
II. Disjunct, questions, 353.
Dispar, constr., p. 205, foot-notes 1
and 3.
Displeasing, verbs of, w. dat., 385, 1.
Dispondee, 597, N. 1.
Dissenting, verbs of, w. dat., 385, 2.
Dissentid, dissideo, w. dat., p. 200,
foot-note 2.
Dissimilation of vowels, 26; conso-
nant^ 35.
Disvirmlis, compar., 163, 2; constr.,
p. 205. foot-notes 1, 2, and 3.
Dissyllabic perfects and supines,
quant, of pen., 590.
Distance, abl. of, 379, 2 ; 423, N. 2.
Distich, 606, N. ; elegiac, 615.
Distd w. dat., p. 200, foot-note 2.
Distributives, 172, 3; 174; decl., 179.
Ditrochee, 597, N. 1.
Diii, 304, 1., 1 ; compar., 306, 4.
Z>h, * in, 577, I., 3, (2) ;
Diuturnus, superl. wanting, 168, 3.
Diversus, compar., 167, 2; w. dat., p.
205, foot-note 1.
Dives, compar., 165, N. 2.
-d6, nouns in, 327, 4, N. ; decl., 60, 4.
Do w. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2;. See
also Dare. Quant, of increm. of d6,
586, 1.
Doced, constr., 874, 2.
Doled w. ace., 371, III., N. 1 ; w. abl.,
p. 221, foot-note 2 ; w. infin., p. 310,
foot-note 2.
Damns, gend., 118 ; decl., 119, 1 ;
constr., 380, 2 ; 1) ; 412, II., 1 ; 425, 2.
Donee, 311, 1 ; in temp, clauses, 519.
Ddrw, constr., p. 198, foot-note 1 ; w.
two dats., 390, N. 1, 2).
Double consonants, 3, N. 2. Double
constr. w. verbs, 384, 2. Double
questions, 353.
Dropping of vowels, 27 ; consonants,
36.
Dry measure, Rom., 648, II.
Dt changed to st, *, or , 35, 3.
Dual number, p. 68, foot-note 1.
Dubito, constr., 505, 1.
Due for duce, 238.
Luco w. two dats., 390, N. 1, 2.
Duim for dem, 240, 3.
Dum, p. 145, foot-note 1 ; 311, 1 and 3 ;
555, I., 1 ; w. pres. indie., 467, 4;
w. subj. in conditions, 513, 1. Dv m
hi temp, clauses, 519 ; in indir.
clauses, 529, II., N. 2.
Dummodo, 311, 3 ; w. subj. in con-
ditions, 513, 1.
Duo, decl., 175 ; o in, 581, II., 1.
Duration of time, 379.
-dus, adjs. in, 333.
Dv changed to b, v, or d, 32, N. 2.
E
E, 6, sound, 5 ; 10 ff. E final short-
ened, 21, 2, 8). Nouns in e, Dec\.
I., 50 ; in e, Decl. III. ; 63 : 65. 2 ; 70.
E, gend. of nouns in, Decl. III.,
111. -E in abl., 62. -#inplur. of
Greek neuters, 68, 6. E-nounn.
120. <'-verbs, 207. ^-sterns, 120,
1. -E, -e, in adverbs, 304, I., 3:
304, II., 2: 804, III., 1. -E, -e.
suffix, 320.11. ^changed to i, 344.
4, N.I. Eoremti, 120, 2; 577, 1..
2, (1); 585, III., 1. E or e, final.
580, I.; 580, III.. N. 2; 581, IV.;
in increm. of decl., 585 ; 585, III.
conj., 586 ; 586, II. E elided be
fore consonant, 608, 1., N. 2.
E or ex, see ex.
Ed, 304, II., 3 ; 305, V.
-Sa, in prop, names, e in, 577, 1., 5, N.
Eabm for els = Us, p. 73, foot-note 2.
Eddem. 304, II.. 3 ; 305, V.
Easy, dat. w. acljs. signifying, 391, I.
Bcastdr, interj., p. 152. foot-note 4.
Ecce, 312, 1 ; with demonstratives,
186, 8; with dat. in exclamations,
381. N. 3, 3).
Ecquis, 188, 3. Ecquid, p. 180, foot-
note 1.
Ecthlipsis, 608, 1., N. 4.
Edim for edam, 240, 8.
-d6, nouns in, 325 ; e in, 587, 1., 2.
Sdoceo, constr., 374, 2.
Ee in synaeresis, 608, III., N.I.
Effect, ace. of, 371, 1., 2, 2).
EMcid, constr., p. 274, foot-note 2;
501, II., 1.
Effigies, decl., 122, 2.
Effort, subj. w. verbs of, 498, II.
Eginus, compared, 164, 1 ; w. gen.,
p. 210, foot-note 3 ; p. 219, foot-
note 4.
400
INDEX OF 8UBJEVT8.
Ejed, constr., 410, V., 1.
Ego, decl., 184. /in miM, 581, I., 2.
in ego, 581, II., 1.
fJiem, inter)., 312, 1.
heu, interj'., 312, 3; w. ace., 381, N.
2; gin, 577, 1., 2, (3).
Eho, eJiodum, 312, 5 ; o in, 581, II., 1.
Ei, interj., 312, 3 ; w. dat, 381, N. 3,
3).
Ei, pronunciation as diphthong. 6, 1 ;
12, 1 ; e or e in ll, 120, 2; 577, L,
2, (1); 585, III..1. M in synae-
resis, 608, III., N. 1.
-is, e in, 587, L, 3.
fus, gin, 577, 1., 2, (2).
s, 312. 2 and 6 ; a in, 581, III., 3.
ismodl, 186, 4, N.
-ela, e in, 587, L, 4.
Elegiac Distich, 615.
Elements of sentences, 856 ff.
-elis, e in, 587, L, 4.
Elision, 608, 1.
-ella, nouns in, 321, 4.
Ellam for en illam, 186, 3.
Ellipsis, 636, I.
-ellum, nouns in, 321, 4.
Ellum, for e ilium, 186, 3.
-ellus in nouns, 321, 4; ndjs., 332,
N.I.
Eluvfcs, defective, 122, 3.
-em in ace., 62.
Emotion, constr. w. verbs of, 371, III. ;
410, V., 2 ; 535, III.
Emphasis in arrang. of words, 561.
Emphatic forms of pronouns, 184. 3 :
185, N. 2. Emphatic adverbial
phrases, 305, N. 4.
En, 3_12, 1 ; w. demonstratives, 186,
3 ; in exclamations, 381, N. 3, 3).
-en, suffix, 320, II. ; nouns in, 327.
Quant, of increm. of nouns in -en,
585, III., 2.
-@na, g in, 587, I., 5.
Enallage, 636, IV.
Enclitics, accent, 18, 2, 1) ; quant.,
579, L, 1.
End, dat. of. 384, 1, 3). End of sen-
tence emphatic, 561, n.
Endeavoring, constr. w. verbs of, 498,
H., N. 1.
Ending, constr. w. verbs of, 533, L, 1.
Endings of genitive, 47 ; of cases,
Decl. L, 48: 49; Decl. II., 51, 2,
3); 52: Decl. III., 62, L, 2; 67;
Decl. IV., 116 ; 117 ; Decl. V., 120 ;
121; in compar., 162; conj., 218-
216.
Endo, o in, 581, H.j 1.
English pronunciation of Latin, 9 ff.
-8nl, e in, 587, L, 8.
Enim, 310, 5 ; 554, V., 8 ; position,
_569, III.
EnUor, constr., p. 274, foot-note 2.
Enneasy liable verse, 619, 1.
-nsis, adjs. in, 330; 331.
i -ent. suffix, 320, II.
: -entia, -entio, suffixes, p. 155, foot-
note 9.
entior. entissimus. in compar.,
164.
! -ento, suffix, p. 155, foot-note 9.
Enumerative asyndeton, p. 370, foot-
note 1.
-enus, gin, 587, I., 5.
Ed, Ire, w. sup. in -um, 546, 2 ; Iri w.
do., 546, 3. /in Ibam, ibd, etc., 586,
III., 4. /in itum, 590, 1.
Ed, adverb, 304, II., 3, N. ; 305, II. ;
554, IV., 1 ; w. gen., p. 209, foot-
note 3.
Eddem, 305, II.
Epenthesis, 635, 4.
Ephesiis, decl., 51, 8.
Epicene nouns, 43, 3.
Epiphora, 636, III., 4.
Epitome, decl., 50.
Epizeuxis, 636, III., 5.
-eps, decl. of nouns in, 88.
Epulum, epulae, 143, 3.
Equester, decl., 153, N. 1.
Equivalents, metrical, 598.
-er, nouns in, gend., 53; 99; 103;
decl., 51, 4; 60, 3; adjs. in, decl.,
62, IV., N. 1 ; 150, N. ; 153 ; N. 2;
compar., 163, 1. Quant, of increm.
of nouns in -er, 585, III., 4.
-6re for erunt, 236.
Erga, p. 149, foot-note 2 ; w. ace.,
433 ; 433, 1. ; after adjs., 391, II., 1 ;
for gen., 396,111., N. 1.
! Ergo, 310, 4; p. 151, foot-note 1 ; w.
gen., 398, 5.
erunt for -erunt, 236, N. ; 586, II. 4.
Es attached to preceding word, 27, N. ;
e in, 579, 3 ; in compos., 581, VI., 2.
-es, -es, suffixes, 820, II. Nouns in
-es, 327; decl., 65, 1; 80; 120;
quant, of increm., 585, III., 4;
gend., 99; 104; 105; 109; 120.
Decl. of nouns in -es, 81 ; gend. .
99 ; 104. Es or -es final, 580, III. ;
581, VI. A in voc. of Greek nouns
in -es, p. 341, foot-note 1.
esimus, e in, 587, III., 3.
Esse omitted, 534, N.
Essential elements of sentences, 357, 1.
-easo. -essim, in fut. pert, and
perf. subi., 240, 4,
-esso, verbs in, 386, >i . 1.
Est drops initial, 27, N. Est ut, 498,
INDEX OF SUBJJKVT8.
401
II., N. 2. Est, impers., constr., p. I
276, foot-note 2. Egt at end of line, I
613, N. 3.
-ester, -estris, adjs. in, 330, 1.
Et, 310, 1 ; 554, I. ; meaning as, 451,
5; than, 459, 2. Et et, etque, [
que et, neque (nee) et, et neque \
(nee), 554, I., 5. Et in poetry, |
position, 569, III., N. Preps, re-
peated w. et et, 636, III., 6.
-et in Plautus for -et, 580, HI., N. 2.
-eta, e in, 587, 1., 7.
-etas, e in. 587, II., 4.
Etenim, 310, 5 ; 554, V., 2.
Ethical dat., 389.
Etiam, 310, 1 ; 554, 1., 2, 4, and 5.
Etiamsi', etsi, 311 , 4 ; in concessions,
515,11. JEfci = 'yet, J etc.,515, N. 2. !
-gtum, nouns in, 323 ; e in, 587, 1., 7. !
-etus, e in, 587, 1., 7.
Etymology, 37-344. Figures of ety-
mol., 634, N. ; 635.
Eu, sound, 6, 1 ; 12.
Euqe, interj., 312, 2 and 6.
Euhoe, interj., 312, 2.
Euphemism, 637, XI., 4.
Euphony in arrang. of words, 561.
eus. adjs. in, 329 ; -eus, 331. -Eus
in prop, nouns, e in, 577, 5, N.
Eventt, constr., p. 276, foot-note 2.
Evoe, interj., 312, 2.
Ex, e, in compds., 344. 5; w. dat.,
386, 2; w. abl., 434, N. 1. Ex, w.
abl. for part, gen., 397, N. 8. Ex,
e.w. abL, 434; 434, 1. E, ex, 434,
N. 2. Ex, e, w. ger., p. 316, foot-
note 1.
-ex, -ex, decl. of nouns in, 92 ; 93.
Compds. in -ex, 341, 1.
Exadversum, exadversus, w. ace., 433.
Exanimw, exammis, 159, III.
Exchanging, constr. w. verbs of, 422,
N. 2.
Exclamatory sentences, 355 ; ace. in,
381 ; voc., nom., dat. in, 381, N. 3 ;
infin. in, 539, III.
Existvm&, constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
Exonerd, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Exos, -os in, 581, VII., 1.
Expedio, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Expers w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
Explicative asyndeton, p. 870, foot-
note 1.
Exposed w. two aces., 374, 2.
Exsequias, ace. of limit, 380, 2, 3).
Exsoivo, constr., p. 210, foot-note 1.
Exsors w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3.
ExtemplO, 304, II., 1, N.
Extent of space, ace. of, 379.
External object, 371, I., 1.
Exterus, compar., 163, 3.
Extra, p. 149, foot-note 2: w. aco.,
433 ; 433, I.
Extremus, meaning, 440, N. 2.
Exuo, constr., 377 ; p. 198, footnote
1 ; p. 219, foot-note 1.
Fac for face, 238. Fac ne w. subj. in
prohibitions, 489, 2). A in fac.
579, 3.
Fades, decl., 122, 2.
Fatilis, compar., 163, 2; w. dat., p.
205, foot-note 1 ; w. supine, 547, 1.
Facio, accent of compds., 18, 2, 2).
Facio omitted, 368, 3, N. 1. Facio
w. dat., 385, 3 : w. pred. gen., 403 ;
w. abl., 415, ILL, N. 1. Facio ut,
498, II., N. 2. Facw w. sub]., p.
274, foot-note 2; 499, 2; 501, ll., 1.
E before / in compds. , 594, 6.
-facto, verbs in, 344, 3.
FacuUds, facilitates, 132.
Falsus, compar., 167, 2.
Fama fert w. infin., 535, 1., 8.
Fames, abl. fame, 137, 2.
Familia, genitive, 49, 1. Familid,
constr., 415, II., N.
Far, decl., 63, 2, N. ; 133, N.
Fas, defect., 134; w. supine, 547, 1.
Fastidioxm w. gen., p. 210, foot-
note 3.
Faux, decl., p. 38, foot-note 4.
Favorite vowel, 24.
Fax, quant, of increm., 585, 1., 4, (8).
Faxdjfaxim, &)TfecerO,fecerim, 240, 4.
Fearing, constr. w. veros of, 498, III.
Febris, decl., 62, III.
Feeling, constr. w. verbs of, 371, HI. ;
410, V., 2 ; 535, III.
Feet in versification, 597.
Fel. defective, 133, 4, N.
Felix, decl., 156.
Feminine, 42, II. Fern, caesura, 61 1,N.
Fer for fere, 238 ; e in, 579, 3.
-fer, compds. in, 342, 1 ; decl., 61, 4,
2) ; adjs. in, 150, 3), N.
Fere,ferm<>, e in, 581, IV., 4.
FerO and compdn., increm. of, 586, 1.
Feror. constr., 534, 1, N. 1, (2).
FertiUs w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 8.
Ferus, not compared, 169, 4.
Festivals, plur. in names of, explained,
131, N. ; plur. in -alia, decl., 186, 8.
-fex, comixls. in, 341, 1.
-flc5, verbs in, 344, 3.
-flcus, adJH. in, 342, 1 ; compar., 164.
Fidelis w. dat.. p. 205, foot-note 1.
Fidi, tin, 590, 1.
402
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
Fi<ld w. abl., 425, 1, 1), N.
Fifth decl., 120 ff. ; final in,581, IV. ,1.
FIGURES of prosody, 608. Fig. of
speech, 634 ff. ; of etymology, 634,
H. ; 635 : of syntax, 634, N. ; 636 ;
of rhetoric, 634, N. ; 637.
Filia, decl., 49, 4.
Filix w. short increm., p. 243, foot-
note 2.
Filling, constr. w. verbs of, p. 225,
foot-note 3.
FINAL conjunctions, 311, 5 ; 555, V.
Final vowels and syllables, quant,
of, 580 ; 581. Fin. syl. of verse, 605.
Fin. syl. elided, 608, I. Fin. long
vowel or diphthong shortened in
hiatus, 608, II., N. 3.
Finis, decl., 62, IV. ; singular and
plur., 132.
Finite verb, 199, N.
Finitimus, constr., p. 205, foot-notes
1 and 3.
Fid w. two date., 390, N. 1, 1); w.
abl., 415, III., N. 1. Fit, constr.,
p. 276, foot-note 2. I or * in fid,
577, 1., 3, (1). ^before/in compos.,
594, 6.
First decl., 48 ff. ; final in, 581, IV., 1.
First conjugat. , 205 ff. ; 223 ff. ; 257 ff.
Fiagito w. two aces., 374, 2.
Flood, constr., p. 213, foot-note 3.
Flog, decl., 61.
Following, constr. w. verbs of, 501,
I., 1.
Foot, caesura of, p. 357, foot-note 1.
Roman foot, 648, IV.
' For,' how translated, 384, 3.
Fords, 304, I., 1.
Fore ut, 537, 3.
Foreign words indecl., 128, 2.
Forgetting, constr. w. verbs of, 407.
Font, i in, 581, VIII., 1.
Formation of stems of verbs, 249 ff. ;
of words, 313 ff. ; of nouns, 321 ff.
Fornix w. short increm., p. 343, foot-
note 2.
Fort, defective. 134.
Forsitan, 304, IV., N. 2; w. subj., p.
267, foot-note 1.
Fortuttus, I in, p. 345, foot-note 2.
Fortuna.fortuiMe. 132.
Fourth decl. , 116 ff. Fourth conjugat. ,
211 ff. ; 229 ff. ; 284 ff.
Fractions, 174, 1.
Fraudo, constr., p. 219, foot-note 1.
Fraus, decl., p. 38, foot-note 4.
Free from, constr. w. adjs. signify-
ing, 414, III.
Frtnum, pl.freni, frena, 143, 2.
Frequentatives, 336.
Fretm w. abl 425, 1, 1), N.
Fricatives, 3, II., 4.
Friendly, constr. w. adjs. signifying,
391, I. and II.
Fructus, decl^ 116.
Frual, indeclin., 159, I. ; compar.,
165, N. 2.
Fruor, constr., 421, I. ; 421, N. 4;
gerundive of, 544, 2, N. 5.
Frux, defective, 133, 3 ; quant, of
increm., 535, V., 2.
Fuam for sim, 204, 2.
Fulness, adjs. of, w. gen., 399, 1.. 3.
Fungor, constr., 421, I. ; 421, N. 4;
gerundive of, 544, 2, N. 5.
Fur, quant, of increm., 585, V., 2.
Furnishing, constr. w. verbs of, p.
225, foot-note 3.
FUTURE, 197 ; 222. Fut. indie., 470 ;
for iinperat., 487, 4. Fut. in condit. ,
511, 1, N. 1 ; in temp, clauses, p.
293, foot-note 2. Fut. in subj.,
479 ; 481 ; 496. Fut. imperat., 487,
2. Fut. infin., 537 ; periphrast.,
537, 3. Fut. particip., 550.
FUTURE PERFECT, 197, II. ; 222, II. ;
473; in subj.. 496; in indir. disc.,
525, 2 ; in infinit., 537, 3, N. 2. -I*
in fut, perf., 581, VIII., 5.
Futurum esse ut, 537, 3. Futurum
sit, esset, ut, p. 272, foot-note 2.
G
G formed from O, 2, 2 ; sound, 7 ; 13 ;
changed to c, 33, 1 ; assimilated to
m, 34, 3 ; dropped, 36, 3.
Gauded, constr., p. 221, foot-note 2 ;
p. 310, foot-note 2.
Gavlsus, i in, 586, HI., 2.
Gemo w. ace., 371, III., N.
Gems, gend. of names of, 53, 1.
Gender, 41 ff. : Decl. I. , 48 ; DecL II.,
53; Decl. III., 99-115; Decl. IV.,
118. Decl. V., 123; general table,
124.
Gener, decl., 51, 4, 3).
General relatives, p. 75, foot-note 3.
Gen. rel. adverbs, 305, N. 1. Gen.
subject, 460, 1, N. 2. Gen. truths,
467, II. ; in conditions, 508, 5 ; 511,
1. Gen. negat., 553, 1 and 2.
Genere, constr., 415, II., N.
GENITIVE, endings of, 47 ; Decl. I., at
for ae } urn for drum, 49 ; Decl. II.,
i for *t, 51, 5 ; um for drum, 52, 3 ;
on for drum, 54, N. 1 ; Decl. III.,
um or ium, p. 36, foot-notes 3 and
4; p. 38, foot-note 2; p. 40, foot-
note 3 ; yos, ys, 68, 2 ; on, 68 4 ;
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
403
Decl. IV., wis, uos, for *, 117 ;
Decl. V., l, , &, for &, 121. Gen.
in adjs., 158, 2. -Us in gen., 581,
IX., 2.
GENITIVE, syntax, 393 ff. ; how ren-
dered, 393, N. Gen. w. possessives,
363, 4, 1); w. nouns, 395; varie-
ties, 396 ; in special constructions,
398; 406 S. ; w. adjs., 391, II., 4;
399 ; w. verbs, 401 if. Pred. gen.,
401 ff. ; of price, 404 ; 405. Ace.
and gen., 409. Gen. w. adverbs,
397, 4. Gen. of ger., 542, 1. Posi-
tion of gen. w. adj., 565, 2; between
prep, and case, 569, II., 8.
Gemtus w. abl., 415, II.
(rentes, Roman, how designated. 331,
N. 2.
Gentile nouns, 831, N. 1.
Venus, circumlocutions w., 686, III..
10.
-ger, compds. in, 342, 1; decl., 51,
4,2); adjs., 150, N.
GERUND, 200, II. ; endings, 248. Ger-
und in sequence of tenses, 495, IV.
Syntax of gerund, 541 ; 542. Ger.
w. pass, meaning, 541, N. Cases
of ger., 542. Gcr. w. gen., mei,
etc., 542, I., N. 1 ; denoting pur-
pose, 542, 1., N. 2: 542, 111., N. 2.
GERUNDIVE, 200, IV. ; syntax, 543.
Gerund, constr. , 543, N. ; 544 ; de-
noting purpose, 544, 2, N. 2 ; w.
official names, 544, 2, N. 3; after
comparat., 544, 2, N. 4.
GZgnt) w. genul, aenitum, 592, 2.
Giving, verbs of, w. two date., 390,
N. I, 2).
Glades, decl., 122, 8.
Glv*. decl., p. 88, foot-note 4; quant,
of'increm., 585, IV., 2.
Glyconic verse, 604, N. 1: 628, III.
and VII. ; 631, IV. -VI.
Gn lengthens preceding vowel, 16, N. 2.
Grwrus w. gen., p. 210, foot-note 3;
p. 315, foot-note 2.
Gnomic perfect, 471, 5.
Sf6, decl. of nouns in, 60, 4.
Going, verbs of, w. two date., 890, N.
Golde_n age, 040, II., 1.
Gracilis, compar., 163, 2.
Gratia, gratiae, 132.
Gratis, iin, 581, VIII., 1.
Grdtmtus, t in, p. 345, foot-note 2
Grdtw w. dat., p. 205, foot-note 1,
Graviter fero, constr., p. 310, foot-
note 2.
Greater Ionic, 597, N. 1 ; Archilo-
chian, 628, X.; 616, N. ; 619, N.;
Asclepiadean, 628, V. : Sapphic,
628, VII. ; Alcaic, 628, IX.
GREEK NOUNS, Decl. ! 50 ; Decl. II.,
54 ; Decl. III., 68. Long vowels in
Greek nouns, 577, 5. 7, _t, in dat.
and voc., 581, 1., 2. -A in voc.,
581, III., 2. -E in plur., 581, IV.,
1. -As in ace., 581, V., 2. -Es in
Greek words, 581, VI., 8; -os, 581,
VIL, 2; -us, 581, IX., 8. A in
increm. of nouns in a and as, 585,
I., 3. in increm., 585, II. j 5; t
in words in -n, 585, III., 2 ; m -e
and-er, 585, 111., 4. Quant, of in-
crem. of words in -ax, 585, 1., 4, (8).
/ in increm., 585. IV., 8,
Grimm's law, 638, N. 2.
Gru, decl., 66, 2.
Gri/ps, decl., p. 38, foot-note 8.
Guilt, adjs. ofj w. genit., 899, 1., 8.
Gutturals, 3, II. ; before *, 80. Gut-
tural stems, 59.
H
H changed to c, 83, 1. N. 1 ; following
other consonants, does not lengthen
preceding syllable, 576, 1, N. 1.
Syllable before h short, 577.
Habed, meaning, p. 202, foot-note 8,
w. two aces., 373, 1, N. 1 : w. perf.
part., 888, 1, N. ; w. two oats., 890,
N. 1, 2).
/Idc, 804, II., 8; 305, V.
Hadria, gend., 48, 5.
Haec tor hoe, p. 72, foot-note 7.
Hdlitus. i in, p. 845, foot-note 2,
Happening, constr. w. verbs of, 601,
1., 1.
Hand, use, 552.
Zfe/a, interj., 312, 6 ; a in, 681, 1IL, 8.
.^w.intcrj.,312, 1: w. dat., 881, N. 8,8.
Hendiadys, 636, lil., 2.
Hepar. quimt. of increm., 686, L, 4, 1.
Hephtnemimeral caesura, p. 866, foot-
note 4.
HephthemiiiierLuj 697, M. 2.
Hires, quant, of increm., 686, III., 8.
Heroic verse, 604, N. 2.
Herds, decl., 68.
Hetcroclites, 127 ; 185 fl. ; adjs., 169,
III.
Heterogeneous nouns, 127 ; 141 ft.
Heu, interj., 312, 3 ; w. ace., 381, N. 2.
Beu in hiatus, 08, II., 1.
Heux, interj., 312, 5.
Hexameter, 603, notes 2 and 6 ; 09 fl.
Hiatus, 608, II.
Hfber, decl., 51, 4, 8); quant. 0* i
crera., 585, 111., 8.
404
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
Hie, 186; 191 ; use, 450; f in, 579, 8. 6
in Me, 579, 3. fide redundant, 636,
III., 7.
Hie, 304, III., 2 ; 305, 1. ; w. gen., p.
209, foot-note 3.
Hilarus, hilaris, 159, III.
Hinc, 305, III.
Hindering, constr. w. verbs of, 505, II.
Historical tenses, 198; hist, present,
467. III. ; in temp, clauses, 518, N.
1 ; hist, perfect, 198, 1 ; 197, N. 1 ;
471, 11. Hist, tenses in sequence,
491 ff. Hist, infln., 536, 1.
Hdc. 304, II., 3, N.
Hodie, 120, N. ; 304, II., 1 ; e in, p.
341, foot-note 2; o in, 594, 10.
Honestue w. supine, 547, 1.
Horace, logaoedic verses in, 628 ; ver-
sification, 630 ff. ; lyric metres, 681 ;
index, 632.
Horreo w. ace., 371, HI., N.
ffdrsum, 305, II.
Hortative subj., 484, II.
Hortor, constr., p. 274, foot-note 1.
Hortus, horti,, 182.
Hospitm. i in, p. 845, foot-note 2.
Hostile, constr w, adjs. signifying.
391, II., 1.
Hostis, decl., 62.
Hours. Roman, 645 ; 645, 2.
H S, signification, 647, 3.
Hue, 304, II., 3, N. ; 805, IL ; w. gen.,
p. 209, foot-note 8.
Hujuvrnodi, 186, 4, N.
Bumilis, compar., 168, 2.
Humus, gend., 53, 1 ; Ami, locat,
426. 2.
' Husband,' apparent ellipsis of, 398,
1, N. 2.
ffuardps. quant, of increm., 586. 11., 2.
Hypallage, 636, IV., 2.
Hyperbaton, 636, V.
Hyperbole, 637, VI.
Hypermetrical, 603. N. 8.
Hypothetical, see Conditional.
Hysteron proteron, 686, V., 2.
1
I for J, p. 2, foot-note 1. /, i, wound,
5; 10 ff. /final shortened, 21, 2,
3). / interchanged with j, 28 ;
dropped, 36, 4. / for il and ie,
51, 5. /-nouns, 55; z-verbs, 211.
Stems in *', 62 ff. ; origin of, p. 35,
foot-note 8. Nouns in 1, 71 ; gend.,
111. -/in abl., 62; for ii, 121, 1 ;
in adverbs, 804, II., 2; 304, III., 1.
T., *r i final, 580, I. ; 581, I.; in
increments of decl.. 585: 588, IV.;
conj., 586: 586, III. / as conso-
nant, 608, III., H. 2.
-ia, suffix, 320. 11. Nouns in -ia,
325 ; -ia and les, 138.
-ia in prop, names, I in, 677, 5, N.
iacus, adjs. in, 331 ; a in, 587, 11., '2
-lades, a in, 587, II., 1.
Iambic verse, 603, N. 1 ; 621 ft. ; stan-
za, 631, XVI.
Iambus, 597. ii. ; irrational, 598, 1, 2).
-ianus, adjs. in, 331.
-Ibara for -iebam, 240, i.
Iber, decl., 51, 4, 3); quant, ot increm.,
585, III., 3.
Ibi, 304. 111., 2; 305, 1. and IV. ; I in,
681, 1., 2 ; quant, of ult. in compds,,
594. 9.
-ibilis, quant, of antepen., 587, IV., 1.
-{bo, -ibor, for -iam, -iar, 240, 2.
fbus, for i=w, p. 73, foot-note 2.
-icius, adjs. in, 329 
