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A LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
BY
GEORGE M. LANE, PH.D., LLD.
PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF LATIN IN
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
REVISED EDITION
/
NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
Copyright, 1898, 1903, by GARDINER M. LANE and LOUISA VAN RENSSBLAER.
All rights reserved.
W. P. 2
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
GEORGE MARTIN LANE died on the thirtieth of June, 1897.
His Latin Grammar, in the preparation of which he had been
engaged, during the intervals of teaching in Harvard University,
for nearly thirty years, was at that time approaching completion.
The first two hundred and ninety-one pages had been stereo-
typed ; the pages immediately following, on the Relative Sentence
and the Conjunctive Particle Sentence through quod and quia
(pages 292-302), together with the chapter on the Infinitive
(pages 374-386), were ready for stereotyping; of the remainder
of the book, pages 303373 and 387436 were in the form of a
first draught ; finally, he had received a few weeks before his
death, but had never examined, the manuscript of the chapter
on Versification (pages 442-485), written at his invitation by
his former pupil, Dr. Herman W. Hayley, now of Wesleyan
University.
It was found that my dear and honoured master had left a writ-
ten request that his work should be completed by me, in consul-
tation with his colleagues, Professors Frederic De Forest Allen
and Clement Lawrence Smith. A month had scarcely passed
when scholars everywhere had another heavy loss to mourn in
the sudden death of Professor Allen. Almost immediately after-
wards, Professor Smith left this country, to take charge for a year
of the American School of Classical Studies in Rome, but not be-
fore we had agreed that circumstances required the early publica-
tion of the book, notwithstanding his absence. I was thus deprived
of two eminent counsellors, whose knowledge and experience would
have been of inestimable assistance.
About one hundred and twenty pages (303-373 and 387-436),
exclusive of Versification, were yet to receive their final form.
Professor Lane had determined the order in which the topics
contained in these pages should be treated, and no change has
been made in that order. Most of the main principles of syntax,
Preface.
too, have been left exactly as they were expressed in his draught.
This draught was written some years ago, and, although he had
corrected and annotated it from time to time, there is no doubt
that in writing it out afresh he would have made many alterations
and improvements which are not indicated in his notes. Conse-
quently, he is not to be held responsible for errors and omissions in
the pages which had not received his final approval. Yet I con-
ceived it my duty to preserve, so far as possible, the very lan-
guage of his corrected draught; and this, in the statement of
almost all the main principles, I have been able to do. Some
modifications and some radical alterations were inevitable ; in
particular, the treatment of quamvis, quando, quin, the Supine,
and Numerals seemed to call for much amplification and
rearrangement. I have also deemed it necessary to add some
seventy sections * under various heads, and Dr. Hayley has been
good enough to write sections 24582510, which precede his
chapter on Versification. But, in general, my principal function
has been : first, to provide additional Latin examples of the prin-
ciples which Professor Lane had formulated ; secondly, to enter,
under the various principles, historical statements regarding the
usage in the Latin writers, drawn from the best authorities at my
disposal.
Professor Lane's own method was far from that of a compiler.
He took nothing for granted without thorough investigation, how-
ever well established it might seem, and he followed the dic-
tum of no man, however widely accepted as an authority. For
example, his many pupils and correspondents will remember
how untiring he was in his efforts to arrive at accuracy in even
the minutest points of inflection. Thus, for the List of Verbs
( 922-1022). he made entirely new collections, and admitted
no form among the 'principal parts' unless actually found repre-
sented in the authors. In the details of syntax, he was equally
indefatigable ; the sections on the Locative Proper (1331-1341),
for instance, contain the result of an immense amount of painful
1 The sections which I have added are as follows : 1866, 1873, 1878, 1879,
1880, 1887, 1890, 1901, 1902, 1903, 1907, 1909, 1913, 1922, 1927, 1935, 1964,
!97.5> r 978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1989,1990,2011,2012,2013,
2014, 2015, 2068, 2086, 2088, 2097, 2111, 2122, 2152, 2155, 2255, 2264, 2267,
2271, 2273, 2275, 2276, 2277, 2281, 2289, 2292, 2345, 2357, 2400, 2406, 2407,
2408, 2409, 2410, 2411, 2412, 2413, 2414, 2740-2745,
vi
Preface.
research. He devoted much anxious thought to the definitions
and the titles of the various constructions : thus, the distinction
between the Present of Vivid Narration (1590) and the Annal-
istic Present (1591) seems obvious now that it is stated ; but to
reach it many pages of examples were collected and compared.
He held that examples printed in the grammar to illustrate syn-
tactical principles should never be manufactured ; they should be
accurately quoted from the authors, without other alteration than
the omission of words by which the construction under illustra-
tion was not affected. He was careful, also, not to use an example
in which there was any serious doubt as to the text in that part
which covered the principle illustrated by the example. To
' Hidden Quantity ' he had given much attention, and many of
the results of his studies in this subject were published, in 1889,
in the School Dictionary by his friend Dr. Lewis. Since that time
he had found reason to change his views with regard to some
words, and these changes are embodied in the present book, in
which he marked every vowel which he believed to be long in
quantity.
The order in which the divisions and subdivisions of grammar
are here presented will not seem strange to those who are ac-
quainted with the recent grammars published by Germans. It is
the scientific order of presentation, whatever order a teacher may
think fit to follow in his actual practice. The table of contents
has been made so full as to serve as a systematic exposition of
the scheme, and to make needless any further words upon it here.
In the Appendix Professor Lane would have inserted, out of defer-
ence to custom, a chapter on the Ari'angement of Words ; but
the draught of it which he left was too fragmentary for publica-
tion. Since the proper preparation of the chapter would have
greatly delayed the publication of the book, it was thought best
to omit it altogether, at least for the present. This topic, in fact,
like some others in the Appendix, belongs rather to a treatise on
Latin Composition than to a Latin Grammar.
For the indexes, and for much valuable help in proof reading,
I heartily thank Dr. J. W. Walden, another of Professor Lane's
pupils.
In the course of his work, Professor Lane frequently consulted
his colleagues and other distinguished scholars both in this country
and in Europe. He gratefully welcomed their advice, and care-
vii
Preface.
fully considered and often adopted their suggestions. Had he
lived to write a preface, he would doubtless have thanked by name
those to whom he considered himself as under particular obliga-
tion, whether from direct correspondence or through the use of
their published works ; but it is obvious that the information in
my possession will not allow me to attempt this pleasant duty.
Of Professor Lane's pupils, also, not a few, while in residence as
advanced students at the University, were from time to time en-
gaged in the collection of material which he used in the gram-
mar. They, like his other helpers, must now be content with
the thought of the courteous acknowledgment which they would
have received from him.
MORRIS H. MORGAN.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
CAMBRIDGE, May, 1898.
PREFATORY NOTE TO THE
REVISED EDITION.
IN this Revised Edition many changes and corrections in details
have been introduced throughout the book, but no alterations have
been made in the treatment of broad general principles, except in
the chapter on Sound ( 16-179). This has been very largely
rewritten and extended from nineteen to thirty-one pages by my
friend, Professor Hanns Oertel, of Yale University, who has also
been kind enough to make the changes in the chapters on For-
mation and Inflection rendered necessary by his rewriting of the
sections on Sound. In this rewriting Mr. Oertel has proceeded
upon the ideas that in a school grammar, even an advanced one,
phonology should play a subordinate part ; that nothing should be
introduced that cannot be illustrated from such Latin and Greek
as are available to the student ; and that those points should be
emphasized which assist in the analyzing of compounds and in the
understanding of word-formation and inflection. With these ideas,
which necessarily prevent the introduction of some important
topics treated in works on phonetics, I am in entire sympathy.
My thanks are due to not a few scholars and reviewers who have
pointed out passages in the first edition which in their opinion
called for changes. Some of their suggestions I have adopted ;
with others I have found myself unable to agree.
M. H. M.
HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
CAMBRIDGE, May, 1903.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
THE REFERENCES ARE TO SECTIONS.
Parts of Latin Grammar, i.
PART FIRST: WORDS, 2-1022.
Parts of Speech, 2-15.
(A.) SOUND, 16-179.
Alphabet, 16-30.
Sources of our Pronunciation, 31.
Vowels, 32-46.
Long and Short, 33-36. Pronunciation, 37-42. Classification, 43-46.
Diphthongs, 47-50.
Nature and Kinds, 47, 48. Pronunciation, 49, 50.
Consonants, 51-81.
Pronunciation, 51-72. Classification, 73-81.
Syllabic and Unsyllabic Function, 82, 83.
Accent, 84-98.
Nature, 84. Marks of Accent, 85. The Classical Accent, 86-88. Ear-
lier Recessive Accent, 89-91. Proclitics and Enclitics, 92-94.
Change of Sound, 95-174.
Vowel Change: Of Diphthongs, 95-101 ; 108. Of Simple Vowels, 102-
107. Loss, 110-113. Hiatus, 114-116. Synizesis, 117. Contraction, 118.
Elision, 119. Combination into Diphthongs, 120. Lengthening, 121-123.
Shortening, 124-132. Transfer of Quantity, 133. Variation, 134. Quan-
titative Vowel Gradation, 135. Qualitative Vowel Changes, 136-143.
Assimilation, 144. Qualitative Vowel Gradation, 145.
Consonant Change: Disappearance or Change of Single Consonants,
146-161. Change in Consonant Groups, 162-179. Assimilation, 163-166.
Consonantal Glides, 167. Disappearance, 168-171. Development of
Anaptyctical Vowel, 172. Dissimilation, 173. Changes within Com-
pounds, 174.
Syllables, 175-179.
Defined, 175, 176. Length of Syllables, 177, 178. Loss, 179.
Table of Contents.
(B.) FORMATION, 180-396.
Definitions, 180-198.
Roots, 183-189. Present Stems as Roots, 190-194. Stems, 195-197.
Primitives and Denominatives, 198.
Formation of the Noun, 199-364.
Without a Formative Suffix, 199. Formative Suffixes, 200-203. For-
mation of the Substantive : Primitives, 204-245. Denominatives, 246-279.
Formation of the Adjective: Primitives, 280-297. Denominatives, 298-341.
Comparison, 342-364.
Formation of Denominative Verbs, 365-375.
Composition, 376-396,
Of Nouns, 379-390. Of Verbs, 391-396.
(C.) INFLECTION, 397-1022.
Definition, 397.
(A.) INFLECTION OF THE NOUN, 398-712.
General Principles, 398-431.
Case Endings, 398. The Stem, 399-401. Gender, 402-413. Number,
414-418. Case, 4I9-43 1 -
The Substantive, 432-607.
Stems in -a- ( The First Declension], 432-445. Stems in -o- ( The Second
Declension], 446-466. Consonant Stems ( The Third Declension}, 467-512.
Stems in -i- ( The Third Declension], 513-569. Gender of Consonant
Stems and -i- Stems, 570-584. Stems in -u- ( The Fourth Declension],
585-595. Stems in -e- ( The Fifth Declension], 596-607.
The Adjective, 608-643.
Stems in -o- and -a-, 613-620. Consonant Stems, 621-626. Stems in
-i-, 627-636. Numeral Adjectives, 637-643.
The Pronoun, 644-695.
Personal and Reflexive, 644-651 Personal and Reflexive Possessive,
652-655. Other Pronouns, 656-659. Demonstrative, 660-670. Deter-
minative, 671-675. Pronoun of Identity, 676-678. Intensive, 679-680.
Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite, 681-694. Correlative Pronouns,
695-
The Adverb, Conjunction, and Preposition, 696-712.
Nouns as Adverbs, 696-698. Accusative, 699-702. Ablative, 703-707.
Locative, 708-709 Other Endings, 710. Correlative Adverbs, 711. Sen-
tences as Adverbs, 712.
(B.) INFLECTION OF THE VERB, 713-1022.
General Principles, 713-742.
The Stem, 714-720. The Person Ending, 721-731. Nouno of the Verb,
732. Principal Parts, 733-735. Designation of the Verb, 736-737.
Theme, 738-740. Classes of Verbs, 741-742.
Primitive Verbs, 743-791.
Root Verbs, 74^-744. Inflection of sum, 745-750. possum, 751-753.
do* 754-757- bibo, sero, sisto, 758. inquam, 7 59-761. 66,762-767. queo
xii
Table of Contents.
and neque5, 768. edo, 769-771. volo, nol5, ma!5, 772-779. fero, 780-
781. Verbs in -ere ( The Third Conjugation), rego, 782-783. Verbs in
-16, -ere, 784-791. capio, 784-785. aio, 786-787. fio, 788-790. Others
in -15, -ere, 791.
Denominative Verbs, 792-797.
Verbs in -are (The First Conjugation], laudo, 792-793. Verbs in -ere
(The Second Conjugation], mone5, 794-795. Verbs in -Ire (The Fourth
Conjugation), audio, 796-797.
Deponent Verbs, 798-801.
Periphrastic Forms, 802-804.
Defective Verbs, 805-817.
Redundant Verbs, 818-823.
Formation of Stems, 824-919.
Variable Vowel, 824-827. The Present System : Present Indicative
Stem, 828-840. Present Subjunctive, 841-843. Imperative, 844-846.
Imperfect Indicative, 847-848. Imperfect Subjunctive, 849-850. Future,
851-853. The Perfect System : Perfect Indicative Stem, 854-875. Perfect
Subjunctive, 876-878. Perfect Imperative, 879. Pluperfect Indicative,
880. Pluperfect Subjunctive, 881. Future Perfect, 882-884. Short or
Old forms of the Perfect System, 885-893. Nouns of the Verb: The
Infinitive, 894-898. Gerundive and Gerund, 899. Supine, 900. Present
Participle, 901-903. Future Participle, 904-905. Perfect Participle,
906-919.
List of Verbs arranged according to the Principal Parts, 920-1022.
PART SECOND: SENTENCES, 1023-2299.
Definitions, 1023-1061.
The Simple Sentence, 1023-1025. The Subject, 1026-1034. The Predi-
cate, 1035-1036. Enlargements of the Subject, 1038-1047. Enlargements
of the Predicate, 1048-1054. Combination of Sentences, 1055. The Com-
pound Sentence, 1056-1057. The Complex Sentence, 1058-1061.
Agreement, 1062-1098.
Of the Verb, 1062-1076. Of the Substantive, 1077-1081. Of the Ad-
jective, 1082-1098.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE, 1099-1635.
(A.) USE OF THE NOUN, 1099-1468.
Number and Gender, 1099-1110.
Case, 1111-1437.
NOMINATIVE, 1113-1123. Nominative of Title, 1114-1116. Of Excla-
mation, 1117. Vocative Nominative and Vocative Proper, 1118-1123.
ACCUSATIVE, 1124-1174. Of the Object, 1132-1139. Emphasizing or
Defining, 1140-1146. Of the Part Concerned, 1147. Of the Thing Put
xiii
Table of Contents.
On, 1148. Of Exclamation, 1149-1150. Of Space and Time, 1151-1156.
Of the Aim of Motion, 1157-1166. Two Accusatives Combined, 1167-
1174.
DATIVE, 1175-1225. /. The Complementary Dative : (i.) The Essential
Complement: With Verbs, 1180-1199 With Adjectives, 1200-1204. (2.)
The Optional Complement: Of the person or thing interested, 1205-1210.
The Emotional Dative, 1211. The Dative of the Possessor, 1212-1216. Of
Relation, 1217-1218. //. The Predicative Dative: Of Tendency or Result,
1219-1222. Of Purpose or Intention, 1223-1225.
GENITIVE, 1226-1295. /. With Substantives: In General, 1227-1231. Of
the Subject, Cause, Origin, or Owner, 1232-1238. Of Quality, 1239-1240.
Partitive, 1241-1254. Of Definition, 1255-1259. Objective, 1260-1262.
II. With Adjectives, 1263-1270. ///. With Verbs: Of Valuing, 1271-1275.
With refert and interest, 1276-1279. With Judicial Verbs, 1280-1282.
With Impersonals of Mental Distress, 1283-1286. With Verbs of Memory,
1287-1291. Of Participation and Mastery, 1292. Of Fulness and Want,
1293-1294. IV. The Genitive of Exclamation, 1295.
ABLATIVE, 1296-1400. I. The Ablative Proper: Of Separation and
Want, and of Departure, 1302-1311. Of Source, Stuff, or Material, 1312-
1315. Of Cause, Influence, or Motive, 1316-1319. Of Comparison, 1320-
1330. //. The Locative Ablative : The Locative Proper, 1331-1341. The
Ablative used as Locative: Of Place in, on, or at which, 1342-1349. Of
Time at which or within which, 1350-1355. ///. The Instrumental Abla-
tive : (i.) The Ablative of Attendance: Of Accompaniment, 1356-1357.
Of Manner, 1358-1361. Ablative Absolute, 1362-1374. Ablative of Qual-
ity, 1375. Of the Route Taken, 1376. (2.) The Instrumental Proper: Of
Instrument or Means, 1377-1384. Of Specification, 1385. Of Fulness,
1386-1387. Of Measure, Exchange, and Price, 1388-1392. Of the Amount
of Difference, 1393-1399- Two or more Ablatives Combined, 1400.
Use of Cases with Prepositions, 1401-1437.
In General, 1401-1409. With the Accusative, 1410-1416. With the
Ablative, 1417-1421. With the Accusative or the Ablative, 1422-1425.
Combination of Substantives by a Preposition, 1426-1428. Repetition or
Omission of a Preposition, 1429-1430. Two Prepositions with one Sub-
stantive, 1431-1432. Position of Prepositions, 1433-1437.
Use of Adverbs, 1438-1453.
Use of Degrees of Comparison, 1454-1468.
(B.) USE OF THE VERB, 1469-1635.
Voice, 1469-1492.
Active, 1469-1471. Passive, 1472-1485. Deponents, 1486-1492.
Mood, 1493-1586.
THE INDICATIVE, 1493-1533. In Declarations, 1493-1498. In Ques-
tions, I499-I533- Yes or No Questions, 1502-1510. Positive and Nega-
tive Answers, 1511-1514. Alternative Questions, 1515-1525. Pronoun
Questions, 1526-1530. Some Applications of Questions, 1531-1533.
THE INFINITIVE OF INTIMATION, 1534-1539.
xiv
Table of Contents.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE, 1540-1570. The Subjunctive in Declarations:
/. Of Desire : Of Wish, 1540-1546. Of Exhortation, Direction, Statement
of Propriety, 1547-1552. Of Willingness, Assumption, Concession, 1553.
//. Of Action Conceivable, 1554-1562. The Subjunctive in Questions,
i 5 6 3- : 57.
THE IMPERATIVE, 1571-1586. Of Command, 1571-1580. Of Prohibi-
tion, 1581-1586.
Tense, 1587-1635.
OF THE INDICATIVE, 1587-1633. Present, 1587-1593. Imperfect, 1594-
1601. Perfect, 1602-1613. Pluperfect, 1614-1618. Future, 1619-1625.
Future Perfect, 1626-1632. The Future Active Participle with sum, 1633.
OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE, 1634-1635.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION,
1636-1713.
Without a Connective, 1637-1642.
With a Connective, 1643-1692.
Conjunctions, 1643. Copulative, 1644-1666. Disjunctive, 1667-1675.
Adversative, 1676-1686. Other Words as Connectives, 1687-1692.
The Intermediate Coordinate Sentence, 1693-1713.
The Subordinate Idea unindicated by the Mood, 1695-1704. The Sub-
ordinate Idea indicated by the Subjunctive, 1705-1713.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE, OR SUBORDINATION,
1714-2299.
Definitions and Classifications, 1714-1716. Primary* and Secondary
Tenses, 1717. Virtual Futures, 1718.
Mood of the Subordinate Sentence, 1720-1731.
The Indicative, 1721. The Subjunctive : In Indirect Discourse, and in
cases of Attraction, 1722-1729. Of Repeated Action, 1730. As in the
Simple Sentence, 1731.
Tense of the Subordinate Sentence, 1732-1772.
Of the Indicative, 1732-1739. Of the Subjunctive, 1740-1772. Sequence
of Tenses, 1745-1772. Tense subordinate to an Indicative, 1746-1761.
Tense subordinate to a Subjunctive, 1762-1765. Tense subordinate to a
Noun of the Verb, 1766-1769. Subjunctive due to another Subjunctive or
to an Infinitive, 1770-1772.
The Indirect Question, 1773-1791.
In General, 1773-1774. Yes or No Questions, 1775-1777. Alternative
Questions, 1778-1784. Pronoun Questions, 1785. Original Subjunctives,
1786. Indicative Questions apparently Indirect, 1787-1791.
The Relative Sentence, 1792-1837.
Agreement of the Relative, 1801-1811. Moods in the Relative Sentence,
1812-1830. Relative Sentences of Purpose, 1817. Of Characteristic or
Result, 1818-1823. Of Cause or Concession, 1824-1830. Correlative Sen-
tences, 1831. Relative Sentences Combined, 1832-1834. The Relative
introducing a main Sentence, 1835-1837.
XV
Table oj Contents.
The Conjunctive Particle Sentence, 1838-2122.
Introduced by quod, 1838-1855. quia, 1856-1858. quom or cum, 1859-
1881. quoniam, 1882-1884. quotiens, quotienscumque, 1885-1887.
quam, 1888-1898. quamquam, 1899-1902. quamvis, 1903-1907. tam-
quam, 1908-1910. antequam, priusquam, 1911-1922. postquam, ubl,
ut, cum primum, sirnul atque, 1923-1934. ut, 1935-1970. ubl, 1971'
quo, 1972-1976. quominus, I977~i979- qum, 1980-1990. dum, donee,
quoad, quamdiu, 1991-2009. quando, 2010-2014. 51,2015-2115. etsi,
tametsi, etiamsi, 2116. quasi, tamquam si, ut or velut si, 2117-2122.
Connection of Separate Sentences or Periods, 2123-2159.
Without a Connective, 2124-2127. With a Connective, 2128-2158.
Affirmative Coordination, 2159.
Nouns of the Verb, 2160-2299.
THE INFINITIVE, 2160-2236. Definitions, 2160-2163. The Infinitive of
Purpose, 2164-2165. With Adjectives, 2166. The Infinitive as Object:
The Complementary Infinitive, 2168-2171. The Accusative with the In-
finitive, 2172-2206. The Infinitive as Subject, 2207-2215. The Infinitive
of Exclamation, 2216. Tenses of the Infinitive, 2218. Present, 2219-2222.
Perfect, 2223-2231. Future, 2232-2236.
THE GERUNDIVE AND GERUND, 2237-2268. Definitions, 2237-2242-
Nominative, 2243-2249. Accusative, 2250-2253. Dative, 2254-2257. Gen-
itive, 2258-2264. Ablative, 2265-2268.
THE SUPINE, 2269-2277. Definitions, 2269. Supine in -um, 2270-2273.
Supine in -u, 2274-2277.
THE PARTICIPLE, 2278-2299. Definition, 2278. Time of the Participle,
2279-2281. The Attributive Participle, 2282-2286. The Substantive Par-
ticiple, 2287-2292. The Appositive Participle, 2293-2296. The Predica-
tive Participle, 2297-2299.
APPENDIX, 2300-2745.
Some Occasional Peculiarities of Verbs, 2300-2307.
The Conative Use, 2301-2303. The Causative Use, 2304. The Poten-
tial Use, 2305. The Obligatory Use, 2306. The Permissive Use, 2307.
Indirect Discourse, 2308-2334.
Definitions, 2308-2311. Mood, 2312-2320. Tense, 2321-2324. Pronoun,
2325. Conditional Periods in Indirect Discourse, 2326-2334.
Use of Pronouns, 2335-2403.
Personal, 2335. Reflexive, 2336-2343. Equivalents for a Reciprocal
Pronoun, 2344-2345. Possessive, 2346. Demonstrative, 2347-2364. De-
terminative, 2365-2370. Pronoun of Identity, 2371-2373. Intensive, 2374-
2384. Interrogative, 2385-2386. Relative, 2387. Indefinite, 2388-2403.
Numerals, 2404-2428.
Classification, 2404. List of Numerals, 2405. Notation, 2406-2411.
Some forms of Numerals, 2412-2418. Some uses of Numerals, 2419-2422.
Other Numerals, 2423. Fractions, 2424-2428.
xvi
Table of Contents.
Prosody, 2429-2739.
RULES OF QUANTITY, 2429-2472. In Classical Latin, 2429-2457.
Position, 2458. Hidden Quantity, 2459-2463. Peculiarities of Quantity in
Old Latin, 2464-2469. Iambic Shortening, 2470-2472.
FIGURES OF PROSODY, 2473-2510. Hiatus, 2473-2480. Elision, 2481-
2492. Ecthlipsis, 2493-2496. Semi-Hiatus or Semi-Elision, 2497. Syna-
loepha, 2498. Synizesis,2499. Synaeresis, 2500. Dialysis, 2501. Diae-
resis, 2502. Hardening, 2503. Softening, 2504. Diastole, 2505-2506.
Systole, 2507. Syncope, 2508. Tmesis, 2509. Synapheia, 2510.
VERSIFICATION, 2511-2739. Definitions, 2511-2548. Numeri Italic!,
2549. The Saturnian, 2550-2554. Dactylic Rhythms, 2555-2580. Iambic
Rhythms, 2581-2627. Trochaic Rhythms, 2628-2649. Logaoedic Rhythms,
2650-2674. Dactylo-Trochaic Rhythms, 2675-2681. Anapaestic Rhythms,
2682-2690. Cretic Rhythms, 2691-2697. Bacchiac Rhythms, 2698-2706.
Choriambic Rhythms, 2707. Ionic Rhythms, 2708-2717. Lyric Metres
of Horace, 2718-2737. Lyric Strophes of Catullus, 2738. Index of Hora-
tian Odes and their metres, 2739.
Abbreviations used in citing the Authors, 2740-2745.
Index of Subjects.
Index of Latin Words.
LATIN GRAMMAR
I. Latin Grammar has two parts. I. The first part
treats of words : (A.) their sound ; (B.) their forma-
tion; (C.) their inflection. II. The second part shows
how words are joined together in sentences.
PART FIRST * WORDS
PARTS OF SPEECH.
2. The principal kinds of words or PARTS OF SPEECH are Nouns
Verbs, and Conjunctions.
3. I. NOUNS are Substantive or Adjective.
4. (A.) NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE, otherwise called Substantives, are
divided, as to meaning, into Concrete and Abstract.
5. (i.) CONCRETE SUBSTANTIVES denote persons or things. Concrete
Substantives are subdivided into Proper Names, which denote individual
persons or things: as, Cicero, Cicero; Roma, Rome; and Common Names,
otherwise called Appellatives, which denote one or more of a class': as,
homo, man; taurus, bull.
6. Appellatives which denote a collection of single things are called Collec-
tives : as, turba, crowd ; exercitus, army. Appellatives which denote stuff, quan-
tity, material, things not counted, but having measure or weight, are called Material
Substantives: as, vinum, wine ; ferrurn, iron; faba, horsebeans.
7. (2.) ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES denote qualities, states, conditions :
as, rubor, redness; aLequitas, fairness ; solitude, loneliness.
8. (B.) NOUNS ADJECTIVE, otherwise called Adjectives, at-
tached to substantives, describe persons or things: as, ruber, red;
aequus, jfo//v solus, alone.
9. PRONOUNS are words of universal application which serve
as substitutes for nouns.
Thus, taurus, bull, names, and ruber, red, describes, particular things ; but ego,
/, is universally applicable to any speaker, and meus, mine, to anything belonging
to any speaker.
Words : Sound.
to. ADVERBS are mostly cases of nouns used to denote manner, place,
time or degree: as, subitd, suddenly ; foras, out of doors ; diu, long; valde,
mightily, very.
11. PREPOSITIONS are adverbs which are used to modify as prefixes the
meaning of verbs, or to define more nicely the meaning of cases : as, voc5,
I call, evoco, I call out ; ex urbe,fr0m town.
12. II. VERBS are words which denote action, including
existence or condition: as, regit, he guides ; est, he is; latet,
he is hid.
13. III. CONJUNCTIONS connect sentences, nouns, or verbs : as,
et, and; sed, but.
14. INTERJECTIONS are cries which express feeling, and are not usually a part of
the sentence : as, a, ah ; heu, alas.
15. There is no ARTICLE in Latin : thus, mensa may denote table, a table,
or the table.
A. SOUND.
ALPHABET.
16. In Cicero's time, the sounds of the Latin lan-
guage were denoted by twenty-one letters (DN. 2, 93),
Character
Name
pronounced Character
Name
pronounced
A
a
ah
M
em
em
B
be
bay
N
en
en
C
ce
kay
O
o
D
de
day
P
pe
pay
$
e
ef
eh
^
OL
R
qu
er
koo
air
c
H
P
say
hah
S
T
es
te
ess
tay
1
i
ee
V
u
00
K
ka
kah
X
ix
eex
L
el
el
The names given above are those employed by Roman grammarians.
The sound indicated by -ay is only approximate ; the true sound is that of
the French ^ in fife ; see 39. The names of the letters are indeclinable ;
for their gender, see 412.
17. Two other letters were also in use to represent Greek sounds in
Greek words ; these were always called by their Greek names, and were
placed at the end of the alphabet; they are Y, named u (42), and Z,
named zeta (71).
The Alphabet. [18-24.
18. ORIGIN OF THE ALPHABET. The Latin alphabet, which originally con-
sisted of capitals only, was adapted from the alphabet of Chalcidian colonies in Italy.
19. SPELLING. The signs for the Greek sounds denoted by </> and \i ar d perhaps
also that for 0, these three sounds being unknown in Latin, were used as numerals
(2407). In words borrowed from the Greek the Romans at first represented 9 by t,
<i> by p, and x by c : as, tus, incense, for 0vo<> ; Poeni, Puritans, for fcoii/uces ;
calx, chalk, for \aAif . Occasionally also the Latin mute was doubled : as, strup-
pus, strap, for o-Tp6</>o?. Later, about the middle of the second century B.C., th, ph,
and ch begin to be used: as, cothurnus, boot,im /cdflopvo? ; amphora,/ar, for
d/u06pa ; Achaea for 'A^atd. In some instances these aspirates were next introduced
even into words purely Latin : as, chommpdus, affable, for commodus, an affec-
tation ridiculed by Catullus (Cat. 84) and disapproved by Quintilian (i, 5, 20). But
pulcher, pretty, is the usual spelling for pulcer (formed by the suffix -cro- from
the stem of the verb polio, I polish}. Even Cicero (O. 160) aspirated the c in this
word as a concession to popular usage, as he did the t in Cethegus, Karthago,
and the p in triumphus, while he retained the unaspirated explosive in the proper
names Orcivius, name of a 'gens,'' Mato, Oto, CaepiS, and in sepulcrum,
tomb; corona, crown; and lacrima, tear. In a similar manner Greek P was at
first transcribed by r : as, rumpia, a kind of -weapon, for po^aia ; but later by rh :
as, rhetor, rhetorician, for prjTwp.
20. The letters C (first written <) and K were at an early period used promiscu-
ously, and C stood for both unvoiced k and voiced g : as, VIRGO, virgo, virgin.
Afterwards K dropped out of general use except in the abbreviations K. or Kal. for
kalendae,yr.tf of the month, and K. for the proper name Kaeso (Quint, i, 7, 10).
About 300 B.C. the sign < or C was used for the unvoiced k alone, while a separate
sign, which became G, was set apart for the voiced g. But C continued to be used
for g in the abbreviations C for Gaius, D for Gaia, and Cn. for Gnaeus. Occa-
sionally q is written for c, almost always before the vowels O and u : as, qum for
cum, with ; qolunt for colunt, they cultivate ; pequnia, money. But ordinarily
q is found before unsyllabic (consonantal) u (v) only (22).
21. Before the introduction of Y and Z (17), U was used for the Greek Y: as,
Burrus, later Pyrrhus (Cic. O. 160); and s, or, as a medial, ss, for Z : as,
sona, belt, later zona; massa, lump, for/xaa ; malacisso, I soften, for MaAaaw.
By a blunder, y was occasionally introduced in words of Latin origin : as, lacryma,
tear, for lacrima, which was wrongly supposed to be derived from Greek 6d/epu.
22. The characters I and V represent not only the two vowels i
and u, but also their cognate semivowels (52) i and u (83), called
commonly consonant i and u, but with less ambiguity unsyllabic i and
u (82; 83). They are equivalent to the English y and w respectively.
23. In words like maior, simple i was commonly written for the sound
of ii (153, 2; 82; 83). But Cicero in such cases wrote ii: as, aiio, / say,
Maiia, Troiia (Quint, i, 4, n). In the same way Lucretius spelled
Graiiugenarum, of Greek-born men, and EIIVS, of him, cvnvs, whose, occur
in inscriptions. Sometimes the same sound is represented by a taller letter,
'* longa,' especially in the imperial age: as, MA!OR, greater. There are also
cases in which the two designations were confounded, a double i being
written, and one or the other letter made taller: as, EiIvs or Elivs, of him.
24. The tall i, I longa, was used not only to represent unsyllabic i (22), but, begin-
ning with Sulla's time, also for long vowel i (29, 2, d): as, S!GNA, signs; QV!NQVE,
five. It also represents sometimes double i: as, vis for viis, in the roads. At the
beginning of words it occurs without reference to quantity for both short and long i,
and, by mistake, I is elsewhere found for short i.
25-30.] Words : Sound.
25. The emperor Claudius (A.D. 41-54) introduced a separate sign for unsyllabic
U (22), restricting the sign v to the vowel u (Quint, i, 7, 26 ; Ta. n, 14) ; but it did
not become current.
26. In schoolbooks and most texts of the authors, the vowel u is printed
U, u, and the consonant V, v. A character, J, j, was introduced in the
1 7th century, to indicate the consonant i. But this character is no longer
usual in editions of the authors or in schoolbooks.
27. The distinction between u and v is not always made very consistently: q
has regularly, and g and s have sometimes, an aftersound of w, best represented by
v; but the usual practice is to write u, as in the following disyllables : quorum,
of whom; anguis, snake; suavis, sweet, qu is always counted as a single sound
(177). See also 2504.
28. For the intermediate sound (103) between i and u, as in the first syllable of
lubet, libet, it pleases, and in the second syllable of optimus, optumus, best
(Quint, i, 4, 8 ; 7, 21), the emperor Claudius invented a separate character. It failed
of acceptance, as did also the sign which he attempted to introduce for ps.
29. The same characters were ordinarily used to denote both long and
short vowels. But at different periods long vowels were sometimes indi-
cated in inscriptions thus :
(i.) Long a, e, or u was sometimes doubled: as, AARA, altar ,- PAASTORES,
shepherds; LEEGE, by law; ivvs, right. This doubling, which was never frequent,
seems to have been introduced into Latin from the Oscan by the poet Accius. It
occurs most frequently in inscriptions about the year 150 B.C., but sporadically much
later : as, CONVENTVVS, of the assembly ; ARBITRATVV, by the decree ; and in other
stems in -u- (593).
(2.) Long i was often denoted (a.) By the spelling ei (after the pronunciation
of this diphthong had been changed to I, 98) : as, DAREI, be given ; REDIEIT, hath
come back ; INTERIEISTI, hast died. Some Roman grammarians prescribed this spell-
ing for every long i ; others tried to regulate the use of ei for i by special rules. At
the end of the republic, the spelling EI had given way to uniform i. (b.) Since the
time of Sulla, by a taller letter (' i longa ') : as, F!XA, fastened (23, 24).
(3.) A mark called an apex ("3J3) was often put over a long vowel : as, FECIT,
made; HORTENSIVS; DVVMVIRATVS, duumvirate. The apex was written ' in the
imperial age ; the form ~, which occurs in an inscription, was adopted by the gramma-
rians, and is still in use to mark the long vowels. It may be mentioned that inscrip-
tions which employ the apex are by no means consistent in its use, and that late
inscriptions have it over short and long vowels, apparently for decorative purposes.
Quintilian i, 7, 2 prescribes it only for cases which otherwise might be ambiguous : as,
M/LVS (malus), mast, to distinguish it from MALVS (malus), bad.
30. In schoolbooks, a long vowel is indicated by a horizontal line over
it : as, ara, altar ; mensis, month ; ordo, series. A short vowel is some-
times indicated by a curved mark: as, p6r, through; dux, leader; but this
mark is unnecessary if long vowels are systematically marked. Usually
the quantity of the vowels in each word is definitely fixed ; but in a few
cases the same vowel may be now short, now long, as in English the ee of
been is pronounced long by some (bean], short by others (bin). Thus (2446)
mihi, ibi were sometimes pyrrhics ( w ^, 2522), sometimes iambi (y ,
2521). See for other cases 134, 2443, 2452, 2453. Such vowels of variable
quantity are termed common and marked w or ^ ; as mihl, to me (2514).
Vowels. [3 r -35-
PRONUNCIATION.
31. The pronunciation of Latin sounds may be approximately
determined : (a) from the description of the native grammarians and
incidental allusions in other Latin authors ; (b) from variations in
spelling; (c) from the Greek transliteration of Latin words ; (d) from
the Latin transliteration of foreign words ; (e) from the development
of the sounds in languages derived from the Latin.
VOWELS.
32. Vowels are sounds which are produced by the vibrations of the
vocal chords (this may be easily felt by placing a finger on the throat at the
Adam's apple) and without any audible friction or any obstruction any-
where in the passage above the vocal chords. The difference in the sound
of the vowels is due to the different shape which the position of the tongue
and the lips gives in each case to the cavity of the mouth. During the
pronunciation of pure vowels no air escapes through the nose.
33. The simple vowels, a, e, i, o, u (y), are either
long or short. The sound of a long vowel is con-
sidered to be twice the length of that of a short.
34. That a long vowel is equal to two shorts is a rule of metrical theory (see 2515).
In actual pronunciation, there were undoubtedly various degrees of length, as in
English: e.g., sea, seize (long), cease (half-long).
QUANTITY OF VOWELS.
The quantity of vowels must in general be learned by observation ; but
some convenient helps for the memory may be found in 2429 ; and the
quantity of many vowels may be ascertained by the general principles given
in 35 and 36. Except in the case of Hidden Quantity (2459), the quantity
of vowels is in general ascertained from verse. But some information may
also be gleaned from such rhetorical prose as exhibits well defined habits in
the rhythmical endings selected for sentences (clausulae, Cic. O. 191-226).
(A.) SHORT VOWELS.
35. A vowel is short :
(i.) Before another vowel or h (124) : as, eos, eveho ; compare taceo
with tacere. For exceptions in classical Latin, see 127; for exceptions in
early Latin see 126.
(2.) Before nt and nd (128) if not the result of contraction: as, calen-
dae, centum ; compare amant, amandus, with amare.
(3.) Before final t and m, and, in words of more than one syllable,
before final r and 1 (132) : compare amat, amem, with amas and ames.
36-44-] Words : Sound.
(B.) LONG VOWELS.
36. All vowels are long which are :
(r) Weakened from a diphthong (96-101 ; 108), or which are the result
of contraction (118) : as, concido from caedo ; cogo from co-ag5.
(2) Lengthened by compensation (121) : as, quini for * quincni.
(3) Before nf, ns, often before nc followed by a consonant, and, in
some cases, before gn (122).
PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.
37. The following English sounds come nearest to the Latin pro-
nunciation of the vowels :
38. LONG VOWELS, a had the sound of a in father ; e that
of a \nfate (but see 39); I that of i in machine ; o that of o in
tone ; u that of u in rule.
39. It must be noted, however, that all English long vowels, save a as
in father, are more or less diphthongal, that is, they become gradually
closer (46) ; a in fate ends in a vanishing sound of ee (not heard in the
$ of French/?/*?), and o in no ends in the sound of oo. Similarly the long e
sound in he becomes closer and ends in a sound similar to the^/ in year. In
Latin all long vowels had one sustained sound.
40. SHORT VOWELS, a sounded approximately like the English
a in the first syllable of aha; e, i, o, and u sounded like e in step, i in
pit, o in obey, and u in pull respectively.
41. Latin short a did not differ, except in quantity, from long a ; it never had the
' flat ' sound of English a in fat. In the case of the other vowels, i, e, o, and u,
the long vowels were closer (46) than the short ones. This is the same difference
which the English shows in keen (long and close) and kin (short and open) ; pool
(long and close) and pull (short and open). For this reason, open i is sometimes
represented by e in inscriptions : as, ANEMA for anima, soul; and vea was the
rustic pronunciation for via, road (Varro, R. R. i, 2, 14).
42. Y, which was a sound borrowed from the Greek (17), sounded like
German u. The sound, which is missing in English, is formed with the
tongue in position for / (in kin) and the lips rounded as for oo (in moon).
CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS.
43. Vowels are divided according to the position of the tongue. Latin
i and e are called front vowels, because the front part of the tongue is
elevated. This elevation is greater for i than for e. Latin o and u are
called back vmvels, because they require an elevation of the rear part of
the tongue. This elevation is greater for u than for o. Latin a holds an
intermediate position, no part of the tongue being raised, while the front
part is depressed.
44. In the formation of i and e, the tongue approaches the hard palate ;
hence these two vowels are also called palatal vowels. Similarly, o and u
are called velar or guttural vowels, because in their formation the tongue
approaches the soft palate (velum palati).
6
Diphthongs. [45~5 2
45. o and u require a rounding of the lips (labia) ; hence they are called
labial vowels. The same is true for y.
46. Comparing the vowels in English keen and kin, it will be noted that
the passage between the tongue and the hard palate is narrower in the
former than in the latter case. The ee in keen is therefore said to be a
narrow or close vowel, while the i in kin is wide or open. See 41.
DIPHTHONGS.
47. Two unlike (43-46) vowels pronounced under
one stress and as one syllable form a Diphthong. All
diphthongs are long.
In all diphthongs the transition from one vowel to the other is gradual.
A diphthong is, therefore, not formed simply by pronouncing two vowels in
succession, but the vocal organs pass through all the intermediate positions
and consequently the sound is constantly changing.
48. In their origin diphthongs are of two kinds : (a.) primitive diphthongs : as in
foedus, , treaty; aurum, gold; or (b.) secondary diphthongs, the result of vowels
meeting in formation, composition, or inflection : see 120.
49. The diphthongs which occur in classical Latin are au,
ae, oe, and the rare ui and eu.
au sounded like ou in house, ae had the sound of short Latin a rapidly
combined with the sound of e in English men. But it is the common
practice now to give to ae the sound of ay or at in ay, aisle, although the
difference between Latin ae and the earlier ai from which it descended is
thus obliterated, oe had the sound of short Latin o rapidly followed by
the sound of e in English men. But it is now customary not to distinguish
between Latin oe and oi, and to give to both the sound of oi in boil, ui is
pronounced by combining Latin short u and i (40, 41) with the stress on the i
like French out ; eu by combining Latin short e and u with stress on the u.
50. Besides these, the following diphthongs occur in the older inscriptions : ai
pronounced as ai in aisle ; ei as ei in eight ; oi as oi in boil ; and ou which sounded
very much like the final o in no, go, which is really a diphthong (see 39).
CONSONANTS.
51. Consonants are formed by stopping the breath somewhere in the
cavity of the mouth or by squeezing it through a narrow channel or
aperture.
52. SEMIVOWELS. There is no sharp line of demarcation between con-
sonants and vowels. Some vowels in unsyllabic function (82, 83) notably
i (/) and u (n) (corresponding to English y and w), though usually classed
as consonants, are so closely related to the vowels that they are termed
semivowels (2504). To these may be added also the liquids 1 and r. Con-
tact of the semivowels i and u with their corresponding vowels i and u is
avoided in classical times. See for -vu- 107 c; for -quu- 157; and for
-ii- 104, c (on objicio) ; 458 (B6I for *B5ii). See 153, 3.
7
53-62.] Words: Sound.
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS.
53. Most of the consonants are pronounced as in
English. The following points must be noticed :
54. b before a surd, as s or t, has the sound of p. The spelling b is
here simply etymological : as, abs, pronounced aps (the b retained in
spelling because of ab) ; urbs, pronounced urps (the b retained because of
the oblique cases urbis, urbi, etc.) ; obtero, pronounced optero (Quint,
i, 7, 7), where the spelling of the preposition ob was kept (164).
55. c has always the sound of English k.
56. d before the surd s is pronounced t ; the spelling d is preserved for
etymological reasons only : as, adsum, pronounced atsum.
57. g always has the sound of English g in go, never that of g in gentle.
gu, when it makes one syllable with the following vowel, is pronounced
like English gw : as, sanguine like sanguine.
58. h has a weak sound as k in British English (Southern), and by some
was not counted as a consonant. Consequently the same uncertainty ex-
isted as to initial h. The omission of initial h is recognized in classical
Latin for anser (originally *hanser). Elsewhere the omission of initial h
in spelling, as ostia for hostia, is rare until the third century A.D.
Very rarely h is written between two vowels to denote that each should be pro-
nounced separately (like our diaeresis in coextensive} \ as, aheneus, bronze, with ae
separate (n6a) ; but aes, bronze, with diphthongal ae.
59. Unsyllabic (22) or consonant i has the sound of English y in year.
60. There were two varieties of 1. One was like the English /, guttural
in character, because in its pronunciation not only the blade (front part) of
the tongue touched the gums, but in addition to this the rear part of the
tongue was elevated toward the soft palate. The other 1 was purely dental,
and formed without such back elevation. This second variety appeared in
the combination 11, or whenever 1 was followed by the front vowels (43) e
or i, or when it was final. Elsewhere 1 was guttural.
61. From the earliest times final m in unaccented syllables had a faint
sound or was even inaudible (Quint. 9, 4, 39). Consequently it is often
omitted in writing in the older inscriptions both before an initial vowel or
consonant: as, POCOLO for pocolom ; OINO for oinom (unum), and the
grammarian Verrius Flaccus proposed to write only half an M for final
m before a vowel, In prosody, therefore, final m did not prevent elision
(2493). The same is seen in prose in cases like animadverts, I pay heed
to, from animum adverto, / turn my mind toward (395) ; venire, to be sold
for venuni ire, to goto sale (1165). But in monosyllables where m closes
the accented syllable, it did not vanish (2494, 2495), an( ^ tn ' s difference in
the treatment of final m is reflected in the Romance languages.
62. n stands for two sounds. It represents the dental nasal, as n in
English now. But before the gutturals k, c, g, q, and the compound
x (= cs), it represents the guttural nasal which is written ng in English
sing, wrong. This second n is sometimes called n adulterinum or ' spuri-
ous n,' thus: nc (in avunculus) as in uncle ; ng (in angulus) as in angle ;
ngu (in sanguine) as in sanguine; nqu (in inquit) as inkw in inkwiper ; nx
(in pinxit) as in lynx.
a
Consonants. [63-74-
'63. Dental n before s had a reduced sound, and is therefore sometimes omitted
in writing: as, CESOR for censor; COSOL for consul, in older inscriptions; and
formosus by the side of formpnsus ; vicesimus by the side of vicensimus,
Cicero omitted the n in the adjective suffix -ensis : as, foresia, of the Jorum ;
hortesia, garden plants.
64. q, in classical Latin, appears only in the combination qu, sounded
like English qu or kw (27). r was trilled.
65. s, in classical Latin was always unvoiced (surd, 75) like English s in
so, sin, never voiced (sonant, 75) as English s in ease, su, when it makes
one syllable with the following vowel, is like sw in sweet (27).
66. In old Latin, final s after a short vowel and before a consonant seems to have
been reduced in sound or to have disappeared altogether. In the older inscriptions it
is often omitted in the ending of the nominative singular -us, and in the pre-Cicero-
nian poets final s often does not make position (2468). But such omission was con-
sidered vulgar in Cicero's time (Cic. O. 161 ; Quint. 9, 4, 38).
67. In the archaic period Latin s stood also for the voiced sibilant (English s in
ease, z in zeal), as in ASA, altar (154).
68. t is always sounded as in lime, never as in nation. The pronuncia-
tion of ci and ti with the c and t as sibilants (as in English cinder, nation)
is very late.
69. v is like the English w.
70. x is a compound consonant, standing for cs, and so sounded, never
as English ? or gz.
71. z, being a Greek sound, should have retained its Greek pronuncia-
tion. This differed in the different dialects ; in the Attic of the fourth
century B.C. it was approximately that of English z in zeal, while its earlier
value was zd. The Romans had great difficulty in pronouncing this sound
(Quint. 12, 10, 27 f.), but the grammarian Velius Longus expressly states
that it should not be pronounced as a compound sound (zd).
72. About 100 B.C. the combinations ch, ph, and th were introduced in
Greek words to represent x 4>> and ; as Philippus, for the older PILIPVS.
Somewhat later these combinations were in general use in some Latin
words (19). ch is thought to have been pronounced like kh in blockhead,
ph as in uphill, and th as in hothouse. But in practice ch is usually sounded
as in the German machen or ich, ph as in graphic, and th as in pathos.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS.
73. EXPLOSIVES. Consonants which are formed by stopping the breath
in the oral cavity and then suddenly removing the obstruction are called
explosives. They cannot be prolonged in sound. They are : c, k, q, g ;
t, d ; p, b. These are often called mutes.
74. CONTINUANTS. Consonants which may be prolonged in sound are
called continuants. They are: unsyllabic (83) i (59) and u (66); 1 (60), r;
1, s, f; n (62), m.
75-82.] Words : Sou nd.
75. VOICED and UNVOICED. If during the emission of breath the vocal
chords vibrate (32), the consonant is said to be voiced or sonant: g; d;
b; n (62), m; 1 (60), r; unsyllabic (83) i (59) and u (69); otherwise it
is said to be unvoiced or surd : c, k, q ; t ; p ; h, s, f.
76. NASALS. In the majority of consonants, the breath escapes through
the cavity of the mouth, and the cavity of the nose is closed in the rear by
means of the raised soft palate. Those consonants in which the breath
escapes through the nose, while the oral cavity is closed, are called nasals :
as, n, m, n adulterinum (see 62).
77. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PLACE OF FORMATION. Consonants
are further divided according to the place where the breath is stopped or
squeezed, (i.) If the breath is stopped by the lips, as in p, b, m, or
squeezed through the lips, as in v (English w), we speak of labials. (2.) If
the breath is forced through an opening between the upper teeth and the
lower lip, as in f, we speak of a labiodental. (3.) Sounds which are pro-
duced by the point of the tongue touching the upper gums and teeth, as
t, d, n, r, or by the formation of a narrow median channel in the same place,
like s, or of a lateral channel, like 1 (60), are called dentals. (4.) Palatals
are formed by an elevation of the front part of the tongue against the for-
ward section of the palate, like i consonant (English y). (5 ) If the back
of the tongue touches or approaches the rear part of the palate as in k, q,
c, g, n adulterinum (English ng in sing), and 1 (60), we speak of gutturals
(velars] ; see 44.
78. SPIRANTS. Sounds which are produced by friction of the breath
are called spirants : as, s, f, and h.
79. SIBILANTS. On account of its hissing sound, s is called a sibilant.
English s, z, th are sibilants.
80. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. In English, double consonants as the
//, nn, pp, mm in motto, Anna, tapping, grammar, are sounded exactly like
the corresponding single consonants in cot, pan, tap, ram. In Latin, on the
other hand, double consonants (geminatae) were pronounced as they are
in modern Italian. In the case of explosives (73), as in mitto, after the
tongue had come in contact with the roof of the mouth (= first t) a short
pause ensued before the explosion took place (= second t). In the case
of continuants (74), as in summus, Apollo, the mm or 11 was sounded
appreciably longer than a single m or 1, and at the beginning of the second
half of the long continuant there was a slight increase of force.
81. Consonants were not doubled in writing till after 200 B.C.: as, FVISE for
fuisse, to have been, and for more than a century afterward the usage is variable :
as, in the same inscription, ESSENT, they might be, by the side of SVPERASES, thou
mayest have conquered ; but it must not be inferred that they were pronounced as
single consonants.
SYLLABIC AND UNSYLLABIC FUNCTION.
82. Whenever two or more sounds are combined in a syllable, one of
them excels in acoustic prominence: as, a in English pat; win the group
pnd in opnd (opened) ; / in the group tld in bottld (bottled}; and s in the
group pst. This sound is said to have syllabic function or to be syllabic ; in
the examples given, a, n, I, and s are respectively syllabic. All the other
members of each group are termed unsyllabic.
10
Accent. [83-88.
83. Vowels are almost always used in syllabic function. When, in rare
cases, they are unsyllabic, this fact is usually indicated in phonetic works by
an inverted half-circle, ^, placed under the vowel ; so in the case of diph-
thongs to indicate the subordinate member : as ai, oe, ui (49). Latin omnia
and English glorious, when pronounced as words of two syllables, would be
written omnia (2503), glorious. When sounds other than vowels have,
in rare cases, syllabic function, this fact is noted in phonetic works by a
point, ., or circle, , under the letter: as, Latin *agrs, *ags (in, b), Eng-
lish opnd, opqd.
ACCENT.
84. The relative force with which the different syllables of a
word are uttered varies. Such variation in emphasis is called stress
accentuation.
The degrees of stress are really infinite, but for practical purposes it is
sufficient to distinguish between (i.) the strongest stress (chief accent);
(2.) a weaker sti ess (secondary accent) ; and (3.) absence of stress (atonic
syllable). In the English contradict, the last syllable has the chief accent,
a secondary accent falls on the first, and the second syllable is unstressed.
85. It is not customary to indicate the place of accents in Latin by special signs.
When, for special reasons, signs are used. ' denotes the chief accent, x the secondary
accent, while the unstressed syllables are left unmarked.
THE CLASSICAL ACCENT.
86. In classical Latin the place of the chief accent may be determined
by the following rules.
(i.) Words of two syllables have the accent on the
5)^ as >
homo ; acer.
(2.) Words of more than two syllables have the
accent on the penult when that syllable is long (177);
otherwise on the antepenult : as,
paliister, onustus (177) ; muliebris, genetrix (178) ; arbores, arbu-
tus, gladiolus.
87. A short penult retains the accent in the genitive and vocative
with a single I from stems in -io- (456, 459) : as, genitive, consili;
imperi; genitive or vocative, Vergili; Val^ri; Mercdrl. For
calefecis, &c., see 394.
88. In a few words which have lost a syllable the accent is retained on the last
syllable; such are (i.) compounds of the imperatives die and due (113) : as, edu'c;
(2.) nominatives of properjiames in -as and -is for 7 atis and -i$is : as, Arpin|s,
for Arpinatis; Laents; Maecenas; Quiris ; Samnis ; also nostras,
vostras ; (3.) words compounded, with the abbreviated (i 13) enclitics -c for -ce
and -n for -ne : as, illi'c ; tantSn ; audistfn (for the shortening of the final
syllable: as, vid6n, dost see 7 , see 129); (4.) audit, contracted from audivit
(r?4, 893). The Latin grammarians prescribe the circumflex (90) for all these long
syllables.
II *
penult
89-9 3'1 Words : Sound.
EARLIER RECESSIVE ACCENT.
89. In the preliterary period of the Latin language, the accent tended to
go as far from the end of the word as p9ssible (recessive accent}. Thus,
while the classical accentuation is inimicus, the older period accented
inimicus. In literary Latin this early recessive accent has survived, only
in Plautus's accentuation of words of the form w w w ^ (proceleusmatic
or fourth paeon, see 2521), in which he stresses the first syllable: as,
facilius (classical facilius) ; voluerat (classical voluerat). But in many
instances the early recessive accent may be traced in literary Latin by the
phonetic changes which it produced (102 ff.).
QO. MUSICAL ELEMENT. The native Latin grammarians slight the stress accent-
uation and pay much attention instead to the variations in pitch. But they are so
greatly dependent on their Greek models that they are unsafe guides in this matter.
It is, however, probable that a stressed vowel was uttered on a higher key (acute) than
an unstressed vowel (grave), and that in certain syllables the long, accented vowel
showed a rise and fall (circumflex) : as, illic (88).
91. The force of the Latin stress accent must have varied at different
periods and in different localities, as it now varies in the Romance countries.
The early reces'sive accent seems to have been fairly emphatic; but the
stress in classical Latin was probably weak and the difference between
accented and unaccented syllables was much less marked than it is in
English.
PROCLITICS AND ENCLITICS.
92. PROCLITICS are unaccented words which are pronounced as a
part of the following word ; they are : (i.) The relative and indefinite
pronouns and their derivatives ; (2.) Prepositions.
(a.) Thus, quo die, pronoimced quodie ; qui vixit, quivixit ; genus unde
Latinum, gnus undeLatinum. Similarly quamdiu, as long as; iamdiu,
this long time. A distinction is thus made between the interrogative qualis (1526),
which is accented, and the relative qualis (1831) which is proclitic (Quint, i, 5, 26) ;
cf. the^English -who, which is accented when interrogative, and proclitic when relative
(b.) circum litpra, pronounced circumlitora ; ab oris, pronounced aboris
(Quint, r, 5, 27) ; in inscriptions and manuscripts prepositions are often united in writ-
ing with the following word. Phrases like extemplo, suddenly, invicem (94),
in turn, are commonly written and accented as one word. But the preposition is
accented when it is followed by a monosyllabic unemphatic (and therefore enclitic) per-
sonal pronoun : as, in me ; abs te (but abs te, if te is emphatic). All preposi-
tions used as adverbs (1402) have an independent accent.
93. ENCLITICS are words which have no accent of their own, but are
pronounced as a part of the word preceding. This increase of the num-
ber of syllables produced certain accentual changes, all the details of
which are not clear. When the enclitic was monosyllabic the place of the
accent seems to have been determined as in 86; thus vides, but vidgsne ;
LatiS, but Latioque. Again, when by the addition of a monosyllabic en-
clitic the accent falls on the fourth syllable from the end, a secondary (84, 85)
accent was probably placed on the penult : as, perfcula, but penculaque.
The Roman grammarians agree, however, in demanding that everywhere
the syllable preceding the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, and -ce should be ac-
cented. In deinde and subinde there is authority for placing the accent
on the first syllable.
12
Vowel Change : Change of Diphthongs. [94-96.
Enclitics are : (i.) Unemphatic personal and indefinite pronouns : as, in me, pro-
nounced, inme ; da mihi, damihi ; sic tibi, sictibi ; si quis, siquis ; ne
quid, nequid. , (2.) Verbs when used as auxiliaries : as, possum for p6t(e)
sum (752); qui libet (2401); videlicet, Ilicet, scilicet (712); quamvis
(1903) ; the forms of esse in compound tenses (719), so that est is frequently com-
bined, even in writing, with the preceding past participle (747). (3.) The particles -ne
(-n), -ve, and -ce (-c): as, satisne or shortened satin; Hyrcanisve Ara-
bisve; istice or stwrtened istic (90), adhuc (90). (4.) The copulative conjunc-
tion -que : as, Latioque, liminaque . (5.) The preposition cum when it follows
(1435) its case. (6.) The particle quidem: as, si quidem, siquidem (131).
(7.) Other enclitics are: -met (650) : as, eg6met ; -dem : as, ibidem ; -nam :
as, ubinam ; -dum (1573) : as, agedum ; -inde : as, deinde, pr6inde (which
are disyllabic in verse), and subinde ; -turn ; as, etiamtum ; -per : as, parum-
per ;, the vocative when it was closely joined to the preceding word, e.g. an imperative :
as, die puer (106).
94. Two words expressing what is really one single idea are often bound
together by one accent, one of them acting the part of either a proclitic or
enclitic.
Thus, with the earlier recessive accent (89), lupiter (133; 389; originally a voc-
ative which came to be used / as nominative ; for the change of pater to piter see
104) ; invicem, in turn ; denuo for de novo (106) ; with the later, classical accent,
legislator, paterfamilias, orbisterrarum, ext6mp!5, imprimis. When
unemphatic ille and iste preceded their noun and had practically the value of our
definite article they formed a unit with the following noun and thus the accent might
fall on their last syllable: as, il!6 pater, iste canis. This use is particularly
common in vulgar and late Latin (see 112).
CHANGE OF SOUND.
(A.) VOWEL CHANGE.
CHANGE OF DIPHTHONGS IN ACCENTED SYLLABLES.
95. Of the six original diphthongs au, ou, eu, and ai, oi,
ei, the only one which preserved its original sound in the
classical period is au. Of the rest only ae (for older ai) and,
in a few words, oe (for older oi) remained diphthongs ; all the
others had become monophthongs.
96. CHANGE OF ai. ai is common in inscriptions: as, AIDILIS, PRAITOR. To-
ward the end of the republic the two elements of the diphthong had been partially
assimilated to ae (49): as, aedilis (Quint, i, 7, 18). This is its pronunciation in
the classical period. Between 130 and 100 B.C. ai is displaced by ae in public
documents ; but the old-fashioned ai was often retained in private inscriptions. Still
later the two elements completely converged to e. In provincial Latin e is found
as early as 200 B.C. : as, CESVLA for CAESVLLA ; in Rome itself the pronunciation
'Cecilius' for Caecilius, and 'pretor ' for praetor was derided as boorish ; but by
71 A.D. ae was verging toward e even in the court language : the coins of Vespasian
have IVDEA as well as IVDAEA. In the 3d and 4th century A.D. e became the prev-
alent sound.
13
97-103.] Words: Sound.
97. CHANGE OF au. The diphthong au, which was preserved in educated speech.
was changed to 6 in rustic and colloquial pronunciation (see the anecdote related by
Suetonius, Vesp. 22) : as, cppS, innkeeper, for caupo ; plostrum for plau-
strurn (barge), cart; Clodius for Claudius. Some of these gained literary
currency: as, codex, book, caudex, block; locale, neckcloth^ fauces, throat.
The form sodes (1572) for si audes = si audes (Cic. O. 154) is a colloquialism.
98. CHANGE OF ei. ei as a genuine diphthong is common in old inscriptions :
as, SEI ; SEIVE ; ADEITVR ; DEIXERVNT ; FEIDA. In classical Latin it has passed
into i: thus, si, if; sive, either; aditur, is approached ; dixerunt, they said;
flda, faithful. An intermediate stage between the old diphthong ei and the classical
I was a very close (46) e: as, PLOIRVME (465) for plurimi ; IOVRE (501, 507) for
iuri. For the orthographical use of ei as a spelling for the long i-sound, see 29.
99. CHANGE OF oi. The development of oi was parallel to that of ai. It first
passed into oe : as, COIRAVERVNT and COERAVERVNT, they cared ; OITILE, useful,
and OETI, to use ; LOIDOS and LOEDOS, play, all in old Latin. In classical Latin
it has further been changed in accented syllables to u : as, curaverunt, utile, uti,
ludus. But oe was retained in classical Latin (i.) when a secondary diphthong (48),
the result of contraction (120), and (2.) in a few words like foedus, treaty, perhaps
as an archaizing, legal term ; foedus, ugly ; poena, penalty, perhaps through the
influence of Greek TTOI^ (in the verb punire, to punish, the regular u appears) ;
proelium, skirmish; foetor, stench; and moenia, -walls, perhaps because there
was a word munia, services. The connection of n5n, not, with noenum (455;
1444 ; 699) is difficult because of the unusual development of oe to O, for which the
Praenestine form CORAVERONT is the only parallel.
lop. CHANGE of ou. ou, found in inscriptions down to about 90 B.C., passed,
in classical Latin, into u : as, POVBLICOM, NOVNTIATA, IOVOEX; later publicum,
public, nuntiata, notified, ittdex,/Kdj{v.
101. CHANGE OF eu. Primitive (48) eu appears in classical Latin only in the
interjections eu, heu, e"heu, heus. Every other original eu had, even in old Latin,
passed into ou and developed like the latter : as, *neumen (Greek vtvua.) became
first *npumen, then (100) numen. With the exceptions noted above, thediphthong
eu, as it appears in Latin, is always of secondary origin (48), the result of the two
vowels e and u meeting in composition : as, neu, neither, from ne-ve ; neuti-
quam, from ne and utiquam (124).
WEAKENING IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES.
102. The vowel of an unstressed (atonic) syllable is often weak-
ened, changing its quantity or quality or both. This is especially the
case in syllables immediately preceded by the chief accent (posttonic
syllables). The following changes took place at an early period when
Latin still possessed the old, recessive accent (89).
WEAKENING OF SIMPLE VOWELS IN MEDIAL SYLLABLES.
103. (a.) ATONIC MEDIAL e before a single consonant was weakened (with the
exceptions given under b.) to i : as, c611igo, collect, from lego ; 6bsidep, besiege,
from sede5 ; certaminis, ofthe^ contest, from certamen (224) ; flaminis, from
flamen(47o). And so probably hie (664) arose from *hec or *hoc (105, ) when
used as proclitic (92). Before the labials p, b, f, and m this weakened sound was
intermediate between i and u (28), and both spellings occur: as, quadripes and
quadrupes, four-footed; alimentum, nourishment; monumentum, monu-
ment. The choice of i or u was probably governed by the quality of the stressed
vowel in the preceding syllable: viz., u after o and u, and i after a, e, and i. But
such distinction is only imperfectly maintained in classical Latin.
Vowel Change: Weakening. [104107.
(b.) But before two consonants, before r, before vowels, and after i, atonic e does
not change: as, Idvamentum (224), but 16vaminis, of consolation ; obsessus
(but bbsideo), possessed ; sdcietas, society, from the stem socie- (but ndvitas
from the stem nove-) ; generis, of the kind ; adeunt, they approach.
104. (c.) Atonic medial a, except in the cases mentioned below under (d.), (e.),
and (/.), was first weakened to e and then underwent the same changes as atonic
medial e (103) : as (before single consonants), conficiS, accomplish, from facio ;
early Latin to -iccio (as, conieciS, 940), but later to -icio (as, subicio). This
last form may be due to syncope (in, a) of the radical a. The spelling -iicio (as,
subiicio) is late and faulty (52). It does not occur in republican inscriptions and
owes its origin to a confusion of the two forms coniecio and cpnicio. (On the
quantity of the vowel of the prepositions in these compounds of iacio, see 122 e) ;
(before p, b, f, m) accipio, accent, and 6ccupo, occupy, from capio; c6ntu-
bernalis, room-mate, from taberna ; abripio, to snatch away, from rapio ;
(before two consonants) p6perci, I have spared, from parco ; accentus, accent,
from cantus ; (before r) p6peri, I brought forth, from pario.
(d.) But an a in the preceding syllable may protect the atonic a : as, adagio,
adagium, proverb, but prodigium, miracle (144).
(e ) Atonic medial a before the guttural nasal (62) n followed by g changed to i
(138): as, attingS, touch, from tango.
(/.) Atonic medial a before 1 followed by any consonant save 1 changed to u
(both 1 and u being guttural, 60, 44) : as, gxsultare, to leap up, from saltre ; but
f6felli, /deceived, from fallo.
105. (g.) ATONIC MEDIAL o, when followed by a single consonant, first changed
to e and then underwent all further changes of medial atonic e : as, h<5minis,
from *homon-is (485): imaginis, for *imagonis, 226 (nominative imago,
485) ; cupidinis, for * cupidonis, 225,(nominative cupid5. 485) ; virginis, for
*virgonis (nominative virgo, 470); ilico, from *in-sloc5, on the spot (169, 6).
(h.) Before two consonants or before guttural l,(6o) atonic medial o changed to
u : as, euntis, from * Montis (Greek IOI/TO?) ; sedulo, from se dolo (1417). But
a preceding v or u protects o (107, c).
(i.) Before r, atonic medial o was retained : as, t6mporis, of time ; except
when u in the preceding syllable induced a change to u : as, fulguris, of lightning
(for the -r in the nominative singular fulgur instead of -s, see 154).
106. (k f . ) Medial -ay-, -ov-, and -iv- in posttonic syllables were weakened to
u : as, dinuo from dSnovS (94) ; abluo from ablavo. The form puer, boy,
arose from the older POVER in enclitic vocatives (93, 7) and was thence transferred
to the nominative like piter in lupiter (94).
WEAKENING OF SIMPLE VOWELS IN FINAL SYLLABLES.
107. (a.) In final syllables unaccented original e before s and t was weakened to
i : as, salutis, of safety, from older salutes (507).
(b ) Final i became e: as. ante for *anti (Hreek ivri and anti-cipare) ; nom-
inative singular mare, from the stem mari- (526).
(c.) In final syllables O before consonants changed to U except when preceded by
u or v: as, filius, son,tor old Latin filios (452) ; ferunt, they carry, for older fe-
ront; femur, tAiqA, nomin. sg. from the stem femor- (489); genus, kind, for
* genos, Greek Y^? ; but vivont, they live : salvom, safe. Not long before the
beginning of our era O here also changed to u and appears to have coalesced with the
preceding v (Quint, i, 7, 26): as, in inscriptions : INGENVS (nnmin. sg ) for inge-
nuos; SERVM^ slave (ace. sg.), for servom; NOVM for novom, something new;
loS-in.] Words: Sound.
so also bourn, oxen (gen. pi.), for bovom (494). But inasmuch as the majority of
forms in the paradigms of these words retained their v, it was restored in most cases,
by analogy, to the forms which had lost it: as, servum for serum, because of
servi, servo, etc. ; vivunt fur viunt, because of vivo, vivis, vivit, etc.
(d.) When the stems fac- (facere, do), cap- (capere, take) appear as second
members of compounds, their a changes in final syllables to e : as, artifex, artisan ;
auceps, bird-catcher. After the analogy of these words, compounds with dicere
and Ire have e in the nom. sg. : as, iudex, iudicis,/z/* (from ius and dicere);
comes, companion (from com, with, and ire) ; see 136, 2.
WEAKENING OF DIPHTHONGS IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES.
108. Diphthongs, whether medial or final, are treated alike in atonic
syllables.
(a.) Atonic ei, oi, and ai (ae) became i : as, lupi, wolves (nom. pi.), for
*lupoi (Gr. AUKOI) ; belli, in war (loc. sg., 460, 1338), for *bellei (Greek oi/cei)
or *belloi (Greek OIKCH) ; existimo, / consider, _from aestimo; c6ncido, I strike
down, from caedo ; Cicero, O. 159, mentions inicum, unfair, for *inaecum,
and concisum for *concaesum ; so also, probably, hie, this, arose from hoic
(662) when used as a proclitic (92).
(b.) Atonic ou and au became u : as, includS, / include, from claudo ;
accusare, to accuse, from causa.
log. There are not a few cases in which the atonic vowel does not conform to the
rules given above (102-108). These are usually compounds which show the vowel of
the simple verb. Some of these were formed at a time when the early recessive accent
was no longer in force and consequently there was no cause for weakening; in others
the vowel of the simple verb was by analogy substituted for the weakened vowel of
the compound : as, appeto, / strive after, from peto, which ought to have i like
colligo, collect, from lego ; intermedius, intermediate, but dimidius, half ;
defraudare, to cheat, by the side of defrudare from fraudare; instead of the
common redargue, / refute, Scipio Africanus minor Pauli filius (185-129 B.C.) said
rederguo, and pertisum for pertaesum, but both Cicero (O. 159) and Lucilius
discountenance pertisum as the sign of a pedantic prig. In a few cases the reverse
process took place, and the weakened vowel which arose in the compound was trans-
ferred to the simple verb : as, cludo, / close (958), for claudo, which owes its u to
compounds like occlud5. For a case where the vowel of the preceding syllable acted
as a stay to the expected change, see 104, d.
LOSS IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES.
110. Only vowels which are short and atonic may be lost. The
loss of a medial vowel is called Syncope ; of an initial vowel, Aphae-
resis ; of a final vowel Apocope.
111. SYNCOPE, (a.) Loss of a posttonic vowel, entailing the loss of a syllable,
occurs in ardus (Lucil. ; for a see 128) for the common aridus, dry ; caldus by
the side of calidus, warm (Quint, i, 6, 19); reppuli, I pushed back, and rettuli,
I carried back, stand for *re"pepuli and *r6tetuli (861); pergo, I proceed, stands
for *perrego from rego (cf. cor-rigo, e-rigo, where the e is weakened, 103, and
porrigo, porgo, where it is either weakened or lost), hence it forms its perfect
perrexi (953); ponp, I place, is for *posn6(i;o, 2) from *po-sino( 112), hence it
forms its past participle pcsitus (972); for iurgo, / blame, Plautus has iurigo |
* usuripo (from usus and rapere) yields usurpo, / utilize ; *gavide5, hence
favisus (801), gives gaudeo, I rejoice, converting au to au before the following
(128); in a similar way auceps, bird-catcher, is formed from * aviceps (avis, bird,
16
Vowel Change. [112114.
and capere, catch); claudere, lock, from *clayidere (clavis, /ky) ; aetas, age,
for aevitas (262); praecS, herald, for * praevico (105,^) prae-voc5 (21 1); also
with change of ou to u (100), prudens, prudent, for *proudens from provi-
dens, foreseeing; nuper, lately, from *noyiper; nuntius, messenger, from
*noventius (333) ; iucnndua t joyful, from iuvicundus (Cic. Fin. 2, 14). But
forms like pSclum, cup, saeclum, age, do not belong here, as they are original and
not derived by syncope from poculum, saeculum ; cf. 172.
(b.) Where, through the loss of a vowel, 1 or r would come to stand between two
consonants, or where they would be final and preceded by a consonant, 1 and r become
syllabic (83) and the syllable is thus maintained. Syllabic 1 is represented by ul,
syllabic r by er (172, 3). The development of such intercalary vowels as u before 1
and e before r is called Anaptyxis (172). Thus, *sacri-d5ts (cf. sacri-legium)
became first *sacr ) d6ts by syncope, then sacerd5s, priest, by anaptyxis; *acribus
(cf. acri-monia, pungency) first became *acrbus then acer bus, //; *agri-
los (267, cf . agri-cola, farmer) became first * aglos, then * agerlos, and
finally, by assimilation of the r to 1 (166, 7), agellus, small field; from * dis-ficilter
(adverb from dis- and facilis) arose * difncjter and difficulter, -with difficulty.
The nominative sg. of the following words is to be explained thus, ager (451) was
originally * agros (cf . Greek a-ypos), which changed successively to * agrs, * agers,
and ager (for the loss of -s see 171, i and 3). Similarly *acris, passing through
the stages of *acrs, *acers, became acer (627), and *famlos by way of *famls,
*famuls, became famul (455), to which later the common ending of nouns of the
O-declension was added, giving famulus.
112. APHAERESIS. Aphaeresis hardly occurs in literary Latin. In the pronoun
iste the initial i is sometimes dropped (667); this loss implies an accented ultima
(94). A trace of prehistoric aphaeresis is found in the prefix po- for * apo (Greek
an-6) in pon5, I place, for po-s(i)no (in, a).
113. APOCOPE. Under the same conditions under which a medial vowel was
syncopated, the final vowel of a word which stood in close union with the following
word, as a preposition with its noun, was lost. In this way *peri (Greek wept') be-
came per ; *apo (Greek i) became ap, ab (164, 2) ; *eti (Greek en) became et.
Similarly the final -e of the enclitics -ce, -ne, not, and -ne interrogative was lost :
* si-ce became sic, so; * qui-ne, quin, why not ; habesne, haben, hast thou ;
the imperatives die, say, due, lead, and fac, do, stand for earlier dice, duce,
face (846) ; the shortened form em for erne (imperative of emere, take) has been
turned into an interjection (1149). In the same way nee arose by the side of ne-
que; ac by the side of atque (158). Final -e has also been dropped in the
nominative sg. of a number of polysyllabic neuter stems in -ali and -ari (546) : as,
animal, animal, for *animale, exemplar, pattern, for * exemplare. See
536, 537- It must, however, be remembered that in most of the cases given the loss
of a final vowel would also result from elision (119) before the initial vowel of the
following word.
COMBINATION OF ADJACENT VOWELS.
114. HIATUS. A succession of two vowel sounds not making a
diphthong is called Hiatus.
When in the formation of words by means of suffixes or prefixes or
through the loss of an intervening consonant, two vowels come into con-
tact within a word we speak of internal hiatus; the term external hiatus
comprises those cases where, in connected discourse, the final vowel of one
word comes into contact with the initial vowel of the following word. For
the latter kind, see 2474.
2 17
115118.] Words: Sound.
115. The treatment of vowels in internal hiatus is four-fold: (i.)
The hiatus may remain; (2.) the two vowels may be fused into one
(Contraction) ; (3.) one of the two vowels may be dropped (Elision) ;
and (4.) the two vowels may be combined into a diphthong.
116. HIATUS is maintained (a.) between two adjacent vowels the second
of which is long and accented (according to the classical accentuation) : as,
coegi, I forced, and coactus, /0ra?</ (937) ; but cog5 (118, 3). For coepi,
instead of coepi, / began, see 120.
(6.) In many prepositional compounds when the members were still felt
to be independent : as, praeesse (the contracted form praesse is found in
inscriptions) ; deerunt, they will be wanting, by the side of derunt ; coa-
lescd, grow together (the contracted form colesco appears in Varro) ;
cooptare, coo'pt, cooperiS, / cover up (by the side of rare c5ptare, c5-
perire) ; coitus, meeting, by the side of coetus (120).
(c.) A comparatively large number of vowel combinations remain un-
changed : as ea and ea in earn, her, and mea, by my (fern, sing ) ; ia and ia in
maria, seas, viat5ris, of the traveller ; ua and ua. in belua, monster,
sua, through her (fern, sg ) ; ie in quies, quiet ; ue in lues, pestilence ; ei
in mei, of me ; ui in tui, of thee ; e5 in me5, by my (masc. sing.).
117. SYNIZESIS. In these combinations the first vowel is sometimes
made unsyllabic (83). This is called synizesix (2499) and is not rare in
poets, being often the only means of adapting a word to the requirements
of certain metres. Thus, fortuitus ( \j ^) must appear in a hexame-
ter as fortvitus (fortuitus). See 2499. 2503.
118. CONTRACTION, (i.) Two like vowels may unite in one long vowel ;
rapidity of utterance was favourable to such fusion. In compounds, the
desire to keep the members distinct often prevented it. So always nemo,
nobody, for *neemo from *ne-hemo, no man (for the loss of h, see 58, 150 ;
for e in *hemo, see 144) ; and by the side of the open forms, nil from nihil,
nothing; vemens from vehemens, rapid (connected with the verb veho) ;
rarely derunt, they will be wanting, and desse, to be wanting for deerunt,
deesse; deleram, / had destroyed, from *deleeram for deleveram (for
the loss of v, see 153), see 890 ; passum, of paces, for passuum (591).
(2.) A diphthong absorbs the following vowel : as, praetor, older prai-
tor, praetor, from *prai-itor, who goes before; inscriptions show praerunt
for praeerunt, thev w : ll be before ; for praebere, to furnish, the open form
praehibere occurs in Plautus (1004).
(3.) If two unlike vowels are contracted at all, they usuallv unite in the
long sound of the first vowel. Thus, o and a yield o: as. cogo, I force,
from co-ag5; cogit5, I think, from co-agito. Similarly Varro has co-
lescat, /'/ may combine, for co-alescat. o and e yield 6 : as, pr5mo, bring
out, como, put up, for pro-emo, co-emo (953). e and a yield e : as, deg5,
I pass away, from de-ago (937). i and e in the termination of the vocative
of -io- stems probably contracted to-i; as fill from *filie, 459. But in
denominative (365) and other verbs of the first conjugation a and 5 contract
into 6 : as. am5, / love, from *ama-o (cf Greek n/j-d-o)) ; and a and e into
S : as, ames, thou mayest love, for *ama-es.
18
Vowel Cha nge. [119-122.
1 19. ELISION. Only rarely the first of two successive vowels is dropped: as
nullus, no, for *ne-ullus; likewise the final vowel ot the first member of nominai
compounds: as, multangulus, with many corners, for *multi-angulus (cf.
multi-cavus, with many holes) ; flexanimus, heart-rending, for *flexi-
animus (cf. flexi-pes, with bent feet).
120. COMBINATION INTO DIPHTHONGS. The union of two successive vowels
into a diphthong is equally rare : o and i are combined to oi, oe, in coetus, meeting.
by the side of the open form coitus (116, b) ; the perfect coepi (812), / be%an, owes
its diphthong oe to forms in which the e was short and unaccented, such as the rare
present forms coepio for c6-6pio (813) ; for cogpi (813, 863) would have remained
unchanged (n6,a). neuter, with the accent on the e, was pronounced as three
syllables, later eu became diphthongal; neutiquam with synizesis (117) of e.
e and ! sometimes contract to ei in rei (601, 602) and in demde, dem in the
classic poets.
LENGTHENING.
121. COMPENSATIVE LENGTHENING. When certain groups of
consonants are simplified by the dropping of a consonant, its time is
absorbed by a preceding short vowel, which thereby becomes long.
This is called Compensation. In many cases compensative lengthen-
ing is due to the loss of a preliterary sonant B (170, 2) : as,
canus, gray, from *casnus (cf. cas-cus, very old}. See for other cases
of this lengthening, 170, 5, quini, for *quincni; 170, 6, ignosco, for *in-
gn5sco.
122. INDUCED LENGTHENING. Before certain groups of con-
sonants short vowels have a tendency to become long : as,
(a.) The prefixes in- and con- before s or f lengthened their vowels in
classical Latin (Cic. O. 159): as, insanus, mad; infelix, unhappy; con-
suevit, he grew used to; c5nfecit, he accomplished. Elsewhere also the
vowel before ns and nf appears to have been lengthened : as, fans, fountain ;
pensus, weighty (Gell. 9, 6) ; forensis, forensic ; censor, censor ; mensa,
table; mensis, mouth; Valens ; Clemens; the o of insons, guiltless,
however, is marked as short by the grammarian Probus.
(b.) A similar lengthening of the vowel before nc followed by t or
s appears : as, unctus, anointed, from ungu5 (Gell. 9, 6) ; iunctus,/0/>W,
from iungo (954), coniunx, spouse, genit. coniugis (472) ; quinctus,
fifth, whence quintus (170,4) and quinque, Jive, derive their I; sanctus,
hallmved.
(c.) Spellings like S!GNVM, sign (well supported in inscriptions), and
N'K, worthily (less well supported) show that i was at times lengthened
before gn. The grammarian Priscian demands this lengthening for all
vowels preceding the ending -gnus, -gna, -gnum.
(d.) A lengthened vowel before r followed by a consonant is also certain
for some words like ordo, order ; forma, shape.
(e.) Some speakers appear to have lengthened the vowel of prepositions
like con-, sub-, ob-, in the compounds of iacio (104, c) ; as obicit. This
practice, which is disapproved by Gellius (4, 17), probably arose from the
transfer by analogy of the quantity of the first syllable in forms like con-
ieciant (940) to that of the shortened form. In the same wav the occasional
spelling CONIVNX, spouse, for coniunx, may owe its long 5 to the analogy of
coiunx, COIVGI (170, 6).
19
123127.] Words : Sound.
(/.) Many verb stems ending in -g have a long vowel in the past parti-
ciple before the suffix -to-: as, tectus, covered, from tego (916); tactus,
touched, from tang5 (925) ; pactus, fixed, from pango (925) ; flctus,
moulded, from fingo (954) ; pictus, painted, from pingo. The evidence for
a in maximus is very scanty : one case of A with the apex (29, 3) in a faulty
inscription.
(^.) Of the induced lengthenings enumerated above, only those given in
(a.) (l>.) (/.} seem to have been universal in classical Latin. The rest appear
to have been local peculiarities, which, while making inroads upon the
literary language, never gained full recognition.
123. (i.) ANALOGICAL LENGTHENING. In noun stems in -o the stem vowel is
lengthened in the genitive plural -orum (449, 462), by analogy to the stems in -a
(435) : as, servorum, of slaves, like mensarum, of tables. For other cases see
122, e.
(2.) METRICAL LENGTHENING. On the lengthening of a vowel (or a syllable)
under the influence of verse-ictus, see 2505.
SHORTENING.
124. A vowel originally long is regularly shortened in classi-
cal Latin before another vowel, even though an h intervene : as,
tace5, / am silent, from the stem tace- (365) ; seorsum, apart, deor-
sum, downward, from se(v)orsum, de(v)orsum (153).
125. In simple words a diphthong occurs before a vowel only in one or two proper
names : as, Gnaeus, Annaeus, in which it remains long, and in Greek words.
But the diphthong ae of the prefix prae is sometimes shortened before a vowel : as,
pra"eacutus ; praeeunt ; prsiehibeo; hence prehendo for *prae-hendo.
Sometimes it coalesces with a following vowel : as, praebptavisti.
126. An increased tendency to shorten a long vowel before another vowel can be
traced in the history of the language: thus, classical fui, / was, for Plautus's fui
(750); cluep, / am called, for Plautus's clueo; perfect pluit, it rained, for
Varro's pluit (cf. pluvit, 823, 947) ; pius, pious, for Ennius's plus ; see also 765.
127. But even in classical Latin there are cases where a
vowel before another vowel remains long : thus,
(i.) Regularly, the I of fio, / am made, except before -er-, as in fierem
(788, 789).
(2.) In dius, godly, for divus (153), and the old ablatives dm, dio, open
sky (used only in the expression sub dm, sub di5, i. e. sub divo).
(3.) In the ending ei of the genitive and dative sg. of stems in -e- (601)
when an i precedes : as, diei, of a day, aciei, of the battle line, but rei, of the
thing, for older rei.
(4). It may be mentioned here that rei is said to occur in verse 6 times (Plaut.
G. 2, Lucr. G. 2^ D. 2) ; rei 9 times (Plaut. G. 2, Ter. G. 4, D. i, Juv. G. i, Sulp.
Apoll. G. i) ; rei 27 times (Plaut. G. 2, D. 3, Enn. D. i, Ter. G. 9, D. 8, Lucil. G.
i, D. i, Lucr. G. 2). fidei G. 3 times (Plaut., Enn., Lucr.) ; fidei n times (Enn.
D. i, Man. G. 2, D. i, Sil. G. 4, D. i, Juv. G. 2); fidei 5 times (Ter. G. i, D. 3,
Hor. i). ei 35 times (Plant. 18, Ter. 8, Lucr. 9); ei some 17 times (Plaut. 12,
Ter. 2, German, i, Ter. Maur. 2); ei 23 times (Plaut. 11, Ter. 8, Lucil. 3, Cat. i).
20
Vowel Change. [1281 30.
(5.) Gaius retains its a before the vowel i: thus, Gaius (trisyllabic).
(6.) In the pronominal genitives in -fus (618), the quantity of i varied.
The older dramatists use I ; later, I was shortened, but variations in its quan-
tity seem to have continued until long after the end of the republic; Cicero,
DO. 3, 183, measures illius ; Quintilian i, 5, 18 umus ; the grammarian
Priscian prescribes -ms for all except alterius, which should always have i,
and utrius, in which the i is common (30). In verse the i is often short,
except in neutrius; utriusque has always short i.
(7.) The penult is long in the endings -ai, -ais, -61, -ois, and -ei, -els,
from stems in -aio-, -oio-, and -eio- (458) or -ia- (437) : as, Gai, Boi,
Pompei, plebei : Gals, Bois, Pompeis, plebeis, Bais ; aulai, pictai.
(8.) Diana has I as often as i. ohe has 6; gheu has in comedy, other-
wise e.
(9.) In many Greek words a long vowel comes before another vowel; as, aer,
Aeneas, Medea. But early importations from Greek followed the general rule and
shortened the vowel : as, platea (TrAareta), balingum, balneum (/SaAavetof).
128. A long vowel preceding unsyllabic i or u followed by a consonant is short-
ened : as, gaudeo for * gaudeS (cf. gavisus, m); claudo for claudo (cf.
clauis, in).
Similarly a long vowel (unless long by contraction: as, nuntius, in, a,
cSntio) preceding a liquid or nasal followed by a consonant is shortened : as, synco-
pated arclus from aridus (in), habentem, from the stem babe-. For cases of
induced lengthening of the vowel before n followed by certain consonants, see 122.
I2Q. IAMBIC SHORTENING. The law of iambic shortening (2470)
produced a number of important changes : thus,
(i.) In old dramatic verse iambic words (^ ) often shorten the long
vowel. The poets after Plautus and Terence preserve the long vowel.
(a.) Nouns ; G. eri, boni, preti. D. cani, ero, malo. L. domi, heri.
Ab. levi, manu, domo, bona, fide. Plural : N. fores, viri. D., Ab. bonis.
Ac. foris, viros, bpnas. (b.) Verbs: eo, volo, ago; ero. dabo; vides ;
loces ; voles ; dedi, dedin ; roga, veni ; later poets sometimes retain cave,
vale, and vide. The vowel may also be shortened when -n (1503) is added and s
is dropped before -n (170, 2) : rogan, abin ; viden is also retained by later poets.
(2.) In a few pyrrhic words (w w) in -i, which were originally iambic
( w ), the poets in all periods retained final -I at pleasure : these are,
mihT, tib!, sib!; ibl, ubf; also alicubf. The i of bi is always short in
necubi and sicubi, and usually in ubinam, ubivis, and ubicumque ; ibidem
is used by the dramatists, ibidem in hexameter, ubique has always I.
130. The following instances show that this law operated in prose
speech also :
(i.) In iambic words of the a- declension (432) the final -a of the nomi-
native singular was shortened ; hence *equa became equa, mare. From
these iambic wprds short final -a spread so that all stems in -a- shorten the
final a of the nom. sg. (434).
(2.) The final -a in the nominative plural of neuter nouns of the o-
declension (446), which appears in triginta, thirty, was likewise shortened,
first in iambic words like iuga, yokes, bona, ^oods, then everywhere (461).
(3.) This law explains the short final vowel in homo (2442) by the side of
sermo (2437, c) and similar cases, like the adverbs modo, cito (2442), bene, male
(2440). In the same way arose the short final o of the first person in conjugation
(2443) : as, volo, dabo, dlxero by the side of scribo ; so also viden for viden
(129, i ; 170, 2).
21
131-135-] Words : Sound.
(4.) Of imperatives only puta, used adverbially (2438, c), ave, have (805 ;
Quint, i, 6, 21 ; but Martial scans have) as a salutation and cave, used as an
auxiliary (1711), show the short final vowel in classical Latin. Elsewhere the long
vowel has been restored, as ama, mone (845).
(5.) According to this rule calefacio, maledico changed to calefaciS, male-
dico.
131. A long final vowel is shortened when an enclitic is added to the
word : as siquidem from si ; quoque from quo.
132. A long vowel is regularly shortened, in the classical period,
before final -t and -m and, in words of more than one syllable, also
before final r and 1.
Thus, soror, sister, for Plautus's soror, from the stem soror- (487) ;
utar, / may use, for Plautus's utar (cf utaris) ; bacchanal for Plautus's
bacchanal ; animal, exemplar from the stems animal- (530) and ex-
emplar- (537); but the long vowel is retained in the monosyllables fur,
thief, s5l, sun ; ponebat, he placed, for Plautus's ponebat (cf. ponebas) ;
iubet, he commanded, for Plautus's iubet ; eram, / was, but eras ; rexerim,
/ may have ruled, but rexeris (877) ; -um in the genitive plural of -o- stems
is for -um (462) ; mensam, table, for *mensam from the stem mensa- ;
rem, from re- (res), spem from spe- (spes).
TRANSFER OF QUANTITY.
133. (r.) In a few cases the length of the vowel has been transferred to
the following consonant, the length of which is then indicated by doubling
it(8i): as. littera for litera, LEITERAS : luppiter for lupiter ; parricida
for pari-cida, murder of a member of t lie same clan (*paro-, member of a
clan, Doric ira6s, a relative} ; cuppa for cupa, barrel. The legal formula si
paret, if it appear, was vulgarly pronounced si parret (Festus).
(2.) Since the doubled unsyllabic i (i) between vowels (23; 166, 9;
153, 2) is commonly written single, the vowel preceding it is often errone-
ously marked long: as, ai5 wrongly for aio, /. e. aji5, / say; maior
wrongly for maior, i.e. mai;or, greater ; peior wrongly forpeior, i.e. pejior,
worse; eius, of him, cuius, of whom, huius, of him, all wrongly for eius,
cuius, huius i.e. eiius, cuiiiis, huiius (153, 2). In all these words the
first syllable was long but not the vowel.
VARIATIONS OF QUANTITY.
134. (i.) In some foreign proper names and in a very few Latin words the quan-
tity of a vowel varied. Vergil has Sychaeus and Sychaeus within six verses ;
also Asia and Asia, Lavinium and Lavinius; so also glomus (Lucr.), glo-
mus (Hor ); coturnix (Plant., Lucr.), coturnix (Ov.).
(2.) Sometimes such variations in vowel quantity are only apparent : thus, the occa-
sional long final -e of the active infinitive (dare, promere) has probably a different
origin from the usual -6. For metrical lengthening, see 2505.
QUANTITATIVE VOWEL GRADATION.
135. The same stem often shows a long vowel in some of its forms and
a short vowel in others. In most cases these variations of quantity were
not developed on Latin soil but inherited from a much earlier period. Such
old inherited differences in vowel quantity are called quantitative vowel
gradation.
22
Vowel Change. [ 1 36- 1 43.
(i.) Instances of this are pro for *pr5d (149; cf. pr5desse) and pro- (Greek
jrpd); ne and ne- in nescius; the couples rego, I rule, rexi; veno, I draw,
vexi; veniS, I come, veni, where the long vowel is characteristic of the perfect
stem (862) ; voco, I call, and vox voice; rego, / rule, and rex, ruler ; Ieg5, /
read, and lex, bill; sedeS, I sit, and sedes, seat; fides, confidence, and lido,
I trust ; dux (cf. ducis), leader, and duco, I lead, where verb and noun are differ-
entiated by the quantity of the root vowel ; and many others.
(2.) Sometimes the reduction of the vowel in certain forms amounts to complete
loss, as in the adverbial ending -is- in magis (346, 363) compared with the compara-
tive suffix -ios, -ios (Nom. -ior, Genit. -ioris) ; in the oblique cases of the stem
caron- (npmin. sg. card, 497), where the suffix becomes -n- (545), genitive
car-n-is; in the suffix -ter, which becomes -tr- in all cases but the nom. sg.( pater,
patris, etc., 470, 487) ; in the feminine -tr-i-c- to the suffix -tor-; but the nom.
sing. Caecilis (465) for Caecilios is probably due to syncope.
QUALITATIVE VOWEL CHANGES.
136. (i.) i before an r which goes back to an earlier voiced s (154) was
changed to e : as, cineris, of ashes, for *cinisis, from the stem cinis (491) ;
Falerii, for *Falisii, cf. Falis-cus ; (formed like Etruria, for *Etrusia,
cf. Etrus-ci).
(2 ) In the nominative singular of compounds like iudex, judge (from ius and
dicere), comes, companion (from com, -with, and ire, go), the i of the second
member of the compounds is changed to e (470) after the analogy of words like
artifex, artisan, etc. (107, d).
137. e before -gn- became i: as, Ilignus, from the stem ilec- (cf. ilex).
138. e before the guttural nasal (62) followed by a guttural mute was changed
to i: as, septingenti, from septem ; singuli, from the stem sem- in semel
(for the assimilation of m see 164, 3); obtingS (925), / attain, for *6bteng5
(104, c) from *ob-tang5 (104, <?).
139. A similar change took place in the group -enl- which became first -inl-
and then -ill-: as, *signilum, diminutive of signum (for i, see 122, c). first
changed by syncope (m) from *signilum to '*signlum, then to *sigenlum
(172, 3), then to *siginlum, and finally to sigillum/
140. o before nc became u: as, homunculus, manikin for *homonculus,
from the stem homon- (485); nuncupare, name, for *non-cupare (non- for
nom- (164, 3) = syncopated n5men); hunc, him, for *honc, from hom-ce
(662).
141. o before 1 followed by any consonant save 1 was changed to u: as, cultus,
tilled, for *coltus, from colere ; multa,y?^, for old Latin molta. But o before
11 is retained : as, collis, hill.
142. e before guttural 1 (60) was changed to o: as, solvo, I ^^ndr>. from *se-
luo (se-, as in se-cordia, luo = Greek Xuw); culmen, top, for *celmen, from
*cel!5 in ex-cello; yol5, / -wish, for *velo; but e is preserved before dental 1
(60) : as in velle, velim (773). Before 1 followed by any consonant save 1 this o
changes to u (141) : as, vult.
143. In a number of words, notably in voster, your, versus, turned, vortex,
eddy, and votare, forbid, the forms with o were replaced, about the second century
B.C. by forms with e : as, vester, versus, vertex, vetare (Quint, i, 7, 25).
23
I44 I 49'] Words: Sound.
ASSIMILATION.
144. In a few cases a vowel is influenced by the vowel of a neighbouring
syllable: as,
nisi, unless, for *nesi ; iis, for eis, to them (671, 674); dii, diis, gods, for
del, dels (450) ; nihil, notning,ior *nehil ; homo, man, for *hem5 (cf. nemo,
from ne-hemo, 118) ; see also 104, d ; 105, '.
QUALITATIVE VOWEL GRADATION.
145. The same stem often shows different vowels in different forms. In
most of these cases this difference was inherited from a very early period
and continued in the Latin. Such old inherited variation of the quality of
the stem-vowel is called qualitative vowel gradation. The qualitative vari-
ations may be accompanied by quantitative changes (135).
Often the verb and the noun are thus distinguished by different vowels : as, teg5,
I cover, and toga, a garment, toga ; precor, / be%, and procus, suitor, cf. Eng-
lish to sing and a song, to bind, and a bond. The different tenses of some verbs show
a like gradation: as, capio, I take, cepi ; faci5, I make, feci, cf. English I sing,
I sang ; I bring, I brought. The same occurs in derivation : as doceo, / teach, by
the side of decet ; noceo, / harm, by the side of nex (nec-s). The two vowels
which occur most frequently in such gradation are e and o : as in stems in -O-,
domine, dominus (for dominos) ; as variable vowel (824); genos (genus,
107, c) in the nom. sg. by the side of *genes- in the oblique cases (gen. generis
for *genesis, 154) ; bonds by the side of hones- in hones-tus ; modus, meas-
ure, for *modos (originally a neuter -s- stem like genus (487, 491), but trans-
ferred later to the -o- declension), by the side of modes- in modes-tus, seemly.
See 187.
(B.) CONSONANT CHANGE.
146. In a number of words which belong more or less clearly to the
stem of the pronoun quo- (681), cu- (157), the initial c has disappeared
before u : as,
uter, -which of the two, ubl, -where, unde, -whence (711). For the conjunction
Ut, utl, that, connection with this pronominal stem is much more doubtful. The
c- appears in the compounds with si and ne : as, si-cubi (cf. si-quidem, si-
quando), si-cunde, ne-cubi, ne-cunde, ne-cuter.
147. d varies in a few words with 1 : as old Latin dacruma, tear, for later
lacrima ; dingua, tongue, for later lingua ; odor, smell, by the side of oleo,
/ smell.
148. Very rarely, before labials, final d of the preposition ad varies with r : as,
old Latin arfuerunt, they -were present, for later adfuerunt (2257); arvor-
sum, against, for advorsum. The only instances of this in classical Latin are
arbiter, timpire, and arcesso (970), / summon, which shows r before a guttural.
149. (i.) Final d after a long vowel disappeared in classical Latin : thus, in the
ablative singular of -a- and -o- stems (426). and in the ablative-accusative forms
med, ted, sed (648). The prepositions pr5 and se (1417) originally eno!ed in -d
which is still seen in prodesse, be of advantage, prod-ire, go forth ; sed-itio,
a going-apart, sedition. According to the grammarians, the negative haud pre-
served its d before vowels, but lost it before consonants (1450).
24
Consonant Change. [150154.
(2.) Late inscriptions confuse final -d and -t : as FECID (729), ALIVT for aliud.
But in very old Latin -d in the third person singular seems to be the remnant of a
secondary ending (cf. the Greek distinction of primary -T<U and secondary -TO).
150. In a number of words f varies dialectically with h. In some of these f
appears to have been original, in others h : as, old Latin fordeum, barley, for classi-
cal hordeum ; old Latin haba, bean,io\: classical faba. The word filum, thread,
appears as *hilum in nihil, nothing, for *ne-hilum.
151. h being a weak sound (58) was often lost between two like vowels, espe-
cially in rapid utterance : as, nil, nothing, prendere, take, vemens, rapid, by the
side of nihil, prehendere, vehemens ; and always nemo, nobody, for *ne-
hemo, no man.
152. In some words h between two vowels is not original, but goes back to a
guttural aspirate gh. Before consonants this guttural appears : as, veh.5, / draw,
vectus (953) from a stem vegh-, traho, / drag, tractus (953) from a stem
tragh-.
I 53- (*) Y n t infrequently disappeared between two like vowels: as, ditior,
richer, for divitior ; sis (Cic. O. 154), for si vis (774) ; latrina, for lavatrina ;
finisse, for finivisse ; deleram, for deleveram ; and later also in perfect
forms in which the preceding and following vowel differed: as, amasse, for ama-
visse. The abbreviated forms of the perfects in -vi (890) were common in Cicero's
(O. 157) and Quintilian's (r, 6, 17) time, v also disappeared before o in deorsum,
seorsum.
(2.) Old and original unsyllabic i (82; 83) disappeared everywhere between
vowels. Wherever unsyllabic i appears between vowels it represents double ii, and
is the result of the assimilation of g to i (166, 9), or d to i (166, 9), or of the com-
bination of two i's : as in el-jus, quoi-ius (eius, quoius = cuius, 688). See
23 ; 166, 9. In all these cases the first i joined to the preceding vowel (83) formed
with it a diphthong, and the syllable is thus long (133, 2).
(3.) The combinations of unsyllabic (83) u with the vowel u and of unsyllabic
i with the vowel i were avoided in classical Latin : see 52.
44-) In composition, unsyllabic (82) i after a consonant became syllabic in quo-
niam, since, for quomiam (164, 5), and etiam, also, for etj,am (both compounds
with iam).
154. In early Latin s between two vowels was voiced (75), and in the
fourth century B. c. this voiced s changed into r. According to Cicero (Fam.
9, 21, 2) L. Papirius Crassus, consul in 336 B.C., changed his family name
Papisius to Papirius. Old inscriptions show frequently s for r: as, ASA,
altar, AVSELii. This change of intervocalic s to r plays an important part
in declension, conjugation, and derivation : as,
Nominative ius, right, genitive iuris ; spero, I hope, derived from spes;
nefarius, -wicked, from nefas; gero, I carry, from a stem ges- which appears in
ges-si, ges-tus (953) ; ero, / shall be, from the stem es- in esse ; the sub-
junctive ending -sem in es-sem appears as -rem after vowels : as, starem ; the
infinitive ending (894, 89^) -se in es-se appears as -re after vowels : as, legere,
for *legese, to read, stare, for *stase, to stand. Where all oblique cases show
-r- and only the nominative singular -s, the latter is sometimes changed to -r by
analogy : as, arbor, tree, honor, honour, for original arbos, hon5s, by analogy
to the oblique cases arboris, arbori, honoris, honori, etc. (487, 488). The
final -s of the prefix dis- follows this rule : as, dir-im5, / take apart, for *dis-
emo ; but an initial S- of the second member of a compound remains unchanged:
as, de-sino, / stop.
25
Words: Sound.
155. Wherever intervocalic S is found in classical Latin it is not original, but
the result (a.) of earlier -ns- : as, form5sus, handsome, for formonsus (63);
(.) of earlier -ss- (170, 7): as, usus for *ussus, use (159); causa, thing, for
caussa (Quint, i, 7, 20) ; or (c.) it occurs in borrowed words like asinus, ass.
(d.) There are a few words in which an r in a neighbouring syllable seems to have
prevented the change: as miser, miserable (173).
156. Before the o described in 142 qu changed to c : as, incola, inhabitant, for
*inquola, from *inquela ; the stem quel- appears in in-quil-inus, lodger.
157. As v before u (107, c}, so qu was not tolerated before u, but
changed to c.
Hence when, about the beginning of our era, the o of quom, when,
sequontur, they followed, changed to u (107, c), they became cum, secun-
tur ; thus equos but ecus, horse (452) ; reliquom but RELICVM, the rest;
loquor, I speak, but locutus (978). Much later, in the second century of
our era, the grammarians restored the qu before u by analogy to those
forms in the paradigm in which qu came before other vowels : as, sequun-
tur for secuntur by analogy to sequor, sequeris, sequitur, sequimur,
sequimini, etc. ; equus, equum, for ecus, ecum, by analogy to equi,
equo, eque, equorum, equis, equos.
158. qu before consonants or when final changed to c : as, relictus from the
stem liqu-, leave (present, linqud, 938); ac, and, for *atc, by apocope from at-
que ; nee, nor, by apocope from neque. See also *torctus (170, 3), quinctus
(170, 4).
159. When in the process of early word formation a t was followed by
another t, the combination tt, unless followed by r, changed to ss: as,
obsessus, besieged, sat tipon, for *obsettus, from *obsed-tus (cf. sede5).
After long vowels, nasals, and liquids this double ss was simplified to s
(;o, 7) : as, usus from *ut-tus, used (cf. utor) ; scansus, climbed, from
*scant-tus for *scandtus (cf. scando).
In this way arose a suffix -sus (906, 912) for the past participle of verbs ending
in a dental, and this spread to other verbs (912) : as mansus, stayed, from maneo
(1000), pulsus, pushed, from pello (932). The regular participles of these two
verbs still appear in the derivative verbs mantare and pultare, which presuppose
the past participles *mantus and *pultus (^71). If the double tt was followed by
r it changed tost: as, assestrix from *assettrix, while *assettor changed to
assessor.
160. But wherever the combination tt arose in historical times it re-
mained unchanged: as, attineo; cette, syncopated for ce"-d(i)te, i.e. the
particle ce (93, 3) which is here proclitic, and the imperative date, give.
161. Initial dv (du) changed to b, unless the v (u) was converted into the corre-
sponding vowel : as, bis, twice, for *duis (cf. duo) ; Widens for *duidens, by the
side of old Latin duidens with vocalic~u : bonus, good, tor duonus", by the side of
trisyllabic duonus ; bellum, -war, for *dyellum, by the side of duellum with
vocalic u; bes, t-wo thirds, for *dues (2427). Cicero (O. 1^3) notes that the
change of duellum to bellum affected even the proper name Duellius (name of
the admiral who won the naval victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B c.) which was
changed to Bellius. Plautus always scans duellum disyllabic with synizesis
( 2 53)-
26
Consonant Change. [162165.
CHANGES OF CONSONANT GROUPS.
162. Many groups of consonants undergo changes in order to facilitate
their pronunciation in rapid speech. These changes involve (a.) Assimila-
tion of consonants ; (b. ) the development of consonantal glides ; (c.) the
loss of one member of the group ; and (d.) the development of a vowel
between the consonants.
ASSIMILATION.
163. Of two successive consonants belonging to different syllables (175), the first
is, as a rule, assimilated to the second (regressive assimilation), rarely the second to
the first (progressive assimilation). A consonant may be assimilated, either entirely
or partially, to another consonant.
Assimilation is very common in prepositions prefixed to a verb.
164. PARTIAL ASSIMILATION, (i.) A voiced mute before an unvoiced
consonant became unvoiced: as, rex, king, for *regs (cf. regis) ; rexi, /
guided, for *regsi (cf. rego) ; rectus, guided, for *regtus; scrips!, I wrote,
for *scribsi (cf. scribo) ; scriptus, written, for *scribtus ; traxi, I dragged,
for *traghsi, tractus, dragged, for #traghtus (152). The spelling did not
always conform to this pronunciation: as, urbs, city, pronounced urps (54)
but spelled with b by analogy to the oblique cases urbis, urbem, etc. ;
obtineo, I get, pronounced optineo.
(2.) An unvoiced mute before a voiced consonant became voiced. The preposi-
tions ob, ab, sub, for *Op, *ap, *sup, owe their final b to their frequent position
before voiced mutes : as, obduco, abdic5, sub div5. The forms *op (still pre-
served in op-erio, / close. 1019) *ap (preserved in ap-erio, / open, 1019 ; cf.
Greek 0.110) and *sup (preserved in the adjective supinus, supine) were then
crowded out by ob, ab, and sub.
(3.) Nasals changed their place of articulation to that of the following consonant.
Thus, dental n before the labials p and b became labial m : as, imbib5, I drink in,
impendeo, / hang over. Labial m before the gutturals c and g became guttural
n (62): as, princeps, leader, singull, severally (the original labials appear in
primus, semel (138)); hunc for *homce (662). Labial m before the dentals
t, d, s became dental n: as, consecrS, / consecrate, from com (cum) and
sacro ; tantus, so great, from tarn ; quondam, once, from quom; tandem,
at length, from tarn. But sometimes the etymological spelling was retained : as,
quamdiu, as long as. But m does not change to n before t or s in the inflection
of verbs and nouns, where mt, ms develop into mpt, mps (167): as, sumptus,
sumpsi, from sumo.
(4.) p and b before n changed to m: as, somnus, sleep, for *sop-nus (cf.
sopor); omnis, all, for *op-nis (cf. opes); Samnium, for *Sabnium
(cf. Sabim).
(v) m before unsyllabic i (i) became n : as, quoniam (with vocalic i ; 153, 4),
since, for *quoniam from quom iam (1882); coniungo, I join together, for
*comiungo.
(6.) c between n and 1, and before m, changed to g: as, angulus, corner, with
anaptyctical (172) vowel u for *anglus, from *anclus (cf. ancus) ; segmen-
tum, section, from the stem sec- in secare.
165. It appears that at a very early period the neighbourhood of a nasal changed
an unvoiced mute into a voiced one: as. e-mung5, / clean out, by the side of
mucus ; pango, I fix, by the side of pac- in pax,feace (gen. pac-is).
2 7
1 66, 167.] Words: Sound.
166. ENTIRE ASSIMILATION, (i.) One mute is assimilated to another : thus p
or b to c : as, suc-curro, / assist ; t or d to c : as, sic-cus, dry (cf. sit-is,
thirst), accipiS, / accept ; d to g : as, agglutino, / glue on ; t or d to qu : as,
quicquam, anything ; t or d to p : as, appello, I call ; quippe, -why ? (1690).
(2.) A mute is assimilated to a spirant: thus, p to f in Oracina, workshop, for
*opficina, syncopated form of *opificina ; d to f : as, affero, / bring hither ;
when t is thus assimilated to s the result is ss after a short vowel, and s after a long
vowel (i/o, 7) or when final (171); as, in the -s- perfects, concuss!, / shook, for
*concutsi (concutiS, 961) ; messui, I mo-wed, for *metsui (meto, 835) ; suasi,
lad-vised, for *suatsi (suadeo, 1000); clausi, /.r/zz#,for*clautsi (claudo, 958);
haesi, I stuck, forhaes-si (868) from haerere, stem haes- (154); in the same way
possum, I can, for *potsum (cf. pot-est, 752) ; prSsum, / am of advantage,
for *protsum (cL prod-esse); legens, reading, for *legents (from the stem
legent-, cf . genitive legent-is). An s is never assimilated to a following t : as,
haustus, drained (1014), from the stem haus-, present haurio (154). Forms
like the rare hausurus (Verg.) are made after the analogy of dental stems.
(3.) One spirant, s, is assimilated to another, f : as, difficilis, difficult, differo,
I am unlike, from dis and facilis, fer5.
(4.) A mute is assimilated to a nasal: thus d to m in mamma, -woman's breast,
from the stem mad- (cf. madeS, 1006); ramus, branch, ramentum, splinter,
from the stem rad- (cf. rado, 958) with simplification of the double m after the
long vowel, d to n in mercenarius, hireling, from the stem merced-, reward,
(for mercennarius, see 133, i) ; p to m in summus, highest, from the stem sup-
(cf. super). A progressive assimilation of nd to nn belongs to the Oscan dialect,
and occurs only very rarely in Latin : as, tennitur (Ter.), distennite (Plaut.) See
924; 950.
(5.) One nasal, n, is assimilated to another, m : as immotus, unmoved. But
an m before n is never assimilated : as, amnis, river.
(6). Mutes or nasals are assimilated to liquids; thus n to 1 : as, homullus,
manikin, for *homon-lus (cf. homun-culus); ullus (274); d to 1 : as, sella,
seat, for *sed-la from the stem sed- (cf. sedeo); caelum, chisel, from the stem
caed- (cf. caedd) with simplification of the double 1 after the diphthong (170, 7) ; n to
r : as, irruo, I rush in ; and with progressive assimilation n to a preceding 1 : as, tollo,
I lift, for*tolno (833); fal!5, / cheat (932); pello, I push (932). ^ But no assimi-
lation is to be assumed for parriclda, which does not stand for patricida (133, i).
(7.) One liquid, r, is assimilated to another, 1 : as, pellicio, I lead astray (956),
for *per-licio ; agellus, small field, for *agerlos ; pullus, clean, from *pur-
los (cf. purus, clean}.
(8.) A spirant, s, is assimilated to a preceding liquid in velle, wish, for *velse,
ferre, carry, for *ferse (the infinitive ending -se appears in es-se, 895) ; facil-
limus, easiest, for *facilsimus (345); sacerrimus, holiest, for *sacersimus
(344). But where Is and rs are not original but the result of lightening (170, 3 ; 10)
they remain unchanged : as, arsi, I burnt, for *artsl from the stem ard- (cf. ardeo,
1000) ; alsi, I felt cold, for *alcsi from the stem alg- (cf. algeo, 1000).
(9.) g and d were assimilated to a following unsyllabic i (i) the result being
(153, 2) ii (ii); thuspeiior, worse, for *ped-ior, from the stem ped-(532), whence
also the superlative pessimus for *petsimus (166, 2); maiior, greater, for
*mag-ior (the stem mag- appears in magis) ; aii5, / say, for *ag-io (the stem
ag- appears in ad-ag-ium, pr5d-ig-ium, 219). These forms were~pronounced
by Cicero with doubled i (23), and traces of the spelling with double ii are still found
(23), though in common practice only one i is written (153, 2)., On the confusion of
syllabic quantity with vowel quantity in these words, see 133, 2.
CONSONANTAL GLIDES.
167. Pronunciation of two successive consonants is sometimes facilitated
by the insertion of a consonant which serves as a glide. Such insertion is
not frequent.
28
Consonant Change. [168170.
In inflection a p was thus developed between m and s, between m and 1, and
between m and t (elsewhere mt changed to nt, see 164, 3): as, sumpsi, / took,
sumptus, taken, from sumere for *sumsi, *sumtus ; and in the corresponding
forms of como, demo, promS (953) ; exemplum, pattern, for *exemlum
from the stem em-, take (cf. eximere, 103, a).
DISAPPEARANCE.
1 68. A word may be lightened by the disappearance of an
initial, a medial, or a final consonant.
Disappearance of an initial consonant is sometimes called Aphaeresis, of a medial,
Syncofe, of a final, Apocope.
169. INITIAL DISAPPEARANCE, (i.) Initial tl changed to 1: as, latus, borne,
for *tlatus from tollo (187, 917).
(2.) Initial gn changed to n : as, natus, born, for earlier GNATVS from the stem
fen-, gna (187); nosco, I find out, for gnoscS, GNOSCIER (897); narus,
nowing, for the more frequent gnarus, navus, active, for gnavus. Cf. the
compounds co-gnatus, c6-gnosc6, i-gnarus, i-gnavus (170, 6) which pre-
serve the g. But Gnaeus retained its G.
(3.) Initial d when followed by consonant i (i), disappeared: as, lovis, lupiter,
for *Djk>vis, *Diupiter. Where the i was vocalic, d was retained: as, dius.
(4.) Initial stf- first changed to si and then to 1 : as, Old Latin stlocus, place,
stlis, law-suit (Quint. /, 4, 16), STLOC, SLIS, classical locus, Hs ; also latus,
wide, for *stlatus. That a form *slocus existed is proved by ilicS (698, 703)
from *in-sloco, on the spot (170, 2).
170. MEDIAL DISAPPEARANCE, (i.) c, g, p, and b disappear before s fol-
lowed by an unvoiced consonant : as, sescenti, six hundred, for *sexcenti from
sex ; illustris, resplendent, for *illucstris from luceo ; disco, / learn, from
*dicsco for *di-tc-sco (834), a reduplicated present from the root dec- (cf.
decet) like gigno (from the root gen-), and sidp (for *si-sd-6, 170, 2, from the
root sed-, 829). Sometimes prepositions follow this rule : as, asporto, / carry off,
for *absporto, suscipio, I undertake, for *subscipio (subs formed from sub
like abs from ab ; sub-cipio gives succipio) ; occasionally also ecferp, for
exfero, / carry out. But more frequently prepositional compounds remain un-
changed: as, obscurus, dark; abscedS, / withdraw. In some words thejost
consonant has been restored by analogy : as, sextus, sixth, for *sestus (cf. Sestius)
after sex ; textor, weaver, for *testor after texo.
(2.) s before voiced consonants was voiced (75) and is dropped. If a consonant
precedes the S this is dropped also. In either case the preceding vowel is lengthened.
Voiced s alone is dropped: as, primus, first, for *pris-mus (cf. pris-cus);
canus, gray, for *casnus (cf . cas-cus) ; adverb pone, behind, for *posne (cf.
pos, 1410); dllabi, glide apart, for *dislabi ; idem, the same, for ISDEM (678);
iudex,/zw?tf, for iusdex, tredecim, thirteen, for *tresdecim. And wUh sub-
sequent shortening of the final syllable (130, 3) abin, goest thou? for abisn(e),
viden, seest thou? for videsn(e). Voiced s with the preceding consonant is
dropped : as, traduco, / lead across, trano, / swim across, for transducS,
transnS ; but in these prepositional compounds the -ns was often retained: as,
transmitto, / send across ; seni, six each, for *secsni ; semenstris, every six
months, for secsmenstris ; seviri, the Board of Six, for secsviri ; ala, wing,
for *acsla (cf. ax-ilia, Cic. O. 153) ; mavolo (779) for magsvolofrom magis-
volo, 396; tples (plural), goiter, for *tonsles (cf. tonsillae, tonsils); pilum,
pestle, for *pinslum from pinsere, crush ; two consonants and voiced s are
dropped in scala, stair, for *scand-sla (cf. scando).
29
Words: Sound.
(3.) C falls away when it stands between a liquid and t, s, m, or n : as, ultus,
avenged, for *ulctus from ulc-iscor (980) ; mulsi for *mulcsi from both mul-
ge5, 1 milk, and mulceS, / stroke ; similarly other stems in -c and -g (tooo, 1014);
quernus, oaken, for *quercnus from quercus ; tortus, turned, tor *torctus
from torqueS (for the change of qu to c, see 158); for fortis, brave, forctis is
found in old Latin.
(4.) c drops out when it stands between n and t : as, quintus, fifth, for older
quinctus (2412), from quinque (for the change of qu to c, see 158; for the long
I in quinque, see 122, b). But verbs having stems in -nc or -ng retain the c in
their past participles: as, vinctus, bound, from vincire (1014) ; iunctus, joined,
from iungere (954). In pastus (965) c has dropped out between s and t.
(5.) The group -ncn- was simplified to simple -n-, and the preceding vowel was
lengthened: as, quini,./??* each, for *quinom (317); co-niveo, -wink and blink,
for con-cniveo.
(6.) n before gn was dropped and the preceding vowel lengthened: as, I-gnos-
co, I forgive, for *in-gnosco, co-gnosco, / know, for *con-gnosc5. In this
manner (170, 5; 6) arises a form cp- by the side of con- (122, e) : as, c5-necto,
co-nubium, co-ligatus (Cell. 2, 17, 8).
(7.) In the imperial age, ss after long vowels and diphthongs was regularly changed
to s : as, clausi, / closed ; usus, ^lsed (166, 2) ; but always esse, to eat (769) ; 11
changed to 1 after diphthongs : as, caelum, chisel (166, 6) ; also when preceded by
1 and followed by i : as, villa, country-place, but vilicus (adject.) ; mille, thou-
sand, but milia (642). Elsewhere 11 was retained after long vowels : as, pullus
(166, 7), clean ; rallum, ploughshare, from rad5 with suffix -lo- (209). In
Cicero's time (Quint, r, 7, 20) the spelling was still caussa (155, b), matter ; cassus
(930), fallen ; divissio (cf. 912), division. Vergil also, according to Quintilian,
retained the doubled consonants, and the best manuscripts of both Vergil and Plautus
frequently show 11 and ss for later 1 and s, as do inscriptions : as, PROMEISSERIT,
he might have promised (49 B.C.) ; ACCVSSASSE, to have accused.
(8.) After a long vowel d was dropped before consonant u (v) : as, svavis,
sweet, for *svadvis from svad- (cf. svadeo).
(9.) r before st was dropped: as, tostus, roasted (1004) for *torstus from the
stem tors- (cf. torreo with assimilated -rs-, 166, 8).
(10.) -rts- changed to -rs : as, arsl, I burnt, for *artsi (1000). -rcso changed
to -sc- : as, posc5, 1 demand, for *porcsco (834).
(u.) In ipse, self, for *is-pse, an s has disappeared before -ps-
(12.) d (t) disappears between r and c: as, cor-culum for cord(i)-culum
(275)-
171. FINAL DISAPPEARANCE, (i.) A word never ends in a doubled consonant:
as, es for *es-S, thou art, which Plautus and Terence still scan as a long syllable ;
and the following cases of assimilation : ter for *terr from *ters (cf. terr-uncius,
a quarter of an as, a farthing, 1272, for *ters-uncius, 166, 8) ; far, spelt, for
*farr, from *fars (480) ; fel, gall, for *fell, from *fels (482) ; in miles, soldier,
for *miless from *milets (cf. Gen. militis, 477) the final syllable is still long in
Plautus. hoc, this, for *hocc from *hod-c(e) (the neuter *hod from the stem
ho-, as istud, illud (107, c) from isto-, illo-) counts as a long syllable even in
classical poetry.
(2.) No Latin word can end in two explosives: thus, final t is dropped in lac,
milk (478) ; final d in cor, heart (476).
(l.) When final s was preceded by r or 1, it was assimilated to these liquids, and
final rr and 11 were then simplified to r and 1. See the examples under (i). Wherever
final -rs and -Is appear they are not original but the result of the disappearance of an
intervening consonant: as, puls, Cottage, fpr*pults (533) ; pars, part, for*parts
(533) 5 aU with syncope (in) of the vowel i in the nominative sg.
3
Consonant Change. [172-174.
(4.) Original final ns was changed to s and the preceding vowel was lengthened :
as, sanguis, blood (2452), for *sanguins from the stem sanguin- (486). Wher-
ever final -ns appears it is not original but the result of the disappearance of an inter-
vening consonant : as, f erens, carrying, for *f erents, from the stem ferent- ;
irons, foliage, for *fronds, from the stem frond-.
( 5.) A dental mute before final s is dropped : as, heres, heir, for *hereds (475) ;
virtus, virtue, for *virtuts (477); nox, night, for *nocts (533); a labial or gut-
tural mute is retained : as, fornax (x = cs), furnace, from the stem fornac- (531) ;
lex, law, from the stem leg- (472) ; urbs, city, from the stem urb- (480); ops
from the stem op-, help (480).
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANAPTYCTICAL VOWEL.
172. Certain consonant groups, notably those containing a liquid, are
sometimes eased by the insertion of a vowel which develops between the
consonants. This is called Anaptyxis (Greek dvcnrTfocreiir, unfold}. It is
the opposite of syncope of vowels (no, m).
(i.) The suffix -clo- (242), changed to -culo-, being thus no longer distin-
guishable from the diminutive suffix -culo- (267) : as, poculum, cup, for ppclum
(Plant.); vehiculum, carriage, for yehiclum (Plant.). But -clo- is more
common in Plautus than -culo-, especially after long vowels. The suffixes -blo-
(245), and -bli- (294) always show the anaptyctical vowel. Its colour depends on
the nature of the 1 (60) : as, stabulum, resting-place; stabilis, steady. The group
-ngl- also changes to -ngul- : as, angulus (164, 6).
(2.) In words borrowed from the Greek an unfamiliar sequence of consonants was
so lightened; as, mina, mina, for *mna (nva) ; and in Old Latin drachuma
(Plant.) for later drachma, drachma (Spaxuri); techina, trick, from Greek re*^ ;
Tecumessa for Tecmessa (Te/c/Arjo-c-a).
(3.) Before syllabic (83) 1 and r a vowel is developed (in, b) : as, incertus,
uncertain, for *incjtus ; facultas, capability, for f acltas. Likewise before
syllabic n (139).
DISSIMILATION.
I 73- (!) To avoid the repetition of the same liquid in successive syllables 1 is
sometimes changed to r: as, caeruleus, sky-blue, for *caeluleus, from caelum ;
Parilia, by the side of Palilia, from Pales ; the suffix -clo- appears as -cro-
after an 1: as, lavacrum, bath, simulacrum, image (241); the suffix -ali-
under like conditions changes to -ari-'; as, molare, of a mill (313), but augurale,
of an augur.
(?..) In a few cases repetition is avoided by dropping the sound once : as, prae-
stfgiae, jttgglery, for praestrigiae. This also applies to the spirant s followed
by a consonant, a combination which is not tolerated in successive syllables : as in the
reduplicated perfects steti, for *stesti ; spopondi, for *spospondi (859), where
the second syllable, and in quisquiliae, sweepings, for *squisquiliae, where the
first syllable was lightened.
CHANGES WITHIN COMPOUNDS.
174. The final syllable of the first member of compounds (181) some-
times undergoes certain changes by analogy to other compounds :
(i.) The final -a of a-stems, by analogy to the more frequent -o-stems, usually
changed to -o, which in atonic syllables became -i (105) : as, ali-ger, winged, for
*alo-ger from ala-.
(2.) Stems in -on- substitute -o- for -on- by analogy to the -o-stems : as,
homi-cida, murderer, for *homo-cida (105) from homon- (Nom. homo).
(? ) Some stems in -s substitute -o- by analogy to the -o-stems : as, foedi-
fragus, treaty-breaking, for *foedo-fragus from the stem foedos- (Nom.
foedus, Gen. foederis; 154).
31
Words: Sound.
SYLLABLES.
175. A word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels
or diphthongs. The last syllable is called the Ultima ; the last
syllable but one is called the Penult ; the last syllable but two
is called the Antepenult.
176. The quantity of single sounds (e. g. the quantity of a vowel) must
be carefully distinguished from the quantity of the group of sounds or the
syllable of which the single sound forms a part.
LENGTH OF SYLLABLES.
177. A syllable is long if its vowel is long, or if its
vowel is followed by two consonants or by x or z : as,
ducebas ; volvunt. In ducebas both the vowels and the syllables are
long ; in volvunt the vowels are short, but the syllables are long ; in cases
like the last the syllables (not the vowels) are said to be long by position, h
does not count as a consonant (58) and qu (or qv, 27) has the value of a
single consonant only : thus, in adhuc and aqua the first syllable is short.
178. In prose or old dramatic verse a syllable with a short vowel before
a mute or f followed by 1 or r is not long : as tenebrae. In other verse,
however, such syllables are sometimes regarded as long. In compounds
such syllables are long in any verse : as obruit.
LOSS OF SYLLABLES.
179. The first of two successive syllables which begin with the same
sound is sometimes lost. This is called Haplology.
Thus, semodius for semimodius, half a bushel ; calamitosus for *ca-
lamitatosus, from the stem calamitat- (262) and suffix -oso- (336) ; volunta-
rius, for voluntatarius (262, 309) ; consuetude, for consuetitudo (264). See
also 255 ; 379.
B. FORMATION.
180. FORMATION is the process by which stems are formed
from roots or from other stems.
181. A word containing a single stem is called a Simple word : as,
magnus, great, stem magnp- ; animus, soul, stem animo-. A word con-
taining two or more stems is called a Compound word : as, magnanimus,
great-souled, stem magnanimo-.
182. Most inflected words consist of two parts : a stem, which is
usually a modified root (195), and an inflection ending: thus, in ductori,
for a leader, the root is du c-, lead, the stem is ductor-, leader, and -I is the
inflection ending, meaning for.
ROOTS.
183. A ROOT is a monosyllable which gives the fundamental
meaning to a word or group of words.
32
Present Stems as Roots. [184-192.
184. A root is not a real word ; it is neither a noun, naming something,
nor a verb, denoting action. Thus i u g-, yoke, does not mean a yoke nor I
yoke ; it merely suggests something about yoking. The root becomes a real
word only when an inflection ending is added, or, more commonly, both a
formative suffix and an inflection ending : as, iug-u-m, a yoke.
185. Roots are common to Latin and its cognate languages, such as
the Sanskrit and the Greek. When a root is named in this book, the specific
Latin form of the root is meant. This often differs somewhat from the form
of the root which is assumed as applicable to all the cognate languages.
186. Almost all roots are noun and verb roots ; that is, roots with a
meaning which may be embodied either in a noun or in a verb, or in both.
Besides these there is a small class, less than a dozen in number, of pro-
noun roots. There are many words which cannot be traced back to their
roots.
187. A root sometimes has two or more forms : as, f I d- (for f e i d-),
f o e d-, f i d-, trust ; g e n-, g n-, sire ; t o 1, t 1, bear ; see 135, 145.
Thus, fid- is found in fid-us, trtisty, fid-ucia, confidence, fid-ucio,
I pledge, fid-uciarius, in trust, fid-ere, put trust in, fid- ens, courageous,
fid-entia, courage; foed- in foed-us, pledge of faith, foed-eratus, bound
by a pledge of faith; fid- in fid-es, faith, fid-elis, faithful, fid-eliter,
faithfully, fid-elitas, faithfulness, per-fid-us, faithless, per-fid-ia, faithless-
ness, per-fid-iosus, 'full of faithlessness, per-fid-iose, faithlessly, gen- in
gen-itor, sire, gn- in gi-gn-ere, 6eget,gn-a.-'m gna-tus, son.
1 88. A root ending in a vowel is called a Vowel Root: as, d a-, give; a root end-
ing in a consonant is called a Consonant Root : as, r u p-, break. Roots are con-
veniently indicated by the sign V : as, ^t e g-, to be read ' root t e g-.'
189. A root or a part of a root is sometimes doubled in forming a word ; this is
called Reduplication: as, mur-mur, murmur ; tur-tur, turtle-dove ; po-pul-us,
people; ul-ul-are, yell.
PRESENT STEMS AS ROOTS.
190. Many nouns are formed from the present stems of verbs,
which take the place of roots. Stems thus used are mostly those
of verbs in -are and -ire.
Thus, from ora-, stem of orare, speak, are formed ora-tor, speaker, and
ora-tio, speech ; from audi-, stem of audire, hear, are formed audi-tor,
hearer, and audi-tio, hearing.
191. Verbs in -ere, and those in -are and -Ire in which the a or I
is confined to the present system (868, 874) usually have parallel nouns
formed directly from a root : as,
doc-tor, teacher, doc-umentum, lesson, doc-ilis, teachable (y/doc-,
docere); sec-tor, cutter (\/sec-, secare) ; dom-itor, tamer, dom-inus,
master, dom-itus, tamed (\/dom-, domare) ; sarc-ina, package (^sarc-,
sarcire).
192. But a noun is sometimes exceptionally formed from the present stem of a verb
in -ere: as, mone-ta, mint (monere); ace-tum, vinegar (acere); vire-
tum, a green (virere); suade-la, persuasion (suadere) ; habe-na, rein
(habere); ege-nus, needy (egere); vere-cundus, shamefast (vereri);
vale-tud5, health (valere).
3 33
1 93 * 99-] Words : Formation.
193. Verbs in -ere, and particularly such as have a present in -no,
-sco, -t5 or -15 (832), usually have their parallel nouns formed directly from
a root : as,
vic-tor, conqueror (\/vic-, vincere) ; incre-mentum, growth (\/cre-,
crescere); pul-sus, a push (\/pol-, pellere).
194. Sometimes, however, nouns are formed from such verb stems, and not from
roots: as, lecti-stern-ium, a couch-spreading (sternere, Vster-, stra-);
vinc-ibilis, conquerable (vincere, vvio); pasc-uum, pasture (pascere,
Vpa-); pect-en, comb (pectere, \/pec-); fall-ax, deceitful (fallere, \/fal-).
STEMS.
195. A STEM is that part of a word which contains its mean-
ing, and is either a root alone or more commonly a root with
an addition called a Formative Suffix.
Thus, in the word ducis, leader's, the stem, which is identical with the
root due-, means leader; a root thus serving as a stem is called a Root
Stem ; in ductoris, leaders, the stem is formed by the formative suffix -tor-,
denoting the agent, attached to the V d u c-.
196. New stems are formed by adding a suffix to a stem. Thus,
from orator-, speaker, is formed by the addition of the suffix -io-, a
new stem 6rator-io-, N. oratorius, speaker's.
197. The noun has usually only one form of the stem. The verb has
different stems to indicate mood and tense ; these stems are all based
on two principal tense stems, the present and the perfect active.
PRIMITIVES AND DENOMINATIVES.
198. I. A stem or word formed directly from a root or a
verb stem is called a Primitive. II. A stem or word formed
from a noun stem is called a Denominative.
(a.) Primitives: from \freg-, reg-, guide : rex, stem rtg-,king; reg-
num, stem reg-no-, kingdom ; rectus, stem rec-to-, guided ; regere, stem
reg-e-, guide. From ora-, stem of orare, speak: orator, stem ora tor-,
speaker; Sratio, stem 5ra-ti5n-, speech.
(b.) Denominatives : from noun stem reg-, king : regina, stem reg-Ina-,
queen ; regius, stem reg io-, regalis, stem reg-ali-, royal. From oration-,
speech : oratiuncula, stem 5ratiun-cula-, little speech. From reg-no-,
kingdom: regnare, stem regna-, to rule. From ius, law: iurare, swear,
stem itira (154).
(A.) FORMATION OF THE NOUN.
WITHOUT A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.
199. Some roots are used as noun stems : as, due-, N. dux, leader
(Vduc-, lead}; reg-, N. rex, king (^re g-, guide] ; particularly at the
end of a compound : as, con-iug-, N. coniunx, yoke-fellow, spouse (com-,
Vjug-, yoke}; tubi-cin-, N. tubicen, trumpeter (tuba-, \/can-, play}.
34
Formative Suffixes of the Noun. [200-203.
WlTH A FORMATIVE SUFFIX.
200. SIMPLE formative suffixes are vowels : as, -a-, -o-, -i-, -u- ;
also -io-, -uo-, (-vo-) ; or such little syllables as -mo-, -min-; -ro-, -lo-;
-on-; -no-, -ni-, -nu-; -to-, -ti-, -tu-; -ter-, -tor-; -unt- (-nt-); -es-
(-er-), -or- ; these syllables sometimes have flight modifications of
form. COMPOUND suffixes consist of one or more simple suffixes
attached to a simple suffix : as, -tor-io-, -ti-mo-, &c., &c.
201. The following are examples of noun stems formed from roots
or verb stems by simple suffixes added :
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM. STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
fug-a- fuga, flight fug-, fly som-no- somnus, sleep sop-, sleep
fid-o- fidus, trusty fid-, trust pie-no- plenus,/^// pie-,///
ac-u- acus,/m ao, point \ reg-no- regnum, realm re g-, guide
od-io- odium, hate o d-, hate \ da-to- datus, given d a-, give
pluv-ia- pluvia, rain plov-, wet \ lec-to- lectus, bed leg-, lie
ar-vo- arvom, tilth ar-, till | gen-ti- gens, race gtn-, beget
al-vo- alvos, belly al-, nurture \ Sta-tU- Status, stand s t a-, stand
sal-vo- salvos, safe sal-, safe rec-tor- rector, ruler T eg-, guide
fa-ma fama, tale fa-, tell e-unt-, iens, going i-, go
teg-min-tegmen, coverteg-, cover rege-nt- rzgtns, guiding regz-, guide
sel-la- sella, seat s e d-, sit I gen-er- genus, race gen-, beget
err-5n- erro, stroller erra-, stroll ' fur-or- furor, madness f u r-, rave
202. Formative suffixes are often preceded by a vowel, which in
many instances is a stem vowel, real or presumed ; in others, the
vowel has come to be regarded as a part of the suffix itself.
Thus, -lo- : filio-lo-, N. filio-lu-s, little son (filio-); hortu-lu-s, little
garden (horto-, 105, A) ; but -ulo- : reg-ulu-s, petty king (reg-) ; ger-ulu-s,
porter (^g e s-, bear}, -ci- : pugna-ci-, N. pugna-x,/// of fight (pugna-re) ;
but -aci- : fer-ax, productive (Vf e r-, bear}, -to- : lauda-to-, N. lauda-tu-s,
/nz/.r<?</(lauda-re) ; but-ato-: dent-atus, toothed (&&n\.\-). -tu-: equita-tu-,
N. equita-tu-s, cavalry (equita-re) ; but -atu-: sen-atu-s, senate (sen-).
-la-: suade-la-, N. suade-la, persuasion (suade-re, 192); but -ela-:
loqu-ela, talk (\/loqu-, speak}, -tat-: civi-tat-, N. civi-ta-s, citizenship
(civi-) ; but -itat- : auctor-ita-s, authority (auctSr-). -cio- : aedili-cio-,
N. aedili-ciu-s, of an aedile (aedili-); but -icio- : patr-iciu-s, patrician
(patr-). -timo- : fini-timo-, N. fini-timu-s, bordering (fmi-) ; but -itimo- :
leg-itimu-s, of the law (leg-).
203. There are many formative suffixes of nouns. The commonest only
can be named, and these may be conveniently grouped as below, by their
meanings. Compound suffixes are arranged with reference to the last ele-
ment of the suffix : thus, under the adjective suffix -io- (304) will be found
-c-io-, -ic-io-, -tor-io-, and -ar-io-. In many instances it is difficult to
distinguish between simple and compound suffixes.
35
204-209.] Words : Formation.
I. THE SUBSTANTIVE.
(A.) PRIMITIVES.
I. THE AGENT.
204. The suffixes -tor-, -o-, -a-, -lo-, and -on-, are used
to denote the Agent : as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
Iec-t5r- lector, reader \f 1 e g-, read
scrib-a- scriba, writer >/ s c r i b-, write
fig-ulo- figulus, potter >/ f i g-, mould
err-on- err5, stroller erra-re, stroll
(i.) -tor- (N. -tor).
205. -tor-, N. -tor, or -sor-, N. -sor (159, 202), is the com-
monest suffix of the agent ; the feminine is -tri-ci-, N. -tri-x.
-tor- is sometimes used in a present sense, of action repeated or
occurring at any time, and sometimes in a past sense.
206. (a.) -t5r- (-sor-), in the present sense, often denotes one
who makes a regular business of the action of the root or verb.
5ra-tor-, N. ora-tor, spokesman, speaker (6ra-re) ; lee-tor, reader (\/l e g-,
read}. Workmen and tradesmen : ara-tor, ploughman, pas-tor, shepherd,
pic-tor, painter, su-tor, shoemaker. Semi-professional : capta-tor, legacy-
hunter, dela-tor, professional informer. Government officials : cen-sor,
appraiser, censor, impera-tor, commander, prae-tor, (leader], praetor, dicta-
tor, He-tor. Of the law : ac-tor, manager, accusa-tor, accuser, spon-sor,
bondsman, tu-tor, guardian. From presumed verb stems (202) : sen-ator,
senator .(sen-) ; via-tor, wayfarer (via-) ; fundi-tor, slinger (funda-). -tro-,
N. -ter, has the meaning of -tor- : as, aus-tro-, N. aus-ter (scorcher], south-
wester (V a u s-, burn].
207. In the present sense -tor- (-sor-) is also used to indicate permanent character,
quality, capability, tendency, likelihood: as, bella-tor, a man of -war, warlike;
delibera-tor, a man of caution; cessa-tor, a loiterer; deri-sor, a mocker,
ironical; consump-tor, apt to destroy, destructive ; aedifica-tor, building-mad.
208. (b.} -tor- (-sor-), in a perfect sense, is used particularly in old
Latin, or to denote an agent who has acquired a permanent name by a
single conspicuous action. In this sense it usually has a genitive of the
object, or a possessive pronoun : thus,
castiga-tor meus, my mentor, or the man -who has upbraided me; olivae
inven-tor, the deviser of the olive (Aristaeus) ; reper-tor vitis, the author of
the vine (Bacchus) ; patriae libera-tores, the emancipators of the nation.
(2.) -o- (N. -u-s), -a- (N. -a); -lo- (N. -lu-s) ; -on- (N. -6).
209. -o- and -a- stems may denote vocation or class ; many are compounds.
-o-, N. -u-s : coqu-o-, N. coqu-o-s or coc-u-s, cook (V c o qu-, cook] ;
causidic-u-s, pleader (causa-, ^dic-, speak}, -a-, N. -a: scrib-a-, N.
scrib-a, clerk (Vscrib-, write}; agricol-a, husbandman (agro-
till}.
36
The Substantive: Action. [210-219.
210. -U-lo-, N. -U-lu-S (202): ger-ulo-, N. ger-ulu-S, bearer (^ges-, bear);
fig-ulu-S, potter ( Y/ f i g-, shape, mould).
211. -on-, N_. -6-: err-on-, N. err-6, stroller (erra-re) ; especially in com-
pounds: praed-o, robber (praeda-rl); praec-5 for *praevoco, herald (prae-
voca-re); CQVdb'ib-o, fellow-drinker (com-, ^ b i b-, drink).
II. THE ACTION.
212. The suffixes -a-, -io, -ia- ; -min- ; -i-6n-, -ti-6n- ;
-la-; -ma-, -na-; -ta-, -tu- ; -er-, -or-, -or-, are used to
denote the Action : as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
od-io- odium, hate Vod-> hate
ac-tion- actio, action \/ag-, do
ques-tu- questus, complaint V qu e s-, complain
fur- or- furor, rage \jfur-, rave
213. Words denoting action (1470) in a substantive form have a wide
range of meaning ; they may denote, according to the connection, action in-
transitive, transitive, or passive, complete or incomplete ; if the verb denotes
condition or state, the word of action often comes very near to denomina-
tives of quality; furthermore the idea of action is often lost, and passes
over to result, concrete effect, means or instrument, or place.
(i.) -a- (N. -a) ; -io- (N. -iu-m) ; -ia- (N. -ia)', -ie- (N. -ie-s).
214. -a-, N. -a, is rare in words of action: fug-a-, N. fug-a, flight (y/fug-,
fly) ; most words are concrete : rnol-a, mill ( ^ m o 1-, grind) ; tog-a, covering
(y'teg-, cover).
215. -ur-a-, N. -ur-a, is rare: fig-ura-, N. fig-ura, shape (^f ig-, shape).
216. -tur-a- , N. -tur-a, or -siir-a-, N. -sur-a (159, 202), akin to the agent
in -t5r- (-sor-) : arma-tura-, N. arma-tura, equipment (arma-re) ; pic-tura,
painting, i.e., act of painting or picture (\j p i g-, paint). Words parallel with
official personal names (206) denote office: cen-sura, taxing, censor's office
(cf. censor-) ; prae-tura, praetorship (cf. praetor-).
217. -io-, N. -iu-m, sometimes denotes the effect or the object.
The line cannot always be drawn very sharply between these stems
in -io- (many of which may be formed thro'ugh a presumed noun
stem), and denominatives in -io- (249).
218. (a.) -io- is rarely suffixed to simple roots or verb stems : od-io-, N.
od-iu-m, hate, hateful thing, hateful conduct ( \/o d-, hate) ; some words become
concrete: lab-iu-m, lip (\/lab-, lick).
219. (b.) Most primitives in -io- are compounds: as, adag-iu-m, proverb
(ad, \/ag-, speak); ingen-iu-m, disposition (in, Vgen-, beget); discid-iu-m,
separation, exscid-iu-m, destruction (di-, ex, \/scid-, cleave); incend-iu-m,
conflagration (in, \/cand-, light); obsequ-iu-m, compliance (ob-, >/sequ-,
follow); conloqu-iu-m, parley (com-, Vloqu-, talk); obsid-iu-m, siege
(ob, V s e d-, sit).
37
22O-228.] Words : Formation.
220. -t-io-, N. -t-iu-m: spa-tio-, N. spa-tiu-m, stretch Ms pa-, span,
stretchy, solsti-tiu-m, sun-stand, solstice (sol-, ^Sta-, stand); im-tiu-m, a
beginning (in, ^i-, go).
221. -ia-, N. -ia: fur-ia-, N. fur-iae, plural, ravings, madness (\jf u r-,
rave); pluvia, rain (\/ p 1 u v-, rain}. Most stems in -ia- are com-
pounds, used in the plural only, often with concrete or passive meaning :
delic-iae, allurements, pet (de, <J\a.c-, allure] ; excub-iae, patrol (ex,
>/cub-, lie}.
222. -ie-, N. -ie-s, a variation of -ia-, usually denotes result (604) : ser-ie-,
N. ser-ie-s, row (^ser-, string); spec-ie-s, sight, looks (^spec-, spy, see);
pernic-ie-s, destruction (per, Jnec-, murder).
223. -t-ie-, N. -t-ie-s : permi-tie-, N. permi-tie-s, -wasting away (per,
^ m i-, less).
(2.) -min- (103) (N. -men) ; -din-, -gin- (105, g) (N. -do,- go).
224. -min-, N. -men (202), usually active, occasionally passive, is
very common ; it sometimes denotes the means, instrument, or effect.
certa-min-, N. certa-men, contest (certa-re) ; cri-men, charge (Veer-,
c ri-, sift} ; spec-imen, what is inspected, sample (\J s p e c-, spy, see) ; lu-men,
light (vluc-, light) ; flu-men, flood, stream (^f lugu-, flow); ag-men, what
is led, train (Vag-, lead). Words in -min- often mean nearly the same as
those in -mento- (239) : as, leva-men, leva-mentu-m, lightening; teg-
\imen, teg-umentu-m, covering.
225. e-din-, -i-din- (202): -e-din-, N. -e-do: grav-edin-, N. grav-ed5,
(heaviness), catarrh ^ g r a V-, heavy), -i-din-, N. -l-do : cup-ldin-, N. cup-
ld5, desire (Jcup-, desire); lib-ido, -whim (Jlib-, yearn).
226. -a-gin-, -i-gin- (202): -a-gin-, N. -a-go: vora-g_in-, N. vora-g5,
gulf (vora-re) ; ima-go, representation (*ima-, cf. imitari). -i-gin-, N.
-l-go: Otl-gin-, N. Ori-g5, source (ori-ri); cal-igo, darkness (^cal-, hide).
A few denominatives have -u-gin-, N. -u-g5 : aer-ugin-, N. aer-ug5, copper
rust (aer-).
(3.) -i-6n- (N. -i-6) ; -ti-6n- or -si-on- (N. -ti-o or -si-o).
227. -i-5n-, N. -i-p: opin-ion-, N. opin-i5, notion (opina-ri) ; condic-io,
agreement (com-, Jd i C-, say) ; contag-io, touch (com-, ^ t a g-, touch). Some
words are concrete : leg-io, pick, legion ( ^1 e g_-, pick). A few are denominatives :
commun-io, mutual participation (communi-).
228. -ti-6n-, N. -ti-6, or -si-6n-, N. -si-o (159, 202), is very
common, and may denote action either intransitive, transitive, or
passive, or the manner or possibility of action.
cogita-tion-, N. cogita-tio, a thinking, a thought (cogita-re) ; existima-
tio, judging, reputation (existima-re) ; coven-ti5, commonly con-tio, meet-
ing, speech (com-, ^ven-, come); depul-si5, warding off ( de-, \/pol-, push) ;
oppugna-tio, besieging, method of besieging (oppugna-re) ; occulta-tio,
hiding, chance to hide, ^possibility of hiding (occulta-re). Some words denote
the place where : sta-tio, a stand (V st a-, stand) ; some become collectives or
concretes: saluta-tio, greeting, lez>ee, guests at a levee (saluta-re); muni-tic,
fortification, i.e., act of fortifying or works (muni-re).
38
The Substantive: Action. [229-237.
(4.) -e-la- (N. -e-la), -te-la- (N. -te-la).
[-, N. -e-la (202) : suade-la-, N. suade-la, persuasion
loqu-ila, talk (y'l o qu-, talk) ; quer-ela or quer-ella, complaint ( Jqu e s-, com-
229. -e-la-, N. -e-la (202) : suade-la-, N. suade-la, persuasion (suade-re) :
|u-ela, talk (y'l o qu-, talk) ; quer-ela or quer-ella, complaint (Jt
plain). Some words are concrete : cande-la, candle (cande-re).
230. -te-la-, N. -te-la-: conrup-tela-, N. conrup-tela, a seduction (com-,
yf r u p-, s^oil, ruin) ; tu-tela, protection ( y t u-, -watch, protect).
(5.) -ma- (N. -ma), -na- (N. -na) ; -tri-na- (N. -tri-na).
231. -ma- and -na- are rare, and denote result or something concrete, -ma-,
N.'-ma: fa-ma-, N. fa-ma, tale (v/fa-, tell); -na, N. -na : ur-na, pitcher
(^urc- in urc-eus, pitcher, 170, ^); with original suffix -sna (170,2): lu-na,
moon (^ 1 u C-, light); scala, stairs (^ s c a n d-, mount).
232. -ina-, N. -ina: ang-ina-, N. ang-ina, choking (>/ang-, choke}-,
pag-ina, page (\/pag-, fasten) ; sarc-ina, package (^sarc-, patch). -Ina-,
N. -ina (202): ru-ina-, N. ru-ina, downfall (\/ru-, tumble) ; -Ina- is very
common in denominatives : pisc-ina, fish-pond (pisci-).
233. -tri-na-, N. -tri-na, akin to the agent in -tor-: doc-trlna-, N. doc-
trina, teaching, either the act of teaching or what is taught (\/doc-, teach) ;
su-trina, shoemaking, shoemaker's trade, shoemaker's shop (>/ su-, sew).
(6.) -ta- or -sa- (N. -ta or -sa) ; -tu- or -su- (N. -tu-s or -su-s).
234. -ta-, N. -ta, or -sa-, N. -sa (159), is rare, and sometimes denotes result,
or something concrete: as, no-ta-, N. no-ta, mark (Jgno-, know); por-ta
(passage), gate (y/por-, fare); fos-sa, ditch (yffod-, dig); repul-sa, repulse
(re-, ^fp Q\-,push) ; offen-sa, offence (ob, ^f e nd-, strike).
235. -tu-, N. -tu-s, or -su-, N. -su-s (159, 202), denotes the action and its
results: ques-tu-, N. ques-tu-s, complaint (^ques-, complain); gem-itus,
groan (^ gem-, groan}. Stems in -a-tu-, N. -a-tu-s, sometimes denote office
or officials : consul-atu-, N. consul-atu-s, being consul, consulship (consul-) ;
sen-atu-s, senate (sen-), -tu- is seldom passive: vi-su-s, active, sight, pas-
sive, looks (^vid-, see) ; appara-tu-s, preparation, either a getting ready, or
what is got ready (appara-re). The supine (2269) is tne accusative or
ablative of substantives in -tu- (-su-). Most words in -tu- (-su-) are defective
in case, and are chiefly used in the ablative (430).
(7.) -er- for -es- (N. -us) ; -or- (N. -or).
236. Neuter stems in -er- (for -es-), or in -or- (for -os-), N. -us, denote
result, or have a concrete meaning : gen-er-, N. gen-us, birth, race (\/e:e n-,
beget}; op-er-, N. op-us, work (\fop-, work) ; frig-or-, N. frig-us, cold
(v/frig-, cold), -es with lengthened e is sometimes used in the nomina-
tive of gender words: as, nub-es, cloud (\/nub-, -veil); sed-es, seat
(\/sed-); vat-es, bard, -n-er-, -n-or-, N. -n-us : vol-ner-, N. vol-nus,
wound (Vvol-, tear}; fac-inor-, N. fac-inus, deed (\/fac-, do, 202).
237. -or- (for an older form -6s-, 154), N. -6s, commonly -or,
masculine, denotes a state. Many substantives in -or- have a
parallel verb, usually in -ere (368), and an adjective in -ido- (287).
39
238-245-] Words: Formation.
od-or-, N. od-6s or od-or smell (^od-, smell, cf. ole-re) ; pall-or, pale-
ness (cf. palle-re) ; cal-or, warmth (cf. cale-re); um-or, moisture (cf.
ume-re); am-or, love (cf. ama-re) ; ang-or, choking, anguish (Vang-,
choke}.
III. THE INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.
238. The suffixes -men-to, -tro-, -cro- or -culo, -lo-, -bro-
or -bulo-, are used to denote the Instrument or Means : as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
orna-mento- ornamentum, embellishment 6rna-re, embellish
ara-tro- aratrum, plough ara-re, plough
po-culo- poculum, drinking-cup >/ p 6-, drink
pa-bulo- pabulum , fodder V p a-, feed
239. -men-to-, N. -men-tu-m (202), is one of the commonest
suffixes ; it sometimes denotes result of action, rarely action itself.
pig-mento-, N. pig-mentu-m, paint (\/ p I g-, paint}; experi-mentu-m,
test (experi-ri) ; 5rna-mentu-m, ornament (6rna-re); frag-mentu-m, frag-
ment (Vfrag-, break}-, cae-mentu-m, quarried stone (v/caed-> cut)-, incre-
mentu-m, growth (in, V CI> e-, gr<ru>}\ al-imentu-m, nourishment (\/al-,
nurture); doc-umentu-m, lesson (\/doc-, teach}. See also -min- (224).
-men-ta-, N. -men-ta, F., is rare: ful-menta, prop (\/fulc-, prop};
ra-menta, scraping (\/rad-, scrape}.
240. -tro-, N. -tru-m (202): ara-tro-, N. ara-tru-m, plough (ara-re);
fer-etru-m, bier (\/fer-, bear} ; ros-tru-m, beak (\/r6d-, peck}. Sometimes
-stro-: mon-stru-m, warning (y/mon-, mind}; lu-stra, plural, y#, jungle
(v/lu-, wash}; lu-stru-m, purification (^lou-, wash}, -tra-, N. -tra, F. :
mulc-tra-, N. mulc-tra (also mulc-tru-m, Ne.), milking-pail (\/mulg-,
milk}, -es-tra-: fen-estra, window.
241. -cro-, N. -cru-m, used when an 1 precedes: ful-cro-, N. ful-cru-m,
couch-leg ( ^f u 1 C-, prop}, -cro- sometimes denotes the place where: ambula-
cru-m, promenade (ambula-re); sometimes the effect : simula-cru-m, likeness
(simula-re).
242. -culo-, N. -culu-m (202): po-culo-, N. po-culu-m, cup (\fpo-,
drink}; fer-culu-m, tray (^fer-, bear}, -culo- sometimes denotes the
place where: cub-iculu-m, sleeping-room (\/cub-, lie} ; cena-culu-m, origi-
nally dining-room, usually garret (cena-re).
243. -u-lo-, N. -u-lu-m- (202): chiefly after c or g: vinc-ulo-, N. vinc-
ulu-m, bond (y'vinc-, bind}; cing-ulu-m, girdle (Jcing-, gird}. -U-la-,
N. -u-la, F., reg-ula, rule (y/r e g-, guide}.
244. -bro-, N. -bru-m (202): cri-bro-, N. cri-bru-m, sieve (>/cer-,
cri-, sift} ; la-bru-m, wash-basin (\/lav-, wash}, -bra-, N. -bra, F. : dola-
bra, chisel, mattock (dola-re) ; late-bra, hiding-place (\/lat-, hide}.
245. -bulo-, N. -bulu-m (202): pa-bulo-, N. pa-bulu-m, fodder (\/pa-,
keep} ; vena- bulu-m, hunting-spear (vena-ri) ; pat-ibulu-m, pillory (v/pat-,
stretch}, -bulo- sometimes denotes the place where : sta-bulu-m, standing-
place, stall (V s t a-, stand}, -bula-, N^ -bula, F., rare : su-bula, awl (V s u-,
sew}; ta-bula, board (\/ta-, stretch} ; fa-bula, talk (Vfa-, talk}.
40
The Substantive: Quality. [246-254.
(B.) DENOMINATIVES.
I. THE QUALITY.
246. The suffixes -io-, -ia- ; -ta-, -tat-, -tut-, -tu-din-,
are used to denote the Quality : as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
conleg-io- conlegium, colleagzieship conlega-, N. conlega, colleague
audac-ia- audacia, boldness audaci-, N. audax, bold
civi-tat- civitas, citizenship civi-, N. civis, citizen
magni-tudin- magnitude, greatness magno-, N. magnus, great
247. These abstracts are feminine, and come chiefly from adjectives
or participles, except those in -io-, which are neuters, and come mostly from
substantives. Sometimes the same stem takes two or more of these suffixes :
as, clari-tat- or clari-tudin-, brightness (claro); iuven-tut-, in poetry iuven-
tat- or iuven-ta-, youth (iuven-).
(i.) -io- (N. -iu-m), -ia- (N. -ia), -ie- (N. -ies).
248. -ie- sometimes occurs as collateral form to -ia- (604) ; -io- or
-ia- is sometimes attached to other suffixes : thus, -t-io-, -t-ia- (-t-ie-);
-mon-io-, -mon-ia- ; -cin-io-.
249. -io-, N. -iu-m, chiefly used in compounds, denotes belonging
to, with a very wide range of meaning ; many of these words are
clearly neuter adjectives in -io- (305). Suffixed to personal names -io-
often denotes the condition, action, or employment, which gives rise
to the name ; this meaning sometimes passes over to that of result,
relation of persons, collection of persons, or place.
250. (a.) From simple noun stems: sen-io-, N. sen-iu-m, feeble old age
(sen-); somn-iu-m, dream (somno-) ; sav-iu-m, love-kiss (suavi-) ; silent-
iu-m, silence (silenti-) ; crepund-ia, plural, rattle (*crepundo-) ; mendac-
iu-m, lie (mendaci-); solac-iu-m, comfort (*solaci-, comforting).
251. (b.) Direct compounds (377) : aequinoct-iu-m, equinox (aequo-,
nocti-); contubern-iu-m, companionship (com-, taberna-) ; privileg-iu-m,
special enactment (privo-, leg-).
252. (c.) Indirect compounds (377), chiefly from personal names : consil-
iu-m, deliberating together, faculty of deliberation, conclusion, advice, delibera-
tive body (consul-) ; auspic-iu-m, taking auspices, auspices taken (auspic-) ;
remig-iu-m, rowing, oars, oarsmen (remig-) ; conleg-iu-m, colleagucsJitp,
corporation (conlega-) ; aedific-iu-m, building (*aedific-, builder] ; perfug-
iu-m, asylum (perfuga-).
253. -t-io- N. -t-iu-m, rare : servi-tio-, N. servi-tiu-m, slavery, slaves
(servo-) ; calvi-tiu-m, baldness (calvo-).
254. -mon-io-, N. -mon-iu-m (202) : testi-m5nio-, N. testi-m5niu-m,
evidence (testi-) ; matr-imoniu-m, marriage (matr-) ; patr-imoniu-m,/a^-
mony (patr-).
2* 4 1
2 5 5~ 2 65.] Words : Formation.
255. -cin-io-, N. -cin-iu-m, rare: latro-cinio-, N. latro-ciniu-m, rob-
bery (latron-) ; patro-ciniu-m,/r^^//o (patrono-).
256. -ia-, N. -ia, is very common indeed, forming abstracts from
nouns, mostly adjectives or present participles.
audac-ia-, N. audac-ia, boldness (audaci-); miser-ia, wretchedness (mis-
ero-); abundant-ia, plenty (abundanti-); scient-ia L knowledge (scienti-);
milit-ia, warfare (milit-J ; victor-ia, victory (victSr-) ; mater-ia, timber
(mater-) ; custod-ia, guard (custdd-).
257. -ie-, N. -ie-s:_pauper-ie-, N. pauper-ie-s, moderate means (pau-
per-). Most stems in -ie- are primitive (222).
258. -t-ia-, N. -t-ia, is suffixed to a few adjective stems, chiefly in -o-:
iusti-tia-, N. iusti-tia, justice (iusto) ; mali-tia, -wickedness (malo-) ; pudici-
tia, shamefastness (pudico-) ; tristi-tia, sadness (tristi-).
259. -t-ie-, N. -t-ie-s, particularly as a collateral form of -t-ia- in the N.,
Ac., x and Ab. singular (604) : molli-tie-, N. molli-tie-s, softness (molli-).
260. -mon-ia-, N. -m5n-ia (202) : acri-m5nia-, N. acri-rn5nia, sharpness
(acri-) ; parsi-rnonia, economy (parso-). Analogously from roots, quer-imonia,
complaint (^qu e s-, complain} ; al-imonia, nurture (^a 1-, nurture}.
(2.) -ta- (N. -ta), -tat- (N. -ta-s), -tut- (N. -tu-s),
-tu-din- (N. -tii-do).
261. -ta-, N. -ta: chiefly poetic: iuven-ta-, N. iuven-ta, youth (iuven-);
senec-ta, age (sen-ec-).
262. -tat-, N. -ta-s (202), is one of the very commonest suffixes,
pie-tat-, N. pie-ta-s, dutifulness (pio-, 105); felici-ta-s, happiness (felici-);
civi-ta-s, citizenship, the community (civi-) ; facili-ta-s, easiness, facul-ta-s,
ability (facili-); cari-ta-s, dearness (caro-) ; auctor-ita-s, authority (auctor-)i
\iber-ta.-s, freedom (libro-, in, b) ; maies-ta-s, grandeur (maios-) ; volun-
ta-s, wish (*volunti-, 179); venus-ta-s, grace (venusto-, 179); ae-ta-s, age
(aevo-, in, a) ; tempes-ta-s, kind of time, weather (tempes-j.
263. -tut-, N. -tu-s, only in iuven-tut-, N. iuven-tu-s, youth (iuven-),
senec-tu-s, age (senec-), servi-tu-s, slavery (servo-), and vir-tu-s, manhood
(viro-, in).
264. -tu-din-, N. -tu-do, suffixed to adjective stems : magni-tudin-, N.
magni-tudo, greatness (magno-) ; forti-tudo, courage (forti-) ; and to a few
participles: consue-tudo, custom (consueto-, 179); sollici-tudo, anxiety
(sollicito-) ; analogously vale-tudo, health (*valeto-, valere).
II. THE PERSON CONCERNED.
265. The suffixes -ario-, -on-, -ion-, -li- f -no-, and some others, are
used to denote the Person concerned or occupied with a thing : as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
sic-ario- sicarius, assassin sica-, N. sica, dagger
ale-6n- aleo, gambler alea-, N . alea, die
lud-ion- ludio, player ludo-, N. ludus, play
aedi-li- aedllis, aedile aedi-, N. aedis, house
tribu-no- tribunus, tribune tribu-, N. tribus, tribe
42
The Substantive: Diminutives. [266-271.
III. THE PLACE.
266. Neuters with the suffixes -torio-, -ario-, -ill-, -to-, or -eto-
are often used to denote the Place: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
audi-t5rio- audi-torium, lecture-room auditor-, N. auditor, hearer
aer-ario- aerarium, treasury aer-, N. aes, money
ov-ili- ovile, sheepfold ovi-, N. ovis, sheep
murt-eto- murteta, myrtlegroves murto-, N. murtus, myrtle
IV. DIMINUTIVES.
267. The suffixes -lo-, -la-, or -cu-lo-, -cu-la-, are used
to form substantives with a Diminutive meaning. Diminutives
may denote :
268. (i.) Actual smallness : as, securicula, a little hatchet; ventulus,
a bit of wind ; specula, a ray of hope.
269. (2.) Imputed smallness: implying, (a.) admiration, affection, or
compassion ; (b.) contempt or irony. This diminutive, which usually serves
to add point to sentences themselves of a playful, patronizing, or slurring
character, is very hard to translate ; little and small are often inadequate ;
old or poor will sometimes do ; but usually recourse must be had to free
translations adapted to the particular context : as,
oratiuncula, a gem of a speech, an attempt at a speech ; matercula, an
anxious mother ; poor mamma, dear mamma; lectulus, one's own little bed ;
anellus aureolus, a gay gold ring ; Graeculi, our Greek coiisins, the good
people in Greece', Graeculus, a regular Greek, your gentleman from Greece;
muliercula, a pretty girl, a lady gay, one of the gentler sex, a mere woman,
an unprotected female, a maiden all forlorn ; lacrimula, a wee tear, a crocodile
tear ; volpecula, Master Reynard, dan Russel ; tonstricula, a common barber
girl ; popellus, rabble; nummuli, filthy lucre; mercedula, an apology for
pay ; ratiuncula, a first rate reason ; cauponula, a low tavern.
270. Some diminutives have entirely lost the diminutive meaning : as, puella,
girl, not necessarily little girl; others have changed their original meaning: as,
avunculus, uncle, originally grandfapa; anguilla, eel, originally little snake.
Some words are only found in the diminutive form : as, Stella, star (*ster-).
Diminutives usually have the gender of their primitives ; exceptions are rare : as,
rana, frog, F., ranunculus, tadfole, M.
(i.) -lo- (N., M. -lu-s, Ne. -lu-m), -la- (N. -la).
271. Stems in -o, -a-, or a mute (-g-, -c-, -d-, or -t-), take
-lo- or -la-, which is usually preceded by -u- (202).
hortu-lo-, N. hortu-lu-s, little garden (horto-) ; oppidu-lu-m, hamlet
(oppido-) ; serru-la-, N. serru-la, little saw (serra-) ; reg-ulu-s, chieftain
(reg-) ; voc-ula, a bit of a voice (voc-) ; calc-ulu-s, pebble (calci-) ; nepot-
ulu-s, a grandson dear (nepot-) ; aetat-ula, tender age (aetat-).
43
272279-] Words : Formation.
272. Stems in -eo-, -io-, or -vo-, retain -o- before -lo-; stems in
-ea- f -ia-, or -va-, also have -o- before -la-.
alveo-lo-, N. alveo-lu-s, little tray (alveo-) ; gladio-lu-s, little sword
(gladio-) ; servo-lu-s, little slave (servo-) ; nauseo-la-, N. nauseo-la, a
slight squeamish-ness (nausea-) ; bestio-la, little animal (bestia-j ; filio-la,
little daughter (filia-).
273. Stems in -lo-, -ro-, -no-, and -la-, -ra-, -na-, commonly drop the stem
vowel and assimilate -r- or -n- to -1-: thus : -el-lo-, -el-la- (in; b; 166, 6, 7).
catel-lo-, for *catululo-, N. catel-lu-s, puppy (catulo-) ; agel-lu-s, little
field (a_gro-); asel-lu-s, donkey (asino-); fabel-la-, N. fabel-la, short story
(fabula-) ; umbel-la, sunshade (umbra-) ; pagel-la, short page (pagina-).
A few words are not thus changed : pueru-lo-, N. pueru-lu-s,/wr boy (puero-),
as well as puel-lu-s.
274. Another vowel than e (172, 3) appears in : Hispal-lu-s (Hispano-),
Messal-la (Messana-), proper names; corol-la, chaplet (corona-) ; ul-lu-s,
the least one, any at all (uno-) ; Sul-la (Sura-), proper name; lapil-lu-s, for
*lapid-lu-s, pebble (lapid-). Also homul-lu-s, son of the dust (homon-).
(2.) -cu-lo- (N., M. -cu-lu-s, Ne. -cu-lu-m), -cu-la-
(N. -cu-la).
275. Stems in a continuous sound (-1-, -n-, -r-, or -s-), or
in -i-, -u-, or -e-, usually take -cu-lo- or -cu-la-.
sermun-culo-, N. sermun-culu-s, small-talk (sermon-) ; virgun-cula-,
N. virgun-cula, little maid (virgon-) ; homun-culu-s, son of earth (homon-) ;
arbus-cula, tiny tree (arbos-) ; cor-culu-m, heart of hearts (cord-, 170, 12) ;
igni-culu-s, spark (igni-) ; ani-cula, grandam (anu-) ; die-cula, brief
day (die-); analogously, volpe-cula [vixen], little fox (*volpe-). Rarely
with i : cani-cula, little dog (can-).
276. -un-culo-, N. -un-culu-s : av-unculo-, N. av-unculu-s, tmcle (avo-);
ran-unculu-s, tadpole (rana-). -un-cula-, N. -un-cula : dom-uncula-, N.
dom-uncula, little house (domo-).
277. Diminutives are sometimes formed from other diminutives : cistel-lu-la,
casket (cistel-la, cistu-la, cista-).
278. A few other suffixes have a diminutive meaning : as, -cion-, -leo-, -astro-,
-tta- : homun-cio, manikin, child of dust (homon-) ; acu-leu-s, sting (acu-) ;
Antoni-aster, regular little Antony; pin-aster, bastard pine; luli-tta,
Juliet (lulia-); Polli-tta, little Polla (P5115-).
V. PATRONYMICS.
279. Patronymics, or proper names which denote descent from a father or
ancestor, have steins in -da- (N. -de-s), F. -d- (N. -s). These are chiefly
Greek names used in poetry.
Priami-da-, N. Priami-de-s, scion of Priam- 's house ; Tantali-d-, N. Tan-
tali-s, daughter of Tantalus. Peli-de-s (Peleu-s); Aenea-de-s (Aenea-);
Thestia-de-s (Thestio-); Laertia-de-s (Laerta-) ; Scipia-da-s (Scipion-).
F. sometimes -ine or -one : NeptunTne (Neptuno-) ; Acrisione (Acrisio-).
44
The Adjective: Active. [280-287.
II. THE ADJECTIVE.
(A.) PRIMITIVES.
280. Primitive adjectives may usually be divided into active and pas-
sive ; but the same suffix often has either an active or a passive meaning.
Under primitive adjectives belong the participles ; but these will be men-
tioned in connection with the verb.
I. WITH AN ACTIVE MEANING.
281. The suffixes -O-, -uo-, -ci-, -lo-, and -do-, are used to
form adjectives with an Active meaning : as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
vag-o- vagus, wandering V v a ~> wander
contig-uo- contiguus, touching com-, \/ 1 a g-, touch
mina-ci- minax, threatening mina-ri, threaten
cali-do- calidus, warm i]ca.l-,warm
(i.) -O- (N. -u-s); -UO- (N. -uu-s).
282. -o- (N. -u-s) : such words express nature or capacity: vag-o-, N.
vag-u-s, roaming (\/vag-, roam); viv-u-s, living (\/vi v-, live) ; many are
compounds: as, male-dic-u-s, abusive (male, \/dic-, say) ; pro-fug-u-s,
flying on (pro-, \/f ug-,y?j/). Passive: fid-u-s, trustworthy (\/fid-, trust}.
283. -uo-, N. -uu-s : adsid-uo-, N. adsid-uu-s, unremitting (ad,
Vsed-, sit); contig-uu-s, touching (com-, \/tag-, touch}; perpet-uu-s,
^lninterrupted (per, >/pet-, go). Some words are passive: as, sal-vu-s,
safe (\/sal-, save) ; vac-uu-s, empty (v/vac-, empty} ; relic-uo-s, left behind
(re-, ijliqu-, leave), later reliquos, relicus, reliquus (157).
(2.) -Ci- (N. -x) ; -lo- (N. -lu-s) ; -do- (N. -du-s).
284. -a-ci-, N. -a-x (202), denotes capacity, habit, or inclination, often im-
plying censure : pugna-ci-, N. pugna-x, full of fight (pugna-re) ; mina-x,
threatening (mina-ri) ; im-ax., productive (\/f er-, bear) ; dic-ax, full of 'mother-
wit, quick at a joke (\/dic-, say) j rap-ax, apt to snatch (\/rap-, snatch).
285. -u-lo-, N. -u-lu-s (202), denotes simple action: as, pat-ulo-, N. pat-
Ulu-S, spreading (y/pat-, spread); or inclination: as, bib-ulu-S, apt to drink
(\l b i b-, drink).
286. The suffixes -undo- (-endo-), -bundo-, and -cundo- form a
group and are possibly related to the suffix in -do-.
287. -do-, N. -du-s (202), denotes a state, and usually has a parallel
verb in -ere (368) : cali-do-, N. cali-du-s warm (cf. cale-re) ; calli-du-s,
knowing (cf. calle-re) ; niti-du-s, shining (cf. nite-re) ; rarely in -ere : cup-
idu-s, desirous (cf. cupe-re) ; flui-du-s, liquid (cf. flue-re) ; rapi-du-s, hur-
ried (cf. rape-re), -i-do- becomes -i-di- in viri-di-s, green (cf. vire-re).
-do- sometimes occurs in denominatives : herbi-du-s, grassy (herba-).
-45
288-296.] Words: Formation.
288. -undo- (-endo-), N. -undu-s, (-endu-s) is the suffix of the ger-
undive, which was originally neither active nor passive (2238). In a few
words from reflexives, which have become adjectives, it has a reflexive or
active meaning: lab-undo-, N. lab-undu-s, gliding, slipping (labi); ori-
undu-s, arising (oriri) ; sec-undu-s,/<?//cw/#- (sequi) ; volv-endu-s, roll-
ing (volvi). See 899.
289. -bundo-, N. -bundu-s (202), has the meaning of an exaggerated
present participle : freme-bundo-, N. freme-bundu-s, muttering away
(\ffrem-, roar); treme-bundu-s, all in a flutter (\/trem-, quiver} ; fur-
ibundu-s, hot with rage (\jf ur-, rave) ; c5nti6na-bundu-s, speaking a speech
(contiona-ri) ; minita-bundu-s, breathing out threatening* (minita-ri) ; vita-
bundu-s, forever dodging (vita-re).
290. -cundo-, N. -cundu-s, denotes permanent quality : fa-cundo-, N. fa-
cundu-s, eloquent (\/f a-, speak) ; ira-cundu-s, choleric (ira-sci); iu-cundu-s,
pleasant, interesting (^'iuv-, help).
II. WITH A PASSIVE MEANING.
291. The suffixes -li-, -ti-li-, -bill-, -tivo-, -no-, and
-mino-, are used to form adjectives with a Passive, meaning: as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
fac-ili- facilis, easy to do \f f a c-, do
duc-tili- ductilis, ductile >/ d u c-, draw
ama-bili- amabilis, lovable ama-re, love
mag-no- magnus, great ^ rn a g-, increase
(i.) -li- (N. -li-s) ; -ti-li-, -bill- (N. -ti-li-s, -bili-s).
292. -i-li-, N. -i-li-s (202), denotes passive capability: fac-ili-, N. fac-
ili-s, easy to </<? (V f a c-, do) ; f rag-ili-s, breakable, frail (>/ f r a g-, break) ; hab-
ili-s, manageable, handy (^ h ab-, hold) ; nub-ili-s, marriageable (^n u b-, veil).
293. -ti-li-, N. -ti-li-s, or -si-li-, N. -si-li-s (159), denotes capability or
quality : as, duc-tili, N. duc-tili-s, capable of being drawn out, ductile (\f d u c-,
draw) ; fis-sili-s, cleavable (>/f id-, split] ; ra-sili-s, scraped (\/rad-, scrape).
Rarely active: as, fer-tili-s, productive (^fer-, bear).
294. -bili-, N. -bili-s (202), denotes passive capability like -i-li-, but is far
more common : horr-ibili-s, exciting a shudder (cf. horre-re) ; ama-bili-s,
lovable (ama-re); fle-bili-s, lamentable (\/fle-, weep). Rarely active: as,
sta-bili-s, that can stand ( <\ s t a-, stand) ; penetra-bili-s, piercing (penetra-
re). -ti-bili- (i 59), passive, rare : fienbfli-B, J&**& ( ^/ f 1 e c-, bend, 960).
295. -tivo-, N. -tivu-s, denotes the way a thing originated: as, cap-
tivu-s, captive (\/cap-, take] ; sta-tivu-s, set (^sta-, set).
(2.) -no- (N. -nu-s) ; -mino- (N. -minu-s).
296. -no-, N. -nu-s, an old passive participle suffix, denotes result :
mag-nu-s (enlarged), great (\/ m a g-, great) ; ple-nus, full (\/ple-, _/?//).
Neuter as substantive: do-nu-m, gift (\jdo-, give). Sometimes active:
ege-nu-s, needy (ege-re, 192).
46
The Adjective: Appurtenance. [297-304.
297. The suffix -mino- (for -meno-, 103, a) in its weakest form
(135, 2) is found in a few substantives: as, alu-mnu-s, nursling
(^al-, nurse). The endings -mini (730) and -mino (731) are appar-
ently case forms of the same suffix, -mind would seem to be an
ablative ; -mini may be a nominative plural.
(B.) DENOMINATIVES.
298. Denominative adjectives may be divided into such as denote :
I. Material or Resemblance. II. Appurtenance: implying sometimes flosses*
von, otttn fitness, conformity, character, or origin. III. Supply. IV. Diminu-
tives. V. Comparatives and Superlatives ; a few of these are primitive.
I. MATERIAL OR RESEMBLANCE.
299. The suffixes -eo- and -n-eo- are used to form adjectives
denoting Material or Resemblance : as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
aur-eo- aureus, golden auro-, N. aurum, gold
ahe-neo- aheneus, bronze (58) aes-, N. aes, bronze
300. -eo-, N. -eu-s : aur-eo-, N. aur-eu-s, golden, all gold, as good as
gold (auro-) ; ferr-eu-s, iron (ferro-) ; pulver-eu-s, all dust (pulver-) ;
virgin-eu-s, girlish (virgin-).
301. -n-eo-, N. -n-eu-s : ahe-neu-s, bronze (ahe-, 58; aes-); quer-
neu-s, oaken (quercu-). -no- is usually poetical : as, ebur-nu-s, ivory
(ebur-); quer-nu-s, oaken (quercu-). -a-neo-, N. -a-neu-s : miscell-
aneu-s, mixed (miscello-).
II. APPURTENANCE.
302. The suffixes -o-, -io-, -vo- ; -timo-, -li-, -no- ; -bri-,
-cri-, -tri- ; -co-, -ti-, -si-, are used to form adjectives denoting
Belonging to : as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
reg-io- regius, kingly reg-, N. rex, king
mari-timo- maritimus, of the sea mari-, N. mare, sea
reg-ali- regalis, of a king reg-, N. rex, king
can-mo- .camnus, of a dog can-, N. canis, dog
mulie-bri- muliebris, womanly mulier-, N. mulier, woman
civi-co- civicus, citizen's civi-, N. civis, citizen
(i.) -o- (N. -u-s), -io- (N. -iu-s), -vo- (N. -vu-s).
303. -o-, N. -u-s : decor-o-, N. decor-u-s, oecoming (decor-); canor-u-s,
melodious (canor-) ; pervius, passable (via-).
304. -io- is one of the commonest suffixes, and is often added to
other suffixes ; thus : -c-io-, -ic-io- ; -tor-io- (-sor-io-) ; -ar-io-.
47
305-3 I 5 ] Words : Formation.
305. -io-, N. -iu-s : reg-io-, N. reg-iu-s, of 'or like a king (reg-) ; patr-
iu-s, of a father (patr-). Here belong many gentile names : as, Sest-iu-s
(Sexto-). These are used with substantives as adjectives : as, lex Cornel-ia,
lex lul-ia. Furthermore patrial adjectives : as, Corinth-iu-s, Corinthian
(Corintho-). In some, consonant -io- is used : plebe-iu-s, of the commons
(plebe-). -io- is rare in primitives : exim-iu-s, select (ex, ^em-, take}.
306. -c-io-, N. -c-iu-s (202) : aedili-cio, N. aedili-ciu-s, of an aedile
(aedili-) ; patr-iciu-s, of the fathers (patr-) ; later-iciu-s, of brick (later-).
307. -ic-io-, N. -ic-iu-s : nov-icio-, N. nov-iciu-s, new, new-comer
(novo-); natal-iciu-s, birthday's (natali-) ; caement-iciu-s, rubble (cae-
mento-). Usually suffixed to perfect participles to denote the quality
derived from the past act : conduct-iciu-s, hired (conducto-) ; tralat-
iciu-s, transferred (tralato-).
308. -tor-io-, N. -tor-iu-s, or -sor-io-, N. -sor-iu-s, from the agent
(205) in -tor- (-sor-), is the commonest ending with -io- : impera-t5rio-,
N. impera-toriu-s, of a commander (imperatSr-). The neuter, as substan-
tive, denotes the place where (266): audi-toriu-m, lecture-room (auditor-) ;
devor-soriu-m, inn (devorsor-).
309. -ar-io-, N. -ar-iu-s, very common, is chiefly added to substan-
tives : as, agr-ario-, N. agr-ariu-s, of land (agro-). Often as substan-
tive : not-ariu-s (265), stenographer (nota-) ; aer-ariu-m (266), treasury
(aer-) ; semin-ariu-m, nursery (semin-) ; bell-aria, plural, goodies, bonbons
(bello-).
310. -i-vo-, N. -i-vu-s (202) : tempest-ivu-s, seasonable (tempestat-,
126) ; aest-Ivu-s, summer's (aestat-). See 179.
(2.) -timo- (N. -timu-s); -li- (N. -li-s) ; -no- (N. -nu-s).
311. -timo-, N. -timu-s (202), for an older -tumo- (28): mari-timo-,
N. mari-timu-s, of the sea (mari-) ; fmi-timu-s, of the border (fini-) ;
leg-itimu-s, lawful (leg-).
312. -li- N. -li-s: humi-li-, N. humi-li-s, lowly (humo-) ; but
almost always in denominatives -li- is preceded by a long vowel (202),
usually -a- or -I-, thus : -a-li- (-a-ri-), -i-li ; -e-li-, -u-li-.
313. -a-li-, N. -a-li-s: reg-ali-, N. reg-ali-s, kingly (reg-) ; decemvir-
ali-s, of a decemvir (decemviro-) ; fat-ali-s, fated (fato-) ; t-ali-s, such (stem
to-, that) ; qu-ali-s, as (quo-), -a-ri-, N. -a-ri-s, is used for -ali- if an 1
precedes (173) : as, mol-ari-, N. mol-ari-s, of a mill (mola-) ; milit-ari-s,
of a soldier (milit-). Neuters in -ali- and -ari- often become substantives
(600): foe-ale, neckcloth (fauci-); anim-al, breathing thing (anima-) ;
calc-ar, sptir (calci-).
314. -i-li-, N. -I-li-s: civ-ili-, N. civ-ili-s, of a citizen (civi-) ; puer-
ili-s, boyish (puero-). The neuter, as substantive, sometimes denotes the
place where (266) : ov-ile, sheepfold (ovi-).
315. -e-li, N. -e-li-s : fide-li-, N. fide-li-s, faithful (fide-) ; crud-eli-s,
cruel (crudo-); patru-eli-s, cousin (patruo-1. -u-li-, N. -u-li-s: tribu-li-,
N. tribu-li-s, tribesman (tribu-).
48
The Adjective: Appurtenance. [316327.
316. The old participle suffix -no- (296) is sometimes added at
once to noun stems, sometimes to other suffixes : thus, -a-no-, -i-iio- ;
-ti-no-, -ti-iio- ; -er-no-, -ur-no-.
317. -no-, N. -nu-s, is added to stems formed with the comparative
suffix -ero- or -tero- (347), denoting place : super-no-, N. super-nu-s,
above', inter-nu-s, internal (inter) ; exter-nu-s, outside ; so, also, alter-
nu-s, every other (altero-) ; and to a very few substantives : as, pater-nu-s,
fatherly (patr-) ; frater-nu-s, brotherly (fratr-) ; ver-nu-s, of spring (ver-).
Also to cardinals, making distributives : as, bi-ni, two by two (for *duini,
duo-, 161).
318. -a-no-, N. -a-nu-s (202): area-no-, N. arc-anu-s, secret (area-) ;
R6ma-nu-s, of Rome (Roma-); mont-anu-s, of a mountain (monti-) ;
oppid-anu-s, of a town (oppido-). -i-ano- : Ciceron-iano-, N. CicerSn-
ianu-s, Cicero's. Rarely -a-neo- : mediterra-neu-s, midland (medio-,
terra-).
319. -i-no-, N. -i-nu-s (202): mar-mo-, N. mar-Inu-s, of the sea;
repent-inu-s, sudden (repenti-) ; oftenest added to names of living beings:
as, can-inu-s, of a dog (can-) ; div-inu-s, of a god (divo-) ; -e-no- : lani-
enu-s, ali-enu-s. Also to proper names : as, Plaut-ino-, N. Plaut-Inu-s,
of Plautus (Plauto-); Alp-mu-s, Alpine (Alpi-).
320. -ti-no-, N. -ti-nu-s, is used in some adjectives of time: cras-tinu-s,
to-morrow's (eras-) ; diu-tinu-s, lasting (&&) ; pris-tinu-s, of aforetime (pii-,
prae).
321 . -ti-no-, N. -ti-nu-s, is used in a few words of place and time : intes-tino-,
N. intes-tinu-s, inward (intus) ; vesper-tmu-s, at eventide (vespero-).
322. From words like frater-nus (from *fratr(i)-nus, in, 6), pater-nus,
exter-nus, inter-nus, arose a new suffix -terno-: as, hes-ternus, from the
stem hes- (cf. her-i, 154), and -erno- in hodiernus. From the adverb *noctur
(VU/CTWP) was derived noctur-nus, by analogy to which diurnus was formed. Else-
where the -ur of -urnus and the -tur- of -turnus belong to the stem: as, ebur-
nus; tacitur-nus, from the agent *taci-tor (205).
(3.) -bri-, -cri-, -tri- (N. -ber or -bri-s, &c.).
323. -bri-, N. -ber or -bri-s : salu-bri-, N. salu-ber, healthy (saliit-) ;
mulie-bri-s, womanly (mulier-).
324. -cri-, N. -cer or -cri-s (202): volu-cri-, N. volu-cer, -winged
(*volo-, flying ) ; medio-cri-s, middling (medio-).
325. -tri-, N. -ter or -tri-s : eques-tri-, N. eques-ter, of horsemen
(equit-, 152); semes-tri-s, of six months (sex, mens-). -es-tri- is used in a
few words: camp-ester, of fields (campo-); silv-estri-s, of woods (silva-).
(4.) -CO- (N. -cu-s) ; -ti-, -si- (N. -a, -si-s).
326. -co- is often suffixed to -ti-, sometimes to -es-ti- ; thus :
-ti-co-, -es-ti-co-.
327. -co-, N. -cu-s : civi-co-, N. civi-cu-s, of a citizen (civi-) ; belli-
CU-s, of war (bello-); vili-cu-s, bailiff' (villa-), -a-co-, -i-co-, -u-co-
(202): mera-cu-s, aml-cu-s, anti-cu-s, apri-cu-s, posti-cu-s, pudi-cu-s,
cadu-cu-s. -ti-co-, N. -ti-cu-s: rus-tico-, N. rus-ticu-s, of the country
(rus-). -es-ti-co-, N. -es-ti-cu-s: dom-esticu-s, of a house (dome-,
domu-).
4 49
328336.] Words: Formation.
328. -ti- or -si- denotes belonging to a place ; usually -a-ti-,
-i-ti-, -es-ti-, -en-ti- ; -en-si-, or -i-en-si-.
329. -ti-, N. -s: Tibur-ti-, N. Tibur-s, Tiburtine (Tibur-). -a-ti-:
quoi-ati-, N. quoi-a-s, what countryman ? (quoio-) ; Anti-a-s, of Antium
(Antio-) ; optim-ates, good men and true (optimo-). -i-ti- : Samn-Iti-,
N. Samn-i-s, Samnian (Samnio-). -en-ti-: Vei-enti-, N. Vei-en-s,
of Vei (Veio-). -es-ti-, N. -es-ti-s: agr-esti-, N. agr-esti-s, of the fields
(agro-j; cael-esti-s, heavenly (caelo-).
330. -en-si-, N. -en-si-s (202), from appellatives of place or proper
names of place: castr-ensi-, N. castr-ensi-s, of a camp (castro-); circ-
ensi-s, of the circtis (circo-) ; Hispani-ensi-s (temporarily) of Spain.
-i-ensi- : Karthagin-iensi-s, of Carthage (Karthagin-).
III. SUPPLY.
331. The suffixes -to- or -oso- are used to form adjec-
tives denoting Supplied or Furnished with : as,
STEM. NOMINATIVE. FROM.
barba-to- barbatus, bearded barba-, N. barba, beard
ann-oso- annosus,yW/ of years anno-, N. annus, year
(i.) -to- (N. -tu-s) ; -len-to- (N. -len-tu-s).
332. -to-, the perfect participle suffix, is sometimes added at
once to a noun stem, sometimes to other suffixes, thus : -ato-, -ito-,
-eto-, -uto-, -ento, -lento-.
333. -to-, N. -tu-s: onus-to-, N. onus-tu-s, loaded (onus-); vetus-
tu-s, full of years (*vetus-, year); ius-tu-s, just (ius-); hones-tu-s,
honourable (*hones-); funes-tu-s, deadly (funes-). -a-to- : barba-tu-s,
bearded (barba-); dent-atu-s, toothed (denti-) ; -i-to- : auri-tu-s, long-
eared (auri-) ; -u-to- : cornu-tu-s, horned (cornu-). -en-to-, N. -en-tu-s :
cru-ento-, N. cru-entu-s, all gore (*cruenti-, *cruere). As substan-
tive, arg-entu-m (white metal), silver; flu-enta, plural, streams
(fluenti-).
334. The neuter of stems in -to-, as a substantive, denotes the place
where something, generally a plant, is found (266) : arbus-tu-m, vineyard
(arbos-); commonly preceded by -e-, forming -e-to- (202), usually plural :
dum-eta, thorn-thickets (dumo-); murt-eta, myrtle- groves (murto-).
335- -len-to-, N. -len-tu-s (202) : vmo-lento-, N. vino-lentu-s,
dnmken (vino-); sanguin-olentu-s, all blood (sanguin-) ; lucu-lentu-s,
bright (luci-, 28) ; pulver-ulentu-s, dusty (pulver-). A shorter form
-lenti- is rare : vi-olenti-, N. vi-olen-s, violent (vi-) ; op-ulen-s, rich (op-).
(2.) -oso- (N. -OBU-B).
336. -oso- (sometimes -onso-, -osso-), N. -6su-s, full 0f, is
very common indeed, -oso- is sometimes attached to other suffixes,
thus: -c-oso-, -ul-6so-, -uc-ul-oso-.
5
The Adjective: Comparison. [337-343.
337. -5so-, N. -6su-s : ann-oso-, N. ann-6su-s, full of years ; form-
onsu-s, form-ossu-s or form-6su-s, shapely (forma-) ; pericul-osu-s, with
danger fraught (periculo-) ; mor-6su-s, priggish, cross (mor-) ; calamit-
6su-s, full of damage (calamitat-, 179); superstiti-6su-s, stiperstitious
(superstition-, 179); fructu-5su-s, fruitful (fructu-, 116, c] |; mcnt-
uosu-s,///// of mountains (monti-, 202) ; curi-6su-s, full of care (cura-) ;
labor-iosu-s, toilsome (labor-, 202).
338. -c-oso-, N. -c-osu-s : belli-coso-, N. belli-cosu-s, -warlike
(bello-, bellico-). -ul-6so-, N. -ul-6su-s : formid-uloso-, N. formid-
ulosu-s, terrible (formidin-, 179). -uc-ul-oso-, N. -uc-ul-6su-s : met-
-u-culoso-, N. met-u-culosu-s, skittish (metu-).
IV. DIMINUTIVES.
339. Diminutives are formed from adjectives, as from sub-
stantives (267).
-lo-, N. -lu-s : aureo-lo-, N. aureo-lu-s, all gold, of precious gold, of
red red gold, good as gold (aureo-) ; ebrio-lu-s, tipsy (ebrio-) ; parvo-lu-s,
or parvu-lu-s, smallish (parvo-) ; frigidu-lu-s, chilly (frigido-) ; vet-ulus,
little old (vet-); tenellu-lu-s, soft and sweet (tenello-, tenero-) ; pulchel-
lus, sweet pretty (pulchro-); bel-lu-s, bonny (bono-) ; novel-lu-s, newborn
(*novolo-, novo-). -culo-, N. -culu-s : pauper-culo-, N. pauper-culu-s,
poorish (pauper-); levi-culu-s, somewhat vain (levi-).
340. A peculiar class of diminutives is formed by adding -culo- to the compara-
tive stem -ius- (346): as, nitidius-culo-, N. nitidius-CUlu-S, a trifle sleeker
(nitidius-) ; longius-culu-s, a bit longer (longius-).
341. Adverbs sometimes have a diminutive form : as, belle, charmingly ; paul-
lulum, a little bit; rneliuscule, a bit better (340).
V. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
342. Comparatives and superlatives are usually formed from the stem
of the positive : as, dignior, worthier, dignissimus, worthiest, from digno-,
stem of dignus. A few are formed directly from roots : thus, maior,
greater, and maximus, greatest, are formed from the ^mag-, and not from
magno-, stem of magnus.
(l.) COMPARATIVE -lor, SUPERLATIVE -
343. The nominative of comparative adjectives ends
usually in -ior, and that of superlatives in -issimus :
thus,
COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut.
-ior -ior -ius -issimus -issima -issimum
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, highest.
tristis, sad, tristior, sadder, tristissimus, saddest.
5 1
344~35 2 -] Words: Formation.
(2.) SUPERLATIVE -rimUS.
344. Adjectives with the nominative in -er have the nominative
of the superlative like the nominative of the positive with -rimus
added (350) : as,
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
pauper, poor, pauperior, poorer, pauperrimus, poorest.
acer, sharp, acrior, sharper, acerrimus, sharpest.
maturrimus occurs once (Tac.), for maturissimus, positive maturus, ripe.
(3.) SUPERLATIVE -HmUS.
345. humilis, difficilis, and facilis,
similis, dissimilis, and gracilis,
have the nominative of the superlative in -limus, following 1 of the stem (350) : as,
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
humilis, lowly, humilior, lowlier, humillimus, lowliest.
THE COMPARATIVE SUFFIX.
346. The comparative suffix is -ios-, which becomes in the singular,
nominative masculine and feminine, -ior (154; 132), neuter nomina-
tive and accusative, -ius (107, c) ; in all other cases -ior- (154).
347. Other comparative suffixes are -ro- or -ero-, and -tro- or -tero-,
used in a few words, principally designating place : as, sup-eri, the tipper ones,
Inf eri, the nether ones ; ex-teri, outsiders, poster!, after-generations ; alter, the
other; uter, -whether? -which of the two? (for *quo-ter, "146) ; dexter, right.
348. Some words designating place have a doubled comparative suffix, -er-ior-,
or -ter-ior- : as, sup-er-ior, upper, inferior, lower, ci-ter-ior, hither,
deterior (lower}, worse, exterior, outer, interior, inner, posterior, hinder,
after, ulterior, further, dexterior, more to the right. -is-tro- is used in
two words which have become substantives : min-is-ter (inferior), servant, and
magister (superior), master.
THE SUPERLATIVE SUFFIX.
349. The common superlative suffix is -issimo-, nominative -issi-
mus, with older -issumo-, nominative -issumus (28).
350. Stems which end in -ro-, -ri-, or -li- (344, 345) take the suffix -issimo-
(cf. -simo-, 351) with syncope of its initial i (in) and assimilation of the final 1
or r (166, 8).
351. The suffix -timp- is further used in a few root superlatives: ci-timus,
dextimus, extimus, intimus, optimus, postumus, and ultimus ; and
-simo- in maximus, pessimus, and proximus.
352. The suffix -mo- or -imo- is used in sum-mo-, N. summus, highest
(sub); min-imo-, N. minimus, least; primus, first, septimus, seventh,
decimus, tenth, -mo- or -imo- is attached to -is- (^5, 2) in plurimus for
*pl6-is-imo-s (fullest), most (99); and to -re- or -tre-, possibly an adverbial
form (705), in supremus, extremus, and postremus.
52
The Adjective: Comparison. [353-358.
PECULIARITIES OF COMPARISON.
353. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or
both, from a different form of the stem : such are,
frugi, thrifty, frugalior, frugalissimus.
nequam, naughty, nequior, nequissimus.
iuvenis, young, iunior, (natu minimus),
senex, old, senior, (natu maximus).
magnus, great, maior, maximus (351).
beneficus, kindly, beneficentior, beneficentissimus.
honorificus, complimentary, honorificentior, honorificentissimus.
magnificus, grand, magnificentior, magnificentissimus.
354. iuvenior, younger, is late (Sen., Plin., Tac.). benevolens, kindly,
benevolentior, benevolentissimus, and maledicens, abusive,_ maledicen-
tior (once each, Plaut), maledicentissimus, have usually as positive benevo-
lus and maledicus respectively.
355. Some positives have a comparative or superlative, or both,
from a wholly different stem : such are,
bonus, good, melior, optimus (351).
malus, bad, peior, pessimus (351).
multus, much, plus (sing. Ne. only), plurimus (352).
parvus, little, minor, minimus (352).
parvus has rarely parvissimus.
356. Four comparatives in -erior or -terior, denoting place (348), have
two forms of the superlative ; the nominative masculine singular of the
positive is not in common use :
exterior, extimus (351), or extremus (352), outermost.
inferior, mfimus, or imus, lowest.
posterior, postumus (351), lastborn, or postremus (352), last.
superior, summus (352), or supremus (352), highest.
357. Six, derioting place, have the positive only as an adverb
or preposition :
cis, this side, citerior (348), citimus (351), hitherest.
de, down, deterior (348), deterrimus, lowest, worst.
in, in, interior (348), intimus, inmost.
prae, before, prior, primus (352), first.
prope, near, propior, proximus (351), nearest.
uls, beyond, ulterior (348), ultimus (w'), furthest.
ocior, swifter, ocissimus, has no positive.
358. These have a superlative, but no comparative: bellus, pretty, falsus,
false, inclutus, famed, invictus, imconquered, invitUS, unwilling, meritUS,
deserving, novus, new ; vetus, veterrimus, old, sacer, sacerrimus, sacred,
vafer, vaferrimus-, sly; malevolus, malevolentissimus (twice, Cic.),
spiteful ; maleficus, malefic entissimus (once, Suet.), -wicked, _munificus,
munificentissimus (inscrr. ; Cic. once), generous, mirificus, mirificissimus
(twice, Ace., Ter.), strange. Plautus has ipsissumus, his very self.
S3 - '
35 9~365 ] Words: Formation.
359. Most primitives in -ilis and -bills (292, 291), have a comparative, but no
superlative ; but these have a superlative : facilis and difficilis (345), easy and
hard, utilis, useful; also fertilis, productive, amabiiis, lovable, mobilis,
movable, nobilis, well known.
360. Many adjectives have no suffixes of comparison, and supply
the place of these by magis, more, and maxime, most: as, mirus,
strange, magis mirus, maxime mirus. Many adjectives, from their
meaning, do not admit of comparison.
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADVERBS.
361. Adverbs derived from adjectives have as their comparative
the accusative singular neuter of the comparative adjective ; the su-
perlative is formed like that of the adjective, but ends in -e : as,
alte, on high, altius, altissime.
acriter, sharply, acrius, acerrime.
facile, easily, facilius, facillime.
362. An older superlative ending, -ed for -e, occurs in an inscription of 186 B.C.:
FACILVMED, i.e. facillime. A few adverbs have superlatives in -6 or -um : as,
meritissimo, most deservedly; primS, at first, primum, first; postremo,
at last, postremum,/0r the last time.
363. If the comparison of the adjective has peculiarities, they are retained in
the adverb likewise: as, bene, wsll, melius, optime ; male, ill, peius, pes-
sime; multum, much, plus, plurimum; mature, betimes, maturius, matu-
rissime (Cic., Plin.), or maturrime (Cic., Caes., Sail., Tac.). ocius, swifter,
no positive, ocissime. minus, less, is formed by the nominal suffix -es- (236),
from Vmin- (minuo); for magis, ,more, see 135, 2. In poetry magis sometimes
becomes mage, as if neuter of an adjective in -i-.
364. A few adverbs not derived from adjectives are compared : as, diu, long,
diutius, diutissime; saepe, often, saepius, sa_epissime ; nuper, lately^
no comparative, nuperrime ; secus, otherwise, setius, the less; temperi,
betimes, temperius, earlier, no superlative.
(B.) FORMATION OF DENOMINATIVE VERBS.
365. Denominative verb stems have present infinitives in
-are, -ere, or -ire (-an, -eri, or -iri), and are formed from
noun stems of all endings : as,
VERB. FROM NOUN.
fuga-re, rout fuga-, N. fuga
loca-re, place loco-, N. locus
nomina-re, name nomin-, N.nomen
leva-re, lighten levi-, N. levis
sinua-re, bend sinu-, N. sinus
albe-re, be white albo-, N albus
misere-ri,/#y misero-, N. miser
VERB. FROM NOUN.
flore-re, blossom flor-, N. flos
sorde-re, be dirty sordi-, N. sordes
puni-re, punish poena-, N. poena
condi-re, season condo-, N.condus
custodl-re, guard custod-, N. custos
vesti-re, dress vesti-, N. vestis
gesti-re, flutter gestu-, N. gestus
54
The Verb: Denominatives. [366-372.
366. These present verb stems are formed by adding the suffix -jo-, -ie-
to the noun stem: as *fuga-i5, I flee ; the i between two vowels was
dropped (153, 2) and the final vowel of noun stem was often contracted with
the ending (118, 3). The noun stem ending is often slightly modified.
367. In a half a dozen denominatives from stems in -u- the u of the noun stem
remains without modification, and is not contracted with the variable vowel (116, c) :
these are, acuere, sharpen (acu-), metuere, fear, statuere, set, tribuere,
assign; arguere, make clear, batuere, beat.
368. Verbs in -are are by far the most numerous class of denomina-
tives ; they are usually transitive ; but deponents often express condition,
sometimes occupation : as, dominari, lord it, play the lord ; aquari, get oneself
water. Most verbs in -ire also are transitive ; those in -ere usually denote
a state : as, calere, be warm ; but some are causative : as, monere, remind.
369. Many denominative verbs in -are contain a noun suffix
which is not actually found in the noun itself; such suffixes are:
-co-, -cin-, -lo-, -er-, -ro-, -to-, &c. : as,
-co-: albi-care, be white (*albi-co-) ; velli-care, pluck (*yelli-co-,
plucker}. -cin- : latro-cinarl, be a robber (latron-) ; sermo-cinari, dis-
course (sermon-), -lo- : gratu-larl, give one joy (*gratu-lo-); vi-olare,
harm (*vi-olo-)j heiu-lari, cry 'heia' (*heiu-lo-). -er- : mod-erari,
check (*mod-es-, 236). -ro- : tole-rare, endure (*tole-ro-); flag-rare,
blaz; (*flag-ro-). -to-: debili-tare, lame (*debili-to-) ; dubi-tare, doubt
(*dubi-to-).
370. Many denominatives in -are are indirect compounds (377),
often from compound noun stems which are not actually found. So,
particularly, when the first part is a preposition, or the second is from
the root f ac-, make, ag-, drive, do, or cap-, take : as,
opi-tul-an, bear help (opitulo-; ; suf-foc-are, suffocate (*suf-foc-o-,
fauci-); aedi-fic-are (housebuild), build (*aedific- or *aedifico-, house-
builder); signi-fic-are, give token (*significo-) ; fum-ig-are, make smoke
(*fumigo-, smoker, fumo-, ^ag-); nav-ig-are, sail, and rem-ig-are, row
(navi-, ship) and remo-, oar) ; mit-ig-are, make mild (miti-); iur-ig-are,
commonly iur-g-are, quarrel (iur-); pur-ig-are, commonly pur-g-are,
clean (puro-); gnar-ig-are, tell (gnaro-, narrare, 169, 2; 131, i); anti-cip-
are, take beforehand (*anticipo-, ante, y'c ap-); oc-cup-are, seize (*occupo-) ;
re-cup-er-are, get back (*recupero-).
371. Many verbs in -tare (-sare), or -tari (-sari), express
frequent, intense, or sometimes attempted action. These are
called Frequentative* or Intensives ; they are formed from per-
fect participle stems ; but stems in -a-to- become -i-to- : as,
cant-are, sing (canto-); cess-are, loiter (cesso-) ; amplex-arl, em-
brace (amplexo-); habit-are, live (habito-) ; pollicit-ari, make overtures
(pollicito-) ; dormit-are, be sleepy (dormito-); neg-itare, keep denying (for
*nega-tare, with suffix -i-tare, 910).
372. Some frequentatives in -tare are formed from the present stem
of a verb in -ere ; the formative vowel before -tare becomes i : as,
agi-tare, shake (age-re); flui-tare, float (flue-re); nosci-tare, recog-
nize (nosce-re) ; quaeri-tare, keep sscking (quaere-re) ; scisci-tarl, enquire
(scisce-re) ; vendi-tare, try to sell (vende-re).
55
373~3^0 Words: Formation.
373. A few frequentatives add -ta- to the perfect participle stem : as,
acti-tare, act often (acto-); facti-tare, do repeatedly (facto-); lecti-
tare, read again and again (lecto-): uncti-tare, anoint often (uncto-).
From a frequentative another frequentative is sometimes derived : as, diet-are,
dictate, dicti-tare, keep asserting (dicto-).
374. Some verbs are found only as frequentatives: as, gust-are, taste
(*gusto-, Jgus-, taste); put-are, think (puto-, Jpu-, clean); aegrot-
are, be ill (aegroto-).
375. A few verbs in -urio, -urire, express desire; such are called Desidera-
tives: as, ess-urire or es-urire, want to eat (edere, esse). A few in -sso,
-ssere, express earnest action; such are called Meditatives : as, lace-sso, lace-
ssere, provoke.
COMPOSITION.
376. In compounds, the fundamental word is usually the
second, which has its meaning qualified by the first.
377. A DIRECT COMPOUND is one formed directly from two parts : as,
con-iug-, N. coniunx, yoke-fellow (com-, together, V i u g-, yoke) ; con-
iungere, join together (com-, iungere) ; an INDIRECT COMPOUND is one
formed by the addition of a suffix to a direct compound: as, iudic-io-, N.
iudicium, trial (iudic-) : iudica-re, judge (iudic-).
378. A REAL COMPOUND is a word whose stem is formed from two
stems, or an inseparable prefix and a stem, fused into one stem; an
APPARENT COMPOUND is formed by the juxtaposition of an inflected word
with another inflected word, a preposition, or an adverb.
I. COMPOSITION OF NOUNS.
(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.
FORM OF COMPOUNDS.
379. If the first part is a noun, its stem is taken : as, Aheno-barbus,
Redbeard, Barbarossa ; usually with weakening of a stem vowel (103-105):
as, aurifex, jeweller (auro-). On other changes of the final vowel in the
first member of compounds, see 174. Sometimes with disappearance of a
syllable (179) ; as, *veneni-ficus, vene-ficus, poisoner (veneno-) ; or of
a vowel (in): as, man-ceps, contractor (manu-) ; particularly before a
vowel (119): as, magn-animus, great-souled (magno-). Consonant stems
are often extended by i before a consonant : as, mori-gerus, complaisant
(mor-).
380. Stems in -s-, including those in -er-, -or- and -or- (236), are sometimes
compounded as above (379): as, nemori-vagus, wood-ranger; honori-ficus,
complimentary; but usually they drop the suffix and take i: as, opi-fex, -work-
man (oper-); foedi-fragus, truce-breaker (feeder-); volni-ncus, -wound-
ing (volner-); muni-ficus, generous (muner-) ; terri-ficus, a-wc-inspiring
(terror-) ; horri-fer, dreadful, horri-sonus, awful-sounding (horror-).
56
Composition : The Noun. [381-387.
381. The second part, which often has weakening of the vowel (102),
is sometimes a bare root used as a stem (199), oftener a root with a forma-
tive suffix ; or a noun stem, sometimes with its stem ending modified : as,
iu-dio, N. iudex, juror (\/dic-, declare}; causi-dic-o-, N. causidicus,
pleader (209); in-gen-io-, N. ingenium, disposition (\/gen-, beget ^ 219);
con-tag-ion-, N. contagio, touching together (\/tag-, touch, 227); im-
berb-i-, N. imberbis, beardless (barba-).
MEANING OF COMPOUNDS.
382. DETERMINATIVES are compounds in which the second part
keeps its original meaning, though determined or modified by the
first part. The meaning of a determinative may often be best
expressed by two words.
383. (i.) The first part of a determinative may be an adjective, an
adverb, a preposition, or an inseparable prefix ; the second part is a
noun : as,
lati-fundium, i.e. lati fundi, broad acres ; privi-legium, i.e. priva lex,
special act ; alti-sonans, i.e. alte sonans, high-sounding; con-discipulus,
i.e. cum alters discipulus, fellow-pupil ; per-magnus, i.e. valde rnagnus,
very great ; in-dignus, i.e. non dignus, unworthy.
384. (2.) The first part of a determinative may represent the oblique
case of a noun, generally a substantive ; the second part is a noun or verb
stem. These compounds are called Objectives : as,
Accusative of direct object (1132), armi-ger, i.e. qui arma gerit, armour-
bearer ; dative of indirect object (1208), man-tele, i.e. manibus tela,
handkerchief, napkin; genitive (1227), sol-stitium, i.e. solis static, solstice ;
ablative instrumental (1300), tubi-cen, i.e. qui tuba canit, trumpeter ; loca-
tive (1331), Troiu-gena, i.e. Troiae natus, Troy-born; ablative locative
(1350), nocti-vagus, night-wandering ; monti-vagus, mountain-ranging.
385. POSSESSIVES are adjective compounds in which the mean-
ing cf the second part is changed. The second part of a posses-
sive is always formed from a substantive, qualified by the noun,
adverb, or inseparable prefix of the first part, and the whole ex-
presses an attribute which something has: as,
longi-manus, longarms, long-armed ; miseri-cors, tender-hearted ; bi-lin-
is, two-tongued; magn-animus, greatheart, great-hearted; im-berbis,
ardless.
(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.
386. Apparent Compounds are formed :
387. (i.) By two nouns combined, one with an unchanging case ending,
the other with full inflections: as, aquae-ductus, aqueduct; senatus-con-
sultum, decree of the senate ; pater-familias,y#^^r of a family ; veri-similis,
like the truth ; in these words, aquae, senatus, familias, and verl are
genitives, and remain genitives, while the other part of the compound is
declinable.
gu
bea
57
388-396.] Words : Formation.
388. (2.) By a substantive with an adjective habitually agreeing with
it, bjch part . being declined : as, res publ.ca, the common-weal ; res gestae,
exploits ; ius iurandum, oath; pscaniae repetundae, money claim.
389. (3.) By nouns, chiefly substantives, in the same case placed loosely
sicb by side and making one idea. The two words may be used : (a.) Copu-
latively : as, usus-fructus, use and enjoyment ; pactum-conventum, bargain
and covenant; duo-decim, two and ten, twelve; or (^.) Appositively : one
word explaining the other (1045): as, luppiter, Jove the Father (94; 133);
Marspiter, Mars the Father, for Mars pater.
390. (4.) From an original combination o an oblique case with a prepo-
sition : as, pr5c5nsul, proconsul, from pro c5nsule, for a consul ; egregius,
select, from e grege, out of the herd; dclirus, astray, mad, from de lira,
out of the furrow.
II. COMPOSITION OF VERBS.
(A.) REAL COMPOUNDS.
391. Real Compounds are direct compounds of a verb
with a preposition; the root vowel or diphthong of the verb
is often weakened (i 02) : as,
per-agere, put through, accomplish ; ab-igere, drive away ; ex-quirere,
seek out. The prefix, which was originally a separate adverb modifying the
verb, is in poetry sometimes separated from the verb by another word ;
the disyllabic prepositions in particular often remain as juxtaposed
adverbs (396).
392. Some prepositions are inseparable, that is, used only in composi-
tion : ambi-, round, an-, up, dis-, in two, apart, por-, towards, red-, re-,
back, sed-, se-, by oneself, away: as, amb-ire, go round to ; an-helare,
breathe np ; dis-pellere, drive apart; por-rigere, stretch forth ; red-dere,
give back ; se-iungere, separate.
(B.) APPARENT COMPOUNDS.
393. Apparent Compounds are formed by the juxtaposi-
tion of :
394. (i.) A verb with a verb: facio and fio are added to present stems,
mostly of intransitive verbs in -ere ; _the -e- of the first verb is sometimes long, and
sometimes short (130, 5): as, calfi-facere, make -warm (calere); excandS-
facere, make blaze (candere) ; madC-facere, make -wet (madere). In these
apparent compounds, the accent of facio remains the same as in the simple verb : as,
calefacis.
395. (2.) A substantive with a verb: as, anim-advertere,/fljv heed (o, ani-
mum advertere ; venum-dare, or vendere, sell, venum dare ; ven-Ire,
be sold, venum Ire ; lucri-facere, make gain, lucri facere ; manu-mittere,
set free.
396. (2) An adverb with a verb : as, circum-dare,/7^_r/(f ; satis-facere,
satis-dare, give satisfaction; intro-ire, go inside; malle, prefer, for magis
velle (170, 2) ; nolo, be unwilling, for ne volo ; ne-scire, hau-scire, not know.
58
Inflection : The Noun. [397-403.
C. INFLECTION.
397. INFLECTION is the change which nouns, pronouns, and
verbs undergo, to indicate their relation in a sentence.
The inflection of a noun or pronoun is often called Declension, and that
of a verb, Conjugation.
(A.) INFLECTION OF THE NOUN.
398. The noun or pronoun is inflected by attaching
case endings to the stem.
The endings, which are called case endings for brevity, indicate number
as wall as case, and serve also to distinguish gender words from neuters in
the nominative and accusative singular of some stems, and of all plurals.
These endings are nearly the same for stems of all kinds.
THE STEM.
399. The stem contains the meaning of the noun. Noun stems
are arranged in the following order: (i.) stems in -a-, in -o-, in a
consonant, or in -i-; these are substantive, including proper names, or
adjective; (2.) stems in -u- or -e-; these are substantive only, and
include no proper names.
400. In some instances, a final stem vowel is retained before a case ending which
begins with a vowel : as, urbi-um, acri-a, cornu-a, portu-I, portu-um ( 1 16, c) ;
in others the stem vowel blends inseparably with the vowel of the case ending : as,
mensis, dominis (108, a).
401. Some nouns have more than one form of the stem : as,
sedes (476) ; femur, iecur (489) ; vas, mensis (492) ; virus, vo^us
(493) ; iter, nix, senex, &c. (500) ; vis (518) ; caedes (523) ; fames, plebes
(524) ; dornus (594) ; angiportus, &c. (595). Many nouns have ?. consonant
stem in the singular, and an -i- stem in the plural: see 516; most substan-
tives in -ie- or -tie- have a collateral form in -ia- or -tia- (604). Some
adjectives have two different stems : as, hilarus, hilara, hilarum, and hilaris,
hilare ; exanimus and exanimis.
GENDER.
402. There are two genders, Masculine and Femi-
nine. Masculine and feminine nouns are called Gender
nouns. Nouns without gender are called Neuter.
403. Gender is, properly speaking, the distinction of sex. In Latin, a
great many things without life have gender in grammar, and are masculine
or feminine.
59
404-4 12 ] Words: Inflection.
404. Some classes of substantives may be brought under general heads of sig-
nification, as below, like the names of rivers and winds (405), which are usually of the
masculine gender, or of plants (407), which are usually of the feminine. When
the gender cannot be determined thus, it must be learned from the special rules for
the several stems and their nominatives.
GENDER OF SOME CLASSES OF SUBSTANTIVES.
MASCULINES.
405. Names of male beings, rivers, winds, and
mountains, are masculine : as,
Caesar, Gaius, Sulla, men's names; pater, father ; erus, master;
scriba, scrivener; Tiberis, the Tiber; Aquilo, a Norther; Lucretilis,
Mt. Lucretilis.
406. The river names : Allia, Duria, Sagra, Lethe, and Styx are femi-
nine. Also the mountain names Alpes, plural, the Alps, and some Greek names
of mountains in -a or -e : as, Aetna, Mt. Etna; Rhodope, a Thraciaii range.
A few are neuter, as Soracte.
FEMININES.
407. Names of female beings, plants, flowers, shrubs,
and trees, are feminine : as,
Gala, Glycerium, women's names; malus, apple-tree; quercus, oak;
ilex, holm-oak; abies, fir.
408. Masculine are: boletus, mushroom, carduus, thistle, dumi, plural,
brambles, intibus, endive, iuncus, rush, oleaster, bastard olive, rubus,
bramble, rumex, sorrel, scirpus, bulrush, and rarely ficus, fig. Also some
of Greek origin : as, acanthus, amaracus, asparagus, and crocus. Neuter
are : apium, parsley, balsamum, balsam-tree, robur, heart of oak, and some
names with stems in -er- (573).
MOBILE, COMMON, AND EPICENE NOUNS.
409. MOBILE NOUNS have different forms to distinguish sex : as, lulius,
a man, Julius, lulia, a woman, Julia ; cervus, stag, cerya, hind ; socer,
father-in-law, socrus, mother-in-law; victor, conqueror, victrix, conqueress.
Adjectives 'of three endings' (611), belong to this class.
410. Some nouns have one ending, but are applicable to either sex.
Such are said to be of Common Gender: as, adulescens, young man or
young woman ; dux, leader; mfans, baby, child; and many other conso-
nant stems or stems in -i-, denoting persons. Adjectives ' of two endings '
or 'of one ending' (611), belong to this class.
411. EPICENES have one ending and one grammatical gender, though applicable
to animals of either sex. Thus, aquila, eagle, is feminine, though it may denote
a he-eagle as well as a she-eagle: anates, ducks, feminine, includes drakes.
NEUTERS.
412. Infinitives, words and expressions quoted or explained,
and letters of the alphabet, are neuter: as,
60
The Noun: Case. [413-419.
vivere ipsum, mere living; istuc ' taceS,' your '/ won't mention;'
longum vale, a long goodbye ; o Graecum, Greek O. But the letters have
sometimes a feminine adjective, agreeing with littera understood.
VARIABLE GENDER.
413. Some substantives have different genders in the two numbers ;
the different gender is sometimes indicated by a difference of stem: as,
epulum, neuter, epulae, feminine, feast. See balneum, frenum, jocus,
locus, margarita, ostrea, rastrum, in the dictionary.
NUMBER.
414. There are two numbers, the Singular used of
one, the Plural of more than one.
415. ambo, both, and duo, two, nominative and accusative masculine and neuter,
are the only remnants of an old Dual number, denoting two.
416. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no plural.
Such are: proper names: as, CicerS, Cicero; Roma, Rome; material and
abstract substantives: as, oleum, oil, vinum, -wine, iustitia, justice; and
gerunds : as, regendi, of guiding. For the occasional use of the plural, 1105-1110.
417. Some substantives, from their meaning, have no singular.
Such are: names of persons of a class: as, maiores, ancestors; super!, the
beings above; manes, ghosts ; of feasts, sacrifices, days : as, Saturnalia, festival
of Saturn; kalendae, first of the month; of things made of parts or consisting
of a series of acts: as, arma, arms; artus, joints; quadrigae, four-in-hand;
exscquiae, funeral rites; of some places : as, Falerii ; Vei; Pompei; Athe-
nae, Athens; Alpes, the Alps.
418. Some substantives have different meanings in the two numbers : as,
aedis, temple, aedes, house; auxilium, aid, auxilia, auxiliaries; career,
jail, carceres, race-barriers; Castrum, Castle, castra, camp; comitium,
meeting-place, comitia, election ; copia, abundance, copiae, troops;^ facultas,
ability, facultates, -wealth; finis, end, fines, boundaries; gratia, favour,
gratiae, thanks; impedimentum, hindrance, impedimenta, baggage;
fittera letter (of the alphabet}, litterae, epistle; rostrum, beak, rostra,
speakers stand. See also aqua, bonum, fortuna, ludus, opera, pars,
in the dictionary.
CASE.
419. Nouns have five cases^, the Nominative, Geni-
tive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.
The nominative represents a noun as subject, the accusative as object ;
the genitive denotes the relation of of, the dative of to or for, and the
ablative of from, with, in, or by. But the meanings of the cases are best
learnt from reading. All cases but the nominative and vocative (420) are
called Oblique Cases,
61
420-428.] Words: Inflection.
420. Town names and a few appellatives have also a case denoting the
place where, called the Locative. Masculine stems in -o- and some Greek
stems with other endings have still another form used in addressing a person
or thing, called the Vocative.
421. The stem of a noun is best seen in the genitive; in the
genitive plural it is preserved without change, except that o of -o
stems is lengthened (123). In dictionaries the stem ending is indicated
by the genitive singular, thus : -ae, -i, -is, -us (-SI), indicate respec-
tively stems in -a-, -o-, a consonant or -i-, -u-, and -e-, as follows :
GENITIVE SINGULAR. GENITIVE PLURAL. STEMS IN.
-ae, mensae, table -arum, mensa-rum -a-, mensa-, N. mensa
-i, domini, master -orum, domino-rum -o-, domino-, N. dominus
-is, regis, king -cons, um, reg-um -consonant, reg-, N. rex
-is, civis, citizen -ium, civi-um -i-, civi-, N. civis
-us, portus, port -uum, portu-um -u-, portu-, N. portus
(-1, rei), thing (-erum, re-rum) -e, re-, N. res
422. Gender nominatives usually add -s to the stem : as, servo-s
or servu-s, slave, rex (164, i), civi-s, portu-s, re-s. But stems in -a- or in
a continuous consonant (-1-, -n-, -r-, or -s-) have no-s: as, mensa,
consul, consul, flamen, special priest, pater, fattier, flos, flower.
423. Neuters have the nominative and accusative alike ; in the singular
the stem is used: as nomen, name; or a shortened stem: as, exemplar,
pattern ; but stems in -o- take -m : as, aevo-m or aevu-m, age. In the
plural -a is always used: as, regna, kingdoms, nomina, cornua, horns.
For -s in adjectives ' of one ending,' see 612.
424. Gender accusatives singular add -m to the stem : as, mensa-m,
servo-m or servu-m, navi-m, ship, portu-m, die-m. The consonant
stems have the ending -em : as, reg-em ; most substantive stems in -i-
and all adjectives also drop -i- and take -em : as, nav-em, trist-em, sad.
In the plural, gender stems add -s before which the vowel is long: as,
mensa-s, servo-s, rege-s, navi-s or nave-s, portu-s, re-s.
425. The ablative singular usually ends in the long vowel of the stem:
as, mensa, domino, navi, portu, re. The ablative of consonant stems
usually has -e (rarely -i-, see 502) : as, patre, father ; and that of substan-
tive -i- stems has -e more commonly than -i: as, nave.
426. The ablative singular of -a- and -o- stems ended anciently in -ad and
-od respectively : as, PRAIDAD, PREIVATOD ; that of consonant stems in -id : as,
AIRID, COVENTIONID. But -d is almost entirely confined to inscriptions and dis-
appeared early (149).
427. The genitive plural adds -rum to -a-, -o-, and -e- stems : as,
mensa-rum, domino-rum, re-rum ; and -um to consonant stems, -i-
stems, and -u- stems : as, reg-um, civi-um, portu-um.
428. The dative and ablative plural are always alike : stems in -a- and
-o- take -is, which blends with the stem vowel (400) : as, mensis, dominis;
other stems have -bus, before which consonant stems are extended by i:
as, regi-bus, navi-bus, portu-bus or porti-bus, re-bus.
62
The Noun : Stems in -a-. [4 2 9-435-
429. Some pronouns and a few adjectives have some peculiar
case endings ; see 618-694.
430. Many nouns are defective in case.
Thus, many monosyllables have no genitive plural : as, aes, copper, cor, heart,
C5s, -whetstone, dos, dowry, 6s, face, pax, peace, pix, pitch, ros, dew, sal,
salt, lux, light ; many words have no genitive, dative, or ablative plural : as,
hiemps, winter; especially neuters: as, far, spelt, fel, gall, mel, honey, pus,
matter, TUS, country, tUS, frankincense. Many words in -tu- (-SU-) have only
the ablative (235). For -e- stems, see 600. Other words more or less defective are
exlex, exspes, fas and nefas, infitias, inquies, instar, lues, nemo, opis
and vicis genitives, pondo and sponte ablatives, secus, vis. Many adjectives
' of one ending ' want the nominative and accusative neuter plural and genitive plural.
431. Some adjectives are altogether indeclinable: as, frugi, thrifty, an old
dative; nequam, naughty, an old accusative; quot, how many ; tot, so many ;
and most numerals (637). These adjectives are attached to any case of a substantive
without varying their own forms.
STEMS IN -a-.
The First Declension.
Genitive singular -ae, genitive plural -a-rum.
432. Stems in -a- include substantives and adjec-
tives; both substantives and adjectives are feminine.
433. Names of males are masculine (405): as, scriba, writer; also Hadria,
.the Adriatic, and rarely damma, deer, and talpa, mole.
434. The nominative of stems in -a- ends in the shortened stem
vowel -a.
435. Stems in -a- are declined as follows :
Example
mensa, table,
! 8 .If
Stem
mensa-, F.
K & f^j
K <J
c/5 ^
Singular
Nom.
mensa
table, a (or the] table
-a
Gen.
mensae
a table's, of a table
-ae
Dat.
mensae
to or for a table
-ae
Ace.
mensam
a table ~
-am
Abl.
mensa
from, with, or by a table
-a
Plural
Nom.
mensae
tables (or the] tables
-ae
Gen.
mensarum
tables', of tables
-arum
Dat.
mensis
to or for tables
-Is
Ace.
mensas
tables
-as
Abl.
mensis
from, with, or by tables
-Is
436-444-] Words: Inflection.
SINGULAR CASES.
436. -a- of the stem was shortened in the nominative and accusative singular at
an early period (130, 132). A few apparent examples of the nominative in -a, found
in the oldest writers, seem due to metrical causes : as, aquila (Enn.). But -a occurs
in .Greek proper names (445). A couple of old masculine nominatives in -as are
quoted (422) : paricidas, murderer, and hosticapas, taker of enemies. In the
accusative singular -am occurs once: inimicitiam (Enn.).
437. The genitive sometimes ends (r.) in -ai in poetry: as, aulai, of the
hall ; pictai, embroidered ; (2.) in -as : as, molas, of a mill. This genitive
is rare, but was always kept up in the word familias with pater or mater,
sometimes with filius or filia : pater familias, the goodman, mater familias,
the housewife. But pater familiae, or in the plural patres familiarum, is
equally common.
438. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in
-ae : as, Romae, at Rome, in Rome; militiae, in war, in the field,
in the army.
PLURAL CASES.
439. Compounds ending with -cola, inhabiting, and -gena, born, and
patronymics, sometimes have the genitive plural in -um in poetry: as,
caelicolum, of occupants of heaven ; Graiugenum, of Greek-born men ;
Aeneadum, of Aeneas 's sons ;ja.\s>o names of peoples: as, Lapithum, of
the Lapithae. With these last -flm occurs even in prose : as, CrotoniatQm,
of the Crotona people. Others in -Qm are drachmiim, amphorum.
440. In the dative and ablative plural, -eis sometimes occurs (443) : as, tueis
ingratieis, against your -will (Plant.). Nouns in -ia have rarely a single I: as,
pecunis, by moneys (Cic.); taenis, -with fillets (Verg.) ; nonis lunis, on the
fifth of June (Cic.). See 24.
441. In the dative and ablative plural, words in -aia, or plural -aiae, have -ais,
and those in -eia have -eis (127, 7) : as KAL. MAIS, on the calends of May (inscr.) ;
Bais, at Bajae (Hor.); plebeis, plebeian.
442. The dative and ablative plural sometimes end in -abus, particularly in
deabus, goddesses, and filiabus, daughters, to distinguish them from dels, gods,
and filiis, sons, ambae, both, and duae, two, regularly have ambabus and
duabus.
443. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows:
G. -ai, which may be monosyllabic or disyllabic in pronunciation : PVLCHRAI ;
LAVERNAI ; -aes, after 80 B.C., chiefly in proper names, mostly Greek: HERAES ;
rarely in appellatives: DOMINAES; -es : MINERVES ; -a, VESTA; COIRA, i.e.
Curae. D. -ai, in all periods (96): FILIAI; -a: FORTVNA; -e (96) : FORTVNE.
Ac. -a (61): TAVRASIA; MAGNA SAPIENTIA. Ab. -ad_[426): PRAIDAD. Loc.
-ai : KOMAI. Plural: N. -ai (96): TABELAI DATAI : -a, rare: MATRONA ; -e,
rare and provincial (96) : MVSTE, i.e. mystae. D. and Ab. -eis, very often (98) :
SCRIBEIS ; D. -as, once : DEVAS CORNISCAS, i.e. divis Corniscis. Ab. -es once
(98): NVGES, i.e. nugis.
GREEK NOUNS.
444. Greek appellatives always take a Latin form in the dative singular and in
the plural, and usually throughout: thus, poeta, M., poet, and aula, F., court,
are declined like mensa. Masculines have sometimes a nominative -es and accu-
sative -en: as, anagnostes, reader, anagnosten; rarely an ablative -e : as,
sophiste, sop/iist. Greek feminines in -e sometimes have Greek forms in late
writers: as, N. grammatice, philology, G. grammatices, Ac. grammaticen,
Ab. grammatice (Quintil.).
64
The Noun : Stems in -O-. [445450.
445. Greek proper names sometimes have the following forms. Nominative
masculine -as, -es : as, Prusias, Atrides; feminine -a: as, Gela, Phaedra;
-e : as, Circe. Genitive feminine -es : as, Circes. Accusative masculine -an,
-den: as, Aenean, Peliden; feminine -en: as, Circen. Ablative feminine
-e : as, Tisiphone. Vocative -a or -a : as, Atrida, Atrida, Thyesta ; -te :
as, Boote ; -de : as, Aeacide.
STEMS IN -0-.
The Second Declension.
Genitive singular -I, genitive plural -6-rum.
446. Stems in -o- include substantives and adjec-
tives, masculine or neuter.
447. Most names of plants in -us are feminine (407); also the following:
alvos or alvus, belly, colus, distaff, domus, house, humus, ground,
vannus, fan.
448. The nominative of masculines ends, including the stem
vowel, in -o-s, or usually -u-s; some end in -r ; neuters end in
-o-m, or usually -u-m.
449. (T.) Stems in -o- with the nominative in -us or -um
are declined as follows :
Cfl
Examples
dominus, master,
regnum, kingdom,
l-gil
Stems
domino-, M.
regno-, Ne.
.J3 C rt ^Q
C/2 w <> fi
Singular
M.
Ne.
Nom.
dominus, a (or the} master
regnum
-us
-um
Gen.
domini, a master's
regm
-1
-i
Dat.
domino, to or for a master
regno
-5
-6
Ace.
dominum, a master [master
regnum
-um
-um
Abl.
domino, from, with, or by a
regno
-6
-6
Voc.
domine, master
-e
Plural
Nom.
domini, (the] masters
regna
-i
-a
Gen.
dominorum, of masters
regnorum
-orum
-orum
Dat.
dominis, to or for masters
regnis
-is
-is
Ace.
domin5s, masters [masters
regna
-6s
-a
Abl.
dominis, from, with, or by
regms
-is
-is
450. deus, god, is declined as follows : N. deus, G. del, D. and Ab. deo,
Ac. deum. Plural: N. dei, dn, commonly di, G. dedrum or deum, D. and
Ab. dels, diis, commonly dis, Ac. decs.
5 65
451-454-3
Words. Inflection.
451. (2.) Stems in -o- with the nominative in -r or in -aius, -eius,
or -oius are declined as follows :
Examples
Stems
puer, boy,
puero-, M.
ager,yfotf,
agro-, M.
Pompeius, Pompey,
Pompeio-, M.
Singular
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
Voc.
puer, a (or the] boy
pueri, a boy's, of a boy
puero, to or for a boy
puerum, a boy
pu&TO,from, with, or by a boy
ager
agri
agro
agrum
agro
Pompeius
Pompei
Pompeio
Pompeium
Pompeio
Pompei, Pompei
Plural
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
pueri, (the) boys
puerorum, boys', of boys
pueris, to or for boys
pueros, boys
pueris, from, with, or by boys
agri
agrorum
agris
agros
agris
Pompei
Pompeiorum
Pompeis
Pompei5s
Pompeis
SINGULAR CASES.
452. -us and -um were originally -os and -om. But -us was used in the
earliest times, -um somewhat later, and both became prevalent between 218 and 55
B.C. (107, c). After u or v, however, the -os and -om were retained till toward 50
A.D. (107, c); also after qu ; but -cus and -cum often displaced -quos and -quom
(157): as, equos, equom, or ecus, ecum, horse; antiques, antiquom,
or anticus, anticum, ancient. In the vocative -e was always used, and is
retained by Plautus in puere, thou boy.
453- Words in -rus with a long penult, as, severus, stern, and the following
substantives with a short penult are declined like dominus (449) :
erus, master umerus, shoulder
iuniperus,/##/)Vr uterus, womb
numerus, number
For adjective stems in -ro- with nominative -rus, see 615.
454. Masculine stems in -ro- preceded by a short vowel or a mute,
except those above (453), drop -os in the nominative, and have no vocative :
as, stem puero-, N. puer, boy (in, b). Most masculines in -ro- have a
vowel before r only in the nominative -er (iu,) : as agro-, N. agcr. But
in compounds ending in -fer and -ger, carrying, having, and the follow-
ing, the vowel before -r is a part of the stem, and is found in all the
cases :
adulter, Liber, paramour, Liber puer, vir, boy, man
gener, socer, son-in-law, father-in-law liberi, vesper, children, evening
For Mulciber, Hiber, and Celtibe'r, see the dictionary; for adjective stems
in -ro- with nominative -r, see 616. Once socerus (PL).
66
The Noun: Stems in -O-. [455464.
455. nihilum, nothing, usually drops -um in the nominative and accusative,
becoming nihil or nil, and similarly non, not, may be for noenum, naught (99)
famul is used for famulus, slave, by Ennius and Lucretius, once each (in, b).
456. Substantives ending in -ius or -ium (but never adjectives),
have commonly a single -i in the genitive singular : as,
Vergilius, G. Vergili (87); filius, son, G. fill; conubium, marriage,
G. conubi.
457. Vergil has once a genitive -ii, fluvii, river's. Propertius has -ii two or
three times ; with Ovid, Seneca, and later writers, -ii is common : as, gladii, of a
sword ; even in proper names, which were the last to take -ii : as, Tarquinii ; but
family names almost always retain a single -i. Locatives have -ii : as, Iconii (Cic.).
458. Proper names ending in -aius, -eius, or -oius have -ii,
-el, or -61 in the genitive and vocative singular and nominative
plural, and -ais, -els, or -6Is in the dative and ablative plural
(127, 7) : as,
Gaius, G., V., and N. PI. Gai, D. and Ab. PI. Gais ; Pompei, Pom-
peis ; B5i, Bois. In verse -el of the vocative is sometimes made one
syllable (120): as, Pompei; Voltei (Hor.).
459. Latin proper names in -ius have the vocative in -i only : as,
Vergilius, V. Vergili; Mercurius, V. Mercuri (87). So, also,
filius, fill, son; genius, geni, good angel; volturius, volturi, vulture ;
meus, mi, my.
460. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in
-i : as, Ephesi, in Ephesus j humi, on the ground j belli, in war.
PLURAL CASES.
461. In the nominative plural masculine, -ei sometimes occurs (465): as, natei
geminei, twins born (Plaut.) ; -eis or -is is rare (465) : as, Sardeis, Sardians ;
oculis, eyes; not infrequently hisce, these here (Plaut.); masculine stems in -io-
have rarely a single -i : as, fili, sons. For -ai, -ei, or -6i, see 458. The nomina-
tive and accusative plural of neuters ended anciently in -a (130, 2). But -a was
shortened at an early period.
462. In the common genitive plural -orum, the -o- of the stem is
lengthened (123). A genitive plural in -um (or, after v, in -6m) is common
from divos, divus, and deus, god ; from denarius, denar, modius, peck,
nummus, money, sestertius, sesterce, and talentum, talent, with numerals ;
and from cardinals and distributives (641) : as, divdm, divSm, deSm ;
mille sestertiQm ; ducentSm ; blnum. The u was originally long (132) ;
but it was shortened before 100 A.D.
463. Other masculine substantives have occasionally this genitive : as, liberfim,
of children; particularly inset phrases and in verse: as, centuria fttorun}. century
of mechanics; GraiQm, of Greeks. With neuter substantives, as oppidfim, for
oppidorum, of towns, and with adjectives it is rare.
464. In the dative and ablative plural, -eis is rare (98) : as, Epidamnieis
(Plant.). Stems in -io- have rarely a single i : as, filis, for sons. For -ais,
-eis, or -5is, see 458. ambo, both, and duo, two, have ambobus and duobus
(640).
6 7
465-47-] Words: Inflection.
465. Other case forms are found in inscriptions as follows :
N. -OS, -om, with o retained (107,^): FILIOS, TRIBVNOS; POCOLOM; in proper
names -o (66) : CORNELIO ; -u, rare : LECTV ; -is, or -i, for -ius (135, 2) : CAECILIS j
CLAVDI ; neuter -o (61) : POCOLO. G. oldest form -i : VRBANI ; -ei, from 146 B.C.
to Augustus : POPVLEI ; CONLEGEI ; -ii from stems in -io- not before Tiberius :
COLLEGII. Ac. -Om (107 C)\ VOLCANOM ; -O (6l) : OPTVMO VIRO ; -U I GREMIV.
Ab. -od, not after 186 B.C. (426): POPLICOD, PREIVATOU. Plural: N. -ei, always
common (98): VIREI ; FILEI ; -es, -eis, -13(461): ATILIES; COQVES; LEIBEREIS,
i.e. liberi ; MAGISTREIS ; MAGISTRIS ; -e, rare: PLOIRVME, i.e. plururm. G.
-5m or -5 (61) ROMANOM; ROMANO; -oro (61): DVONORO. D. and Ab. -eis,
the only form down to about 130 B.C. (98) : ANTIQVEIS ; PROXSVMEIS; -es, twice:
CAVATVRINES.
GREEK NOUNS.
466. Greek stems in -o- are generally declined like Latin nouns, but
in the singular sometimes have -os in the nominative, -on in the nomi-
native or accusative neuter, rarely -u in the genitive, or -o in the feminine
ablative. Plural, nominative sometimes -oe, masculine or feminine, and
genitive, chiefly in book-titles, -on : as,
Nominative Ilios ; Ilion or Ilium. Genitive Menandru, of Menander.
Ablative feminine adjective lectica octSphoro, in a sedan -with eight bearers.
Plural: nominative Adelphoe, the Brothers ; canephoroe, basket-bearers, femi-
nine. Genitive GeorgicSn liber, book of Husbandry. For Androgeos,
AthSs and Panthus, see the dictionary.
CONSONANT STEMS.
The Third Declension.
Genitive singular -is, genitive plural -um.
467. Consonant stems are mostly substantive, and
include both gender words and neuters.
Comparatives and a few other words are adjective. For the
gender of substantives, see 570.
468. The nominative of consonant stems ends in -a (or -x) ;
or in -n (-6), -1, -r, or -a of the stem, rarely in -c or -t.
469. Most consonant stems have one syllable less in the
nominative than in the genitive.
Such words are called Imparisyllabic words or Imparisyllables :
as, nominative rex, king, one syllable ; genitive regis, of a king,
two syllables.
470. Many consonant stems have a double form : one form used
in the nominative singular (neuters have this form in the accusative
also), another form in the other cases : as,
68
The Noun: Consonant Stems. [471,472.
iudex, /7W, stem of nominative iudec- (136, 2), of other cases iudio;
flamen (103, a), special priest, flamin- (103, a) ; virgo, maid, virgin- (105,^) ;
auceps (107, d}, fowler, aucup- (104,^:) ; ebur (\o-j,c), ivory, ebor-; genus,
r0r<r,gener-(i45; 107, c); tristius (346), sadder,trist\or- (346) ; corpus (107, c),
body, corpor- ( 105, /') ; pater (135, 2), father, patr-. In such instances the stem
of the oblique cases is taken for brevity to represent both forms of the stem.
I. MUTE STEMS.
471. (i.) Stems in a guttural mute, -g- or -c-, are declined
as follows :
Examples
rex, king)
dux, leader,
iudex, juror,
09
% %
Stems
reg-, M.
due-, M.
iudic-, M.,F.
o|
Singular
Nom.
rex, a (or the} king
dux
iudex
-S (-X)
Gen.
regis, a king's, of a king
ducis
iudicis
-is
Dat.
regi, to or for a king
duel
iiidici
-I
Ace.
regem, a king [king
ducem
iudicem
-em
Abl.
TQge,/rom, with, or by a
duce
iudice
-e
Plural
Nom.
reges, (the} kings
duces
iudices
-es
Gen.
regum, kings' 1 , of kings
ducum
iiidicum
-um
Dat.
regibus, to or for kings
ducibus
iudicibus
-ibus
Ace.
reges, kings [kings
duces
iudices
-es
Abl.
regibus, from, with, or by
ducibus
iudicibus
-ibus
In the nominative and accusative, neuters have no case ending in the
singular, and -a in the plural. In the other cases they have the same case
endings as gender stems.
472. (#.) Examples of stems in -g-, with nominative -x, genitive
-gis, are:
-ex, -egis grex, M., (F.), herd; aquilex, M., spring-hunter, hydraulic
engineer.
-ex, -egis rex, M., king; interrex, regent; lex, F., law; and N. and Ac.
exlex, exlegem, beyond the law, adjective.
-ex, -igis rernex, M., oarsman.
-!x, -fgis strix, F., screech-owl.
-unx, -ugis coniunx (122, <<?) or coniux, M., F., spouse.
-ux, -ugis frux, F., fruit.
69
473> 474-J
Words : Inflection.
473 (A) Examples of stems in -c-, with nominative -x, genitive
cis, are :
-ax, -acis fax, F., /0?r>&, no G. PI. in good writers (430).
-ax, -acis pax, ., peace, PI. only N. and Ac. paces ; Umax, F., snail.
-ex, -ecis faenisex, M., hay <cutter ; nex, F., murder; preci, D., F., prayer,
no N., usually plural.
-ex, -ecis vervex, M., -wether; allex, F., fish-pickle, also allec, Ne.
-ex, -icis Masculines mostly: apex, point; carex, F., rush; caudex or
codex, block, book; cimex, bug; cortex, M., F., bark; culex,
gnat , forfex, M., F., shears; frutex, shrub; ilex, F., holm-oak,
illex, M., F., seducer ; imbrex, tile ; latex, fluid ; murex, /r//fe-
shell; Obicc, Ab., M., F., bar, no N. ; paelex, F., concubine,
pollex, thumb; pulex,^<7/ pumex, pumice-stone ; ramex, blood-
vessel; rumex, sorrel; silex, M., F., flint; sorex, shrew-mouse;
vortex or vertex, -whirl ; vitex, F., a shrub. Also some com-
pounds: as, fade*, juror ; artifex, artisan ; auspex, bird-viewer.
-ix, -icis Feniinines mostly: appendix, addition; calix, M., cuf ; mix,
fern; fulix, gull; fprnix, M., arch; larix, larch; pix, .pitch,
no G. PI. (430); salix, willow; varix, swollen -vein; vicis, G.,
change, no N., D., or G. PI. (430).
-ix, -icis Feminines : cervix, neck ; cicatrix, scar ; cornix, crow ; cSturnix
(62), quail; lodix, blanket; radix, root; struix, heap. Also
coxendix, hip, later coxendix, coxendicis.
-ox. -5cis vox, F., -voice.
-ux, -ucis crux, F., cross; dux, M., F., leader; nux, F., nut-tree, nut;
tradux, M., -vinelayer.
474. (2.) Stems in a dental mute, -d- or -t-, are declined as
follows :
Examples
custds, keeper,
aetas, age,
virtus, virtue,
miles, soldier,
Stems
custod-, M.
aetat-, F.
virtut-, F.
milit-, M.
Singular
Nom.
custds
aetas
virtus
miles
Gen.
custodis
aetatis
virtutis
militis
Dat.
custodi
aetati
virtuti
militi
Ace.
custodem
aetatem
virtutem
militem
Abl.
custode
aetate
virtute
milite
Plural
Nom.
custodes
aetates
virtutes
milites
Gen.
custodum
aetatum
virtutum
militum
Dat.
custodibus
aetatibus
virtutibus
militibus
Ace.
custodes
aetates
virtutes
milites
Abl.
custodibus
aetatibus
virtutibus
militibus
70
The Noun: Consonant Stems. [475~~477-
475- (*) Examples of stems in -d-, with nominative -s, genitive
-dis, are :
-as, -adis vas, M., ^f., personal surety, no G. PI. (430).
-aes, -aedis praes, M., bondsman.
-es, -idis obses, M., Y., hostage; praeses, M., V., overseer. *deses, slothful,
adjective.
-es, -edis pes, M.,/oot.
-es, -edis heres, M., F., heir ; exheres, disinherited, adjective; merces,
F., reward.
-is, -idis Feminines: capis, cup; cassis, helmet; cuspis, spear-point ;
promulsis, appetizer; lapis, M., stone.
-6s, -odis custos, M., F., guard.
-aus, -audis laus, F., praise.
-us, -udis pecus, F., beast, head of cattle.
-US, -udis Feminines : incus, anvil ; palus, swamp, nominative once in Horace
palus, as from an -o- stem ; subscus, dovetail.
476. sedes, F., seat, has an -s- stem, namely -es (2^6), in the nominative, and
sed- in the other cases (401); G. PI. sedum, once sedium (Veil. Pat.)., The
only example of a neuter stem in -d-, with nominative -r, genitive -dis, is cor
(171,2), heart, cordis, no G. PI. (430).
477. (^.) Examples of stems in -t-, with nominative -B, genitive
-tis, are:
-as, -atis anas, F., duck; G. PI. also anitum (Cic.), and Ac. PI. anites
(Plaut.).
-as, -atis aetas, F., age ; also numerous other feminines in -tas (262).
-es, -etis interpres, M., F., go-bet-ween; seges, F., crop; teges, F., mat.
-es, -itis Masculines mostly: ames, net-pole; antistes, M., F., overseer;
caespes, sod; comes, M., F., companion; eques, horseman;
fomes, tinder; gurges, -whirlpool; hospes, M., F., guest-friend;
limes, path; merges, F., sheaf; miles, M., F, soldier; palmes,
vine-sprout; pedes, man afoot, infantry ; poples, hough ; Stipes,
trunk; termes, bough; tranres, by-path, dives, rich; sospes,
safe ; superstes, surviving; caelite, Ab., occupant of heaven, no
N., adjectives.
-es, -etis abies, F.,JZr; aries, M., ram; paries, M., -wall.
-es, -etis Feminines : quies and requies, rest, no D., Ac. often requiem,
Ab. usually requie (603) ; inquies, unrest, N. only.
-OS, -Otis compos, master of, adjective.
-6s, -otis nepos, M., grandson, profligate ; sacerdos, M., priest; cos, F.,
whetstone, no G. PI. (430) ; d5s, F., dowry, no G. PL in good writers
(430); dotum once (Val. Max.), and dotium in the jurists.
us, -utis Feminines: iuventus, youth; salus, existence; senectus, old
age; servitus, slavery, all singular only; and virtus, virtue, with
a plural.
71
478-481.]
Words: Inflection.
478. vates, bard, has an -s- stem, namely -es (236), in the nominative, and
vat- in the other cases (401); G. PI. vatum, but thrice vatium (Cic.). The only
example of a neuter stem in -t-, with nominative -t, genitive -tis, is caput,
head, capitis, and its compounds occiput, back of the head and sinciput, jole.
lac, Ne., milk, lactis, has in old and late Latin nominative and accusative lacte,
lact once in Varro (171, 2); ace. lactem occurs in Petronius once and later.
479. (3.) Stems in a labial mute, -b- or -p-, are declined as follows :
municeps, burgess, stem municip-, M., F.
Singular: N. municeps, G. municipis, D. municipi, Ac. municipem,
Ab. municipe. Plural : N. municipes, G. municipum, D. municipibus,
Ac. municipes, Ab. municipibus.
480. Examples of stems in -b- or -p-, with nominative -s, genitive
-bis or -pis, are :
-ebs, -ibis caelebs, unmarried, adjective, the only stem in -b-.
, -apis dapis, G., F., feast, N. and D. S., and G. PI. not used (430).
-eps, -ipis adeps or adips, M., F.,fat,no G. PL; forceps, M., F., pincers;
municeps, burgher, particeps, sharing, and princeps, first)
adjectives.
-eps, -upis auceps, fowler ; mancep-s, contractor, mancupis or mancipis.
, -ipis Stipis, G., F., small change, no N.
-ops, -opis Ops, F., old Opis (Plaut.), goddess of power ; opis, G., F., help, no
N., D. once only, Pi. opes, means (4ib).
II. STEMS IN A CONTINUOUS CONSONANT.
481. (i.) Stems in -1- and -n- are declined as follows :
Examples
consul, consul,
leo, lion,
imago, likeness,
nomen,#w,
Stems
consul-, M.
Ie5n-, M.
imagin-, F.
nomin-, Ne.
Singular
Nom.
consul
leo
imago
nomen
Gen.
consulis
leonis
imaginis
nominis
Dat.
consul!
leSm
imagini
nomini
Ace.
consulem
leonem
imaginem
nomen
Abl.
consule
leone
imagine
nomine
Plural
Nom.
consules
leones
imagines
nomina
Gen.
consulum
leonum
imaginum
nominum
Dat.
c5nsulibus
leonibus
imaginibus
nominibus
Ace.
consules
leones
imagines
nomina
Abl.
consulibus
leonibus
imaginibus
nominibus
The Noun: Consonant Stems. [482-487.
482. Examples of stems in -1-, with nominative -1, genitive -lis, are :
-al, -alis sal, M., salt, sometimes Ne. in the singular ; no G. PL (430).
-el, -ellis fel (171, i), Ne., gall ; mel, Ne., honey ; plural only fella, mella.
-il, -ilis mugil, M., mullet; pugil, M., boxer; vigil, M., watchman.
-61, -51is s5l, M., sun, no G. PI. (430).
-ul, -ulis c5nsul, consul; praesul, head dancer ; exsul, exile.
483. (a.) Examples of stems in -n-, with nominative -en, geni-
tive -inis, are:
flamen, M., priest ; pecten, U.,comb; tlblcen, M., piper ; tubicen, M .trum-
peter ; sanguen, Ne., blood. Many neuters in -men (224) : as, certamen, contest.
484. (.) Examples of stems in -n-, with nominative -o, geni-
tive -oiiis, are :
Many masculine concretes: as, pugio, dagger; words of the agent (211): as,
praedd, robber ; and family names : as, CicerS. Feminine abstracts in -16 (227),
and many in -tio or -sio (228): as, opinio, notion; cogitatio, thought.
485. (c.} Examples of stems in -n-, with nominative -o, geni-
tive -inis, are :
Masculines: Apollo; Card6 L hinge; ordo, rank; turbo, -whirlwind.
homo, M., F., human being; nemo, nobody ; for G. and Ab., nulllus and
nullo are generally used; margo, M., F., brink. Feminines : grando, hail;
harundo, reed; hirundo, swallow; hirudo, leech; testudo, tortoise; virgp,
maiden. Many in -do, -dinis (225), -go, -ginis (226), and -tud5, -tudinis
(264): as, cupldo, also M., desire; imago, likeness; solitudo, loneliness.
486. sangufs, M., blood, stem sanguin-, takes -s in the nominative (171,4).
canis, M., F., dog, stem can-, and iuvenis, M., ., young person, stem iuven-,
have the nominative formed like that ot -i- stems. For senex, old man, see 500.
487. (2.) Stems in -r- and -s- are declined as follows :
Examples
pater, father,
dolor, pain,
flos, flower,
genus, race,
Stems
patr-, M.
dolor-, M.
flor-, M.
gener-, Ne.
Singular
Nom.
pater
dolor
flos
genus
Gen.
patris
doloris
floris
generis
Dat.
patri
dol5ri
flori
generi
Ace.
patrem
dolorem
florem
genus
Abl.
patre
dolore
flore
genere
Plural
Nom.
patres
dolores
flores
genera
Gen.
patrum
dol5rum
florum
generum
Dat.
patribus
doloribus
floribus
generibus
Ace.
patres
dolores
flores
genera
Abl.
patribus
doloribus
floribus
generibus
73
488-49 1 ] Words : Inflection.
488. Many stems in -r- ended originally in -s-, which became -r- be-
tween two vowels, and in some words in the nominative also (154) : AS, flos,
M., flower, G. *flosis, floris; bonds, M., honour, G. honoris, N. honor.
489. (.) Examples of stems in -r-, with nominative -r, genitive
-ris, are :
-ar, -aris baccar, Ne., a plant; iubar, Ne., rarely M., bright sky, no PL
-ar, -aris lar, M., household god ; G. PL larum ; two or three times larium.
-ar, -arris far (171, i), Ne., spelt; PL only N. and Ac. farra.
-er, -eris Masculines: acipenser, sturgeon; agger, mound; anser, rarely
F., goose; asser, pole; career, jail; later, brick; mulier,
F., -woman; passer, sparrow; vSrner, ploughshare. Neuters:
cadaver, corpse; tuber, swelling; fiber, breast; verberis, G.,
lash, no N., generally PL ; acer, maple, and some other plant names:
see 573. pauper, poor, adjective.
-ter, -tris accipiter, M., hawk; frater, M., brother; mater, F., mother;
pater, M., father.
-er, -eris ver, Ne. ; no PL
-or, -oris aequor, Ne., sea; marmor, Ne., marble; arbor, F., tree,
-or, -oris plor, M., swan; soror, F., sister; uxor, F., wife. Many mascu-
lines in -or for -6s (237) : as, odor, smell; and in -tor, -tpris
(205): as, amator, lover. Also gender comparatives ot adjectives:
as, tristior (346), M., F., sadder.
-ur, -oris Neuters: ebur, ivory; PL only ebora ; robur, heart of oak ; PI.
i obora common, roborum and rpboribus twice each. Also femur
thigh, fempris or feminis, and iecur, liver, iecoris, iecineris,
or iocineris.
-ur, -uris augur, M., F., augur ; furfur, M., bran; turtur, M., F., turtle-
dove; voltur or vultur, M., vulture. Neuters: fulgur, lightning;
guttur, rarely M., throat ; murmur, murmur ; sulpur, sulphur.
cicur, tame, adjective.
-ur, -uris fur, M., thief.
490. volucris, F., bird, stem volucr-, has its nominative formed like that
of -i- stems.
491. (.) Examples of stems in -a-, or -r- for -s-, with nominative
-s, genitive -ris, are :
-aes, -aeris aes, Ne., copper, bronze; in the PL only aera and aerum are usual.
-es, -eris Ceres, pubes, mangrown ; impubes, immature, adjectives; for
the last more commonly impubis, like brevis (630).
-is, -eris cinis, M., ashes; cucumis, M., cucumber, also with -i- stem;
pulvis, M., dust; vomis, M.., ploughshare.
-os, -oris arb5s, F., tree.
-6s, -oris Masculines: fl5s,/<raw; mos, custom; ros, dew, no G. PL (430);
lepos, grace; honos or honor, honour, and some old Latin words
for later -or : as, odos or odor, smell (489). oSj Ne., mouth, face,
no G. PI. (430).
74
The Noun : Consonant Stems. [492-496.
-us, -eris Neuters :_acus, husk; foedus, treaty; funus, funeral; genus,
race; ^lOmus (134), dew; holus, green stuff-, latus, j&fc ; munus,
gift; onus, burden; opus, -work; pondus, -weight; raudus or
ttdMS, piece of copper ; scelus, crime ; Sldus, constellation ; ulcus,
sore; vellus, fleece ; viscus, bowel, usually plural; volnus or vul-
nus, wound. Also Venus, F., and vetus, old, adjective.
-us, -oris Neuters: corpus, body; decus, grace; dedecus, disgrace; f aci-
nus, deed; faenus, interest; frigus, cold; litus, shore; nemus,
grove; pectus, breast; pecus, flock; penus, store; pignus,
fledge; stercus, dung; tempus, time; tergus, back. Also
lepus, M., hare.
-us, -oris Neuter comparatives of adjectives : as, tristius (346), sadder.
-us, -uris Neuters: crus, leg; ius, right, PL iura, G. PL twice only (Plaut. ;
Cato), no D. or Ab. PL ; ius, broth, pus, pus, rus, country, tus,
frankincense, PL only N. and Ac. iura, &c. tellus, F., earth.
492. vas, Ne., vessel, utensil, retains the S between two vowels : G. vasis,
D. vasi, Ab. vase, plural N. and Ac. vasa; the G. vasorum, and D. and
Ab. vasis, are formed from an -o- stem, vaso- (401). mensis, M., month,
mensis, has its nominative formed like that of -i- stems ; G. Pi. mensum,
sometimes mensuum or mensium. os (171, i)Ne., bone, ossis, has no G.
PL in good writers (430) : ossium late.
493. The two neuters virus, gall, poison, and volgus or vulgus, the crowd,
have -o- stems, except in the nominative and accusative (401), and no plural : thus,
N. and Ac. volgus, G. volgi, D. and Ab. volgo. A masculine accusative volgum
is sometimes found. The Greek neuter pelagus, the deep, has also G. pelagi, D.
and Ab. pelago, PL N. and Ac. pelage (508).
III. STEMS IN -U- OR -V-.
494. Four substantives with stems in -u- or -v-, grus, F., crane,
gruis ; sus, M., F., sow, swine, suis ; bos, M., F., ox, cow, bovis ; and nix,
F., snow, nivis, follow the consonant declension; also the genitive lovis,
and the other oblique cases of luppiter (500). But sus has in the plural
dative and ablative uuibus, subus, or subus; bos has in the plural genitive
bourn or bovum, rarely bovom (107, c}, and in the dative and ablative
bobus, or oftener bubus ; nix has no genitive plural in good writers (430) :
nivium late, once nivum.
SINGULAR CASES.
495. (i.) The nominative singular of gender stems in a mute
is formed by adding -s to the stem (422) : as,
reg-, king, N. rex (164, i) ; due-, leader, N. dux (135, i); custod-, guard,
N. custos (171, 5) ; aetat-, age, N. aetas (171, 5) ; caelib-, unmarried, N.
caelebs (54) ; municip-, burgher, N. municeps. hiem-, winter, the only
stem in -m-, N. hiemps (167) or hiems, also takes -s.
496. (2.) Stems in a continuous consonant, -1-, -n-, -r-, or
-S-, and neuters have no nominative suffix (422, 423) : as,
consul-, consul, N. consul; flamin-, special priest, N. flamen; agger-,
mound, N. agger; iur- for ius-, right, N. ius.
For cor, heart, see 476 ; lacte, lac, milk, 478 ; sanguls, blood, 486 ; -s
in neuter adjectives, 612.
75
497~57-] Words: Inflection.
497. (a.) Stems in -on- drop -n- in the nominative ; stems in -in-
for -on- drop -n- f and end in -6 : as,
Icon-, lion, N. leo ; imagin- for imagon-, likeness, N. imago.
498. (b.) Stems of one syllable in -r- for -s- usually retain -s in the
nominative: as, flor- for flos-, M., flower, N. flos; iur- for ius-, Ne.,
right, N. ius. Some of more than one syllable also retain -s : see 491 ; but
in others -s is changed to -r, and in masculines a preceding 6 is shortened :
as, odos, smell, odor, lepos, grace, retains -os.
499. (c.} Four stems in -er- for -is- have the nominative singular in -is :
cinis, ashes, cineris ; cucumis, cucumber, cucumeris or cucumis ; pul-
vls, dust, pulveris; and vSmis, oftener v5mer, ploughshare, vomeris.
500. The following have the nominative singular formed from a differ-
ent stem from that of the other cases (401) :
iter, journey, itineris, stems iter-, itiner-; luppiter (389) lovis ; supel-
lex, furniture, supellectilis (545) ; senex, old man, man of forty or more,
senis, stems senec-, sen-. For sedes, seat, see 476 ; vates, bard, 478.
canis, dog, N. also canes (Plant. Enn., Lucil.), iuvenis, young or middle-aged
person (486), volucris, bird (490), and mensis, month (492), have their nomina-
tives formed like those of -i- stems.
501. An old dative in -e is sometimes retained in set phrases (507): as, acre,
money; iure, right. See 98.
502. Substantives have rarely an ablative in -I or -ei like -i- stems:
as, capiti (Catull.), head, for capite ; dotei (Plaut.), dowry, for dote.
Substantives used as adjectives have sometimes -I : as artifici manu, with
artist hand ; but often -e : as. alite lapsu, with winged glide. For -e in old
Latin there is no certain evidence.
503. Adjectives in the comparative degree have sometimes an ablative in -i :
as, meli5ri, better, for meliore. Adjectives 'of one ending' with consonant
stems (624) have always -e, except vetus, old, which has sometimes veteri.
504. Town names and a few appellatives have a locative case in
-I: as, Karthagini, at Carthage; ruri, a-field, in the country.
PLURAL CASES.
505. The nominative and accusative plural masculine and feminine have rarely
-is, like stems in -i- : as sacerdotls, priests; melioris, better. For -a in
neuters in old Latin, see 130, 2.
506. The genitive plural of stems in -tat- (262) is sometimes -ium, like that of
-i- stems: as, civitatium, communities; voluptatium, pleasures (Cic.); but
chiefly in or after the Augustan age, mensis, month, has mensum, but often
mensuum, sometimes mensium. ales, f bird, has sometimes alituum in hex-
ameter verse. For the dative and ablative -bus, see 2505.
507. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows :
N. MVNICIPES ; -5 for -6s (66) : MAIO, i.e. mai5s or maior. G. -es, as early
as 218 B.C. : SALVTES; -us, from 186 to 100 B.C.: NOMINVS ; -u (66) : CAESARV.
D. -ei : VIRTVTEI, soon after 290 B.C. ; HEREDEI, 45 B.C.; -e, disappeared sooner
than -ei except in set phrases (501), but is equally old: IVNONE ; IOVRE. Ac. -e
(61): APICE. Ab. -Id (426): CONVENTIONID, i.e. contione ; -ei : VIRTVTEI;
-I: HEREDI. Plural: N. -is: IOVDICIS. G. -om : VOVMILIONOM ; -ium:
MVNICIPIVM. D. -CbUS : TEMPESTATEBVS. Ac. -IS : MVNICIPIS.
76
The Noun: Stems in -i-. [508-515.
GREEK NOUNS.
508. Greek appellatives of the consonant declension occasionally retain Greek
case endings : as, lampas, torch, G. lampados, Ac. lampada. Plural : N.
lampades, Ac. lampadas. aer, air, has usually the accusative aera, and
aether, upper air, always has aethera. In the plural nominative and accusative,
cetUS, swimming monster, melos, strain of music, and pelagus (493), the deep,
have -e : as, cete. Genitive -on, rare : as, epigrammaton, epigrams. Dative
and ablative -matls from words in -ma, -matis: as, poematis,/^^j (401).
509. Greek proper names of the consonant declension are usually
declined like Latin ones in old Latin and prose. From Vergil and Proper-
tius on, Greek case endings grow more and more frequent, especially in
poetry; they are best learned for every name from the dictionary; the
commonest forms are :
Genitive -os : as, Pan, Panqs ; -us, with nominative -6: as, Manto,
Mantus. Dative -i, rare: as, Minoidi. Accusative -a, common with names
of persons in poetry, not in prose, more common with those of places, and even
in prose: as, Acheronta ; always Pana; -5, with feminines in -6, -us:
as, DIdd. Vocative : Pallas, Palla ; in old Latin the nominative is com-
monly used instead of the vocative. Plural: Nominative -es : as, Arcades.
Dative -sin, rare : as, Lemniasin. Accusative -as, very common : as, Lele-
gas ; in prose, Macedonas ; also in words not Greek : as, Allobrogas (Caes.).
510. Names in -eus, like Orpheus, are usually declined like -o- stems (449).
They have less frequently Greek forms : as, G. Orpheos, D. Orphei or Orphi,
Ac. Orphea. Accusative rarely -ea: as, flionea.
511. Some names in -es have the genitive in -is or -I and the accusative in -em
or -en (401) : as, Socrates, G. Socratis or Socrati, Ac. usually Socratem,
also Sqcraten. Achilles and Ulixes have in the genitive -ei, -l, or -i.
Names in -cles have rarely the accusative -clea: as, Periclea.
512. Some names in -is have forms either from a stem in -id-, or from one in
-i-: as, Paris, G. Paridis, D. Paridi, Ac. Paridem, Parim or Parin, V.
Pari.
STEMS IN -i- AND MIXED STEMS.
The Third Declension.
Genitive singular -is, genitive plural -i-um.
513. Stems in -i- include both substantives and
adjectives, gender words and neuters.
For the gender of substantives, see 570.
514. The nominative of gender stems in -i- ends usually in -a
(or -x), sometimes in -1 or -r ; that of neuter substantives has no
suffix, and ends usually in -e, sometimes in -1 or -r.
515. Most stems in -i- have as many syllables in the nomina-
tive as in the genitive.
77
516-520.]
Words: Inflection.
Such words are called Parisyllabic words, or Parisy I tables : as,
nominative civis, citizen, two syllables ; genitive civis, of a citizen,
also two syllables.
516. Stems in -i- are declined in the main like consonant stems, but
have -im in the accusative of some substantives, and -i in the ablative of
adjectives, of some gender substantives, and of neuters ; in the plural they
have -ium in the genitive, -is often in the accusative of gender words, and
-ia in the nominative and accusative neuter.
I. PARISYLLABLES.
517. (i.) Parisyllabic gender stems in -i- with the nominative
in -is are declined as follows :
(A
Examples
tussis, cough,
turris, tower,
amnis, river,
hostis, enemy,
H if
Stems
tussi-, F.
turri-, F.
amni-, M.
hosti-, M.,F.
35 S 8-g
0)
Singular
Norn.
tussis
turris
amnis
hostis
-is
Gen.
tussis
turris amnis
hostis
-is
Dat.
tussi .
turri
amni
tosti
-I
Ace.
tussim
turrim, -em
amnem
ostem
-im, -em
Abl.
tussi
turn, -e
amne, -I
hoste
-1,-e
Plural
Nom.
tusses
turres
amnes
hostes -es
Gen.
turrium
amnium
hostium -ium
Dat.
turribus
amnibus
hostibus
-ibus
Ace.
tussis, -es
turns, -es
amnis, -es
hostis, -es
-Is, -es
Abl.
turribus
amnibus
hostibus -ibus
518. (a.) Like the singular of tussis are declined parisyllabic names of rivers
and places, like Tiberis, Hispalis. Also cucumis, M., cucumber (but see
491), and the defectives sitis, F., thirst, Ac. sitim, Ab. siti, no plural ; and vis,
F., power, Ac. vim, Ab. vi. Plural (401): N. vires, G. yirium, D. and Ab.
viribus, Ac. viris or vires. (The D. vi is only found twice; a N. and Ac. PI.
vis is very rare.)
519. (b.) The following feminines are declined like turris, with -im
or -em in the accusative, and -I or -e in the ablative :
clavis, key navis, vessel sementis, planting
f ebris, fever puppis, stern strigilis, skin-scraper
So also in the oblique cases, Liger, the Liger. Arar, the Arar, has in the
accusative -im, in the ablative -e or -i.
520. securis, axe, messis, crop, and restis, rope, also have -im or -em
in the accusative, but onlv securi, messe, and reste in the ablative, canalis,
conduit, has only -em in the accusative, and only -I in the ablative,
78
The Noun: Stems in -i-. [521-527.
521. (c.) The following are declined like amnis, with -em in the
accusative, and -i or -e in the ablative :
Civis, citizen
fustis, club
avis, bird
bilis, bile
522. (<a?.) Most parisyllabic stems in -i-, with the nominative in
is, are declined like hostis : as,
ensis, M., glaive; piscis, M., fish; aedis, F., temple, PL house (418);
vitis, F., vine ; and a great many others. Also gender forms of adjectives
in -i- ' of two endings ' (630), except the ablative singular, which ends in -i.
523. (2.) Parisyllables in -i- with the nominative in -es
have their other cases like those of hostis : such are :
caedes, bloodshed; cautes, rock; clades, disaster ; indoles, native
disposition, no PI.; labes, fall ; moles, pile ; nubes, cloud; proles, off-
spring, no PL ; pubes, young population, no PL ; rupes, crag ; saepes,
hedge ; strages, slaughter ; suboles, offspring; tabes, wasting, no PL, femi-
nines; and some others. Masculine: verres, boar ; volpes or vulpes, fox.
524. fames, hunger, has G. twice farm (Cato, Lucil.), Ab. always fame
(603), no PL; plebes, commons, N. also plebs or pleps, has G. plebei (603),
plebi or plebis, no PL
525. (3.) A few stems in -bri-, -cri-, or -tri-, are declined as follows:
imber, shower, stem imbri-, M.
Singular: N. imber, G. imbris, D. imbri, Ac. imbrem, Ab. imbri,
oftener imbre. Plural: N. imbres, G. imbrium, D. imbribus, Ac. imbris
or imbres, Ab. imbribus. So also lunter or linter, F. ( M.), tub* boat, uter,
M., leather bag, and venter, M., belly ^ but with only -e in the Ab. ; and the mascu-
line of adjectives in -bri-, -cri-, -tri-, N. -er (628); these last have in the Ab.
always -I.
526. (4.) Parisyllabic neuters in -i- with the nominative in -e
are declined as follows:
Examples
Stems
sedile, seat,
sedili-, Ne.
mare, sea,
mari-, Ne.
S-g gl
tO u|
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
s.
PL
Nom.
sedile
sedilia
mare
maria
-e
-ia
Gen.
sedilis
sedilium
maris
-is
-ium
Dat.
sedili
sedilibus
mari
_I
-ibus
Ace.
sedile
sedilia
mare
mari a
-e
-ia
Abl.
sedili
sedilibus
mari
-i
-ibus
527. mare has rarely the ablative mare in verse ; in the plural only the
nominative and accusative are usual ; but a genitive marum is once quoted (Naev.),
and the ablative maribus is once used by Caesar.
79
5 28-5 3 1 ]
Words: Inflection.
528. Examples of parisyllabic neuters in -i-, with the nominative
in -e, genitive -is, are :
ancile, sacred shield ; aplustre, ancient; conclave, suite of rooms; insigne,
ensign; praesaepe, stall; rete, net, -Ah. rete. Also the neuter of adjectives in
-i- ' of two endings ' (630), and some words in -lie, -ale, -are, originally adjectives
(313, 314): as, bubile, ox-stall; focale, neckcloth; cocleare, spoon.
II. IMPARISYLLABLES.
529. Sometimes a plural stem in -i- is combined, in the singular,
with a stem in a mute, in -1, or -r, or rarely in -&. These mixed stems
thus become imparisyllables. Gender stems of this class are like
consonant stems in the singular, except the ablative of adjectives,
which has usually -i.
530. Imparisyllabic stems in -i- are declined as follows:
Examples
arx, citadel,
pars, part,
urbs, city,
animal, animal,
Stems
arci-, F.
parti-, F.
urbi-, F.
animali-, Ne.
Singular
Nom.
arx
pars
urbs
animal
Gen.
arcis
partis
urbis
animalis
Dot.
arci
parti
urbi
animali
Ace.
arc em
partem
urbem
animal
Abl.
arce
parte
urbe
animali
Plural
JV0m.
arces
partes
urbes
animalia
Gen.
arcium
partium
urbium
animalium
Dat.
arcibus
partibus
urbibus
animalibus
Ace.
arcis, -es
partis, -es
urbis, -es
animalia
Abl.
arcibus
partibus
urbibus
animalibus
53L Examples of stems in -ci- f with nominative -x, genitive
-cis, are :
-ax, -acis fornax, F., furnace. Many adjectives (284) : as, audax, daring.
-aex, -aecis faex, F., dregs, no G. PL (430).
-ex, -icis supplex, suppliant, Ab. -i, sometimes -e, G. PL supplicum.
Adjectives: duplex, twofold; multiplex, manifold; quadruplex,
fourfold; septemplex, se-venfold ; simplex, simple; triplex,
threefold. The foregoing have Ab. -i : as, duplici ; duplice once
(Hor.), septemplice twice (Ov. ; Stat.); G. PL -ium, Ne. PL
N. and Ac. -ia.
ix. -icis felix, happy; pernix, nimble, adjectives. Also many feminines of
the agent in -trix (205): as, victrix, victorious; these sometimes
have a Ne. PL N. and Ac. : as, victricia ; in the G. PL they have
-ium, or, as substantives, -um : as, nutricum, nurses.
80
The Noun: Stems in -i-. [532, 533.
-lx, -Icis calx, F. (M.), heel; calx, M., F., limestone, no G. PI. (430); falx,
F., sickle.
-nx, -ncis lanx, F., platter, no G. PI. (430); deunx, M., eleven twelfths;
quincunx, M.., jive twelfths.
-ox, -ocis praecox, over-ripe, older stem praecoqui- : as, G. praecoquis ;
rarely with -o- stem (401) : as, praecoquam.
-ox, -ocis celox, F., clipper, atrox, savage; fer5x, -wild; velox, swift,
adjectives.
-rx, -rcis arx, F., citadel, G. PL rare and late; merx, F., ware, N. in old
Latin sometimes merces or mers.
-ux, -ucis Adjectives : trux, savage, Ab. -I or -e, G. PL -ium ; redux,
returning, Ab. -i or -e (558); no G. PL and no Ne. N. or Ac. (430).
-aux, - fauce, F., Ab., throat, N. faux once only and late, generally PL
-ux, -ucis lux, F. (581), light, Ab. sometimes -i, no G. PL (430).
532. (#.) Examples of stems in -di-, with nominative -s, geni-
tive -dis, are :
-es, -edis Compounds of pes, foot: compede, F., Ab., fetter, no N., G. PL
compedium ; adjectives: as, alipes, wing-footed, bipes, two-
legged, quadrupes, four-footed, &c., Ab. -I, PL G. -um only
(563), Ne. N. and Ac. -ia, rare and late.
-ns, -ndis Feminines: frons, foliage; glans, acorn; iuglans, walnut.
-rs, -rdis concors, like-minded, adjective, and other compounds of cor, Ab.
-i (559)i Ne - PI N - and Ac - -ia, G. PL not usual : discordium,
at variance, and vecordium, frantic, once each.
-aus,-audis fraus, F., deceit, G. PL fraudium, later fraudum.
$33- () Examples of stems in -ti- f with nominative -s (-x),
genitive -tis, are:
-as, -atis Arpmas, of Arpinum, and adjectives from other town names; opti-
mmBSj good men and true, G. PL -ium, less often -um; penates,
gods of the household store.
-es, -etis Adjectives: hebes, dull; teres, cylindrical, Ab. -I (559), no G.
PL, Ne. PL hebetia, teretia, late and rare; perpes, lasting
through, Ab. perpeti, late only ; praepes, swift-winged, Ab. -I or
-e, G. PL -um, no Ne. PL N. or Ac.
-es, -etis locuples, rich, adjective, Ab. usually -e of a person, -i often of
a thing, G. PL locupletium, sometimes locupletum, Ne. PL
locupletia once.
-IS, -itis lis, contention; dis, rich, adjective, Ab. always -I (559), PL G.
-ium, once -um (Sen.), Ne. N. and Ac. -ia. Quiris, Samnis.
-Is, -Itis ^\&$, pottage, no G. PL (430).
6 81
534~537-] Words: Inflection.
-ns, -ntis Masculines: dens, tooth; ions, fountain; pons, bridge; mons,
mountain, N. once mentis (Enn.); factors or twelve : sextans, one
sixth; quadrans, triens, dodrans, dextans. Feminines: frons,
forehead; gens, dan ; mens, mind. Present participles: as, re-
gens, guiding. Many adjectives : as, ingens, gigantic, Ab. -i
(559)> Veiens, of Vei; compounds of mens : as, amens, out of
one's head; of dens : as, tridens, Ab. -I, as substantive usually -e.
-eps, -ipitis Adjective compounds of caput, head: anceps (543), two-headed,
once older ancipes (Plaut); biceps, two-headed; triceps, three-
headed; praeceps, head-first, old praecipes (Plaut; Enn.), Ab.
-i (559)> no G - pl -> Ne - pl - N - and Ac - -ia.
-rs, -rtis Feminines: ars, art; cohors, cohort; fors, chance; mors, death;
pars, /ar// sors, lot, N. twice sortis (Plaut.; Ten). Adjectives:
censors, sharing, exsors, not sharing, no G. PI. ; expers, with-
out fart ; iners, unskilled, sellers, all-skilled, Ne. PL N. and
Ac. -ia.
-x, -ctis nox, F., night; Ab. also noctu (401); an old adverb form is nox,
nights.
534. (a.) Stems in -bi-, with nominative -bs (149), genitive -bis,
are :
trabs, F., beam, older N. trabes (Enn.); plebs, "P., commons, N. sometimes
pleps, for the older plebes (603), no PI. ; urbs, F., city.
535. (A) Stems in -pi-, with nominative -ps, genitive -pis, are :
inops, poor, adjective, Ab. -I (559), G. PI. -um, no Ne. PI. N. or Ac. (430);
StirpS, F. (M.), trunk.
536. Examples of stems in -li-, with nominative -1, genitive
-lis, are :
-al, -alis Neuters, originally adjective (546): animal, animal; bacchanal,
shrine or feast of Bacchus ; cervical, bolster; puteal, well-curb;
toral, -valance; tribunal, tribunal; yectlgal, indirect tax. Only
N. or Ac.: cubital, elbow-cushion ; minutal, minced-fish; capital,
capitalia, death, capital crime.
-il, -ilis v jfil> wide-awake, adjective, Ab. -I, as substantive -e (561), G. PI.
vigilum (563), no Ne. PI. N. or Ac. (430).
537. (#.) Examples of stems in -ri-, with nominative -r, geni-
tive -ris, are:
-ar, -aris Neuters, originally adjective (546): calcar, spur; columbar, dove-
cote; exemplar, pattern; lacunar, panel-ceiling; pulvmar,
couch; subhgar, tights ; torcular, wine-press.
-ar, -aris Adjectives : par, equal; dispar, impar, unequal, for Ab., see 561 ;
G. PI. -ium, Ne. PI. N. and Ac. -ia; compar, co-mate, as sub-
stantive has G. PI. -um.
-er, -eris Adjectives : degener, degenerate, Ab. -I (559), no Ne. PI. N. or Ac.
(430) ; uber, Jruitjul, Ab., -I, late -e, Ne. PI. ubera once only (Ace.).
82
The Noun : Stems in -i-. [538-546.
-or, -oris Adjectives: memor, remembering; immemor, forgetful, Ab. -I
(559), G. PI. memorum (636) once only (Verg.), no Ne. PI. N.
or Ac. (430).
-or, -oris Adjective compounds of color : as, concolor, of like shade, dis-
color, of different shade, both with Ab. -I only ; versicolor, pied,
Ab. -I, rarely -e, Ne. PI. N. and Ac. -ia; the G. PI. of these words
is not usual, but versicolorum once.
538. (6.) Stems in -ri-, with nominative -s of the stem, genitive -ris, are
glis, F., dormouse, gliris; mas, M., male, maris ; mus, F., mouse, muris.
39. The only imparisyllabic stem in -si- is as (171, i), M., unit, an as, G.
assis, with its compounds bes, two thirds, G. bessis, and semis, 'half an as,
half, G. semissis.
SINGULAR CASES.
540. (i.) The nominative singular of gender stems in -i- is
usually formed by adding -s to the stem (422). But many
gender substantives have the nominative in -es (236,401) : as,
amni-, river, N. amnis ; aedi-, temple, N. aedis ; brevi-, short, N.
brevis. With N. -es : nubi-, cloud, N. nubes ; for other examples, see
5 2 3-
541. Some substantives form the nominative in both these ways : as, valles
and vallis, valley, equally common ; aedis, temple, later aedes ; for caedes,
slaughter, clades, disaster, and moles, pile, caedis, &c., occur exceptionally.
542. A few stems in -bri-, -cri-, or -tri-, drop -i- in the nominative. The
endings brs, crs, trs, then change to -ber, -cer, -ter (in, b) : as, imbri-,
shower, N. imber (525).
543. Of gender imparisyllables, some have lost -i- of the
stem before -s in the nominative ; others have originally a
consonant stem in the nominative (529-535).
Thus, monti-, mountain, and sorti-, lot, have N. mons and sors for
an older montis and sortis ; but dens, tooth, and regens, ruling, have
as original stems dent- and regent-. Adjectives in -cipiti- have N.
-ceps (533).
544. A few adjective stems in -li- or -ri- drop -i- in the nominative without
taking -5(536, 537): as, vigili-, wide-awake, N. vigil; pari-, equal, N. par;
so also Arar and Liger. Three substantives in -ri- for -si- likewise drop -i-,
and end in the original -s (538): gliri- for glisi-, dormouse, N. glis ; mas,
male; mus, mouse.
545. For caro, F., flesh, carnis (Ab. -i, usually -e, no G. PI ) see 135, 2.
supellex, F., furniture, supellectilis (Ab. -l or-e, no PL), has the nominative
formed from a different stem from that of the other cases (401).
546. (2) Neuter steins in -i- have no nominative suffix, and end
in -e for -i- of the stem (107, b} : as,
mari-, sea, N. mare ; brevi-. short, N. breve. In some words, origi-
nally neuter adjectives in -ale and -are, the -e is dropped and the a short-
ened : as, animale, living thing, animal (536) ; exemplare (Lucr .), pattern,
exemplar (537). Some neuter adjectives end in -1 or -r (536, 537); and
some ' of one Ending' end in -s (612).
83
5 4 7~5 5 &] Words : Inflection.
547' The accusative singular of gender substantives usually has
-em, like consonant stems (424); but a few substantives with the
nominative in -is have -im only, and some have either -im or -em.
548. (a.) Accusatives in -im
Are sitim, tussim, vim, thirst, cough, strength
And burim, cucumim. ploughtail, cucumber
549. The accusative in -im is found in many adverbs (700) : as, partim, in
part; in some adverbial expressions: as, adamussim, examussim, to a T,
adfatim, to satiety, ad ravim, to hoarseness; in some names of rivers and cities :
as, Tiberim, Hispalim ; and in some Greek words (565).
550. (b.) Six have the accusative commonly in -im, sometimes in -em :
febrim, -em, fever puppim, -em, stern securim, -em, axe
pelvim, -em, basin restim, -em, rope turrim, -em, tower
551. Six have the accusative commonly in -em, sometimes in -im :
bipennem, -im, two-edged axe navem, -im, ship
clavem, -im, key sementem, -im, planting
messem, -im, crop strigilem, -im, skin-scraper
552. In the ablative, gender substantives have usually -e,
and neuters and adjectives have -I : as,
hoste, enemy ; marl, sea ; acri, sharp, brevi, short, audaci, daring.
553- (*) Of gender substantives with the nominative in -is, a few
have only -i in the ablative, and many have either -I or -e.
554. (a.) These ablatives have only -I:
securi, siti, tussi, vi, axe, thirst, cough, strength
canali, cucumi. conduit, cucumber
Some names of rivers and cities have only -i : as, Tiberi, Hispali. The
locative also ends in -I : as, Neapoli, at Neapolis.
555- () These ablatives of gender substantives with the nomina-
tive in -is have -I or -e :
amne, -i, river clavi, -e, key orbi, -e, circle
ave, -I, bird febrl, -e, fever puppi, -e, stern
bile, -i, bile fusti, -e, club sementi, -e, planting
civi, -e, citizen igni, -e,Jire strigili, -e, skin-scraper
classe, -I, fleet navi, -e, ship turn, -e, tower
556. A few other words in -is have occasionally an ablative in -i : as, anguis,
snake, collis, hill, finis, end, postis, /0.tf, unguis, nail, &c. sors, lot, imber,
shower, and lux, light, have also -e or -i ; supellex, furniture, has supellectill
or -e ; Arar has -e or -i ; Liger, -I or -e.
557. Neuter names of towns with the nominative in -e have -e in the ablative:
as, Praeneste. rete, net, has only rete; mare, sea, has rarely mare (527).
558. (2.) Adjectives ' of two endings' with stems in -i- (630) often have
-e in the ablative when they are used as substantives, and sometimes in
verse, when a short vowel is needed : as,
The Noun: Stems in -i-.
adfini, -e, connection by marriage; aedlle, -I, aedile ; familiar!, -e, friend.
But some, even as substantives, have -I : as, aequali, of the same age, consular!,
ex-consul, gentlll, tribesman. Adjectives of place in -ensis (330) usually have
-I, but sometimes -e : as, Tarquiniense. Proper names have usually -e: as,
luvenale.
559. Adjectives 'of one ending' with stems in -i- (632), have commonly
-I in the ablative. The following ablatives have only -I :
arnenti, frenzied, ancipiti, two-headed, praecipiti, head-first, concolori,
of like hue, concord!, harmonious, discordi, at variance, socordi, impercep-
tive, degeneri, degenerate, dltl, rich, teretl, rounded, ingenti, huge, inopi,
without means, mernori, remembering, immemori, forgetful.
560. Present participles, when used as adjectives, have -I in the
ablative, otherwise -e : as,
a sapienti viro, by a wise man; adulescente, youth, substantive;
RSmulo regnante, in the reign of Romulus, ablative absolute (1362).
561. Other adjectives 'of one ending* occasionally have -e in the
ablative when used as substantives or as epithets of persons, or in verse
when a short syllable is needed : as,
consorti, sharing, pari, equal, vigili, -wide-a-wake, felici, happy, as adjec-
tives ; but consorte, &c., as substantives; in prose, impari, dispari, unequal;
in verse, impare, dispare. Proper names have -e : as, Felice.
PLURAL CASES.
562. In the plural, gender nominatives have -es, rarely -is or -eis,
and gender accusatives have -is or -es indifferently, sometimes -eis ;
after about 50 A.D., -es was the prevalent ending for both cases.
Neuters add -a to the stem, making -ia ; for -ia in old Latin, cf. 2505.
563. In the genitive plural, present participles, some substantive stems
in -nt(i)-, and some adjectives 'of two endings' (631) have occasionally
-um : as,
amantum, lovers; rudentum, rigging; agrestum, country folk; caeles-
tum, heaven's tenantry, apis, bee, has commonly -um ; caedes, slaughter,
and fraus, deceit, have rarely -um. For -um in some adjectives ' of one ending,'
see 636 ; for -bus in the dative and ablative in old Latin, see 2505.
564. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows :
N. without -is: VECTIGAL, i.e. vectigalis, adjective; -e for -is (66, 41):
MILITARE, i.e. militaris, adjective ; -es (540): AIDILES, i.e. aedilis; GIVES, i.e.
civis. G. -us, from 186 to 100 B.C. : PARTVS, i.e. partis. D. -ei : VRBEI.
Ac. -i (61) : PARTI, i.e. partem ; -e : AIDE, i.e. aedem. Ab. -ei : FONTEI;
-e : SERVILE, i.e. servili. Plural: N. -es : FINES; -eis: FINEIS; -is: FINIS.
GREEK NOUNS.
565. Greek stems in -i- are usually declined like Latin ones, with the accusa-
tive in -im, and ablative in -i. But the accusative sometimes has -n : as, poesin,
poetry, Charybdin ; similarly Capyn; and a vocative occurs: as, Charybdi.
The plural genitive Metamorphose5n, and as ablative Metamorphosesin,
occur as titles of books.
85
566-576.] Words: Inflection.
CHARACTERISTICS OF STEMS IN -I-.
566. Parisyllables with nominatives in -is, -es, or -e, and
a few in -ef ; and imparisyllables with nominatives in -al, and
in -ar for -are, have stems in -i-.
But canis, iuvenis (486), volucris (490), mensis (492), sedes (476), and
vates (478), have consonant stems.
567. Under -i- stems may also conveniently be grouped the fol-
lowing classes, which have usually a consonant form in the singular,
and an -i- form in the plural :
568. (a.) Imparisyllabic adjectives with the genitive in -is, except com-
paratives and the dozen with consonant stems (624), and imparisyllables
with a nominative in -s or -x preceded by any consonant except p. But
coniunx (472) and caelebs (480) have consonant stems.
569. (b.) The following monosyllables : as, unit, an as, faex, dregs, fraus,
deceit, gllS, dormouse, Us, strife, lux, light, mas, male, mus, mouse, nox, night,
stirps, trunk, vis, strength. Also fauce, throat, and compede, fetter, both
Ab., no N., and fornax, furnace.
GENDER OF CONSONANT STEMS AND -i- STEMS.
570. The gender of many of these substantives is determined by their
meaning (404-412) ; that of participles used as substantives follows the
gender of the substantive understood ; Greek substantives follow the Greek
gender. The gender of other words may be conveniently arranged for the
memory according to the nominative endings as follows.
MASCULINE.
571. Imparisyllables in -es or -es and substantives
in -er, -6, -or, and -6s are masculine : as,
caespes, sod ; pes, foot ; agger, mound ; sermo, speech ; pallor, f ale-
ness ; fios,fawer.
572. These imparisyllables in -es or -es are feminine : merges, sheaf, seges,
crop, teges, mat ; requies and quies, rest ; compedes, plural, fetters ; merces,
re-ward, aes, copper, bronze, is neuter.
573. These substantives in -er are neuter : cadaver, corpse, iter, -way, tuber,
swelling,
of plai
siler,
masculine, ver, spring, is neuter.
574. Substantives in -6, with genitive -inis (485), are feminine; as, imago,
imaginis, likeness ; also caro, carnis, flesh, and words of action in -10 and -tio
(227, 228). But cardo, hinge. 6rd5, rank, and turb5, -whirl-wind, are masculine.
margo, brink, and cupldo, desire, are sometimes masculine.
575. These substantives in -or are neuter : ador, spelt, aequor, sea, m armor,
marble, cor, heart, arbor, tree, is feminine.
576. These substantives in -os are feminine : cos, whetstone, arbos, tree, dos,
dowry, os, oris, mouth, face, is neuter, also OS, ossis, bone.
86
The Noun: Consonant and -i- Stems. [577-584.
FEMININE.
577. Parisyllables in -es, and substantives in -as
-aus, -is, -s preceded by a consonant, and -x, are
feminine : as,
nubes, cloud ; aetas, age ; laus, praise ; navis, ship ; urbs, city ; pax,
peace.
578. as, assis, penny, is masculine, vas, vessel, utensil, and the defectives
fas, right, and nefas, wrong, are neuter.
579. Substantives in -nis are masculine; also twenty-nine others in
-is, as follows :
axis, callis, caulis, anguis, axle, path, cabbage, snake
fascis, fustis, lapis, sangufs, bundle, club, stone, blood
piscis, postis, pulvTs, ensis, fish, fast, dttst, glaive
torquis, torris, unguis, mensis, twisted collar, firebrand, nail, month
vectis, vermis, vomis, collis, lever, worm, ploughshare, hill
glis, canalis, also follis, dormouse, conduit, ball
casses, sentes, vepres, orbis, nets, brambles, thorns, plurals, circle
cucumis, and sometimes corbis. cucumber, basket
burim, ploughtail, accusative only, is also masculine. A few of the above
are sometimes feminine : as, amnis, anguis, callis, canalis, cinis, finis,
funis, torquis, vepres, &c.
580. Four in -s preceded by a consonant are masculine : dens, tooth, f5ns,
fountain, pons, bridge, mons, mountain ; also factors of twelve : sextans,
one sixth, quadrans, triens, dodrans, dextans ; rudens, rope, once.
adeps, fat, and forceps, pincers, are masculine or feminine, stirps, stock, is
sometimes masculine.
581. calix, cup, fornix, arch, and tradux, vinelayer, are masculine; also sub-
stantives in -unx and -ex ; except nex, murder, and preci, prayer, dative, no
nominative, which are feminine ; also rarely grex, herd, cortex, bark, forf ex,
scissors, silex, flint, and obice, barrier, ablative, no nominative, are either mascu-
line or feminine, calx, heel, and calx, lime, are sometimes masculine, also lux,
light, in the ablative in old Latin.
NEUTER.
582. Substantives in -c, -e, -1, -n, -t, in -ar, -ur,
-us, and -us, are neuter: as,
lac, milk; mare, sea ; animal, animal; carmen, song; caput, head;
calcar, spur ; fulgur, lightning; corpus, body ; ius, right.
583. sol, sun, pecten, comb, lien, spleen, renes, kidneys, plural, and fur-
fur, bran, are masculine. So usually sal, salt, but sometimes neuter in the singular.
far, spelt, is neuter.
584. pecus, beast, is feminine; also tellus, earth, and the substantives in
-us which have -udis (475) or -utis (477) in the genitive: as, palus, marsh;
iuventus, youth.
87
585-590.]
Words : Inflection.
STEMS IN -u-.
The Fourth Declension.
Genitive singular -us, genitive plural -u-um.
585. Stems in -u- are substantive only, and mostly
masculine.
586. There are only three neuters in common use, cornu, horn, genu, knee,
and veru, a spit. But some cases of other neuters are used: as, ablative pecu,
flock; plural nominative and accusative artua, limbs (Plaut.)j OSSVA, bones (inscr.).
587. The nominative of stems in -u- ends, including the stem
vowel, in -u-s in gender words, and in lengthened -u of the stem in
neuters.
588. Most substantives in -u- are masculines in -tu- or -su-, often defective
in case (235). The following words are feminine : acus, fin, needle, domus,
house, manus, hand, porticus, colonnade ; tribus, tribe ; and the plurals idus,
ides, and quinquatrus,/<?a.y/ of Minerva ; rarely perms, store, and specus, cave.
589. Stems in -u- are declined as follows :
C/3
Examples
fluctus, wave,
cornu, horn,
1 1 J
Stems
fluctu-, M.
cornu-, Ne.
OT rt S
<u
Singular
M.
Ne.
Nom.
fluctus, a (or the] wave
cornu
-us
-u
Gen.
fluctus, a wave's, of a wave
cornus
-us
-us
Dat.
fluctui, -u, to or for a wave
cornu
-ui, -fl
-u
Ace.
fluctum, a wave
cornu
-urn
-u
AM.
ftuctu,from, with, or by a wave
cornu
-u
-u
Plural
Nom.
fluctus, (the} waves
cornua
-us
-ua
Gen.
fluctuum, waves\ of waves
cornuum
-uum
-uum
Dat.
fluctibus, to or for waves
cornibus
-ibus
-ibus
. Ace.
fluctus, waves [waves
cornua
-us
-ua
Abl
fluctibus, from, with, or by
cornibus
-ibus
-ibus
SINGULAR CASES.
590. In the genitive, the uncontracted form -uis sometimes occurs : as,
anuis, old woman (Ter.). A genitive in -tl is rather common: as, advent!,
arrival ; ornati, embellishment (Ter.) ; senati, senate. In the dative, -u is
regularly found for -ui in neuters and often in gender words.
88
The Noun: Stems in -e-. [591-600.
PLURAL CASES.
591. In the genitive plural, a shorter form in -um is occasionally found: as,
passum, steps (Plant., Mart.); currum, chariots (Verg.) ; EXERCITVM. The
quantity of the u and the origin of this ending are uncertain.
592. In the dative and ablative plural, the following retain -u-bus '
acus, pin, needle, arcus, bow, partus, birth, tribus, tribe. The following
have -u-bus or -i-bus (28) : artus, plural, joints, lacus, lake, portus,
haven, specus, cave, genii, knee, veru, a spit. All other words have -i-bus
only.
593. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows :
G. -uos: SENATVOS; -u (66) SENATV ; -uus, in the imperial age (29, i):
EXERCITVVS. D. -uei (29, 2): SENATVEI. Ac. -u (61) : MANV. Ab. -uu (29, i):
ARBITRATVV; -uo, once, by some thought to be for -ud (426); MAGISTRATVO.
Plural : N. -uus (29, i) : MAGISTRATVVS.
594. domus, house, F , has stems of two forms, dornu- and dorno- (401);
it is declined as follows: N. domus, G. domus, rarely domi, D. domui or
domo, Ac. domum, Ab. domo or domu, Locative dorm, rarely domui.
Plural : N. domus, G. domuum, later domorum, D. and Ab. domibus,
Ac. domos, less commonly domus.
595. Some other substantives have an -u- stem in some of their cases, and
an -o- stem in others : see angiportus, arcus, caestus, colus, cornu,
cornus, cupressus, ficus, fretus, gelus, laurus, murtus, perms, pinus,
quercus, rictus, tonitrus, in the dictionary.
STEMS IN -e-.
The Fifth Declension.
Genitive singular -ei, genitive plural -e-rum.
596. Stems in -e- are substantive only, and femi-
nine.
597. dies, day, is always masculine in the plural, and commonly in the singular;
but the feminine is common when dies denotes length of time or a set day.
meridies, midday, is masculine and singular only.
598. The nominative of stems in -e- ends, including the stem
vowel, in -e-s.
599. Stems in -e- are of two classes :
600. (i.) Stems of the first class have one or two syllables: there
are four of them : res, thing, spes, hope, dies, day, and fides, faith.
Of this class, res and dies have a plural throughout; spes has only
the nominative and accusative plural, and fides has no plural.
601-607.]
Words: Inflection.
6oi. Stems in -e- of the first class are declined as follows :
Examples
res, thing,
dies, day,
g-d 1
Stems
re-, F.
die-, M.
2 re '"3
80 ,g
Singular
Nom.
res, a (or the} thing
dies
-es
Gen.
rei, rei, a thing's, of a thing
diei, dia
-SI, -ei, -1
Dat.
rei, rei, to or for a thing
diei, diei
-gi, -ei, -a
Ace.
rem, a thing
diem
-em
Abl.
rt,from, with, or by a thing
die
-e
Plural
Nom.
res (the) things
dies
-es
Gen.
rerum, things' 1 , of things
dierum
-erum
Dat.
rebus, to or for things
diebus
-ebus
Ace.
res, things
dies
-es
Abl.
rebus, from, with, or by things
diebus
-ebus
602. fides is declined like res ; it has once a genitive fides (Plaut.). For rei,
rei, or re~l, and fidei, fidei, or fi del, see i 2 7>4 .dies has rarely a genitive dies
(Enn.) or dil (Verg.). spes has only the genitive and dative spei in verse. A
genitive or dative in -e is sometimes found : as, re, die, fide.
603. A few cases of other words sometimes follow this class (401): as, plebes
(524), commons, G. plebel or plebi; fames (524), hunger, Ab. always fame;
requies (477), rest, G. requie (Sail.), Ac. requiem, Ab. requie; tabes
(523), -waste, Ab. tabe, *contages, contact, Ab. contage (Lucr.), &c.
604. (2.) Stems of the second class are formed by the suffix -ie-
or -tie-, and have three or more syllables.
This class, which is parallel to stems in -ia-, has usually no genitive,
dative, or plural. Many stems, especially those in -tie-, have also a col-
lateral form in -ia-, and the genitive and dative, when used at all, are
commonly from a stem in -ia-.
605. Stems in -e- of the second class are declined as follows :
luxuries, extravagance, stem luxurie-, F.
Nom. luxuries, Ace. luxuriem, Abl. luxurie.
606. A few examples of the genitive of these stems are found : as, pernicii,
pernicies, or pernicie, ruin (Cic.); rabies, fury (Lucr.) ; acie, edge of battle
(Sail., Caes., auct. B. Afr.), facie, make (Plaut., Lucil.), specie, looks (Caes.);
aciei (auct. B. Afr.). And a very few of the dative: as, aciei twice (Caes.);
perniciei, pernicii (Nep.); pernicie (Liv.).
607. eluvies, offscouring, wash, has the nominative of the plural, and
glacies, ice, has the accusative of the plural. Five words only have the
nominative and accusative plural :
series, acies, row, edge, species, facies, look, make, effigies, likeness.
90
The Noun : Adjectives. [608-615.
THE ADJECTIVE.
608. Adjectives are declined like substantives, and it has been shown
already how their cases are formed. But they differ from substantives in
having different forms in some of their cases to denote different genders ;
it is convenient therefore to put their complete declension together.
609. Adjective stems end in -o- and -a-, in a con-
sonant, or in -i-.
610. An accusative plural of a stem in -U-, anguimanus, with a serpent for
a hand, is once used (Lucr.). There are no adjective stems in -e-.
611. Adjectives are often conveniently said to be ' of three end-
ings? * of two endings] or ' of one ending?
By the ' ending ' is meant the ending of the nominative singular : thus, bonus,
bona, bonurn, good, and acer, acris, acre, sharp, are ' of three endings ' (409);
brevis, breve, short, is 'of two endings ' (410); and audax, bold, is 'of one end-
ing' (410).
612. Adjectives ' of one ending ' which form a gender nominative in -s, retain
the -s irrationally in the nominative and accusative neuter singular : as, N. M. and F.
audax, N. and Ac. Ne. also audax.
STEMS IN -o- AND -a-.
613. Most adjectives with stems in -o- and -a- are de-
clined as follows :
Example
M. bonus, F. bona, Ne. bonum, good,
Stems
bono-, bona-.
Singular.
Plural.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
bonus
bona
bonum
bom
bonae
bona
Gen.
bom
bonae
bom
bonorum
bonarum
bon5rum
Dat.
bond
bonae
bon5
boms
boms
bonis
Ace.
bonum
bonam
bonum
bonos
bonas
bona
Abl.
bono
bona
bono
boms
bonis
bonis
Voc.
bone
614. Stems in -io- and -ia- have no consonant i in cases ending in -i or -Is
(i53> 3) = as plebeius, plebeian, G. S. M. and No., and N. PI. M. plebei, D. and
Ab. Pi. plebeis.
615. Stems in -ro- preceded by a long vowel retain -us in the nominative
singular masculine and are declined like bonus (453): as, severus, stern; also
ferus, merus, wild, unmixed properus, hasty
morigerus, complaisant prSsperus, lucky
praeposterus, reversed triquetrus, three-cornered
9 1
6 1 6-6 1 8.]
Words : Inflection*
616. (i.) Some stems in -ro- preceded by a short vowel end in -r in
the nominative singular masculine and have no vocative (454) ; they are
declined as follows :
Example
M. liber, F. libera, Ne. liberum, free,
Stems
libero-, libera-.
Singular.
Plural.
MASC.
FEM. NEUT.
MASC. FEM.
NEUT.
Norn.
liber
libera liberum
liberi liberae
libera
Gen.
liberi
liberae liberi
Iiber5rum liberarum liberorum
Dat.
libero
liberae libero
liberis liberis
liberis
Ace.
liberum
liberam liberum
liberos liberas
libera
Abl.
libero
libera libero
liberis liberis
liberis
Such are : compounds, chiefly poetical, ending in -fer and -ger, bearing,
carrying, having: as, caelifer, heaven-upholding; corniger, horned ; also
the following:
(alter, 618), asper, other, rough satur, semifer,y//, half-beast
lacer, liber, torn, free tener, Trever, tender, Treveran
gibber, miser, hump-backed, forlorn
dexter, right ^ has dextera, dexterum, or dextra, dextrum, G. dexteri,
or dextri, &c. sinister, left, has usually sinistra, &c., rarely sinisteram (Plant.,
Ter.). asper has a plural accusative aspros (Stat.), and ablative aspris (Verg.).
617. (2.) Other stems in -ro- have a vowel before r only in the nomina-
tive singular masculine -er (454) ; they are declined as follows :
Example
Stems
M. aeger, F. aegra, Ne. aegrum, *//,
aegro-, aegra-.
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
I Singular.
Plural.
MASC.
aeger
aegri
aegr5
aegrum
aegr5
FEM.
aegra
aegrae
aegrae
aegram
aegra
NEUT.
aegrum
aegri
aegro
aegrum
aegr5
MASC.
aegri
aegrorum
aegris
aegros
aegris
FEM. NEUT.
aegrae aegra
aegrarum aegr5rum
aegris aegris
aegras aegra
aegris aegris
618. Nine adjectives or adjective pronouns have the pronoun
form -lus in the genitive singular and -I in the dative singular, for
masculine, feminine, and neuter alike; they are the following:
alius, another Gnus, one alter, the other
solus, alone ullus, any at all uter, which of the two
tdtus, whole nullus, no neuter, neither
92
The Noun: Adjectives. [619-624.
619. Of the above words, those with the nominative in -us are declined like
unus (638). But alius has N. and Ac. Ne. aliud (659); for the G., alterfus is
mostly used, except in the combination alms modi, of another sort ; the N. M.
is rarely alis, Ne. alid, D. rarely all. alter is declined like liber (616), except
in the genitive singular alterfus (127, 6) and dative alter!. For liter and its
derivatives, see 693.
620. The ordinary genitive and dative of -o- and -a- stems, from some of
the above words, is sometimes found : G. and D. aliae, solae, alterae, D. alio,
alterae, &c.
CONSONANT STEMS.
OF TWO ENDINGS.
621. The only consonant stems of two endings are comparatives
(346) ; they are declined as follows :
Example
M. and F. tristior, Ne. tristius, sadder,
Stems
tristior-, tristius-.
Singular.
Plural.
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUT.
MASC. AND FEM. NEUT.
Nom.
tristior
tristius
tristiores tristiora
Gen.
tristioris
tristioris
tristiorum tristiorum
Dat.
tristiori
tristiori
tristioribus tristioribus
Ace.
tristiorern
tristius
tristiores tristiora
Abl.
tristiore
tristiore
tristioribus tristioribus
622. The ablative rarely has -i for -e : as, meliori (503); the accusative plural
masculine and feminine rarely have -is : as, melioris (505).
623. plus, more, has in the singular only Ne. N. and Ac. plus, G. pluris,
and Ab. glare. Plural: N. M. and F._plures, Ne. plura G. plurium D.
M. and F. complures or compluris
OF ONE ENDING.
624. A dozen adjectives 'of one ending,' mostly words applying to
persons, with consonant stems throughout, have no nominative or accusa-
tive neuter plural ; they are :
caelebs, compos, unmarried, pubes, impubes, mangrown, immature
master of s5spes, superstes, safe, surviving
*deses, dives, lazy, rich pauper, cicur, poor, tame
particeps, princeps, sharing,first
93
625-629.]
Words : Inflection.
625. When these adjectives have a neuter, it is the same as the gender
forms, except in the accusative singular ; they are declined as follows :
M. F. and Ne. dives, rich, stem divit-.
Singular: N. dives, G. divitis, D. diviti, Ac. M. and F. dlvitem,
Ne. dives, Ab. divite. Plural: N. and Ac. M. and F. divites, G. divi-
tum, D. and Ab. divitibus.
626. The plural caelites, heavenly, occupants of heaven, is also declined like the
plural of dives ; the singular Ab. caelite occurs a couple of times, vetus, old,
G. veteris, is also declined like dives, but has a Ne. PI. N. and Ac. vetera; the
Ab. S. is regularly vetere, but veteri is sometimes used.
STEMS IN -i-.
OF THREE ENDINGS.
627. A dozen adjectives with stems in -bri-, -cri-, or -tri-, have a
distinctive form in -er for the masculine nominative singular ; they are :
celeber, thronged volucer, winged pedester,/o<tf-
saliiber, healthy campester, of a plain puter, rotten
acer, keen equester, cavalry- Silvester, woody
alacer, lively paluster, of a swamp terrester, land-
So also celer, swift. The names of months, September, October,
November, December, are also adjectives with stems in -bri-, but are not used
in the neuter. Other adjectives with stems in -bri-, -cri-, or -tri-, have no
distinctive form for the masculine nominative singular : as, muliebris, mediocris,
inlustris.
628. These adjectives are declined as follows:
Example
M.
acer, F. acris, Ne.
acre, sharp,
Stem
acri-.
Singular.
Plural.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
acer
acris
acre
acres
acres
acria
Gen.
acris
acris
acris
acrium
acrium
acrium
Dat.
acri
acri
acri
acribus
acribus
acribus
Ace.
acrem
acrem
acre
acris, -es acris, -es
acria
Abl.
acri
acri
acri
acribus
acribus
acribus
629. Jn all cases but the masculine nominative singular these adjectives are just
like those in -i- ' of two endings ' (630). But the ablative always has -i, never -e,
and the genitive plural always has -him, never -um. In celer the second e
belongs to the stem : M. celer, F. celeris, Ne. celere ; the genitive plural, which
is celerum, is found only as a substantive. Most of these adjectives have now
and then a masculine in -is, like adjectives 'of two endings' (630), and in old
Latin the nominative -er is rarely feminine.
94
The Noun : Adjectives. [630-633.
OF TWO ENDINGS.
630. Adjectives * of two endings ' with stems in -i- are
declined as follows :
Example
M. and F. brevis, Ne. breve, short,
Stem
brevi-.
Singular.
Plural.
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUT.
MASC. AND FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
brevis
breve
breves
brevia
Gen.
brevis
brevis
brevium
brevium
Dat.
brevi
brevi
brevibus
brevibus
Ace.
brevem
breve
brevis, -es
brevia
Abl.
brevi
brevi
brevibus
brevibus
631. The ablative is sometimes -e when these adjectives are used substantively
or in verse (558). The genitive plural is rarely -urn for -ium (563).
OF ONE ENDING.
632. Most adjectives ' of one ending' have a consonant form
of the stem in the singular, except usually in the ablative (633),
and an -i- stem in the plural ; they are declined as follows :
Examples
Stems
M. F. and Ne. audax, bold,
audac(i)-.
M. F. and Ne. regens, ruling,
regent(i)-.
Singular
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
MASC. & FEM. NEUT.
audax audSx
audacis audacis
audaci audaci
audacem audax
audaci audaci
MASC. & FEM. NEUT.
regens regens
regentis regentis
regent! regent!
regentem regens
regente, -I regente, -I
Plural
JVom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
MASC. & FEM. NEUT.
audaces audacia
audacium audacium
audacibus audacibus
audacis, -es audacia
audacibus audacibus
MASC. & FEM. NEUT.
regentes regentia
regentium regentium
regentibus regentibus
regentis, -es regentia
regentibus regentibus
633. Present participles have -i in the ablative, when they are used as
adjectives, otherwise -e (560). For -I or -e in other words, see 559,
561. For -ium or -um in the genitive plural, 563.
95
634-641.]
Words : Inflection.
634. Most adjectives ' of one ending ' in -i- are declined as aoove (632) ;
some of them have peculiarities in some of their cases, as follows :
635- ( r -) tr "X (531), savage, has Ab. -I or -e, G. PI. -him, no Ne. PL N.
or Ac. redux (531), returning, has Ab. -I or -e, no G. PI. or Ne. PI. N. or
Ac. hebes, dull, teres, cylindrical (533), and compounds of caput, head, as
anceps, (533), two-headed, have Ab. -I, no G. PI. ; a Ne. PI. N. or Ac. -ia is
rare. For locuples, rich, see 533.
636. (2.) The following have -I in the ablative, but -um of consonant stems
in the genitive plural, and no nominative or accusative neuter plural: inops (535),
without means, vigil (536), wide-awake, memor (537), remembering, degener,
degenerate, uber (537), prolific, has Ab. -I, twice -e, Ne. PI. once -a (Ace.).
Compounds of pes, as, bipes (532), two-legged, have a late and rare Ne. PI. N.
and Ac. -ia.
THE NUMERAL ADJECTIVE.
637. Of the cardinals, unus, duo, tres, and the hundreds except
centum are declined. The other cardinals are not declined.
638. unus, one, is declined as follows :
Singular.
Plural.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
unus
una
unum
uni
unae
una
Gen.
unius
unius
unius
un5rum
unarum
unorum
Dat.
um
uni
uni
unis
unis
unis
Ace.
unum
unam
unum
unos
Qnas
una
Abl.
uno
una
uno
unis
unis
unis
Voc.
une
In verse, the genitive singular is often unius.
639. duo, two, and tres, three, are declined as follows :
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
MASC. & FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
duo
duae
duo
tres
tria
Gen.
duorum
duarum
duorum
trium
trium
Dat.
duobus
duabus
duobus
tribus
tribus
Ace.
duo or duos
duas
duo
tres or tris
tria
Abl.
duobus
duabus
duobus
tribus
tribus
640. In dramatic verse,duo, &c., is common. In the genitive plural, duo some-
times has du5m (462). ambo, both, is declined like duo, but has -5 in the
nominative and accusative, and only amborum and ambarum in the genitive
plural. For the forms duo, ambo, see 415 ; duobus, duabus, 464, 442.
641. Hundreds are declined like the plural of bonus (6i3_) : as, ducenti,
ducentae, ducenta, two hundred, G. ducent5rum or ducentfim (462), &c.
9 6
The Noun : Pronouns. [642650.
642. The adjective mille, thousand, is not declined. The substantive
has in the singular only N. Ac. Ab. mille, or Ab. milli ; plural : N. and Ac.
millia (milia), G. millium (milium), D. and Ab. millibus (milibus).
643. Ordinals, as primus, first, and distributives, as bini, two each, are
declined like bonus (613). But distributives seldom have a singular, and
often have the genitive plural -fim (462) : as, binum.
THE PRONOUN.
(A.) THE PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUN.
644. The pronoun of the first person, ego, /, of the second
person, tu, thou, and the reflexive pronoun, sui, se, himself,
herself, itself, themselves, are declined as follows :
ego, /
tu, thou
sui, self
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing. & Plur.
Nom.
ego
n5s
tu
vos
Gen.
mei
nostrum, -tri
tui
vestrum, -tri
sui
Dat.
mihl, ml
nobis
tibi
vobis
sib!
Ace.
me
n5s
te
vos
se
Abl.
me
nobis
te
vobis
se
645. The nominatives ego and tu, and the accusatives me, te and se,
have no case ending. The last vowel of ego is rarely long in Plautus, long
or short in Lucilius. The nominative ego has a different stem from that of
its other cases, and the plurals of ego and tu have a different stem from
that of the singular.
646. mei, tui, and sui, which are often monosyllables in old verse, were
originally the genitive of the neuter possessives, used substantively. An old genitive
mis is quoted, and tis occurs rarely in Plautus.
647. The relation of the ending -bis in vobis to -bl in tib! may be due to
analogy with illis, illi. nobis is formed after vobis.
648. In old Latin, the ablative is med, ted, sed (426), which forms are also
used irrationally for the accusative. But by Terence's time the -d was no longer
used (143).
649. Older forms for vestrum and vestri are vostrum and yostri. The
genitive plural was originally a genitive of the possessive : that in -i being the neuter
singular, that in -urn the masculine or feminine plural. In old Latin, nostrorum,
nostrarum, vostrorum, vostrarum also occur.
650. Emphasis is given (i.) by reduplication (189) : Ac. and Ab. meme,
tete, rare ; sese, very common. (2.) by -te added to the N. of tu : tute.
(3.) by -met added to any case but the genitive plural: as, egomet ; but
tu has only tutemet or tutimet.
4 97
651-660.] Words: Inflection.
651. In inscriptions, the datives MIHEI, TIBEI, and SIBEI occur, so written in
verse sometimes even when the last syllable is short ; and MIHE, TIBE. Plural :
D. and Ab. VOBEIS. Ac. ENOS in an old hymn ; SEESE (29, i ).
THE PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE POSSESSIVE.
652. The possessives of ego, tu, and sui, are meus, mine, tuus,
thine , and suus, his, her, its, their (own), declined like bonus (613),
except that meus has mi in the vocative singular masculine (459)';
those of nos and vos are noster, our, and voster, later vester,
your, declined like aeger (617).
653. Old forms are tuos, tuom, and suos, suom (452). In old verse meHs,
me~l, &c., tfibs, tui, &c., subs, sift, &c., often occur. sos for suos, sas
for suas, and sis for suis, are old and rare.
654. Other case forms are found in inscriptions, as follows :
MEEIS, MIEIS, monosyllable ; TOVAM ; SVEI, SOVOM, sovo, svvo, SOVEIS, SVEIS,
SVIEIS.
655. Emphasis is given (i.) by -met added to suo, sua, suos, and to
mea and sua, neuter plural : as, suomet ; (2.) by -pte, which is oftenest
found with the ablative : as, suopte.
(B.) OTHER PRONOUNS.
656. Some pronouns have a peculiar genitive singular in
-lus and dative singular in -I, for masculine, feminine, and
neuter alike.
These are : iste, ille, ipse, uter, and their derivatives. Some other
words of a pronoun character also have this form of the genitive and dative :
see 618.
657. In verse, the -I- of the genitive is often shortened, and always in
utriusque ; but neutrius is not found with short i. In dramatic verse,
the genitive singular of iste, ille, or ipse, is often two syllables.
658. hie, is, qui or quis, and their derivatives have the genitive
singular in -ius, thus : huius, eius, and quoius or cuius ; in dramatic
verse, these genitives are often one syllable. Their datives are huic for
hoice, Si or ft, and quoi or cui.
of the empire. In hoc for *hod-ce and in istuc and illuc for *istud-ce,
*illud-ce, the d has vanished (166, i; 171, i).
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.
660. The demonstrative pronouns are hie, this, this near me ;
iste, istic, that, that near you ; and ille, illic, yonder, that.
The Noun : Pronouns. [661-666.
661. The demonstrative pronoun hie, this, this near me, is de-
clined as follows:
Singular.
Plural.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
hie
haec
hoc
hi
hae
haec
Gen.
huius
huius
huius
hSrum
harum
horum
Dat.
huic
huic
huic
his
his
his
Ace.
hunc
hanc
hoc
hos
has
haec
Abl.
h5c
hac
hoc
his
his
his
662. The stem of hie is ho-, ha- ; to most of its cases a demonstrative
-c for -ce is attached. The masculine and feminine nominative singular and
nominative and accusative neuter plural take an -i-: hie for*ho-i-ce (108, a) ;
haec for ha-i-ce (96). hunc, hanc, are for *hom-ce, *ham-ce. For the
quantity of the first syllable of huius, see 153, 2; of hoc, 171, i.
663. Old forms with the full ending -ce are rare except after -s : Plural Ne. Ace.
haece (Enn.) ; G. F. harumce (Cato) ; also G. horunc, harunc (PL, T.);
hosce, D. and Ab. hisce (PL, T.). After 100 B.C., the full form -ce is not
found, except occasionally after -s : huiusce, hosce, hasce, hisce. Before -ne
interrogative it is retained in the weakened form -ci- : as, hicine. But hicne,
hocne, huicne, &c., are found, though rarely.
664. The nominative hie or hicine found in the dramatists and rarely later is
probably for *ho-C, *he-c (103, a). A nominative plural feminine haec is found in
writers of all ages. Other and rare forms are : PL N. M. hisce (461), D. or Ab.
hibus.
665. Other case forms of hie are found in inscriptions, as follows :
N. M. HEC, HIC. G. HOIVS, HVIIVS (23), HVIVS, HOIVSCE, HOIVSQVE, HVIVSQVE.
D. HOICE, HOIC, HOI, HVIC, Hvi. Ac. M. HONG, HOC; F. HANCE; Ne. HOCE,
HVC. Ab. M. and Ne. HOCE ; F. HACE, oftener than HAC in republican inscriptions;
HAACE (29, i). LOG. HEICE, HEIC. Plural : N. M. HEISCE, HEIS, or HEI, HISCE
or HIS; HI, not before Augustus; Ne. N. and Ac. HAICE, HAECE. G. HORVNC.
D. and Ab. HEISCE, HIBVS. Ac. F. HASCE.
666. The demonstrative pronouns iste, that, that near you, and
ills, yonder, are declined alike, as follows :
Singular.
Plural.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
ille
ilia
illud
illi
illae
ilia
Gen.
illius
illius
illius
illorum
illarum
ill5rum
Dai.
mi
illi
illi
illls
illis
illis
Ace.
ilium
illam
illud
illos
illas
ilia
Abl.
il!5
ilia
illo
illis
illis
illis
99
667-672.]
Words: Inflection.
667. The first syllable of iste and ille is often short in the dramatists. Old
forms of iste are : N. istus, G. isti, in istimodi, D. F. istae. The initial i
of iste and of istic (669), is sometimes not written: as, sta res (Cic.), stuc
periculum (Ter.). Old forms of ille are: N. olus (81); ollus or olle, &c.:
as, D. S. or N. PI. olli, D. PL pills. G. illi, in illimodi, D. F. illae. The
dramatists have eccistam, eccilla, eccillud, eccillum, eccillam, for ecce
istam, &c., and ellum, ellam, for em ilium, &c.
668. Other case forms of ille are found in inscriptions, as follows:
D. F. ILLAE. Plural: N. M. ILLEI. G. OLORVM (81). D. and Ab. OLLEIS,
ILLEIS.
669. istic and illic, compounded of iste, ille, and -ce or -c, are
declined alike, as follows :
Singular.
Plural.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
Ace.
Abl.
illic
illunc
mac
illaec
illanc
iliac
illuc
illuc
illoc
illic
illosce
illisce
illaec
illasce
illisce
illaec
illaec
illisce
670. Rare forms are: N. and Ac. Ne. istoc, illoc, G. illmsce, D. illic, Ab.
F. istace, illace. Plural: N. M. illisce (461), illic, Ac. illosce, illasce.
Before -ne interrogative, -ce becomes -ci-: N. illicine, istucine, Ac. illancine,
Ab. istocine, istacine. PI. Ac. istoscine.
THE DETERMINATIVE PRONOUN.
671. The determinative pronoun is, that, the aforesaid, the
one, is declined as follows :
Singular. "
Plural.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
is ea id
ei, ii, or i
eae
ea
Gen.
eius eius eius
eorum
earum
eorum
Dat.
i SI i
eis, iis, or is
eis, iis, or is
eis, iis, or is
Ace.
eum earn id
eos
eas
ea
AbL
eo ea eo
eis, iis, or is
eis, iis, or is
eis, iis, or is
672. is and id (659) are formed from a stem i-, and the other parts from
a stem eo-, ea-. The genitive is sometimes written in Cicero and Plautus
eiius ; for the quantity of the first syllable of eius, see 153, 2; for i, see
127, 3, and 127,4.
TOO
The Noun: Pronouns. [673-680.
673. In old verse, the genitive singular rarely has the first syllable short. Old
and rare forms are : D. F. eae, Ac. M. im or em. PI. D, and Ab ibus F
eabusj442> In dramatic verse, eum, earn, ei, eo, ea, and ei, eorum, earum!
eos, eas, els, are often found j also eccum, eccam, eccos, eccas, ecca, for
ecce eum, &c.
674. Other case forms of is are found in inscriptions, as follows :
N. EIS, I2 4 B.C. G. EiVS, EIIVS, EllVS or EllVS (23). D. EIEI, 123 B.C. ; EEI,
IEI; EI, 123 B.C., and common in all periods. Plural : N. EEIS, EIS, IEIS, till about
50 B.C. ; EEI, EI, IEI. D. and Ab. EEIS, EIEIS, IEIS, is ; after the republic, us, ils.
675. A rare and old pronoun equivalent to is is sum. sam, accusative singular,
SOS, accusative plural, and sis, dative plural.
THE PRONOUN OF IDENTITY.
676. The pronoun of identity, idem, the same, is declined as
follows :
Singular.
Plural.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
MASC. FEM. NEUT.
Norn.
idem eadem idem
eidem \ eaedem eadem
or idem \
Gen.
eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem
eorundem earundem eorundem
Dot.
eidem eidem eidem
eisdem \ eisdem / eisdem )
orisdem j orisdem \ orisdem \
Ace.
eundem eandem idem
eosdem easdem eadem
eisdem ) eisdem ) eisdem /
Abl.
eodem eadem e5dem
orisdem) orisdem) orisdem j
677. In manuscripts and editions, the plural nominative masculine is often
written iidem, and the dative and ablative iisdem. The singular nominative mas-
culine is rarely eisdem or isdem (Plant., Enn.1, eidem^ (Cic., Varr.), neuter
idem (Phut.). In verse, eundem, eandem, eidem, eodem, eadem, and
eidem, eaedem, eorundem, eosdem, easdem, are often found.
678. Other case forms of idem are found in inscriptions, as follows :
N. M. EISDEM, 123 B.C., ISDEM, 59 B.C., both common till Caesar's time; EIDEM ;
Ne. EIDEM, 71 B.C. D. IDEM. Plural: N. M. EISDEM, ISDEM, EIDEM, till Caesar's
time ; IIDEM, once only. D. and Ab. ISDEM, very rarely IISDEM.
THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.
679. The intensive pronoun ipse, himself, stems ipso-, ipsa-, is
declined like ille (666), but has the nominative and accusative
neuter singular ipsum.
680. In dramatic verse, ipse has rarely the first syllable short, and often has
the older form ipsus. Plautus has these forms: N. F. eapse, Ac. eumpse,
eampse, Ab. eopse, eapse, equivalent to ipsa, &c. So reapse for re ipsa.
101
681-689.]
Words: Inflection.
THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE PRONOUN.
(i.) qui AND quis.
681. The stem qui-, or quo-, qua-, is used in three ways : as a
relative, who, which; as an interrogative, who? which? what? as
an indefinite, any.
682. (a.) The relative qui, who, which, is declined as fol-
lows :
Singular.
Plural.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
MASC.
FEM.
NEUT.
Nom.
qui
quae
quod
qui
quae
quae
Gen.
CU1US
cuius
cuius
quorum
quarum
quSrum
Dot.
cui
cui
cui
quibus
quibus
quibus
Ace.
quern
quam
quod
qu5s
quas
quae
Abl.
qu5
qua
quo
quibus
quibus
quibus
683. (.) The interrogative adjective qui, quae, quod,
which? what? is declined like the relative qui (682).
684. The interrogative substantive has in the nominative
singular quis, quid, who? what? the rest is like qui (682).
In old Latin, quis is both masculine and feminine, but a separate feminine form
quae is used three or four times.
685. quis interrogative is sometimes used adjectively with appellatives :
as, quis senator ? what senator ? And qui is sometimes used substantively :
as, qui primus Ameriam nuntiat ? who is the first to bring the tidings
to Ameria ?
686. (c.) The indefinite quis or qui, one, any, has the fol-
lowing forms :
quis and quid masculine and neuter substantives, qui and quod adjec-
tives ; feminine singular nominative and neuter plural nominative and
accusative commonly qua, also quae. The rest is like qui (682).
687. quis, quern, quid, and quibus come from the stemaui-; the other
parts come from quo-, qua-, quae stands for an older quai (690). For quid
and quod, see 659.
688. Old forms of the genitive singular are qupius, and of the dative quqiei,
quoii, or quoi, also in derivatives of qui or quis. A genitive plural quoium
is old and rare. The dative and ablative plural is sometimes quis from quo-,
qua-. A nominative plural interrogative and indefinite ques is rare (Pacuv.).
689. The ablative or locative is sometimes qui, from the stem qui- : as
an interrogative, how ? as a relative, wherewith, whereby, masculine, femi-
nine, or neuter, in old Latin sometimes with a plural antecedent; especially
referring to an indefinite person, and with cum attached, quicum ; and as an
indefinite, somehow.
102
The Noun : Pronouns. [690692.
690. Other case forms of qui or quis and their derivatives are found
in inscriptions, as follows:
N. QVEI, prevalent in republican inscriptions ; also QVI ; once QVE. G. QVOIVS,
regularly in republican inscriptions; cvuvs, cvilvs, cvllvs (23), once QVIVS (20).
D. QVOIEI, QVOI ; once F. QVAI. Ab. QVEI. Plural: N. M. QVEI, but after 120
B. C., occasionally QVI ; QVES, indefinite ; F. and Ne. QVAI. G. QVOIVM.
DERIVATIVES OF qui AND quis.
691. The derivatives of qui and quis have commonly
quis and quid as substantives, and qui and quod as adjec-
tives. Forms requiring special mention are named below :
692. quisquis, "whoever, whatever, everybody who, everything which, an
indefinite relative, has only these forms in common use: N. M. quisquis,
sometimes F. in old Latin, Ne. N. and Ac. quicquid or quidquid, Ab.
M. and Ne. as adjective quoquo.
Rare forms are : N. M. quiqui, Ac. quemquem, once Ab. F. quaqua,
as adverb quiqui, once D. quibusquibus. A short form of the genitive occurs in
quoiquoimodi or cuicuimodi, of -whatsoever sort.
aliquis or aliqui, aliqua, once aliquae (Lucr.), aliquid or aliquod,
some one, some-, Ab. M. sometimes, Ne. often aliqui (689). PI. Ne. N. and
Ac. only aliqua; D. and Ab. sometimes aliquis (6b8).
ecquis or ecqui, ecqua or ecquae, ecquid or ecquod, any? Besides
the nominative only these forms are found : D. eccui, Ac. ecquem, ecquam,
ecquid, Ab. M. and Ne. ecquS. PI. N. ecqui, Ac. M. ecquos, F. ecquas.
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whichever, everybody
who, everything which. The cumque is sometimes separated from qui
by an intervening word. An older form is quiquomque, &c.
quidam, quaedam, quiddam or quoddam, a, a certain, some one, so
and so ; Ac. quendam, quandam. PL G. quorundam, quarundam.
quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet or quodlibet, any you please.
quisnam, rarely quinam, quaenam, quidnam or quodnam, who
ever? who in the world ? Sometimes nam quis, &c.
quispiam, quaepiam, quippiam, quidpiam or quodpiam, any, any
one; Ab. also quipiam (689), sometimes as adverb, in any way.
quisquam, quicquam or quidquam, anybody at all, anything at all,
generally a substantive, less frequently an adjective, any at all. There is no
distinctive feminine form, and quisquam and quemquam are rarely, and
in old Latin, used as a feminine adjective. Ab. also quiquam (689), some-
times as adverb, in any way at all. No plural.
quisque, quaeque, quicque, quidque or quodque, each. Sometimes
unus is prefixed : unusquisque ; both parts are declined, quisque and
quemque are sometimes feminine. Ab. S. quique (689) rare, Ab. PL quis-
que (688) once (Lucr.).
quivis, quaevis, quidvis or quodvis, which you will; Ab. also quivis
(689).
103
693-695-]
Words : Inflection.
(2.) uter.
693. uter, utra, utrum, whether 1 } which of the two? has
the genitive singular utrius, and the dative singular utri.
The rest is like aeger (617). uter is sometimes relative, whichsoever,
or indefinite, either of the two.
DERIVATIVES OF Utet.
694. The derivatives of uter are declined like uter ; they
are :
neuter, neither of the two, genitive neutrius, always with i (657). When
used as a grammatical term, neuter, the genitive is always neutri : as,
generis neutri, of neither gender.
utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whichever of the two, either
of the two.
uterlibet, whichever you please.
uterque, whichsoever, both. G. always utriusque (657).
utervis, whichever you wish.
alteruter, F. altera utra, Ne. alterutrum or alterum utrum, one
or the other, G. alterius utrius, once late alterutrius, D. alterutri, Ac.
M. alterutrum or alterum utrum, F. alterutram once (Plin.) or alteram
utram, Ab. alterutro or alters utro, F. altera utra. No PL, except D.
alterutris once (Plin.).
CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS.
695. Pronouns often correspond with each other in meaning and form
some of the commonest correlatives are the following :
Kind.
Interrogative.
Indefinite.
Demonstrative,
Determinative, &c.
Relative.
Simple
quis, qui,
who ?
quis, qui,
aliquis
hie, iste, ille
is, quisque
qui
Alternative
uter, which of
the two ?
uter,
alteruter
uterque
uter, qui
Number
quot, how
many? (431)
aliquot
tot
quot
Quantity
quantus, how
large? (613)
aliquantus,
quantusvis
tantus
quantus
Quality
qualis, of what
sort? (630)
qualislibet
talis
qualis
104
The Noun : Adverbs. [696-702.
THE ADVERB,
THE CONJUNCTION, AND THE PREPOSITION.
I. NOUNS AS ADVERBS.
696. Adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions are chiefly noun or
pronoun cases which have become fixed in a specific form and with a
specific meaning. Many of these words were still felt to be live cases,
even in the developed period of the language ; with others the con-
sciousness of their noun character was lost.
697. Three cases are used adverbially : the accusa T
tive, the ablative, and the locative.
698. The rather indeterminate meaning of the accusative and the ablative
is sometimes more exactly denned by a preposition. The preposition may
either accompany its usual case : as, adamussim, admodum, ilico ; or it
may be loosely prefixed, with more of the nature of an adverb than of a
preposition, to a case with which it is not ordinarily used : as, examussim,
interea. Sometimes it stands after the noun : as, parumper, a little
while. Besides the three cases named above, other forms occur, some of
which are undoubtedly old case endings, though they can no longer be recog-
nized as such : see 710.
(i.) ACCUSATIVE.
(a.) ACCUSATIVE OF SUBSTANTIVES.
699. domum, homeward, home ; rus, afield ; foras, out of doors (*fora-) ;
yicem, instead; partim, in part ; old noenum or noenu, common non, for
ne-oenum, i.e. unum, not one, naught, not; admodum, to a degree, very;
adamussim, examussim, to a T ; adfatim, to satiety ; invicem, in turn,
each other.
700. Many adverbs in -tim and -sim denote manner (549) : as, cautim,
warily, statim, at once, sensim, perceptibly, gradually ; ostiatim, door by
door, viritim, man by man, furtim, stealthily,
(b.) ACCUSATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.
701. Neuters: all comparative adverbs in -ius (361) : as, doctius, more
learnedly ; so minus, less, magis, more (363). primum,yr.tf, secundum,
secondly, &c. ; turn, then (to-, that}: commodum,/*^ in time; minimum,
at least, potissimum, in preference, postremum, at last, summum, at most ;
versum, toward, rursum, russum, rusum, back; facile, easily, impune,
scotfree, recens, lately, semel, once (simili-), simul, together (simili-). Plu-
ral : cetera, for the rest ; quia, because (qui-) ; in old Latin frustra, in vain
(fraud-).
702. Feminines: bifariam, twofold; coram, face to face (com- or co-,
*5ra-) ; tam, so (ta-, that] ; quam, as, how. Plural : alias, on other occasions.
4* I0 5
703-710.] Words: Inflection.
(2.) ABLATIVE.
(a.) ABLATIVE OF SUBSTANTIVES.
703. domOjfrem home, TUTS, from the country ; hodie, to-day (ho-, die-),
volgo, publicly, vespere, by twilight, noctu, by nights, nights, luce, by light,
tempore, in times, betimes ; sponte, voluntarily, forte, by chance ; quotan-
nis, yearly ; gratiis or gratis, for nothing, ingratiis or ingratis, against
one's will ; IlicS, on the spot (169, 4 ; 170, 2), foris, out of doors (*fora-).
(b.} ABLATIVE OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.
704. Many adverbs in -6 are formed from adjectives of time : as, perpe-
tuo, to the end, crebrS, frequently, rar5, seldom, repentino, suddenly, sero,
late, primS, at first. Many denote manner : as, arcano, privily, seri5, in
earnest. Some are formed from participles : as, auspicate, with auspices
taken ; composit5, by agreement. A plural is rare : alternis, alternately.
705. Instead of -6, neuter ablatives commonly have -e : as, longe,far,
docte, wisely. So also superlatives : facillime, most easily, anciently FACILV-
MED (362). Consonant stems have -e : as, repente, suddenly.
706. From pronouns some end in -I (689) : as, qul, how ? indefinite, qui,
somehow ; atqui, but somehow ; qm-quam, in any way at all.
707. Feminines: many in -a: una, together; circa, around; contra,
against (com-, 347) ; extra, outside (ex, 347) ; in classical Latin, frustra,
in vain (fraud-). So, especially, adverbs denoting the 'route by which : ' hac,
this way ; recta, straightway.
(3.) LOCATIVE.
708. In -i, from names of towns and a few other words : Karthagim,
at Carthage ; Romae, for Romai, at Rome ; dorm, at home illi, commonly
illi-c, there (illo-), isti, commonly isti-c, where you are, hi-c, here (ho-) ; old
sei, common si, at that, in that case, so, if; sic, so (si, -ce).
709. In -bf, from some pronouns: ibl, there (i-); ubf (for *quobf, 146),
where ; alicub!, somewhere ; si-cubi, if anywhere, ne-cubi, lest anywhere.
OTHER ENDINGS.
710. Besides the above, other endings are also found in wfcrds of
this class : as,
-s in abs,yr0*, ex, out of; similarly us-que,/ every case, ever, us-quam,
anywhere at all. -tus has the meaning of an ablative : as, intus, from
within, within ; antiquitus, from old times, anciently ; funditus, from the
bottom, entirely. -6 denotes the ' place to which ' in adverbs from pronoun
stems : as, eo, thither ; qu5, whither ; illo, or illvic, for illoi-ce, thither,
after hue ; hoc, commonly hue, perhaps for hoi-ce (99) hither, -im de-
notes the ' place from which : ' as, istim, commonly istinc,/V<w* where you
are ; illim, commonly i\\mc,from yonder; hinc, hence ; exirn, thereupon ;
also -de : as, unde, whence (quo-, 146), si-cunde, if from any place, ne-
cunde, lest from anywhere, -ter : as comparative (347): praeter, further,
beyond, inter, between ; denoting manner : acriter, sharply ; amanter,
affectionately ; rarely from -o- stems : as, firmiter, steadfastly.
106
The Noun: Adverbs. [71 1, 712.
CORRELATIVE ADVERBS.
7x1. Adverbs derived from pronoun stems often correspond with each
other in meaning and form ; some of the commonest correlatives are the
following :
Interrogative.
Indefinite.
Demonstrative,
Determinative, &c.
Relative.
Place
ubl, where ?
alicubf
usquam
uspiam
ubivis
hie, istic, illic
ibf, ibidem
ubf
quo, whither ?
quorsum,
whitherward ?
aliquo
qu51ibet
quovis
aliquovor-
sum
hue, istuc, illuc
eo, eodem
horsum, istorsum
quo
quorsum
unde
unde, whence ?
alicunde
undelibet
hinc, istinc, illinc
inde, indidem
Time
quando,when?
aliquando
umquam
nunc, turn, tune
quom or cum
quotiens, how
often ?
aliquotiens
totiens
quotiens
Way
qua, by what
way?
aliqua
qua vis
hac, istac, iliac
ea, eadem
qua
Manner
uti or ut, how ?
aliqua
aliquam
ita, sic
uti or ut (146)
Degree
quam, how ?
tarn
quam
II. SENTENCES AS ADVERBS.
712. Some adverbs are condensed sentences : as,
ilicet,jy<w may go, straightway (Ire licet) ; scilicet, you may kncnu, ob-
viously, of course (scire licet) ; videlicet, you can see, plainly (videre licet) ;
nudiustertius, now is the third day, day before yesterday (num dius, i.e. dies,
tertius) ; forsitan, maybe (fors sit an) ; minim quantum, strange hmo
much, astonishingly ; nesci5 qu5 pacto, nesci5 quomodo, somehow or other,
unfortunately.
107
713-72 3-] Words: Inflection.
(B.) INFLECTION OF THE VERB.
713. The verb is inflected by attaching person
endings to the several stems.
THE STEM.
714. The stem contains the meaning of the verb, and also denotes
the mode (mood) and the time (tense) of the action as viewed
by the speaker.
715. There are three MOODS, Indicative, Subjunctive, and Im-
perative.
716. There are six TENSES in the indicative, three of the present
system, Present, Imperfect, and Future ; and three of the perfect
system, Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect. The subjunctive
lacks the futures ; the imperative has only the present.
717. The meanings of the moods and tenses are best learnt from reading.
No satisfactory translation can be given in the paradigms, especially of the
subjunctive, which requires a variety of translations for its various uses.
718. The verb has two principal stems : I. The Present
stem, which is the base of the present system ; II. The Perfect
stem, which is the base of the perfect active system.
719. The perfect system has no passive ; its place is supplied by the per-
fect participle with a form of sum, am, or less frequently of fui, am become.
720. Many verbs have only the present system: as, maereo, mourn;
some have only the perfect system : as, memini, remember. Some verbs
have a present and perfect system made up of two separate roots or stems : as,
present indicative fero, carry, perfect indicative tuli, and perfect participle
latus ; present possum, can, perfect potui.
THE PERSON ENDING.
721. The person ending limits the meaning of the stem by point-
ing out the person of the subject. There are three PERSONS, the
First, used of the speaker, the Second, of what is spoken to, and the
Third, of what is spoken of. The person ending furthermore indi-
cates number and voice.
722. There are two NUMBERS : the Singular, used of one, and
the Plural, used of more than one.
723. There are two VOICES : the Active, indicating that the sub-
ject acts, and the Passive, indicating that the subject acts on himself,
or more commonly is acted on by another.
1 08
The Verb: Person Endings. [724-731.
724. Only transitive verbs have all persons of the passive. Intransitive
verbs have in the passive only the third person singular, used imper-
sonally ; the participle in this construction is neuter.
725. Some verbs have only the passive person endings, but with a
reflexive or an active meaning ; such are called Deponents: see 798.
726. The person endings are as follows :
Voice.
Active.
Passive.
Mood.
IND. & SUB. IMPERATIVE.
IND. & SUB.
IMPERATIVE.
Number.
SING.
PLUR. SING.
PLUR.
SING.
PLUR.
SING.
PLUR.
First
person.
-m
-mus not used
not used
-r
-rnur
not used
not used
Second
person.
-s
-tis none, -to
-te, -tote
-ris, -re
[-mini]
-re, -tor
[-mini]
Third
Person.
-t
-nt -to
-nto
-tur
-ntur
-tor
-ntor
727. In the perfect indicative active, the second person singular ends
in -ti, and the third person plural in -runt for an older -ront, or in -re.
-re is most used in poetry and history, and by Cato and Sallust ; -runt by
Cicero, and almost always by Caesar.
728. In the indicative -m is not used in the present (except in sum, am,
and inquam, quoth I), in the perfect or future perfect, or in the future in
-bo. -s is not used in es for ess, thou art, and in es, eatest (171, i).
729. In inscriptions, -d sometimes stands for -t (149, 2) in the third person
singular, and sometimes -t is not used: as, FECID, made, for fecit; DEDE, gave,
for dedet or dedit. And other forms of the third person plural of the indicative
active are sometimes used: as, Pisaurian DEDROT, DEDRO (with syncope, in) for
dederunt, gave; EMERV, bought, for emerunt; once DEDERI, probably for
dedere (856).
730. In the passive second person singular, Terence has always, Plautus
commonly -re ; later it is unusual in the present indicative, except in depo-
nents ; but in other tenses -re is preferred, especially in the future -bere,
by Cicero, -ris by Livy and Tacitus. The second person plural passive is
wanting ; its place is supplied by a single participial form in -mini, which is
used without reference to gender, for gender words and neuters alike (297).
731. Deponents have rarely -mino, in the imperative singular : as, second person,
progredimino, step forward thou (Plaut.) ; in laws, as third person : FRVIMINO, let
him enjoy; or -to and -nto for -tor and -ntor : as, utito, let him use; utunto,
let them use. In a real passive, -nto is rare : as, CENSENTO, let them be rated.
109
732-737-] Words : Inflection.
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
732. The verb is accompanied by some nouns, which are
conveniently, though not quite accurately, reckoned parts of
the verb; they are:
Three Infinitives, Present Active and Passive, and Perfect Active,
sometimes called the Infinitive Mood. For the future active and
passive and the perfect passive, compound forms are used.
The Gerund and the Gerundive.
Two Supines.
Three Participles, Present and Future Active, and Perfect Passive.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
733. The several verb stems can readily be found, when once the
principal parts are known ; these are given in the dictionary.
734. The PRINCIPAL PARTS of a verb are the
Present Indicative Active, Present Infinitive Active,
Perfect Indicative Active, and Perfect Participle : as,
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART.
reg5, rule regere rexi rectus
laudo, /raw* laudare laudavi laudatus
mone5, advise monere monui monitus
audio, hear audire audivi auditus
735. The Principal Parts of deponents are the Present Indicative,
Present Infinitive, and Perfect Participle: as,
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. PART.
queror, complain queri questus
miror, -wonder mirari miratus
vereor, fear vereri veritus
partior, share partiri partitus
DESIGNATION OF THE VERB.
736. A verb is usually named by the present indicative active first
person singular: as, rego; laudo, mone5, audio; or by the present infin-
itive active : as, regere ; laudare, monere, audire. Deponents are named
by the corresponding passive forms : as, queror ; miror, vereor, partior ;
or queri; mirari, vereri, partiri.
737. For convenience, verbs with -ere in the present infinitive active
are called Verbs in -ere; those with -are, -ere, or -ire, Verbs in -are,
-ere, or -ire, respectively. In like manner deponents are designated as
Verbs in -i ; or Verbs in -ari, -5ri, or -iri, respectively.
no
The Verb : Primitives. [738-744.
THEME OF THE VERB.
738. The several stems of the verb come from a form called
the Theme. In primitives, the theme is a root ; in denominatives,
the theme is a noun stem.
Thus, re g- in reg-o is a root ; while vesti- in vesti-o, dress, is a noun
stem. The noun stem is sometimes modified in form. Oftentimes the noun
stem is only presumed : as, audi- in audi-6.
739. Some verbs have a denominative theme in the present system, and
a primitive theme in the perfect system, others have the reverse.
740. Most verbs with an infinitive of more than two syllables in
-are, -ere, or -ire, or, if deponent, in -ari, -eri, or -hi, are denomina-
tive ; most other verbs are primitive.
Thus, laudare, monere, audire ; mirari, vereri, partiri, are denom-
inative; while esse, dare, (de)lere, regere, queri, are primitive. A few
verbs, however, which have the appearance of denominatives, are thought
to be primitive in their origin.
ARRANGEMENT OF THE VERB.
741. Verbs are divided into two classes, according
to the form of the present system : I. Root verbs, and
verbs in -ere, mostly primitive ; II. Verbs in -are,
-ere, or -Ire, mostly denominative.
742. Verbs are sometimes arranged without regard to difference of kind, in the
alphabetical order of the vowel before -s of the second person singular of the present
indicative active, a, e, i, I : thus, laudas, mones, regis, audis, sometimes
called the first, second, third, and fourth conjugation respectively.
I. PRIMITIVE VERBS.
743. A few of the oldest and commonest verbs of everyday
life have a bare root as stem in the present indicative or in parts
of it ; and some of them have other peculiarities ; such are called
Root Verbs, or by some, irregular (744-781). Most primitives are
verbs in -ere, like rego (782).
(A.) ROOT VERBS.
Irregular Verbs.
(a.) WITH A PREVALENT BARE ROOT.
744. Primitives with the bare root as present indicative stem in
almost all their forms are sum, am, do, give, put, and compounds ;
and with the root doubled, bibo, drink, sero, sow, and sisto, set.
in
745-]
Words: Inflection.
(l.) sum, am (es-, s-).
745. sum, am, is used only in the present system (720).
perfect system is supplied by forms of fui (fu-).
The
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART.
sum esse (fui)
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
sum, I am
es, thou art
est, he is
eram, I was
eras, thou wert
erat, he was
er5, I shall be
eris, thou wilt be
erit, he will be
Plural.
sumus, we are
estis, you are
sunt, they are
IMPERFECT TENSE.
eramus, we were
eratis, you were
erant, they were
FUTURE TENSE.
erimus, we shall be
eritis, you will be
erunt, they will be
fui, / have been, or was
fuisti, thou hast been, or wert
fuit, he has been, or was
PERFECT TENSE.
fuimus, we have been, or were
fuistis, you have been, or were
fuerunt or -re, they have been, or
fueram, I had been
fueras, thou hadst been
fuerat, he had been
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
fueramus, we had been
fuerat is, you had been
fuerant, they had been
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
fuero, / shall have been
fueris, thou wilt have been
fuerit, he will have been
fuerimus, we shall have been
fueritis, you will have been
fuerint, they will have been
112
The Verb: sum, am. [745, 746.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
s:m, may I be
sis, mayst thou be
sit, let him be, may he be
essem, I should be
esses, thou wouldst be
esset, he would be
Plural.
simus, let us be
sitis, be you, may you be
sint, let them be, may they be
IMPERFECT TENSE.
essemus, -we should be
essetis, you would be
essent, they would be
PERFECT TENSE.
fuerim, I may have been
fueris, thou mayst have been
fuerit, he may have been
fuerimus, we may have been
fueritis, you may have been
fuerint, they may have been
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
fuissem, I should have been
fuisses, thou wouldst have been
fuisset, he would have been
fuissemus, we should have been
fuissetis, you would have been
fuissent, they would have been
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
es or esto, be thou, thou shaltbe
cst5, he shall be
este or estote, be you, you shall be
suntS, they shall be
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. esse, to be
Perf. fuisse, to have been
Put. futurus esse, to be going to be
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. See 749
Perf.
Fut. futurus, going to be
746. For the first person sum, Varro mentions esum as an archaic form. This
e was probably prefixed by analogy with the other forms ; for the -m, and for es,
see 728. For sim, &c., and siem, &c., see 841. In the imperfect eram, &c., and
the future ero, &c., s has become r (154).
8 113
74 7~7 5 3] Words : Inflection .
747. The indicative and imperative es is for older ess (I;T, i), and is regularly
used long by Plautus and Terence. The e of es and est is not pronounced after a
vowel or -m, and is often omitted in writing: as experrecta es, pronounced
experrectas ; epistula est, pronounced epistulast ; consilium est, pro-
nounced consiliumst. In the dramatists, -s preceded by a vowel, which is usually
short, unites with a following es or est : thus, tu servos es becomes tu servos ;
similis est, similist ; virtus est, virtust; res est, rest.
748. Old forms are: SONT (inscr. about 120 B.C.); with suffix -SCO (834),
escit (for *esscit), gets to be, -will be, escunt ; present subjunctive, siern, sies,
siet, and sient (841), common in inscriptions down to 100 B.C., and in old verse;
also in compounds ; imperative est5d rare.
749. The present participle is used only as an adjective. It has two forms:
sontem (accusative, no nominative), which has entirely lost its original meaning of
being, actual, the real man, and has only the secondary meaning of guilty, and
msons, innocent; and -sens in absens, away, praesens, at hand, di con-
sentes, gods collective ; also once INSENTIBVS. sum has no gerund or gerundive.
750. A subjunctive present fuam, fuas, fuat, and fuant occurs in old Latin;
and an imperfect forem, fores, foret, and forent, in all periods. The present
infinitive fore, to get to be, become, has a future meaning. Old forms in the perfect
system are FVVEIT (29, i), FVET; fuit, fuimus, fuerim, fuerit, fuerint, fuisset
(Plant., Enn.). fui has no perfect participle or supine.
751. possum, can.
Principal parts : possum, posse ; (potui, see 875.)
Pres.
Imp.
Put.
Pres.
Imp.
Pres.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular.
possum, potes, potest
poteram, poteras, poterat
potero, poteris, poterit
Plural.
possumus, potestis, possunt
poteramus, poteratis, poterant
poterimus, poteritis, poterunt
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
possim, possls, possit I possimus, possitis, possint
possem, posses, posset | possemus, possetis, possent
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
posse
752. possum is formed from pote, able, and sum, juxtaposed (166, 2; 396).
The separate forms potis sum, &c., or pote sum, &c., are also used, and some-
times even potis or pote alone takes the place of a verb; in either case potis and
pote are indeclinable, and are applied to gender words and neuters both.
753. t is retained before a vowel, except in possem, &c., for potessem, &c.,
and in posse ; t before s changes to s (166, 2). Old forms are: possiem, &c.,
(748), potessem, potisset, potesse. Rare forms are POTESTO (inscr. 58 B.C.),
and passives, as potestur, &c., with a passive infinitive (1484). possum has no
participles; the perfect system, potui, &c., is like fui, &c. (745).
114
The Verb ; do, give, put.
[754-
(2.) do, give, put (d a-, d a-).
754. There are two verbs do, one meaning give, and one meaning put.
The do meaning put is oftenest used in compounds ; the simple verb has
been crowded out by pono. The present system of do is as follows :
Principal parts : do, dare, dedi, datus.
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.
Imp.
Put.
Singular,
do, das, dat
dabarn, dabas, dabat
dab5, dabis, dabit
Plural,
damus, datis, dant
dabamus, dabatis, dabant
dabimus, dabitis, dabunt
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres.
Imp.
dem, des, det
darem, dares, daret
demus, detis, dent
daremus, daretis, darent
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
da or dato, dato date or datdte, danto
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
dare
dans
GERUND.
Gen.
dandi, &c.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.
Imp.
Put.
Singular.
Plural,
damur, damini, dantur
dabamur, dabamini, dabantur
dabimur, dabimini, dabuntur
dabar, dabare or -ris, da-
batur
dabor, dabere or -ris, da-
bitur
Pres.
Imp.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
darer, darere or -ris, dare-
tur
daremur, daremini, darentur
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
dare or dator, dator
damini, dantor
INFINITIVE.
GERUNDIVE.
Pres.
dari
dandus
75 5~76i-] Words: Inflection.
755. In the present system a is short throughout in the first syllable, except in
das and da. For dedi, datus, and supines datum, datu, see 859 and 900.
756. Old forms: danunt of uncertain origin (833) for dant. From another
form of the root come duis, duit ; interduo, concreduo, perfect concredui ;
subjunctive duim, duis (duas), duit and duint (841), and compounds, used
especially in law language, and in praying and cursing ; creduam, creduas or
creduis, creduat or creduit.
757. Real compounds of d5 have a present system like rego (782) ; in
the perfect and the perfect participle, e and a become i : as, abdo, put
away, abdere, abdidi, abditus; credo, put trust in. perdo,yW0, destroy,
and vendo, put for sale, have gerundives perdendus, vendundus, and perfect
participles perditus, venditus; the rest of the passive is supplied by forms
of pereo and veneo. reddo, give back, has future reddibo 3 times (Plaut.)'
In the apparent compounds with circum, pessum, satis, and venum, do
remains without change, as in 754.
(3.) bibo, ser5, and sisto.
758. bibo, drink, ser5, sow (for *si-s5, 154), and sisto, set, form their
present stem by reduplication of the root ( [89). The vowel before the per-
son endings is the root vowel, which becomes variable, like a formative
vowel (824). These verbs have the present system like rego (782).
(b.) WITH THE BARE ROOT IN PARTS.
inquam, eo, and queo.
759. inquam, eo, and queo have the bare root as present stem, in
almost all their parts ; in a few parts only the root is extended by a forma-
tive vowel (829).
(i.) inquam, say I, quoth /.
760. inquam, say I, is chiefly used in quoting a person's direct words ;
and, from its meaning, is naturally very defective. The only parts in com-
mon use are the following :
Pres.
Put.
INDICATI
Singular.
inquam, inquis, inquit
VE MOOD.
Plural.
inouiunt
' '
761. Rare forms are: subjunctive inquiat (Cornif.), indicative imperfect in-
quiebat (Cic.), used twice each; indicative present inquimus (Hor.), perfect
inquii (Catull.j, inqulsti (Cic.), once each; imperative inque, 4 times (Plaut. 2,
Ter. 2), inquito, 3 times (Plaut.). For inquam, see 728.
116
The Verb: eo, go.
[762-765.
762.
(2.) eo, go (1- for ei-, i-).
Principal parts : eo, ire, ii, itum.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular.
Plural.
Pres.
e5, is, it
imus, itis, eunt
Imp.
ibam, ibas, ibat
ibamus, ibatis, ibant
Put.
ibo, ibis, ibit
ibirnus, ibitis, ibunt
Per/.
ii, isti, iit or it
iimus, istis, ierunt or -re
Plup.
ieram, ieras, ierat
ieramus, ieratis, ierant
P.P.
ier5, ieris, ierit
ierimus, ieritis, ierint
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres.
earn, eas, eat
eamus, eatis, eant
Imp.
irem, ires, iret
iremus, iretis, irent
Perf.
ierim, ieris, ierit
ierimus, ieritis, ierint
Plup.
issem, isses, isset
issemus, issetis, issent
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
I or ito, it5
ite or itote, eunt5
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
ire
iens, Gen. euntis
Perf.
isse
itum
Put.
iturus esse
iturus
GERUND.
SUPINE.
Gen.
eundi
Dat.
eund5
Ace.
eundum
Abl.
eund5
763. The passive is only used impersonally, and has a neuter gerundive
eundum and participle itum ; but transitive compounds, as adeo, go up to,
have a complete passive : as, adeor, adiris. &c. ambio, go round, canvass,
follows denominatives in -ire (796), but has once or twice the imperfect
ambibat, ambibant, ambibatur (Liv., Tac., Plin. />.), and once the future
ambibunt (Plin.); future perfect ambissit, ambissint, once each (prol.
Plaut).
764. The i is "weakened from ei (98): as, eis, eit, eite, abeis, abei
(Plaut.); EITVR, ABEI, ADEITVR (inscr. 130 B.C.), VENEIRE (49 B.C.), PRAETEREIS.
Before o, u, or a, the root becomes e. For u in euntis, see 902.
765. Old forms are: ier5 (Plaut.), ii, ierant (Ter.), once each (126); in an in-
scription Of 186 B.C., ADIESET, ADIESENT, ADIESE, and of 146 B.C., REDIEIT (29, 2\
132); INTERIE1STI. A future in -iet, as transiet (Sen.), is late and rare.
117
766-769.] Words: Inflection.
766. A double i is found in iisses and iisset once each (Ciris, Nepos),
also sometimes in compounds of these forms: as rediisses, interiisset.
Compounds sometimes have it also in the perfect infinitive and in the second
person singular of the perfect indicative : as, abiisse, abiisti ; also in
rediistis once (Stat.). In the first person of the perfect indicative a single
long I is found rarely in late writers in the singular: as, adi (Val. Fl.).
767. A few examples are found of a perfect system with v, as ivi, &c.
This form is confined almost exclusively to poetry and late prose.
(a) Examples of simple forms with v are: ivisse (Plaut.), ivit (Cato), ivi
(Varro), iverat (Catull.). (b) Compound forms: exiyi (Plaut.), obivit (Verg.),
subivit (Stat.); transivisse (Claud, ap. Tac.), iniyimus, transivi, transivi-
mus (Curt.), transivit, transiverant (Sen.), exivit (Cell.). Apparent com-
pounds (396) : intrS ivit (C. Gracch., Piso, Cell.).
(3.) queo, can.
768. queo, can, and nequeo, can't, have the perfect quivi, the rest like
eo (762) ; but they have no imperative, gerundive, or future participle, and
the present participle is rare, queo is commonly used with a negative, and
some parts only so. Passive forms are rare, and only used with a passive
infinitive (1484).
edo; volo (nolo, maid) and fero.
(r.) edo, ftrf(ed-, ed-).
769. edo, eat, has a present system with a formative vowel like rego
throughout (782) ; but in some parts of the present, and of the imperfect sub-
junctive, parallel root forms are usually found, with d of the root changed
to s, and the vowel lengthened (135), as may be seen in the following:
Principal parts : edo, esse, edi, esus.
Pres.
Pres.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular. I Plural.
edo, es or edis, est or edit I edimus, estis or editis, edunt
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
edim, edis, edit
or edam, edas, edat
essem, esses, esset
or ederem, ederes, ederet
edimus, editis, edint
or edamus, edatis, edant
essemus, , essent
or ederemus, ederetis, ederent
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
es or ede, esto or edito | este or edite
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. esse I edens
118
The Verb: volo, will. [7 70-7 74-
770. For es, see 728 ; for edim, &c., 841. In the passive, the indicative present
estur is used, and imperfect subjunctive essetur. The perfect participle esus is
for an older essus (170, 7). Supines essum, essu (Plaut.).
771. comedo, eat up, has also the following root forms: comes, comest,
comestis ; comesto ; comesse ; comesses, comesset, comessemus. The
present subjunctive has also comedim, comedls, comedint. The participle per-
fect is comessus, comesus, or comestus, future comessurus. exed5, eat
out, has exest and exesse ; subjunctive exedint. adedo, eat at, has adest.
772. volo (nolo, malo) and fero have the bare root in some parts
only of the present system ; in other parts the root extended by a
formative vowel, like rego (782). volo (nolo, malo) lack some forms,
as will be seen below.
773. (2.) volo, will, wish, want, am willing (vo 1-, ve 1-).
Principal parts : volo, velle, volui, .
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular.
Plural.
Pres.
vo!5, vis, volt or vult
volumus, voltis or vultis, volunt
Imp.
volebam, volebas, volebat
volebamus, volebatis, volebant
Fitt.
volam, voles, volet
volemus, voletis, volent
Perf.
volui, voluisti, voluit
voluimus, voluistis, voluerunt or
-re
Plup.
volueram, volueras, volu-
volueramus, volueratis, volue-
erat
rant
P.P.
voluero, volueris, volue-
voluerimus, volueritis, volue-
rit
rint
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres.
velim, veils, velit
velimus, velitis, velint
Imp.
vellem, velles, vellet
vellemus, velletis, vellent
Perf.
voluerim, volueris, volu-
voluerimus, volueritis, volue-
erit
rint
Plup.
voluissem, voluisses, vo-
voluissSmus, voluissetis, volu-
luisset
issent
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
velle
volens
Perf.
voluisse
774. volo for volo is rare (2443). volt and voltis became vult and vultis
about the time of Augustus ( 141 ). For volumus, see 142 ; velim, &c., 841 ; vellem,
&c., velle, 166, 8. sis, an thou -wilt, is common for si vis (Plaut. Ter., Cic., Liv.).
sultis, an 't please you, is used by Plautus for si voltis.
119
775-779-]
Words : Inflection.
775. nolo, won't, is formed from ne-, not, and volo, juxtaposed, and
rnalo, like belter, abbreviated from mavolo for *magsvolo (779 , 170, 2).
776.
n5!5, won't, don't want, object, am not willing.
Principal parts : nolo, nolle, nolui,
Pres.
Imp.
Put.
Pres.
Imp.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular.
nolo, non vis, non volt or
vult
nolebam, nolebas, nolebat
-, noles, nolet
Plural.
nolumus, non voltis or vultis, no-
lunt
nolebamus, nolebatis, nolebant
nolemus, noletis, nolent
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
nolirn, noils, nolit I nolimus, nolitis, nolint
nollem, nolles, nollet I nollemus, nolletis, nollent
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
noli or nolitS, nolito | nolite or nolitote, nolunto
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
nolle
777. nevis and nevolt, from ne-, not, are found in Plautus. nolo has usually
no participles, but oblique cases of nolens are used a few times by post-Augustan
writers (Cels., Luc., Quintil., Ta., Juv., Mart., Plin.). The perfect system, nolui,
&c., is like that of volo (772).
778.
maid, like better, choose rather.
Principal parts : malo, malle, malui, -.
Pres.
Imp.
Put.
Pres.
Imp.
INDICATI
Singular.
ma!5, mavis, mavolt or
ma vult
malebam, malebas, male-
bat
VE MOOD.
Plural.
malumus, mavoltis or mavultis,
malunt
malebamus, malebatis, male-
bant
malemus, maletis, malent
[VE MOOD.
mallmus, malltis, malint
mallemus, malletis, mallent
SUBJUNCT
malim, malls, malit
mallem, malles, mallet
INFINITIVE.
Pres. | malle
PARTICIPLE.
779. Old forms are mavolo, mavolunt; mavolet; mavelim, mavelis,
mavelit ; mavellem. The perfect system, malui, &c., is like that of volo (772).
120
The Verb: fero, carry. [780, 781,
(3.) fero, carry (f er-).
780. fero, carry, is used only in the present system (720). The other
parts are supplied by forms of tolls, lift (tol-, tla-). The present system
of fero is as follows :
Principal parts : fero, ferre ; (tuli, latus).
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres.
Imp.
Flit.
INDICATI
Singular.
fero, fers, fert
ferebam, ferebas, ferebat
ferarn, feres, feret
VE MOOD.
Plural,
ferimus, fertis, ferunt
ferebamus, ferebatis, ferebant
feremus, feretis, ferent
Pres.
Imp.
SUBJUNCT
feram, feras, ferat
ferrem, ferres, ferret
IVE MOOD.
feramus, feratis, ferant
ferremus, ferretis, ferrent
IMPERATI
fer or fert5, fert5
VE MOOD.
ferte or fertote, ferunto
Pres.
INFINITIVE.
ferre
PARTICIPLE.
ferens
Gen.
GERUND.
ferendi, &c.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres.
Imp.
Put.
INDICATE
Singular.
feror, ferris or -re, fertur
ferebar, ferebare or -ris,
ferebatur
ferar,ferereor-ris,feretur
^E MOOD.
Plural.
ferimur, ferimim, feruntur
ferebamur, ferebamim, fereban-
tur
feremur, feremini, ferentur
Pres.
Imp.
SUBJUNCTI
f erar, f erare or-ris, f eratur
ferrer, ferrere or -ris, fer-
retur
IMPERATI 1
ferre or fertor, fertor
VE MOOD.
feramrrr, feram im, ferantur
ferremur, ferremim, ferrentur
5TE MOOD.
ferimim, feruntor
Pres.
INFINITIVE.
ferri
GERUNDIVE.
ferendus
781. For tuli, see 860 ; the full form tetuli, &c., is found in old Latin, and TOLI,
&c., in inscriptions; the compound with re- is rettuli for *retetull (861). For the
participle latus, see 169, i.
121
732.]
Words: Inflection.
782.
(B.) VERBS IN -ere.
The Third Conjugation.
rego, rule.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART.
rego regere rexl rectus
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
rego, / rule, or am ruling
regis, thou rulest, or art ruling
regit, he rules, or is ruling
Plural.
regimus, we rule, or are ruling
regitis, you rule, or are ruling
regunt, they rule, or are ruling
IMPERFECT TENSE.
regebam, I was ruling, or I ruled \ regebamus, we were ruling, or we
regebas, thou wert ruling, or thou
ruledst
regebat, he was ruling, or he ruled
ruled
regebatis, you were ruling, or you
ruled
regebant, they were ruling, or they
regarn, I shall rule
reges, thou wilt rule
reget, he will rule
ruled
FUTURE TENSE.
regemus, we shall rule
regetis, you will rule
regent, they will rule
PERFECT TENSE.
re xi, I have ruled, or I ruled
rexisti, thou hast ruled, or thou ruledst
rexit, he has ruled, or he ruled
rexeram, I had ruled
rexeras, thou hadst rided
rexerat, he had ruled
reximus, we have ruled, or we ruled
rexistis, you have ruled, or you ruled
rexerunt or -re, they have ruled, or
they ruled
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
rexeramus, we had ruled
rexeratis, you had ruled
rexerant, they had ruled
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
rexero, I shall have ruled
rexeris, thou wilt have ruled
rexerit, he will have ruled
rexerimus, we shall have ruled
rexeritis, you will have ruled
rexerint, they will have ruled
122
The Verb : Verbs in -ere.
[ 7 82.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
regam, may I rule
regas, mayst thou rule
re gat, let him rule
regerem, I should rule
regeres, thou wouldst rule
regeret, he would rule
Plural.
regamus, let us rule
regatis, may you rule
regant, let them rule
IMPERFECT TENSE.
rexerim, / may have ruled
rexeris, thou mayst have ruled
rexerit, he may have ruled
regeremus, -we should rule
regeretis, you would rule
regerent, they would rule
PERFECT TENSE.
rexerimus, we may have ruled
rexeritis, you may have ruled
rexerint, they may have ruled
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
rexissem, I should have ruled
rexisses, thou wouldst have ruled
rexisset, he would haye ruled
rexissemus, we should have ruled
rexissetis, you would have ruled
rexissent, they would have ruled
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
rege or regito, rule, thou shalt rule
regito, he shall rule
regite or regit5te, rule, you shall rule
regunto, they shall rule
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. regere, to rule
Perf. rexisse, to have ruled
Put. recturus esse, to be going to
rule
GERUND.
Gen. regendi, of ruling
Dat. Tegendo,f0rritlinfr
Ace. regendum, ruling
Abl. regendo, by ruling
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. re gens, ruling
Put. recturus, going to rule
SUPINE.
Ace. *rectum, to rule, not used
Abl. *rectu, in ruling, not used
123
783-]
Words : Inflection .
783.
VERBS IN -ere.
The Third Conjugation.
regor, am ruled.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
regor, I am ruled
regeris or -re, thou art ruled
regitur, he is ruled
Plural.
regimur, we are ruled
regimini, you are ruled
reguntur, they are ruled
IMPERFECT TENSE.
regebar, I was ruled
regebare or -ris, thou wert ruled
regebatur, he was ruled
regebamur, we were ruled
regebamini, you were ruled
regebantur, they were ruled
regar, I shall be ruled
regere or -ris, thou wilt be ruled
regetur, he will be ruled
FUTURE TENSE.
regemur, we shall be ruled
regemim, you will be ruled
regentur, they will be ruled
PERFECT TENSE.
rectus sum, I have been, or was ruled
rectus es, thou hast been, or wert ruled
rectus est, he has been, or was ruled
recti sumus, we have been, or were
ruled
recti estis,jy0 have been, or were ruled
recti sunt, they have been, or were ruled
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
rectus eram, I had been ruled
rectus eras, thou hadst been ruled
rectus erat, he had been ruled
recti eramus, we had been ruled
recti eratis, you had been ruled
recti erant, they had been ruled
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
rectus ero, I shall have been ruled
rectus eris, thou wilt have been ruled
rectus erit, he will have been ruled
recti erimus, we shall have been ruled
recti eritis, you will have been ruled
recti erunt, they will have been ruled
124
The Verb : Verbs in -ere.
[783.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
regar, may I be ruled
regare or -ris, mayst thou be ruled
regatur, let him be ruled
Plural.
regamur, may we be ruled
regamini, may you be ruled
regantur, let them be ruled
IMPERFECT TENSE.
regerer, I should be ruled
regerere or -ris, thou wouldst be ruled
regeretur, he would be ruled
regeremur, we should be ruled
regeremini, you would be ruled
regerentur, they would be ruled
PERFECT TENSE.
rectus sim, 7 may have been ruled
rectus sis, thou mayst have been ruled
rectus sit. he may have been ruled
recti simus, we may have been ruled
recti sitis, you may have been ruled
recti sint, they may have been ruled
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
rectus essem, 7 should have been
ruled
rectus esses, thou wouldst have been
ruled
rectus esset, he would have been ruled
recti essemus, we should have been
ruled
recti essetis, you would have been
ruled
recti essentjlifc? would have been ruled
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
regere or regitor, be ruled, thou shalt
be ruled
regitor, he shall be ruled
regimini, be ruled
reguntor, they shall be ruled
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. regi, to be ruled
Perf rectus esse, to have been ruled
Fut. *rectum iri, to be going to be
ruled, not used (2273)
GERUNDIVE,
regendus, to be ruled
PERFECT PARTICIPLE,
rectus, ruled
12 5
734-]
Words: Inflection.
VERBS IN -io, -ere.
784. Verbs in -io, -ere, as capio, capere, take (cap-), drop an 1
in some forms of the present and imperfect. The present system is
as follows :
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular.
Plural.
Pres.
Imp.
Put.
capi5, capis, capit
capiebam, capiebas, ca-
piebat
capiam, capies, capiet
capimus, capitis, capiunt
capiebamus, capiebatis, capie-
bant
capiemus, capietis, capient
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres.
Imj>.
capiam, capias, capiat
caperem,caperes, caperet
capiamus, capiatis, capiant
caperemus, caperetis, caperent
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
cape or capito, capitd
capite or capitote, capiunto
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
capere
capiSns
GERUND.
Gen.
capiendi, &c.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular.
Plural.
Pres.
Imp.
Put.
capior, caperis or -re, ca-
pitur
capiebar, capiebare or
-ris, capiebatur
capiar, capiere or -ris, ca-
pietur
capimur, capimini, capiuntur
capiebamur, capiebamini, capi-
ebantur
capiemur, capiemini, capientur
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres.
Imp.
capiar, capiare or -ris, ca-
piatur
caperer, caperere or -ris,
caperetur
capiamur, capiamini, capiantur
caperemur, caperemim, cape-
rentur
IMPERATIVE MOOD
capere or capitor, capitor capimini, capiuntor
INFINITIVE.
GERUNDIVE.
Pres.
capi
capiendus
The Verb: Verbs in -io, -ere. [785-791.
785. There are a dozen verbs in -i5, -ere, like capio, and three deponents in
-ior, -I, all formed from consonant roots with a short vowel : see 836. aio, say,
and fio, grow, become, have certain peculiarities arising from the blending of the root
with the suffix.
(i.) aio, say, say ay, avouch (ag-).
786. aio, say, is defective, and has only these parts in common use:
Ind. Pres.
Ind. Imp.
Subj. Pres.
Singular.
aid, ais, ait
aiebam, aiebas, aiebat
Plural.
aiebamus, aiebatis, aiebant
J ?
787. For ai5, sometimes written aii5 (23), see 153, 2. Old forms are: present
ais, ais, ais, or with -n interrogative ain, Sin ; ait, ait, or Sit ; imperfect aibam,
albas, albat, and albant ; imperative once only, ai (Naev.). A participle aienti-
bus, affirmative, occurs once (Cic.).
(2.) fio, become, am made.
788. fio, become, and factus sum supplement each other : in the present
system, the passive of facio, make, except the gerundive, faciendus, is not
used, fio, &c., taking its place ; in the perfect system, only factus sum, &c.,
is used.
Ind. Pres.
Ind. Imp.
Ind. Put.
Subj. Pres.
Subj. Imp.
Imper.
Singular.
fi5, fis, fit
fiebam, fiebas, fiebat
fiam, fies, fiet
flam, fias, fiat
fierem, fieres, fieret
fi
Plural.
- fiunt
fiebamus, fiebatis, fiebant
fiemus, fietis, fient
fiamus, fiatis, fiant
fieremus, fieretis, fierent
file
Infin. Pres.
fieri
Part. Pres.
789. In fio, &c., i represents an older ei, seen in FEIENT (inscr. 45 B.C.). The
infinitive fieri for fierei owes its passive ending to analogy; the active form fiere
occurs twice (Enn., Laev.). The vowel before -er- in fierem, &c., and fieri, is
sometimes long in the dramatists, where a cretic (_ ^ ) is required, but otherwise
always short.
790. -fio is used in apparent compounds (394) : as, patfit. In real compounds
commonly -ficior: as, conficior; but sometimes -fi5 : as, confit, confiunt,
confiat, confieret, confierent, confferi ; defit, defiet, defiat, defieri ;
effit, effiant, ecfieri ; infit; interfiat, interfieri; superfit, superfiat.
791. Some verbs in -io, -ere (or -ior, -i), have occasionally the form of
verbs in -ire (or -iri), in some parts of the present system, oftenest before
an r, and particularly in the passive infinitive : as,
fodiri, 3 times (Cato, Col. 2), circumfodiri (Col.), ecfodiri (Plant.) ; adgre-
diri (adgredirier), 4 times (Plant.), progfrediri (Plaut.) ; moriri 6 times (Plant.
4. Pomp., Ov.), emoriri twice (Plaut., Ter.) ; oriri. always; parire, twice (Plant.,
Enn.) ; usuallv potiri (potirier). Also cupiret (Lucr.) ; adgredire, adgredi-
bor, adgredimur (Plaut.); morimur (Enn.); oriris (Varr., Sen.), adcritur
(Lucil., Lucr.). oriretur (Cic., Nep /5 Sail., Liv.). adoriretur (Liv., Suet.) ; paribis
(Pomp.), PARIRET (inscr.); potiris (Manil.), potitur (Lucil., Ov.), &c., &c.
127
792.]
Words: Inflection.
792,
II. DENOMINATIVE VERBS.
(i.) VERBS IN -are.
The First Conjugation.
laudo, praise.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART.
laudo laudare laudavi laudatus
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
laudo, / praise, or am praising laudamus, we praise, or are praising
laudas, thou praisest, or art praising laudatis, you praise, or are praising
laudat, he praises, or is praising laudant, they praise, or are praising
IMPERFECT TENSE.
laudabam, I was praising, or /
praised
laudabas, thou wert praising, or thou
praisedst
laudabat, he was praising, or he
praised
laudabo, I shall praise
laudabis, thou wilt praise
laudabit, he will praise
laudabamus, we were praising, or
we praised
laudabatis, you were praising, or you
praised
laudabant, they were praising, or
they praised
FUTURE TENSE.
laudabimus, we shall praise
laudabit is, you will praise
laudabunt, they will praise
PERFECT TENSE.
laudavi, I have praised, or I praised
laudavisti, thou hast praised, or thou
praisedst
laudavit, he has praised, or he praised
laudavimus, we have praised, or we
praised
laudavistiSjjj^w have praised, or you
praised
laudaverunt or -re, they have
praised, or they praised
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
laudaveram, I had praised
laudaveras, thou hadst praised
laudaverat, he had praised
laudaveramus, we had praised
laudaveratis, you had praised
laudaverant, they had praised
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
laudavero, I shall have praised
laudaveris, thou wilt have praised
laudaverit, he will have praised
laudaverimus, we shall have praised
laudaveritis, you will have praised
laudaverint, they will have praised
128
The Verb: Verbs in -are.
[792,
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
i laudem, may I praise
laudes, may st thou praise
laudet, let him praise
Plural.
laudemus, let us praise
laudetis, may you praise
laudent, let them praise
IMPERFECT TENSE.
laudarem, I should praise
laudares, thou wouldst praise
laudaret, he -would praise
laudaremus, we should praise
laudare tis, you would praise
laudarent, they would praise
PERFECT TENSE.
laudaverim, I may have praised
laudaveris, thou mayst have praised
laudaverit, he may have praised
laudaverimus, we may have praised
laudaveritis, you may have praised
laud aver in t, they may have praised
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
laudavissem, I should have praised
laudavisses, thou wouldst have
praised
laudavisset, he would have praised
laudavissemus, we should have
praised
lauda vissetis, you would have praised
laudavissent, they would have praised
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
lauda or laudatS, praise, thou shalt
praise
laudato, he shall praise
laudate or laudatote, praise, you
shall praise
laudanto, they shall praise
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. laudare, to praise
Perf. laudavisse, to have praised
Fut. laudaturus esse, to be going
to praise
GERUND.
Gen, laudandi, of praising
Dat. laudando, for praising
Ace. laudandum, praising
j Abl. laudando, by praising
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. laudans, praising
Fut. laudaturus, going to praise
SUPINE.
Ace. laudatum, to praise
Abl. *laudatu, in praising, not used
129
793-]
Words: Inflection.
793-
VERBS IN -are,
The First Conjugation.
laudor, am praised.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
laudor, / am praised
laudaris or -re, thou art praised
laudatur, he is praised
Plural.
laudamur, we are praised
laudarnim, you are praised
laudantur, they are praised
IMPERFECT TENSE.
laudabar, I was praised
laudabare or -ris, thou wert praised
laudabatur, he was praised
laudabamur, we were praised
laudabamim, you were praised
laudabantur, they were praised
FUTURE TENSE.
laudabor, I shall be praised
laudabere or -ris, thou wilt be praised
laudabitur, he will be praised
laudabimur, we shall be praised
laudabimini, you will be praised
laudabuntur, they will be praised
PERFECT TENSE.
laudatus sum, / have been, or was
praised
laudatus es, thou hast been, or ivert
praised
laudatus est, he has been, or was
praised
praised
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
laudati sumus, we have been, or were
praised
laudati estis, you have been, or were
praised
laudati sunt, they have been, or were
laudatus eram, I had been praised
laudatus eras, thou hadst been praised
laudatus erat, he had been praised
laudati eramus, we had been praised
laudati eratis, you had been praised
laudati erant, they had been praised
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
laudatus ero, / shall have been
praised
laudatus eris, thou wilt have been
praised
laudatus erit, he will have been
praised
laudati erimus, we shall have been
praised
laudati eritis, you will have been
praised
laudati erunt, they will have been
praised
130
The Verb: Verbs in -are.
[793-
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
lauder, may I be praised
laudere or -ris, mayst thou be praised
laudetur, let him be praised
Plural.
laudemur, may we be praised
laudemini, may you be praised
laudentur, let them be praised
IMPERFECT TENSE.
laudarer, I should be praised
laudarere or -ris, thou wouldst be
praised
laudaretur, he would be praised
laudaremur, we should be praised
laudaremini, you would be praised
laudarentur, they would be praised
PERFECT TENSE.
laudatus sim, I may have been praised
laudatus sis, thou mayst have been
praised
laudatus sit, he may have been praised
laudati simus, we may have been
praised
laudati sitis, you may have been
praised
laudati sint, they may have been praised
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
laudatus essem, / should have been
praised
laudatus esses, thou wouldst have
been praised
laudatus esset, he would have been
praised
laudati essemus, we should have been
praised
laudati essetis,j^# would have been
praised
laudati essent, they would have been
praised
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
laudare or laudator, be praised, thou
shall be praised
laudator, he shall be praised
laudamini, be praised
laudantor, they shall be praised
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. laudari, to be praised
Ferf. laudatus esse, to have been
praised
Fut. *laudatum iri, to be going to
be praised, not used (2273)
GERUNDIVE,
laudandus, to be praised
PERFECT PARTICIPLE,
laudatus, praised
'3*
794-]
Words: Inflection.
794-
(2.) VERBS IN -ere,
The Second Conjugation.
moned, advise.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART.
moneo monere monui monitus
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
moneo, / advise, or am advising
mones, thou advisest, or art advising
monet, he advises, or is advising
Plural.
monemus, we advise, or are advising
monetis, you advise, or are advising
monent, they advise, or are advising
IMPERFECT TENSE.
monebam, I was advising, or / ad-
vised
monebas, thou wert advising, or thou
advisedst
monebat, he was advising, or he ad-
vised
monebamus, we were advising, or
we advised
monebatis, you were advising, or you
advised
monebant, they were advising, or they
advised
moneb5, I shall advise
monebis, thou wilt advise
monebit, he will advise
FUTURE TENSE.
monebimus, we shall advise
monebitis, you will advise
monebunt, they will advise
PERFECT TENSE.
monui, I have advised, or I advised
monuisti, thou hast advised, or thou
advisedst
monuit, he has advised, or he advised
monueram, / had advised
monueras, thou hadst advised
monuerat, he had advised
monuimus, we have advised, or we
advised
monuistis, you have advised, or you
advised
monuerunt or -re, they have advised,
or they advised
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
monueramus, we had advised
monuerat is, you had advised
monuerant, they had advised
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
monuero, / shall have advised
monueris, thou wilt have advised
monuerit, he will have advised
monuerimus, we shall have advised
monueritis,^0 will have advised
monuerint, they will have advised
132
The Verb: Verbs in -ere.
[794.
Singular.
moneam, may I advise
moneas, mayst thou advise
moneat, let him advise
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Plural.
moneamus, let us advise
moneatis, may you advise
moneant, let them advise
monerem, / should advise
moneres, thou wouldst advise
moneret, he would advise
IMPERFECT TENSE.
moneremus, we should advise
moneretis, you would advise
monerent, they would advise
PERFECT TENSE
monuerim, I may have advised
monueris, thou mayst have advised
monuerit, he may have advised
monuerimus, we may have advised
monueritis, you may have advised
monuerint, they may have advised
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
monuissem, / should have advised
monuisses, thou wouldst have advised
monuisset, he would have advised
monuissemus, we should have advised
monuissetis, you would have advised
monuissent, they would have advised
mone or moneto, advise, thou shall
advise
moneto, he shall advise
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
monete or monetote, advise, you
shall advise
monento, they shall advise
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. monere, to advise
Perf. monuisse, to have advised
Put. moniturus esse, to be going
to advise
GERUND.
Gen. monendi, of advising
Dat. monendo, for advising
Ace monendum, advising
Abl. monendo, by advising
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. monens, advising
Put. moniturus, going to advise
SUPINE.
Ace. *monitum, to advise, not used
Abl. monitu, in advising
] 33
795-]
Words : Inflection.
795-
VERBS IN -ere.
The Second Conjugation.
nioneor, am advised.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
moneor, I am advised
moneris or -re, thou art advised
monetur, he is advised
Plural.
monemur, we are advised
monemim, you are advised
monentur, they are advised
IMPERFECT TENSE.
monebar, / was advised
monebare or -ris, thou wert advised
monebatur, he was advised
FUTURE TENSE
monebamur, we were advised
monebamini, you were advised
monebantur, they were advised
monebor, / shall be advised
monebere or -ris, thou wilt be advised
monebitur, he will be advised
monebimur, we shall be advised
monebimim, you will be advised
monebuntur, they will be advised
PERFECT TENSE.
monitus sum, / have been, or was ad-
vised
monitus es, thou hast been, or wert
advised
monitus est, he has been, or was ad-
vised
monitus eram, I had been advised
monitus eras, thou hadst been advised
monitus erat, he had been advised
moniti sumus, we have been, or were
advised
moniti estis, you have been, or were
advised
moniti sunt, they have been, or were
advised
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
moniti eramus, we had been advised
moniti eratis, you had been advised
moniti erant, they had been advised
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
monitus ero, / shall have been ad-
vised
monitus eris, thou wilt have been
advised
monitus erit, he will have been ad-
vised
moniti erimus, we shall have been
advised
moniti eritis, you will have been
advised
moniti erunt, they will have been
advised
134
The Verb: Verbs in -ere.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
monear, may I be advised
moneare or -ris, maystthou be advised
moneatur, let him be advised
Plural.
moneamur, may we be advised
moneamini, may you be advised
moneantur, let them be advised
IMPERFECT TENSE.
monerer, I should be advised
monerere or -ris, thou wouldst be
advised
moneretur, he would be advised
moneremur, we should be advised
moneremim, you would be advised
tnonerentur, they would be advised
PERFECT TENSE.
monitus sim, / may have been ad-
vised
monitus sis, thou mayst have been
advised
monitus sit, he may have been advised
moniti simus, we may have been ad-
vised
moniti sitis, you may have been ad-
vised
moniti sint, they may have been advised
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
monitus essem, / should have been
advised
monitus esses, thou wouldst have
been advised
monitus esset, he would have been
advised
moniti essemus, we should have been
advised
moniti essetis, you would have been
advised
moniti essent, they would have been
advised
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
monere or monitor, be advised, thou
shalt be advised
monitor, he shall be advised
monemini, be advised
m on en tor, they shall be advised
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. moneri, to be advised
Perf. monitus esse, to have been
advised
Put. *monitum iri, to be going to
be advised, not used (2273)
GERUNDIVE.
monendus, to be advised
PERFECT PARTICIPLE,
monitus, advised
796.]
Words: Inflection.
796.
(3.) VERBS' IN -ire.
The Fourth Conjugation.
audio, hear.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART.
audio audire audivi auditus
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
audio, / hear, or am hearing
audis, thou hearest, or art hearing
audit, he hears, or is hearing
Plural.
audimus, we hear, or are hearing
auditis, you hear, or are hearing
audiunt, they hear, or are hearing
IMPERFECT TENSE.
audiebam, / was hearing, or / heard
audiebas, thou wert hearing, or thou
heardst
audiebat, he was hearing, or he heard
audiebamus, we were hearing, or we
heard
audiebatis, you were hearing, or you
heard
audiebant, they were hearing, or they
heard
FUTURE TENSE.
audiemus, we shall hear
audietis, you will hear
audient, they will hear
PERFECT TENSE.
audivi, / have heard, or / heard
audiam, I shall hear
audies, thou wilt hear
audiet, he will hear
audivisti, thou hast heard, or thou
heardst
audivit, he has heard, or he heard
audiveram, I had heard
audiveras, thou hadst heard
audiverat, he had heard
audivimus, we have heard, or we
heard
audivistis, you have heard, or you
heard
audiverunt or -re, they have heard,
or they heard
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
audiveramus, we had heard
audiveratis, you had heard
audlverant, they had heard
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
audivero, I shall have heard
audiveris, thou wilt have heard
audiverit, he will have heard
audiverimus, we shall have heard
audiveritis, you will have heard
audiverint, they will have heard
136
The Verb: Verbs in -ire.
[796.
Singular.
audiam, may I hear
audias, mayst thou hear
audiat, let him hear
audirem, I should hear
audires, thou wouldst hear
audiret, he would hear
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Plural.
audiamus, let us hear
audiatis, may you hear
audiant, let them hear
IMPERFECT TENSE.
audiremus, we should hear
audiretis, you -would hear
audirent, they -would hear
audiverim, I may have heard
audlveris, thou mayst have heard
audiverit, he may have heard
PERFECT TENSE.
audiverimus, we may have heard
audiverltis, you may have heard
audiverint, they may have heard
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
audivissem, I should have heard
audivisses, thou wouldst have heard
audivisset, he would have heard
audivissemus, we should have heard
audlvissetis, you would have heard
audivissent, they would have heard
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
audi or audito, hear, thou shall hear
audit o, he shall hear
audit e or auditote, hear, you shall
hear
audiunto, they shall hear
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. audire, to hear
Perf. audivisse, to have heard
Fut. auditurus esse, to be going to
hear
GERUND.
Gen. audiendi, of hearing
Dat. audiendo, for hearing
Ace. audiendum, hearing
Abl. audiendo, by hearing
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. audiens^ hearing
Fut. auditurus, going to hear
SUPINE.
Ace. auditum, to hear
Abl. auditu, in hearing
797-]
Words : Inflection.
797-
VERBS IN -ire,
The Fourth Conjugation.
audior, am heard.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
audior, I am heard
audiris or -re, thou art heard
auditur, he is heard
Plural.
audimur, lue are heard
audimini, you are heard
audiuntur, they are heard
audiebar, / was heard
IMPERFECT TENSE.
audiebamur, we were heard
audiebare or -ris, thou wert heard
audiebatur, he was heard
audiar, / shall be heard
audiere or -ris, thou wilt be heard
audietur, he will be heard
audiebamini, you were heard
audiebantur, they were heard
FUTURE TENSE.
audiemur, we shall be heard
audiemini, you will be heard
audientur, they will be heard
PERFECT TENSE.
auditus sum, I have been, or was
heard
auditus es, thou hast been, or wert
heard
auditus est, he has been, or was
heard
heard
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
auditi sumus, we have been, or were
heard
auditi estis, you have been, or were
heard
auditi sunt, they have been, or were
auditus eram, I had been heard
auditus eras, thou hadst been heard
auditus erat, he had been heard
auditi eramus, we had been heard
auditi eratis, you had been heard
auditi erant, they had been heard
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
auditus er5, / shall have been heard
auditus eris, thou wilt have been
heard
auditus erit, he will have been heard
auditi erimus, we shall have been
heard
auditi eritis, you will have been
heard
auditi erunt, they will have been
heard
138
The Verb: Verbs in -ire.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
audiar, may I be heard
audiare or -ris, mayst thou be heard
audiatur, let him be heard
Plural.
audiamur, may we be heard
audiamini, may you be heard
audiantur, let them be heard
IMPERFECT TENSE.
audirer, I should be heard
audirere or -ris, thou ivouldst be heard
audiretur, he would be heard
audiremur, we should be heard
audiremini, you would be heard
audirentur, they would be heard
PERFECT TENSE.
auditus sim, / may have been heard
auditus sis, thou mayst have been
heard
auditus sit, he may have been heard
audit! simus, we may have been heard
auditi sitis, you may have been heard
auditi sint, they may have been heard
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
auditus essem, / should have been
heard
auditus esses, thou wouldst have been
heard
auditus esset, he would have been
heard
auditi essem us, we shoiild have been
heard
auditi essetis, you would have been
heard
auditi essent, they would have been
heard
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
audire or auditor, be heard, thou shall
be heard
auditor, he shall be heard
audimini, be heard
audiuntor, they shall be heard
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. audiri, to be heard
Perf. auditus esse, to have been
heard
Put. auditum iri, to be going to be
heard (2273)
GERUNDIVE,
audiendus, to be heard
PERFECT PARTICIPLE,
auditus, heard
139
798.]
Words: Inflection.
THE DEPONENT VERB.
798. Deponents, that is, verbs with passive person endings and a
reflexive or an active meaning (725), have these active noun forms :
participles, the future infinitive, the gerund, and the supines. The
perfect participle is usually active, but sometimes passive ; the gerun-
dive always passive. The following is a synopsis of deponents :
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
queror, complain, queri, questus miror, wonder, mirari, miratus
vereor, /*r, vererl, veritus
partior, share, partiri, partitus
I. -i II. (i.) -ari (2.) -en (3.) -in
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.
queror
miror
vereor
partior
Imp.
querebar
mirabar
verebar
partiebar
Put.
querar
mirabor
verebor
partiar
Perf.
questus sum miratus sum
veritus sum
partitus sum
Plup.
questus eram
miratus eram
veritus eram partitus eram
P.P.
questus er5
miratus er5
veritus ero partitus ero
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres.
querar
mirer
verear
partiar
Imp.
quererer
mirarer
vererer
partirer
Perf.
questus sim
miratus sim
veritus sim
partitus sim
Plup.
questus es-
miratus es-
veritus essem
partitus es-
sem
sem
sem
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
querere
mlrare
verere
partire
PARTICIPLES.
Prer.
querens
mirans
verens
partiens
Perf.
questus
miratus
veritus
partitus
Put.
questurus
miraturus
veriturus
partiturus
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
queri mirari
vereri
partiri
Perf.
questus esse miratus esse
veritus esse
partitus esse
Put.
questurus es-
miraturus es-
veriturus esse
partiturus es-
se
se
se
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
Gen.
querendi, &c.
mirandi, &c.
verendi, &c.
partiendi, &c.
querendus
mirandus
verendus
partiendus
SUPINE.
Ace.
questum
*miratum
*veritum
*partitum
Abl.
*questu
miratu
*veritu
*partitu
140
The Verb Periphrastic Forms. [799803.
799. Three deponents in -ior, -i, gradior, -walk, morior, die, and patior,
suffer, and their compounds, have a present system like the passive of capio (784).
But adgredior and progredior and morior and emorior have sometimes the
forms of verbs in -iri ; for these, and for orior, arise, oriri, ortus, and potior,
become master of, potiri, potitus, see 791. By far the largest number of deponents
are verbs in -an, like miror, mirari (368).
800. Some verbs waver between active and passive person endings: as, adsentio,
agree, adsentire, and adsentior, adsentiri ; populo, ravage, populare, and
populor, popular!: 5661481.
801. A few verbs are deponent in the present system only : as, devortor, turn
in, perfect devorti ; revortor, turn back, perfect revorti, but with active perfect
participle revorsus. Four are deponent in the perfect system only : fido, trust,
fidere, fisus, and the compounds, confido, diffido ; and audeo, dare, audere,
ausus, gaudep, feel glad, gaudere, gavisus, and soled, am used, solere,
solitus. Most impersonals in -ere have both an active and a deponent form in the
perfect system : see 815, 8 16.
PERIPHRASTIC FORMS.
802. (i.) The future active participle with a form of sum is
used to denote an intended or future action : as,
recturus sum, I am going to rule, intend to rule.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular.
Plural.
Pres.
recturus sum, es, est
recturi sumus, estis, sunt
Imp.
recturus eram, eras, erat
recturi eramus, eratis, erant
Put.
recturus ero, eris, erit
recturi erimus, eritis, erunt
Perf.
recturus fui, fuisti, fuit
recturi fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt
Plup.
recturus fueram, fueras,
recturi fueramus, fueratis, fue-
fuerat
rant
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres.
recturus sim, sis, sit
recturi simus, sitis, sint
Imp.
recturus essem, esses,
recturi essemus, essetis, essent
esset
Perf.
recturus fuerim, feieris,
recturi fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint
fuerit
Plup.
recturus fuissem, fuis-
recturi fuissemus, fuissetis, fu-
ses, fuisset
issent
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
recturus esse
Perf.
recturus fuisse
803. A future perfect is hardly ever used : as, fuerit victurus (Sen.). In the
imperfect subjunctive, forem, fores, foret, and forent are sometimes used (Nep.,
Sail., Liv., Veil.).
141
804-810.]
Words : Inflection.
804. (2.) The gerundive with a form of sum is used to de-
note action which requires to be done : as,
regendus sum, I am to be ruled, must be ruled.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
Pres.
Imp.
Put.
Perf.
Plup.
regendus sum, es, est
regendus eram, eras, erat
regendus ero, eris, erit
regendus fui, fuisti, fuit
regendus fueram, fueras,
fuerat
regendi sumus, estis, sunt
regendi eramus, eratis, erant
regendi erimus, eritis, erunt
regendi fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt
regendi fueramus, fueratis, fue-
rant
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Pres.
Imp.
regendus sim, sis, sit
regendus essem, esses,
esset
regendi simus, sitis, sint
regendi essemus, essetis, essent
Perf.
regendus fuerim, fueris,
merit
regendi fuerimus, fueritis, fue-
rint
Plup.
regendus miss-em, fuis-
ses, fuisset
regendi fuissemus, fuissetis, fu-
issent
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
Perf.
regendus esse
regendus fuisse
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
805. (i.) Some verbs have only a few forms : as,
inquam, quoth I (760) ; aio, avouch (786). See also apage, avaunt,
get thee behind me, cedo, give, tell, fan, to lift up one's voice, havl or av6 and
salve, all hail, ovat, triumphs, and quaeso, prithee, in the dictionary.
806. (2.) Many verbs have only the present system ; such are :
807. (a.) sum, am (745) ; fero, carry (780) ; fio, grow, become (788).
808. (b.) Some verbs in -ere: ang5, throttle, bito, go, clango, sound,
claudo or claude5, hobble, fatisc5, gape, glisco, wax, glubo, peel, hisco,
gape, temno, scorn, vado, go, vergo, slope. Also many inceptives (834) : as,
ditesco, get rich, dulcesc5, get sweet, &c., &c.
809. (c.) Some verbs in -ere : albeo, am while, aveo, long, calve5, am
bald, caneo, am gray, clueo, am called, hight, flaveo, am yellow, hebeS,
am blunt, immineo, threaten, lacteo, suck, liveo, look dark, maereo, mourn,
polleo, am strong, renideo, am radiant, squaleS, am scaly, ume5, am wet.
810. (d.) Some verbs in -ire: balbutio, sputter, ferio, strike, gannio,
yelp, ineptio, am a fool, superbio, am stuck up, tussio, cough. Also most
desideratives (375).
142
The Verb: Defective Verbs. [811-815.
811. Many verbs are not attended by a perfect participle, and
lack in consequence the perfect passive system, or, if deponent,
the perfect active system.
812. (3.) Some verbs have only the perfect system: so particularly
coepi, have begun, began (120) ; and with a present meaning, odi, have come to
hate, hate ; and memini, have called to mind, remember. The following is a
synopsis of these three verbs :
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Active. Passive. Active. Active.
Perf.
Pluf.
P.P.
coepi coeptus sum
coeperam coeptus eram
coeperS coeptus ero
odi
oderam
5dero
memini
memineram
meminero
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Perf.
Plup.
coeperim coeptus sim
coepissem coeptus essem
oderim
odissem
meminerim
meminissem
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Perf.
memento, me-
mentote
INFINITIVE.
Perf.
coepisse coeptus esse
ddisse
meminisse
Perf.
Put.
PARTK
coeptus
coepturus
:IPLES.
osurus
813. A few forms of the present system of coepi occur in old writers : as,
coepio (Plant.), coepiam (Caec., Cato), coepiat (Plant.), coeperet (Ten), and
coepere (Plaut.); perfect once coepit (Lucr.). 5sus sum or fui (Plant., C.
Gracch., Gell.), exosus sum (Verg., Sen., Curt., Gell.), and per5sus sum
(Suet., Col., Quint. ), are sometimes used as deponents, memini is the only verb
which has a perfect imperative active, odi and memini have no passive.
814. coepturus is rather rare and late (Liv. 2, Plin., Suet.), once as future
infinitive (Quint.) ; and osurus is very rare (Cic., Gell.). exSsus and per5sus, as
active participles, hating bitterly, are not uncommon in writers of the empire ; the
simple 5sus is not used as a participle.
815. (4.) Impersonal verbs have usually only the third person
singular, and the infinitive present and perfect : as,
(a.) pluit, if rains, tonat, it thunders, and other verbs denoting the
operations of nature, (b.} Also a few verbs in -ere denoting feeling: as,
miseret (or miseretur, miserescit), it distresses, miseritum est ; paenitet,
/'/ repents, paenituit ; piget, it grieves, piguit or pigitum est ; pudet, it
shames, puduit or puditum est ; taedet, it is a bore, taesum est.
143
8 1 6-8 2 3.] Words : Inflection.
816. Some other verbs, less correctly called impersonal, with an
infinitive or a sentence as subject, are likewise defective : as,
lubet or libet, it suits, lubitum or libitum est, lubuit or libuit ; licet,
it is allowed, licuit or licitum est ; oportet, /'/ is proper, oportuit ; re fert
or refert, it concerns, re ferre or referre, re tulit or retulit. For the imper-
sonal use of the third person singular passive, as pugnatur, there is fighting,
pugnandum est, there must be fighting, see 724.
817. Of the impersonals in -ere, some have other forms besides the
third person singular and the infinitives : as,
paenitens, repenting, paenitendus, to <? regretted, late ; pigendus, irksome;
pudens, modest, pudendus, shameful, puditurum, ^w'w^ to shame; lubens or
libens, -with willing mind, gladly, very common indeed ; imperative LICETO, be it
allowed (inscrr. 133-111 B.C.), licens, unrestrained, licitus, allowable; gerunds
pudendum, pudendS, pigendum.
REDUNDANT VERBS.
818. (i.) Some verbs have more than one form of the present
stem : thus,
819. (a.) Verbs in -ere have rarely forms of verbs in -ere in the present
system: as, abnueo, nod no, abnuebunt (Enn.), for abnuo, abnuent; con-
gruere, to agree (Ter.), for congruere. For verbs in -i5, -ere (or -ior, -i), with
forms of verbs in -Ire (or -iri), see 791. Once pmsibant (Enn.).
820. (b.) Some verbs in -are have occasionally a present stem like verbs
in -ere : as, lavis, washest, lavit, &c., for lavas, lavat, &c. ; sonit, sounds,
sonunt, for sonat, sonant. Others have occasionally a present stem like
verbs in -ere : as, denseS, thicken, denser!, for densS, densari.
821. (c.) Some verbs in -ere have occasionally a present stem like verbs
in -ere : as, fervit, boils, fervont, for fervet, fervent. See also fulgeo,
oleo, scateo, strlded, tergeo, tueor in the dictionary, cieo, set a going,
sometimes has a present stem in -Ire, particularly in compounds : as, cimus,
ciunt, for ciemus, cient.
822. (d.} Some verbs in -ire have occasionally a present stem like verbs
in -ere : as, evenunt, turn out, for eveniunt ; evenat, evenant, for eve-
niat, eveniant, and advenat, pervenat, for adveniat, perveniat (Plaut.).
823. (2.) Some verbs have more than one form of the perfect
stem : as,
eo, go, old II (765), common ii, rarely IvI (767); pluit, it rains, pluit,
sometimes pluvit. See also pango, pared, clepo, vollo or vello, intellego,
ponp, necto, and adnectS, salio and msili5, applico, explic5 and implico,
dlmico and need in the dictionary. Some compound verbs have a form of
the perfect which is different from that of the simple verb : as, cano, make
music, cecinl, concinui, occinui ; pungo, punch, pupugi, compunxi, ex-
punxi ; Ieg5, pick up, legi, dllexl, intellexl, neglexl ; emo, take, buy, emi
(ademi, exemi), compsi, dempsi, prompsi, sumpsi.
144
Tke Verb: Present Stem. [824-829.
FORMATION OF STEMS.
VARIABLE VOWEL.
824. The final vowel of a tense stem is said to be variable
when it is -o- in some of the forms, and -u-, -e-, or -i- in
others.
825. The sign for the variable vowel is -o| e -: thus, rego| e ., which may
be read 'rego- or rege-,' represents rego- or regu-, rege- or regi-,
as seen in rego-r or regu-nt, rege-re or regi-t.
826. The variable vowel occurs in the present of verbs in -ere, except
in the subjunctive, in the future in -bo or -bor, and in the future perfect,
as may be seen in the paradigms. It is usually short ; but in the active, o
is long : as, rego, laudabo, laudavero ; and poets rarely lengthen i in the
second and third person singular of the present. For the future perfect,
see 882.
827. In old Latin, the stem vowel of the third person plural of the present was
o: as, COSENTIONT; o was long retained after v, u, or qu (107, <r) : as, vivont,
ruont, sequontur ; or, if o was not retained, qu became c : as, secuntur.
I. THE PRESENT SYSTEM.
PRESENT INDICATIVE STEM.
I. PRIMITIVES.
(A.) ROOT VERBS.
828. A root without addition is used as the present stem, in the
present tense or parts of the present tense, in root verbs (744-781) :
as,
es-t, is; da-t, gives ; inqui-t, quoth he ; i-t, goes ; nequi-t, can't ; es-t,
eats; vol-t, will; fer-t, carries. With reduplicated root (189) : bibi-t, drinks;
seri-t, sows ; sisti-t, sets.
(B.) VERBS IN -ere.
829. (i.) The present stem of many verbs in -ere is formed
by adding a variable vowel -| e -, which appears in the first per-
son singular active as -o, to a root ending in a consonant or in
two consonants : as,
PRESENT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME.
rego| e - rego,K*< re g-
verto | e - vert5, turn v e r t-
10 145
830-835-] Words: Inflection.
Other examples are : tego, cover, peto, make for ; merge, dip, serpo,
creep ; pendo, "weigh ; dic5, say, fido, trust, scribo, write, with long I for ei
(98) ; duc5, lead, with long u for eu, ou (100) ; \\a&o t play, with long u for oi,
oe (99) ; laedo, hit, claudo, shut ; rado, scrape, cedo, move along, tlgo,_fix,
rodo,gnaiv, glub5,/^/. *furo, rave; ago, drive, alo, nurttire. gigno, beget,
(gen-, gn-), has reduplication, and sido, settle, light (sed-, sd-), is also
the result of an ancient reduplication (189).
830. In some present stems an original consonant has been modified :
as, ger5, carry (ges-), uro, burn (154); trahS, draw (tragh-), veb.5,
cart (152) ; or has disappeared: as, fiuo,Jt(nv (f lugu-).
831. Some roots in a mute have a nasal before the mute in the present
stem: as, frango, break (frag-). Other examples are: iung5, join, lin-
quo, leave, pang5, fix, ping5, paint ; findo, cleave, f undo, pour ; -cumbo,
lie, lambo, lick, rumpS, break (164, 3). The nasal sometimes runs over into
the perfect or perfect participle, or both.
832. (2.) The present stem of many verbs in -ere is formed
by adding a suffix ending in a variable vowel - e -, which ap-
pears in the first person singular active as -6, to a root : thus,
-no, -sco, -to, -io: as,
PRESENT STEM VERB. FROM THEME.
lino| e _ Iin5, besmear li-
crescoje- cresco, grow cre-
pecto| e - pecto, comb pec-
capio| e - capi5, take cap-
833. (a.) -no is added to roots in a vowel, or in a continuous sound,
-m-, -r-, or -1-.
So regularly lino, besmear, sino, let; temn5, scorn, cerno, sift, spern5,
spurn, only. The third persons plural danunt (Naev., Plaut.) for dant, prodl-
nunt, redmunt (Enn.) for prodeunt, redeunt hardly belong here ; their formation
is obscure. In a few verbs, -n is assimilated (166, 6) : as, tolld, ////. Sometimes
the doubled 1 runs into the perfect (855): as, velli, fefelli. minuo, lessen, and
sternu5, sneeze, have a longer suffix -nu|e-.
834. (.) -sco, usually meaning 'begin to,' forms presents called
Inceptive* or Inchoatives.
-SCO is attached : first, to roots : as, nascor, am born, nosco, learn, pasco,
feed, scisco, resolve ; consonant roots have l, less commonly e, before the suffix : as,
tremisco or tremesco, fall a-trembling, nanciscor, get (831); but discS,
learn (170, i ), and posco, demand (170, io), are shortened ; see 168. Secondly,
to a form of the present stem of denominative verbs, especially of those in -ere : as,
claresco, brighten ; the stem is often assumed only, as in inveterascp, grow
old, maturesc5, get ripe. Manv inceptives are used only in composition : as,
extimesco, get scared, obdormisco, drop asleep.
835. (c. ) -to occurs in the following presents from guttural roots : flecto,
turn, necto, string, pectp comb, plector, am struck, amplector, hug^ com-
plector, clasp. From a lingual root vid-, comes viso, go to see t call on (153).
From vowel roots : beto or blto, go, and meto, mow.
146
The Verb: Present Stem. [836-841.
836. (//.) -io is usually added to consonant roots with a short
vowel ; the following have presents formed by this suffix :
capio, take, cupio, want, facio, make, fpdio, dig, fugio, run away, iacio,
throw, pario, bring forth, quati5, shake, rapid, seize, sapio, have sense, and their
compounds ; the compounds of *laci5, lure, and specie or sp>ici5, spy, and the
deponents gradior, step, morior, die, and patior, suffer, and their compounds. For
occasional forms like those of verbs in -Ire (or -iri), see 791. For ai5, see 786 : for
fio, 788.
837. A few present stems are formed by adding a variable vowel '<>l e _,
for an older -i|e-, to a vowel root : as,
ruo, tumble down, rui-s, rui-t, rui-mus, rui-tis, ruu-nt(ii4). Vowel
roots in -a-, -e-, or -1- have a present stem like that of denominatives : as, sto,
stand, sta-s, sta-t, sta-mus, sta-tis, sta-nt ; fleo, weep, fle-s, fle-t, fle-
mus, fle-tis, fle-nt ; neo, spin, has once neu-nt for ne-nt (Tib.) ; sci5, know,
sci-s, sci-t, sci-mus, sci-tis, sciu-nt.
838. Most present stems formed by adding the suffix -io to a root end-
ing in -1-, -r-, or -n-, and all formed by adding -16 to a long syllable, have
the form of denominatives in -ire in the present system : as, salio, leap, sa-
Hre, aperio, open, aperire, veni5, come, venire ; farcio, cram, farcire.
II. DENOMINATIVES.
839. The present stem of denominatives is formed by attach-
ing a variable vowel -| e -, for an older -i| e -, to a theme consist-
ing of a noun stem : as,
UNCONTRACTED PRESENT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME.
cenao | e _ ceno, dine cena-
fl5reo] e - floreo, blossom flore-
vestio| e _ TestiS, dress vesti-
acuolg- acuo, point acu-
The noun stem ending is often slightly modified in forming the theme : thus,
laud- becomes lauda- in laudd for *lauda-5, and flor- becomes flore- in
flore-6.
840. In many of the forms, the final vowel of the theme is con-
tracted with the variable vowel : as,
plants, plantas (118, 3) for *plantaio, *plantaies (153, 2) ; mones for
*moneies (118, i), audis for *audiies (118, 3). The long a, e, or I, is regu-
larly shortened in some of the forms : as, scit, arat, habet, for Plautine
scit, arat, habet. In a few forms no contraction occurs : as, mone5,
audio, audiu-nt, audie-ntis, &c., audie-ndus, &c. (114). Denominatives
from stems in -u-, as acuo, are not contracted, and so have the forms of
verbs in -ere (367).
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.
841. The suffix of the present subjunctive of sum, am, is -!-, which becomes -i-
before -m, -t, and -nt : si-m, si-s, si-t, si-mus, si-tis, si-nt (35, 2, 3). So
also in the singular and in the third person plural, dui-m, &c. (756), and edi-m,
&c. (769), and in all the persons, veli-m, &c. (noli-m, &c., mali-m, &c.). An
old suffix is -ie- (-ie-), in sie-m, sie-s, sie-t, and sie-nt.
H7
842-849-] Words: Inflection.
842. (i.) The present subjunctive stem of verbs in -ere,
-ere, and -ire, ends in -a-, which becomes -a- in some of the
persons; this suffix replaces the variable vowel of the indica-
tive : as,
rega-m, rega-s, rega-t, rega-mus, rega-tis, rega-nt ; capia-m,
capia-s, &c. ; monea-m, monea-s, &c; audia-m, audia-s, &c. ea-m,
quea-m, fera-m, and fhe old fua-m (750), also have the formative sub-
junctive vowel.
843. (2.) The present subjunctive stem of verbs in -are ends
in -e-, which becomes -e- in some of the persons : as,
laude-m, laude-s, laude-t, laude-mus, laude-tis, laude-nt. &Q,give,
also has de-m, de-s, &c.
IMPERATIVE.
844. Root verbs have a root as imperative stem (745-780) : as, es, &c.,
fer, &c. But the imperative of nolo has a stem in -I-, like verbs in -ire : thus,
noli, noli-t5, noli-te, noli-tote.
845. The imperative stem of verbs in -ere, and of verbs in
-are, -ere, and -ire, is the same as that of the indicative: as,
rege, regi-to, regu-nto, rege-re ; cape, capi-to, capiu-nto ; fi ; lauda,
&c. ; mone, &c. ; audi, &c.
846. The second person singular imperative active of dico, duco, and
facio, is usually die, due, and fac, respectively, though the full forms, dice,
&c., are also used, and are commoner in old Latin. Compounds of duc5
may have the short form : as, educ. inger5 has once inger (Catull.). sci5
has regularly the singular sci-to, plural sci-tote, rarely sci-te.
IMPERFECT INDICATIVE.
847. The imperfect indicative stem ends in -ba-, which be-
comes -ba- in some of the persons : as,
daba-m, daba-s, daba-t, daba-mus, daba-tis, daba-nt ; iba-m ;
quiba-m. In verbs in -ere and -ere, the suffix is preceded by a form
ending in -e- : as, regeba-m ; moneba-m; so also voleba-m (noleba-m,
maleba-m), and fereba-m ; in verbs in -io, -ere, and in -i5, -ire, by a form
ending in -ie- : as, capieba-m ; audieba-m ; in verbs in -are, by one end-
ing in -a-: as, laudaba-m. Inverse, verbs in -ire sometimes have -I- before
the suffix (Plaut, Ter., Catull., Lucr., Verg., &c.) : as, audiba-t. aio, say,
has sometimes aiba-m, &c. (787).
848. The suffix of the imperfect indicative of sum, am, is -a-, which becomes -a-
befpre -m, -t, and -nt (35, 2, 3) the s becomes r between the vowels (154) : era-m,
era-s, era-t, era-mus, era-tis, era-nt.
IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
849. The imperfect subjunctive stem ends in -re-, which be-
comes -re- in some of the persons : as,
148
The Verb: Perfect Stem. [850-856.
dare-m, dare-s, dare-t, dare-mus, dare-tis, dare-nt ; ire-m, fore-m,
ferre-m. In verbs in -ere, the -re- is preceded by a form ending in -e- : as,
regere-m, capere-m ; in verbs in -are, -ere, and -Ire, by one ending in -a-,
-e-, or -I-, respectively : as, laudare-m, monere-m, audire-m.
850. The suffix of the imperfect subjunctive of sum, am, is -se-, which
becomes -se- in some of the persons; esse-rn, esse-s, esse-t, esse-mus,
esse-tis, esse-nt; so also esse-s, &c. (769). volo, -wish, nold, won't, and
mal5, prefer, have velle-m, nolle-m, and malle-m respectively (166, 8.)
FUTURE.
851. The future stem of sum, am, is er| e -: ero, eri-s, eri-t, eri-mus,
eri-tfs, eru-nt. do has dabo, e5 has ibo, and queo has quibo.
852. (i.) The future stem of verbs in -ere and -ire ends in
-a- in the first person singular, otherwise in -e-, which becomes
-e- in some of the persons : as,
rega-m, rege-s, rege-t, rege-mus, rege-tis, rege-nt; capia-m,
capie-s, &c. ; audia-m, audie-s, &c. The first person singular is not a
future form, but the subjunctive present, used with a future meaning (842) ;
forms in -em occur in manuscripts of Plautus : as, faciem, sinem. Verbs in
-ire sometimes have -b|e-, chiefly in the dramatists : as, scibo, opperibo-r
(Plaut., Ter.), lembu-nt (Prop.) ; rarely verbs in -ere (819) : as, exsugebo
(Plaut). For reddibo, instead of the usual reddam, see 757.
853. (2.) The future stem of verbs in -are and -ere ends in
-b] e -, which is preceded by a form ending in long -a- or -e-
respectively : as,
laudabS, laudabi-s, laudabi-t, laudabi-mus, laudabi-tis, laudabu-nt.
monebo, monebi-s, &c.
II. THE PERFECT SYSTEM.
PERFECT INDICATIVE STEM.
854. There are two kinds of perfect stems : (A.) Some verbs
have as perfect stem a root, generally with some modification,
but without a suffix (858-866). (B.) Some perfects are formed
with a suffix, -s-, or -v- or -u- (867-875).
. ^SS* Some perfects of primitives are formed not from a root, but from the present
stem without the formative vowel, treated as a root : as, prehendi, seized, from
prehend- (866) ; poposci, asked, fefelli, deceived (858) ; iunxi, joined (867).
856. The first person of the perfect ends in -i, sometimes written ei
(29, 2). -t, -sti, sometimes written -stei (29, 2), -stis, and -mus are
preceded by short i ; -re is always, and -runt is usually, preceded by
long e : as,
rexi, rexi-sti, rexi-t, rexi-mus, rexi-stis, rexe-runt (rexe-runt), or
rexe-re.
149
857-862] Words: Inflection.
857. Sometimes -t is preceded by long i : as, iit, petiit, REDIEIT (29, 2).
-runt is sometimes preceded by short e (Plaut, Ter., Lucr., Hor., Ov.,
Verg., Phaedr.). This is the original form; -e- is by analogy to -Ere.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
858. (i.) Some verbs in -ere form their perfect stem by
prefixing to the root its initial consonant with the following
vowel, which, if a, is usually represented by e ; this is called
the Reduplicated Perfect, and the first syllable is called the
Reduplication: as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME.
pu-pug- pungS, punch p u g-
pe-pig- pango,jfo pag-
Other examples are : cado,/^//, cecidi (c a d-, 104, c ) ; pario, bring forth,
peperi (par-, 104, c) ; pello, pttsh, pepuli (pol-, 105, h] ; posco, demand,
poposci (855) ; fallS, deceive, fefelli (855, 104, c) ; see also 923-932. caedo,
cut, has cecidi (108, a) ; and a few old forms are quoted from verbs having
an o or an u in the root with e in the reduplication : as, memordi, pepugi.
859. Four verbs with vowel roots also have a reduplicated perfect stem :
d5, give, put, dare, dedi ; bib5, drink, bibere, bibi ; sto, stand, stare, steti,
and sisto, set, sistere, -stiti, rarely stiti. Also four verbs in -ere : mordeo,
bite, momordi, pende5, hang, pependi, spondeo, promise, spopondi, ton-
deo, clip, -totondi. In the root syllable of spopondi, promised, steti, stood,
stiti, set, and the old scicidi, clove, an s is dropped (173, 2).
860. In compounds the reduplication is commonly dropped : as,
cecidi, fell, compound concidi, tumbled down. Compounds of cucurri, ran,
sometimes retain the reduplication : as, procucurri. Compounds of bibi, drank,
didici, learned, poposci, asked, stiti, set, steti, stood, and dedi, gave, put, retain
it, the last two weakening e to i : as, restiti, staid back, abscondidi, hid away,
usually becomes abscond! ; in apparent compounds, e is usually retained : as, circum
steti, stood round, venum dedi, put for sale. The reduplication is also lost in
the simple verbs tuli, carried, old tetuli, and in scindo. split, scidi, which last
is rare as a simple verb.
861. Some compounds with re- drop only the vowel of the reduplication (in, a) :
as, reccidi, fell back ; rettuli, brought back (see also 781) ; rcpptrl, found ; ret-
tudi, beat back. Some perfects occur only in composition: as, percellS, knock
down, perculi ; contund5, smash to pieces, contudi ; diffindo, split apart,
diffidi ; but fidi also occurs a couple of times as a simple verb.
862. (2.) Some verbs in -ere have a perfect stem consisting
of a consonant root with a long vowel (135, i) : as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME.
ed- edo, eat e d-
leg- lego, pick up, read 1 e g-
Other examples are : fodio, dig, fodi ; fundo, pour, fudi ; linquo, leave,
liqui ; see 936-946. Three verbs in -ere also have this form, sedeo, sit,
sedi, strided, grate, stridi, video, see, vidi ; and one in -ire, venio, come,
veni.
The Verb: Perfect Stem. [863-868.
863. The following verbs in -ere with a in the present stem, have long
e in the perfect stem (145):
ago, do, egi, frango, break, fregi, pango, fix, rarely peg!, but always
compegi, impegl, oppegi; capiS, take, cepi, faci5, make, feci, iacio,
tkrowy ieci. So also the old co-epi, began, common coepi.
864. Two verbs in -are and some in -ere have a perfect stem consisting of a root
which ends in -v- and has a long vowel : iuvo, help, iuvare, iuvi, lavo, -wash,
lavare or lavere, lavi ; caveo, look out, cavere, cavi ; see 996.
865. Verbs in -uo, -uere, both primitives and denominatives, have usually a per-
fect stem in short u of the theme (124): as, luo,/aj, lui; acuo, sharpen, acui:
see 947, 948. Forms with long u are old and rare (126) : as, fui, adnui, constitui,
institui. fluo, floiv, and stru5, pile, have fluxi and struxi (830).
866. (3.) Some verbs in -ere from roots ending in two con-
sonants have a perfect stem consisting of the root : as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME.
mand- mand5, chew m a n d-
pand- pando, open p a n d-
Other examples are: vorto or verto, turn,vortl or verti; scando, climb,
-scendi; prehendo, seize, prehendi (855) ; vollo or vello, pluck, volli or
velli; see 949-951. Similarly ferveS, boil, fervere or fervere, has fervi
or ferbui (823), and prandeo, lunch, prandere, has prandi.
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN -S-, OR IN -V- OR -U-.
PERFECT STEM IN -S-.
867. Many verbs in -ere form their perfect stem by adding
the suffix -s- to a root, which generally ends in a mute : as,
PERFECT STEM VERB. FROM THEME.
carp-s- carpo, pluck c a r p-
scalp-s scalpo, dig scalp-
ges-s- ger5, bear g e s-
dix- dico, say d i c-
Other examples are: duco, lead, duxi (100) ; fingo, mould, finxi (855) ;
ludo, play, lusi (166,2); scribo write, scripsi (164, i); struo, pile, struxi
(164, i) ; vivo, live, vixi (98). Some verbs with a short vowel in the present,
have a long vowel in the perfect: as, reg5, guide, rexi (135); intellego,
understand, intellexi (823) ; tego, cover, texi ; iung5,y^, iunxi (855). And
some verbs with a long vowel in the present, have a short vowel in the per-
fect: as, uro, burn, ussi (830). See 952-961.
868. Some verbs in -ere also have a perfect in -s- : as algeo, am cold,
alsi (170, 3); haereo, stick, haesi (166, 2): see 999, 1000. Also some in
-ire: as, sarcio, patch, sarsi (170,3): see 1014, 1015.
869-876.] Words: Inflection.
PERFECT STEM IN -V- OR -U-.
869. (i.) Some verbs in -ere, with vowel roots, and almost
all verbs in -are or -ire, form their perfect stem by adding the
suffix -v- to a theme ending in a long vowel : as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME.
cre-v- cresc5, grow c r e-
lauda-v- laudd, praise lauda-
audl-v- audio, hear audi-
For other verbs in -ere with a perfect stem in -v-, and particularly ter5,
cerno, sperno, and sternS, see 962-970.
870. A few verbs in -ere have a perfect stem in -v- attached to a presumed
theme in long I: as, cupid, want, cupivi ; pet5, aim at, petivi; quaerS,
inquire, quaesivi ; arcesso, fetch, arcessivi; see 966-970.
871. A few verbs in -ere also have a perfect stem in -v- : as, fleo, -weep, flere,
flevi; see 1001-1003. And three verbs in -escere have a perfect stem in -v-
attached to a presumed theme in long e : -olesco, grow, -olevi j quiesco, get
quiet, quievi ; suescS, get used, suevi.
872. One verb in -ascere has a perfect stem in -v- attached to a presumed theme
in long a: advesperascit, it gets dusk, advesperavit.
873. (2.) Many verbs in -ere form their perfect stem by
adding the suffix -u- to a consonant root : as,
PERFECT STEM. VERB. FROM THEME.
al-u- al5, nurture , al-
gen-u- gigno, beget g e n-
Other examples are : colo, cultivate, colui ; consuls, consult,^ consului ;
-cumbo, lie, -cubui ; fremo, roar, fremui; elicio, draw out, elicui; rnol5,
grind, molui ; rapid, snatch, rapui ; sero, string, -serui ; sterto, snore,
-stertui ; strepo, make a racket, strepui ; tex5, weave, texui ; volo, willy
volui ; compescS, check, compescui (855) ; see 971-976.
874. Some verbs in -are also have a perfect stem in -u- : as, crepo,
rattle, crepare, crepui (993) ; and many in -ere : as, moneo, warn, monere,
monui : see 1004-1006; also four in -ire : as, salio, leap, salire, salui ( 1019).
875. The perfect potui to the present possum (751) is from a lost present
*poteo, *potere (922). p5nere (for *po-sinere, 112; 170,2) forms an old per-
fect posivi (964), later posui, as if pos- were the stem.
PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
876. The perfect subjunctive stem ends in -eri-, for which
-eri- is sometimes used (35, 2, 3) : as,
rexeri-m, rexeri-s, rexeri-t, rexeri-mus, rexeri-tis, rexeri-nt.
The Verb: Perfect Stem. [877-886.
877. In the perfect subjunctive, long i is found before the person endings
-s, -mus, and -tis, some 25 times, as follows: -is, 18 times (Plaut. 3, Pac.,
Enn., Ter., Hor., Tib., Sen., inscr., once each, Ov. 8), -imus, 4 times
(Plaut. 3, Ter. i), -itis, 3 times (Plaut. 2, Enn. i).
878. In the perfect subjunctive, short i is found, as in the future perfect, some 9
times, thus: -is, 8 times (Plaut. in anapests 3, Verg. 2, Hor. 3), -imus once
(Verg.). But before -tis, short i is not found.
PERFECT IMPERATIVE.
879. One verb only, memini, remember, has a perfect imperative ; in this
imperative, the person endings are not preceded by a vowel, thus : memen-to,
memen-t5te.
PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE.
880. The pluperfect indicative stem ends in -era-, which be-
comes -era- in some of the persons : as,
rexera-m, rexera-s, rexera-t, rexera-mus, rexera-tis, rexera-nt.
PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
881. The pluperfect subjunctive stem ends in -isse-, which
becomes -isse- in some of the persons : as,
rexisse-m, rexisse-s, rexisse-t, rexisse-mus, rexisse-tis, rexisse-nt.
FUTURE PERFECT.
882. The future perfect stem ends in -ero- and -eri- : as,
rexero, rexeri-s, rexeri-t, rexeri-mus, rexeri-tis, rexeri-nt.
883. In the future perfect, short i is found before the person endings
-s, -mus, and -tis, some 40 times, as follows : -is, 29 times (Plaut. 2, Cic. i,
Catull. i, Verg. 7, Hor. 12, Ov. 4, Germ, i, Juv. i); -imus, 3 times (Plaut.,
Ter., Lucr.) ; -itis, 8 times (Enn. i, Plaut. 5, Ov. 2).
884. In the future perfect, long i is found, as in the perfect subjunctive, some
33 times, thus: -is, 28 times (Plaut. 3, Hor. 5, Ov. 15, Prop., Stat., Mart., Priap.,
inscr., once each), -imus, once (Catull.), -itis, 4 times (Ov. 3, Priap. i).
SHORT OR OLD FORMS.
885. (i.) Some shorter forms in the perfect system are prin-
cipally found in old Latin.
886. (a.) Shorter forms in the perfect indicative, the pluperfect sub-
junctive, and the infinitive, most of them from perfects in -s- (867), occur
chiefly in verse : thus,
Perfect indicative, second person singular, common : as, dixtl (Plaut., Ter., Cic.) ;
plural, rare: as, accestis (Verg.). Pluperfect subjunctive singular, not very com-
mon: as, exstmxem (Verg.), intellexes (Plaut.). vixet (Verg.); plural, once
only, erepsemus (Hor.). Infinitive, dixe (Plaut.), consumpse (Lucr.).
J S3
887-893-] Words: Inflection.
887. (b.} A perfect subjunctive stem in -si- or in -ssi-, and a future per-
fect indicative stem in -so| e - or in -sso| e -, occur chiefly in old laws and
prayers, and in dramatic verse: as,
Perfect subjunctive: faxim, faxis, FAXSEIS (inscr. 145 B.C.), faxit, faximus,
faxitis, faxint ; ausim, ausis, ausit ; locassim, amassis, servassit,
amassint, prohibessis, prohibessit, cohibessit, licessit.
Future perfect indicative : faxo, faxis, faxit, faxitis, capsp, recepso, iusso,
occisit, capsimus ; leyasso, invitassitis, rnulcassitis, exoculassitis,
prohibessis, prohibessint. Denominatives in -are have also, in old Latin, a
future perfect infinitive : as, impetrassere.
888. Passive inflections, as future perfect faxitur, turbassitur, deponent
MERCASSITVR ^hiscr. in B.C.), are very rare; and, indeed, with the exception of
faxp and ausim, even the active forms had become antiquated by 150 B.C. De-
nominatives in -ire never have the above formations. But ambio, canvass, is
thought to have a future perfect ambissit twice (Plaut. prol.).
889. (2.) Shortened forms from perfect stems formed by the
suffix -v- (869) are very common in all periods.
890. (#.) In tenses formed from perfect stems in -av-, -ev-, and
-6v-, v is often dropped before -is-, -er-, or -er-, and the vowels thus
brought together are contracted (153, i): as,
laudavisti, laudasti ; laudavistis, laudastis ; laudaverunt, laudarunt
(but the form in -re, as laudavere, is never contracted) ; laudaverim,
laudarim, &c. ; laudaveram, laudaram, &c. ; laudavissem, laudassem,
&c. ; laudavero, laudaro, &c. ; laudavisse, laudasse.
-plevisti, -plesti ; -plevistis, -plestis ; -pleverunt, -plerunt ; pleve-
rim, -plerim, &c. ; -pleveram, -pleram, &c. ; -plevissem, -plessem,
&c. ; -plever5, -plerS, &c. ; -plevisse, -plesse.
novisti, nosti; novistis, nostis; noyerunt, norunt; noverim, no-
rim, &c. ; noveram, noram, &c. ; novissem, nSssem, &c. ; n5vero
always retains the v, but cognoro, &c. ; novisse, nosse.
891. The verbs in which v belongs to the root (864), are not thus shortened,
except moveo, mostly in compounds. From iuvo, iuerint (Catull.), adiuero
(Enn.), once each, and twice adiuerit (Plaut., Ter.) are unnecessary emendations.
892. Contractions in the perfect before -t and -mus are rare: as, inritat,
disturbat ; suemus or stiemus (Lucr.), nomus (Enn.), c6ns\iemus(Prop.).
893. (.) In tenses formed from perfect stems in -iv-, v is often
dropped before -is-, -er-, or -er- ; but contraction is common only
in the forms which have -is- : as,
audivisti, audisti ; audivistis, audistis ; audiverunt, audierunt ;
audlverim, audierim, &c. ; audiveram, audieram, &c. ; audivissem,
audissem, &c. ; audivero, audiero, &c. ; audivisse, audisse. Sometimes
audii, audiit, audit. Intermediate between the long and the short forms
are audleras and audierit, once each (Ter.). In the perfect subjunctive,
sin5 has siveris (Plaut., Cato), siris (Plaut., Cato, Liv.), sireis (Pac.), or
seiris (Plaut.), sirit (Plaut, Liv.), siritis (Plaut.), siverint (Plaut., Curt.),
sierint (Cic., Curt.), or sirint (Plaut.). desino is thought to have desimus
in the perfect indicative a couple of times (Sen., Plin. Ep.).
The Verb : Nouns of the Verb. [894-901.
NOUNS OF THE VERB.
INFINITIVE.
894. The active infinitive has the ending -re in the present,
and -isse in the perfect : as,
dare ; regere, capere ; laudare, monere, audire. rexisse ; laudavisse
or laudasse, monuisse, audivisse or audisse.
895. For -re in old Latin, see 134, 2. The infinitive of fio, become, ends in -ri,
fferi, with a passive ending (789) ; twice fiere (Enn. Laev.). An older form for -re
is -se, found in esse, to be, esse, to eat, and their compounds. For velle, to -wish
(malle, nolle), see 166, 8. In the perfect, eo, go, sometimes has -iisse in com-
pounds (766), and in poetry, peto, go to, has rarely petiisse.
896. The present infinitive passive of verbs in -ere has the
ending -I ; that of other verbs has -ri : as,
regi, capi ; laudari, moneri, audiri. fero, carry, has ferri. The length
of the I is sometimes indicated by the spelling ei (29, 2) : as, DAREI.
897. A longer form in -ier for -I, and -tier for -ri, is common in old laws
and dramatic verse, and occurs sometimes in other poetry: as, FIGIER, to be posted,
GNOSCIER, to be read (inscr. 186 B.C.) ; dicier, to be said, curarier, to be looked
after ( Plaut. ) ; dominarier, to be lord paramount ( Verg. ).
898. The place of the perfect passive, future active, and future passive infinitive
is supplied by a circumlocution, as seen in the paradigms. For the future perfect
-assere, see 887.
GERUNDIVE AND GERUND.
899. The gerundive stem is formed by adding -ndo-, nom-
inative -ndus, -nda, -ndum, to the present stem : as,
dandus, stem dando- ; regendus, capiendus ; laudandus, monendus,
audiendus. Verbs in -ere and -ire often have -undus, when not preceded
by u or v, especially in formal style: as, capiundus; eo, go, always has
eundum, and orior, rise, oriundus. For the adjective use, see 288. The
gerund is like the oblique cases of the neuter singular. For -bundus, see
289 ; -cundus, 290.
SUPINE.
900. The supine stem is formed by the suffix -tu-, which
is often changed to -su- (912).
This suffix is attached to a root or to a form of the present stem after
the manner of the perfect participle (906) : as, nuntiatum, to report, nun-
tiatu, in reporting, stem nuntiatu-. Many of the commonest verbs have
no supine: as, sum, eo, fero; reg5, emo, tego; amo, deled, doceo,
&c., &c.
PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
901. The present participle stem is formed by adding -nt-
or -nti-, nominative -ns, to the present stem : as,
dans, giving, stems dant-, danti- ; regens, capiens ; laudans, monens,
audiens.
'55
902-910.] Words: Inflection.
902. The adjective sontem (accusative, no nominative), which was originally the
participle of sum, has p before the suffix, and absens and praesens have e ; the
participle of e5 has e in the nominative singular, otherwise u, iens, euntis, &c.
n rarely drops before -s (63): as, LIBES (inscr.), exsultas (Enn.), animas (Lucr.).
903. Some adjectives which were originally present participles have no verb : as,
Clemens, merciful, elegans, choice, evidens, clear, frequens, thick, petulans,
wanton, recens,/r^//, repens, sudden, &c., &c. For potens,/0w*?r//, see 922.
FUTURE PARTICIPLE.
904. The future participle suffix is -turo-, nominative -turus,
-tura, -turum, which is often changed to -suro-, nominative
-sums, -sura, -surum (912).
This suffix is added to a theme after the manner of the perfect participle
(906): as, recturus, going to gtiide ; laudaturus, going to praise.
905. Some future participles have a different formation from that of the perfect
participle : as, mortuus, dead, moriturus ; see also in the dictionary arguo,
fruor, orior, ruo, seco. And some verbs have two forms of the future participle :
as, agnosco, ignosco, haurip, iuvo, parip. Some verbs which have no per-
fect participle have a future participle : as, acquiesce, appareo, ardeo, caleo,
careo, doleo, esurio, fugio, haereo, incido, iaceo, -nuo, parco, raucio,
recidS, son5, sto, valeS.
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
906. The perfect participle suffix is -to-, nominative -tus,
-ta, -turn, which is often changed to -so-, nominative -sus,
-sa, -sum (912).
907. The perfect participle was originally active as well as passive, and
some participles have retained the active meaning : as,
adultus, grown -up; emersus, rising out from; exosus, perpsus, hating
bitterly ; placitus, engaging; iuratus, sworn, coniuratus, conspiring; pran-
SUS, having lunched, cenatus, having dined, potus, drunk, &c. The perfect
participles of deponents are usually active, but sometimes passive : as, meditatus,
having studied, or studied. Many verbs are not accompanied by a perfect participle
(8n), particularly verbs in -ere, with a parallel adjective in -idus (287). Intran-
sitive verbs have usually only the neuter. A perfect active participle meminens is
said to have been used twice (Plaut., Laev.).
908. The perfect participle is formed in one of two separate
ways:
909. (i.) From a theme consisting of a root ; in this way the par-
ticiples of most verbs in -ere and -ere are formed : as,
gestus, carried, aptus, fit, solutus, loosed (142), iunctus, joined (831),
sparsus, sprinkled (170, 3) ; doctus, taught.
910. In some consonant root participles of verbs in -ere, -are, or -ere,
which have the suffix -u- in the perfect stem (873), the -to- is preceded by
a short i: as, genitus, born (971-976); domitus, tamed (993); monitus,
warned (1003, IO 4. 1009). In old Latin, e occurs: as, MERETA (41); e is
retained in vegetus, sprightly. One participle has -tuo- : mortuus, dead.
The Verb: A T ouns of the Verb. [911-919.
911. Some verbs in -are have participles from consonant roots: as, frictus,
rubbed, frico, fricare ; see 993. -Also some in -Ire : as, fartus, stuffed (170, 3),
farciS, farcire; fultus,///,?^, fulcio, fulcire ; see 1011-1015, an d i OI 7 1019,
1020.
912. Roots in -d- and -t- change -to- to -so-, before which the dentals
change to s (159). After long vowels, nasals, and liquids the double ss
is simplified to s : as, fossus, dug, but divisus, divided ; versus or versus,
turned. The suffix -so- is also found with some roots in -1-, -m-, or -r- and
a few others : as, pulsus (159).
913. (2.) From a theme in long a or in long I; in this way
participles are regularly formed from denominatives in -are or -Ire
respectively : as,
laudatus, praised ; auditus, heard.
914. A few perfect participles of verbs in -ere are formed from a presumed theme
in long i, or long e, or from one in long u : as, petltus, aimed at; exoletus,
grown out ; see 967-970 ; tributus, assigned ; see 947, 948.
915. (r.) Many perfect participles formed from consonant roots
have a short root vowel (135, i) : as,
adspectus, beheld ; captus, taken ; coctus, cooked ; commentus, devis-
ing ; cultus, tilled; dictus, said, verb dic5 ; ductus, led, duco; factus,
made; fossus, dug', gestus, carried ; inlectus, allured; questus, complain-
ing; raptus, seized ; tersus, neat / textus, woven ; versus, turned.
916. (2.) Some perfect participles formed from consonant roots
have a long root vowel, sometimes even when the vowel of the parallel
present stem is short (135, I ; I22,/) : as,
H-XMS, fastened, verb figo ; -flictus, dashed, -fligo ; pastus, fed, pasco ;
polluctus, offered up, polluceo ; scriptus, written, scribo ; -casus, fallen,
cado. Also actus, driven, ag5 ; visus, seen, video ; fructus, enjoying, fruor ;
lectus, culled, lego ; pictus, painted, pingo ; rectus, ruled, rego ; esus,
eaten, edo ; structus, piled, struo ; tectus, covered, tego ; unctus, anointed,
unguo ; fractus, broken, frangS ; pactus, fixed, pango. Furthermore,
iunctus, joined, iungo ; sanctus, hallowed, sancio (831); also, functus,
having performed, fungor.
917. (i.) Most perfect participles formed from vowel roots have
a long root vowel : as,
latus, borne (169, i) ; natus, born ; -pletus,y?//^/; tritus, worn ; notus,
known ; sutus, sewed. So also an isolated rutus, in the law phrase ruta
caesa, or ruta et caesa, diggings and ciittings, i.e. minerals and timber.
918. (2.) Ten perfect participles formed from vowel roots have
a short root vowel ; they are :
citus, datus, hurried, given -rutus, satus, fallen, planted
itum, ratus, gone, thinking situs, status, lying, set
litus, quitus, besmeared, been able
919. As citus, so always percitus and incitus (once incitus, doubtful) ; usu-
ally concitus, rarely concitus ; excitus and excitus equally common ; always
accitus. ambitus always has long I (763). agnitus, recognized, cognitus,
known, and the adjectives inclutus or inclifus, of high renown, and putus, clean,
have a short root vowel. For defrutum, defrutum, see 134, i.
920-922.] Words: Inflection.
LIST OF VERBS
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS.
920. I. The principal parts of root verbs and of verbs in -ere
are formed in a variety of ways and are best learned separately
for every verb (922-986).
921. II. The principal parts of verbs in -are, -ere, and -ire,
are usually formed as follows :
laudo,/nw'j* laudare laudavi laudatus
moneo, advise monere monui monitus
audio, hear audire audlvi auditus
For other formations, see 989-1022.
I. PRIMITIVE VERBS.
(A.) ROOT VERBS.
922. Root verbs have their principal parts as follows :
sum, am esse
-, become, get, am fore fui
For fuam, &c., forem, &c., fore, see 750. fui, &c., serves as the perfect
system of sum.
pos-sum, can pos-se
, can potui
potui, &c., serves as the perfect system of possum. Of the present system
of potui, only potens, powerful, is used, and only as an adjective.
do, give, put dare dedi datus
For compounds, see 757.
bibo, drink bibere bibi potus
So the compounds, with the reduplication preserved in the perfect system (860).
sero, sow serere sevi satus
Compounds have i for a in the perfect participle : as, c5n-situs.
sisto, set sistere -stiti, rarely stiti status
inquam, quoth I inquij once
eo, go ire ii, very rarely ivi itum, -itus
queo, can quire quivi quitus
ne-queo, can't ne-quire ne-quivl ne-quitus
edo, eat esse edi esus
volo, -will, wish, want velle volui
n615, won't nolle n51ui
malo, like better malle malui
fer5, carry ferre (tuli) (latus)
For tuli, old tetuli, and latus, see 780 : for the perfect of re-fer6, 861.
158
The Verb : List of Verbs. [923-930.
(B.) VERBS IN -ere.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
923. (la.) The following verbs in -ere have a reduplicated perfect
stem (858), and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus :
924. (a.) With the present stem in -o| e . (829).
cano, make music canere cecini (cantatus)
For con-cino, oc-cino, and prae-cin5, see 971 and 823.
tend5, stretch tendere tetendi tentus
For tennitur (Ter.), dis-tennite (Plaut.), see 166, 4 ; late participle tensus.
Compounds have -tendl (860) and -tentus. But sometimes ex-tensus, and in
late writers, de-tensus, dis-tensus, os-tensus, and re-tensus.
925. (b.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by -o| e - (831).
pango,^* pangere pepigi, agreed pactus
In meaning, the perfect pepigi corresponds to paciscor ; panxit, made, set in
verse (Enn.), panxerit, set (Col.), pegit (Pac.), pegerit (Cic.),Jixed, once each.
For com-pingo and im-ping5, see 938.
pungo,/a<:A pungere pupugi punctus
For com-pungo and ex-pungo, see 954 and 823.
tango, touch tangere tetigi tactus
In old Latin: tag5 (Turp.), tagit, tagam (Pac.)- Compounds have i for a in
the present system : as, con-tingo, con-tingere, con-tigi (860), con-tactus ;
in old Latin: at-tigas (Plaut., Ter., Ace., Pac.), at-tigat (Pac.), at-tigatis
(Plaut., Pac.).
926. (c.) With the present stem in -lo[ e - (833).
tollo, take off tollere (sus-tull) (sub-latus)
As the perfect and perfect participle of tollo are appropriated by f ero, tollo takes
those of sus-tollo. The original perfect is tetuli (860).
927. (d.) With the present stem in -sco| e - (834).
discS, learn discere didici
posco, demand poscere poposci
For poposci, see 855. For -didici and -poposci, see 860.
928. (e.) With the present stem in -io| e - (836).
pario, bring forth parere peperi partus
For forms in -ire, see 791. com-peri5, 1012; re-perio, ion.
929. (i b.} The following verbs in -ere have a reduplicated perfect
stem (858), and the perfect participle, when used, is -BUB (912).
930. (a.) With the present stem in o-| e . (829.)
cado,/rf// cadere cecidi -casus
Compounds have i for a in the present system: as, oc-cid5, oc-cidere,
oc-cidi (S6o),oc-casus. Rarely e in the present and perfect systems (Enn. Lucr.,
Varr.) : as, ac-cedere, ac-cedisset(io9). For the perfect of re-cido, see S6i.
caedo,/^//, cut caedere cecidi caesus
Compounds have I for ae : as, ac-cid5, ac-cidere, ac-cidi (860), ac-cisus.
93 I ~937] Words: Inflection.
parcS, spare parcere peperci
peperci, &c. (regularly in Cic., Caes., Hor., Ov., Mart. ; Nep. once; also Plaut.
twice, Ter. once). Old parsl, &c. (Plaut. 8, Cato, Ter., Nov., Nep., once each);
once parcuit (Naev.). Compounds: com-perce (Plaut.), con-parsit (Ten),
in-perce, im-percito, re-percis (Plaut.), re-parcent (Lucr.).
pendS, -weigh, pay pendere pependi pensus
931. (b.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by -o| e . (831 ).
tundS, pound tundere tutudi not used tunsus
For the perfect of re-tundo, see 861 ; other compounds have the perfect -tudi
(861), but once con-tudit (Enn.). Perfect participle, tusus (Plin., Mart.); com-
pounds: con-tunsus (Plin.), con-tusus (Cato, Varr., Caes., Lucr., Sal., Verg.,
&c.); ob-tunsus (Plaut, Verg., Liv., Sen.), op-tusus, ob-tusus (Lucr., Sen.,
Quintil., Tac.); per-tussus (Plaut.), per-tusus (Cato, Lucr., Liv., Sen., &c.);
re-tunsus (Plant., Verg.), re-tusus (Cic., Lucr., Hor.); sub-tusus (Tib.).
932. (c.) With the present stem in -ro| e -, or -lo| e - (833).
curro, run currere cucurri cursurn
For perfect of compounds, see 860.
fallo, cheat fallere fefelli falsus
Compound re-fello, re-fellere, re-felli (860), .
pello, push pellere pepuli pulsus
For the perfect of re-pello, see 861. Other compounds have -pull (860).
933. (i c.} The following verbs in -ere are without the redupli-
cation (86 1 ) :
934. (a.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by -o| e - (831 ).
findo, split apart findere -fidi, rarely fidi fissus
scindo, rend scindere -scidi, rarely scidi scissus
935- (*) With the present stem in -lo| e - (833).
per-cello, knock down per-cellere per-culi per-culsus
936. (2 a.) The following verbs in -ere have a perfect stem con-
sisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect
participle, when used, in -tus :
937- (<*) With the present stem in -o| e _ (829).
ago, drive agere egi actus
Real compounds have i for a in the present system : as, ab-igo, ab-igere,
ab-egi, ab-actus; but per-ago retains a. cogS and dego are contracted:
cogo, cogere, co-egl, co-actus; dego, degere, , -.
ernS, take, buy ernere emi emptus
co-emS retains e in the present system, and usually inter-emo and per-emS ;
other compounds have -imo. For como, demo, promS, and sumo, see 952.
, strike ici ictus
Forms of the present system are icit (Plant, Lucr.), icitur (Plin.), icimur
(Lucr.).
legS, pick up, read legere legl lectus
Compounds with ad, inter, nee-, per. prae, and re-, have -legS in the
present system, others -ligo. For di-ligo, intel-leg5, neg-lego, see 9:52.
160
The Verb: List of Verbs. [938-946.
938. (b.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by -je- (831).
com-pingo, fix together com-pingere com-pegi com-pactus
A compound of pango (925, 823).
frango, smash frangere fregi fractus
Compounds have i for a in the present system : as, con-fringo, con-fringere,
con-fregi, con-fractus.
im-pingo, drive in im-pingere im-pegi im-pactus
A compound of pango (925, 823). So also op-pegi.
linquo, leave linquere liqui -lictus
rumpo, burst rumpere rupi ruptus
So the compounds. But Plautus has con-rumptus and dir-rumptus.
vinco, conquer vincere vici victus
939. (c.) With the present stem in -sco| e - (834).
pavescS, get afraid pavescere ex-pavi
940. (d.) With the present stem in -io| e - (836).
capio, take capere cepi captus
Compounds have i for a in the present system and e in the perfect participle : as,
in-cipip, in-cipere, in-cepi, in-ceptus. In the present system, e is rare: as,
re-cepit (Lucr.) ; u is frequent in old Latin.
coepi5, begin rare coepere once coepi coeptus
See 812-814.
facio, make facere feci factus
For fac, see 846; for passive, 788. Compounds have i for a in the present sys-
tem and e in the perfect participle: as, ef-fici5, ef-ficere, ef-feci, ef-fectus.
fugio, run away fugere fug!
iacio, throw iacere ieci iactus
_ Compounds have -icio (104,0, -icere, -ieci, -iectus : as, e-icio, e-icere,
e-iecl, e-iectus. In old Latin the present system has rarely -iecio; -iecere.
dis-sicio is sometimes used (Lucr., Verg.) for dis-icio.
941. (2^.) The following verbs in -ere have a perfect stem con-
sisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect
participle, when used, in -sus (912).
942. (a.) With the present stem in -oj e - (829).
cudo, hammer cudere -cud! -cusus
943 (b-} With reduplication and -o| e . in the present stem (829).
sido, settle sidere sidi, -sidi, -sedi -sessus
944. (c.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by -o| e . (831).
fundo,/0r fundere fiidi fusus
945. (d.) With the present stem in -so[ e - for -to| e - (835).
viso, go to see visere visi
946. (<?.) With the present stem in -io| e - (836).
fodio, dig fodere fodi fossus
For forms in -ire, see 791.
ii 161
947-95I-]
Words: Inflection.
947. (2 .) The following verbs in -ere (367) with the present
stem in -| e - (837, 840), have the perfect stem in -u- or in -v- of the
theme (865), and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus :
acu5, sharpen acuere
arguo, make clear arguere
con-gru5, agree con-gruere
ex-uo, doff ex-uere
im-buo, give a smack of im-buere
ind-u5, don
in-gruS, impend,
luo, pay, atone for
ind-uere
in-gruere
lucre
metuere
-nuere
pluere
ruere
so-lvere
spuere
statuere
Compounds have i for a throughout :
volvS, roll volvere
suo, sew suere
tribuS, assign tribuere
-nuS, nod
pluit, it rains
ruo, tumble down
so-lvo, loose
SpuS, spit
statuS, set
acui
argui
con-grui
ex-ui
im-bui
ind-ui
in-grui
lui
metui
-nui
pluit, pluvit
rui
so-lvi
-spui
statui
acutus adjective
argutus rare
ex-utus
im-butus
ind-utus
-lutus, -washed
metutus once
-rutus
so-lutus
statutus
as, c5n-stituo, c5n-stituere, &c.
volvi volutus
-sui sutus
tribui tributus
948. Two verbs in -ere with the present stem in -nuoj e . (833), have the
perfect stem in -nu- (865), and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus:
minuS, lessen minuere minui minutus
sternuo, sneeze sternuere sternui
949. (3.) The following verbs in -ere have a perfect stem con-
sisting of a root ending in two consonants (866), and the perfect
participle in -SUB (912) :
950. (a.) With the present stem in -o| e - (829) ; most have a nasal (831).
-cendo, light -cendere -cendi -census
-fendo, hit -fendere -fendi -fensus
mando, chew mandere mandi once mansus
pando, open pandere pandi passus, pansus
For dis-pennite (Plant.), see 166,4. dis-pando, dis-pendo, has perfect
participle dis-pessus (Plaut., Lucr.), dis-pansus (Lucr., Plin., Suet.).
pre-hendo, seize pre-hendere pre-hendi pre-hensus
Rarely prae-hend5 ; but very often prendo, prendere, prendi, prensus.
scando, climb scandere -scendi -scensus
Compounds have e for a throughout: as, de-scendo, de-scendere, &c.
vorro, verro, sweep vorrere,verrere -vorri, -verri versus, versus
vorto, verto, turn vortere,vertere vorti,verti versus, versus
951. (b.) With the present stem in -Io| e - (833).
vollo, vello, tear vollere, vellere volli, veil! volsus, vulsus
Late perfect vulsi (Sen., Luc.) ; -vulsi (Laber., Col., Sen., Luc.).
162
The Verb : List of Verbs. [952-953.
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN -S-, OR IN -v- OR -U-.
PERFECT STEM IN -S-.
952. (itf.) The following verbs in -ere have the perfect stem in-s-
(867), and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus :
953- ( a -) With the present stem in -o| e - (829).
carpo, nibble, pluck carpere carpsi carptus
Compounds have e for a : as,de-cerpo, de-cerpere, de-cerpsi, de-cerptus.
com-buro, burn up com-burere corn-buss! com-bustus
como, put up comere compsi comptus
Compound of com- and em5 (937, 823). See also demo, promo, sumo,
coquo, cook coquere cox! coctus
demo, take away demere dempsi demptus
dico, say dicere dixi dictus
For die, see 846.
di-ligo, esteem di-ligere di-lexi di-lectus
Compound of dis- and lego (937, 823). See also intel-lego and neg-lego.
duco, lead ducere duxi ductus
For due, e-duc, see 846.
-fligo, smash -fligere -flixi -flictus
Of the simple verb, fligit occurs (L. Andr.), fligebant (Lucr.), and fligi (L.
Andr., Ace.).
gero, carry gerere gessi gestus
intel-lego, understand intel-legere intel-lexi intel-lectus
neg-lego, disregard neg-legere neg-lexi neg-lectus
In the perfect system very rarely intel-legi and neg-legi (862, 823).
nubo,z/7, marry (a man) nubere nupsi nupta
pr5mo, take out promere prompsi promptus
rego,^'^, rule regere rexi rectus
In the present system, con-rig5 and e-rig5 ; commonly por-rigo, sometimes
porgo ; rarely sur-rig5, commonly surgo ; always pergo.
scalptus
scriptus
sculptus
structus
suctus
sumptus
tectus
tractus
ustus
vectus
vixi .
163
repo, creep
repere
reps!
scalpo, dig
scalpere
scalps!
scribo, write
scribere
scrips!
sculpo, carve
sculpere
sculps!
Struo, build up
struere
struxi
sugo, suck
sugere
suxi
sumo, take up
sumere
sumps!
teg5, cover
tegere
tex!
traho, drag
trahere
traxi
ur5, burn
urere
uss!
veho, cart
vehere
vex!
vivo, live
vivere
vixi
954-958.]
Words: Inflection.
954- (<M With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by -o| e . (831)
cingo, gird cingere
cinxi
cinctus
com -pungo, prick over com-pungere
com-punxi
com-punctus
A compound of pungo (925, 823).
e-mungo, clean out e-mungere
e-munxi
e-munctus
ex-pung5, prick out ex-pungere
ex-punxi
ex-punctus
A compound of pungo (925, 823).
fingo, mould fingere
finxi
fictus
iungo,/<* iungere
iunxi
iunctus
ping5, paint pingere
pmxi
pictus
plango, beat plangere
planxi
planctus
stingu5,/0&r,/0&? out stinguere
-stinxi
-stinctus
stringo, peel, graze stringere
strinxi
strictus
tingo, wet tingere
tinxi
tinctus
unguo, anoint unguere
unxi
unctus
Sometimes ung5, ungere, &c., in the present system.
955- ( c -} With the present stem in -no| e - (833).
temno, scorn temnere (con-temps!)
956. (d.) With the present stem in -io| e - (836).
ad-licio, lure ad-licere ad-lexi
in-lici5, inveigle in-licere in-lexi
pel-licio, lead astray pel-licere pel-lexi
-spicio, spy -spicere -spexi
(con-temptus)
in-lectus
pel-lectus
-speclus
Forms of the simple verb are old and rare : as, specitur, spicit, spece (Plaut.),
specimus (Varr.), spiciunt (Cato), spexit (Naev., Enn.).
957- C 1 ) The following verbs in -ere have the perfect stem in -B-
(867), and the perfect participle, when used, in -BUS (912):
958. (a.) With the present stem in -oj e _ (829).
cedo, move along cedere cessi cessus
claudere clausi clausus
cludere, clusi, clusus. Compounds have u for au
claud5, shut
Sometimes cludS,
throughout.
di-vido, separate
figo, pin
di-videre
flgere
fluere
laedere
laedo, hurt
Compounds have i for ae throughout :
Iud5, play ludere
mitto, send mittere
merg5, dip, duck mergere
plaudd, clap plaudere
Also ap-plaudo, ap-plaudere, &c.
di-visi di-visus
fixi fixus, twice fictus
fluxi fluxus adjective
laesi laesus
as, in-Hdo, in-lidere, &c.
lusi lusus
misi missus
mersi mersus
plausi plausus
Other compounds have usually 6 for au
throughout : as, ex-plodo, &c. ; but ex-plaud5 (Lucr.).
prem5, squeeze premere pressi pressus
Compounds have i for e in the present system : as, com-primo, &c.
The Verb : List of Verbs. [959-964.
rado, scrape radere rasi rasus
rods, gnaw rodere rosi rosus
spargo, scatter spargere . spars! sparsus
Compounds usually have e for a throughout : as, con-sperg5, &c.
trudo, shove trudere trusi trusus
vado, go vadere -vasi -vasus
959. (b.) With the present stem in -sco| e . (834).
algescS, get cold algescere alsi
ardesco, flame out ardescere arsi (ex-arsi)
lucesco, grow light lucescere -luxi
Sometimes in the present system lucisco, luciscere, &c.
frigesco, grow cold frigescere -frixi
vivescS, get alive vivescere (re-vixi)
In composition, also re-vivisc5, re-viviscere.
960. (c.} With the present stem in -to[ e - (835).
flecto, turn flectere flexi flexus
nect5, bind together nectere nexi, nexui nexus
Perfect system rare: nexit (Lucil., Ace.); nexuit, ad-nexuerant (Sail.).
pecto, comb pectere pexi once pexus
961. (d.) With the present stem in -io| e - (836).
quatiS, shake quatere -cussi quassus
Compounds drop the a (in, a): as, in-cutio, in-cutere, in-cussi, in-
cussus.
PERFECT STEM IN -V-.
962. (2 .) The following verbs in -ere have the perfect stem in -v-,
preceded by a long vowel of the root (869), and the perfect participle,
when used, in -tus :
963. (a.) With the present stem in -o| e . (829).
tero, rub terete trivi tritus
Perfect infinitive once in pentameter verse (823) at-teruisse (Tib.).
964. (b.) With the present stem in -noj e - (833).
cerno, sift, separate, see cernere crevi, decided certus, -cretus
lino, besmear linere levi, rarely Hvi litus
In the present system some forms in -ire are used by late writers.
sino, leave, let sinere sivi situs
Perfect system forms of sino and de-sino in -v- are : sivi (Plaut, Ter., Cic.) ;
de-sivit (Sen.), sivistis (Cic.), once each; siveris (Plaut., Cato), de-siverit
(Cato, GdL), siverint (Plant., Curt.), sivisset (Cic., Liv.). Much oftener without
-v-: as, de-sii (Sen.), sisti (Plaut., Cic.); de-sisti often, siit once (Ter.), de-
siit (Varr., Sen., &c.), de-sit (Mart., &c.), de-siimus (Lent.), de-simus (893),
sistis; d_e-sierunt (Cic., Liv.); de-sierat, de-sierit (Cic.); de-sissem, &c.,
sisset, sissent, de-sisse. For sins, &c., see 893; for pono, 972.
spern5, spurn spernere sprevi spretus
stern5, strew sternere stravi stratus
'65
965-97-] Words: Inflection.
965. (c.) With the present stem in -sco| e - (834).
cresc5, grow crescere crevi cretus
nosed, get to know noscere novi notus adjective
Compounds: i-gnosco, i-gnovi, i-gnotum ; a-gnosco, a-gnovi, a-gni-
tus ; c5-gnosco, co-gnovi, co-gnitus; di-nosco, di-n5vl, rarely di-
gnoscS, di-gnovi, ; inter-nosco, inter-novi, . Old passive
infinitive GNOSCIER (inscr. 186 B. c,).
pasco,/mf pascere pavi pastus
sciscS, enact sciscere scivi scltus
966. (2<.) The following verbs in -ere have the perfect stem in -v-,
preceded by the long vowel of a presumed denominative stem (870),
and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus :
967. (a.) With the present stem in -o| e _ (.829).
pet5, aim at petere petivi petitus
In the perfect, sometimes petii (Cic., Ov., Liv., Val. Fl., Plin. #.), PETIEI
(inscr.), peti late (Sen., Stat.) ; petiit (Cic., Hor., Tac., Suet.), petit (Verg, Ov.,
Phaedr., Sen., Luc., Suet), petiisse (Verg., Hor., Ov., Val. Fl., Stat.).
quaero, inquire quaerere quaesivi quaesitus
Compounds sometimes retain ae in old Latin, but usually have i for ae through-
out : as, con-quiro, con-qulrere, &c.
968. (b.) With the present stem in -sco! e - (834).
ab-olesco, vanish away ab-olescere ab-olevl
ad-olesco, grow up ad-olescere ad-olevi ad-ultus
con-cupisco,/z/iw/orcon-cupiscere con-cupivi con-cupitus
-dormisco, fall asleep -dormiscere -dormivi
ex-olesco, grow out ex-olescere ex-olevi ex-oletus
in-veterasco, get set in-veterascere in-veteravi
6bs-o\tsco, get worn out obs-olescere obs-olevi obs-oletus adj.
quiesco, get still quiescere quievi quietus adjective
re-sipisco, come to re-sipiscere re-sipivi
suesco, get used suescere suevi suetus
vesperascit, gets dusk vesperascere vesperavit
969. (c.) .With the present stem in -io| e - (836).
cupio, -want cupere cupivi cupitus
Once with a form in -ire (791), cupiret (Luor.).
sapio, have a smack sapere sapivi
Compounds have i for a: as, re-sipio, &c.
970. (d.) With the present stem in -sso| e - (375).
ar-cesso, send for ar-cessere ar-cessivi ar-cessitus
Sometimes ac-cerso, &c. : infinitive rarely ar-cessiri or ac-cersiri.
capesso, undertake capessere capessivi
facessS, do, make off facessere facessivl facessitus
Perfect system rare : facessieris or facesseris (Cic.), facessisset (Tac.).
in-cesso, attack in-cessere in-cessivi
lacesso, provoke lacessere lacessivi lacessitus
166
The Verb: List of Verbs. [971-975.
PERFECT STEM IN -U-.
971. (3.) The following verbs in -ere have the perfect stem in
-u- (873), and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus ; in some
participles -tus is preceded by a short i, thus, -itus (910) :
972. (a.) With the present stem in -o|e- (829).
alo, bring up alere alui altus, rarely alitus
colo,^'//, stay round, court colere colui cultus
con-cino, chime -with con-cinere con-cinui
A compound of cano (924, 823). See also oc-cino and prae-cino.
con-sulo, consult con-sulere con-sului con-sultus
depso, knead depsere depsui depstus
fremS, growl fremere fremui
gem5, groan gemere gemui
molo, grind molere molui molitus
oc-cino, sing ominously oc-cinere oc-cinui
Once with reduplication, oc-cecinerit (Liv.).
oc-culo, hide oc-culere oc-cului oc-cultus
piso, pinsS, bray pisere, pinsere pinsui, pisivi pistus
Once (818, 847) pmsibart (Enn.). Perfect once pinsui (Pomp.), once (823, 893)
pisierunt (Varr.). Perfect participle often pinsitus (Col.), once pinsus (Vitr.).
pono,//<3<^ ponere po-sui po-situs
A compound of po- and sin5 (964). Perfect in old Latin po-sivi (893) ;
po-sui is first used by Ennius (875). Perfect participle in verse sometimes, po-
stus, -po-stus ; inf. inposlsse (Plant.).
prae-cino, play before prae-cinere prae-cinui
sero, string serere -serui sertus
stert5, snore stertere (de-stertui)
Strepo, make a racket strepere strepul
texo, -weave texere texul textus
tremo, quake tremere tremui
vomo, throw up vomere vomui
973. (b.) With reduplication and -o| e - in the present stem (829).
gigno, beget gignere genui genitus
Present sometimes also without reduplication, genit, &c. (Varr., Lucr.).
974. (<:.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by -o] e . (831).
ac-cumbo, lie by ac-cumbere ac-cubul ac-cubitus
So also in-cumbo ; dis-cumb5 has dis-cubui, dis-cubitum. Com-
pounds with de, ob, pr5, re-, and sub, have -cubui, .
975. (d.} With the present stem in -io| e - (836).
S-lici5, coax out e-licere e-licui e-licitus
rapio, seize rapere rapui raptus
Compounds have i for a in the present and perfect systems, and e in the perfect
participle: as, e-ripio, e-ripere, e-ripui, e-reptus. Old Latin has u in de-
rupier and in sub-rupio, sub-rupere, sub-rupui, sub-ruptus ; shortened
forms are: surpuit, surpuerit (Plaut. ), surpit (Plant, prol.), surpere (Lucr.),
surpite, surpuerat (Hor.). For sub-repsit (Plaut.), see 887.
I6 7
97 6.]
Words: Inflection.
976. (e.) With the present stem in -sco| e - (835) ; for com-pescui, see 855
acesco, get sour
aresc5, dry up
calesco, get -warm
candesco, get white
canesco, get grey
claresco, get bright
com-pesco, check
acescere
alescere
arescere
calescere
candescere
canescere
clarescere
com-pescere
-acui
(co-alui)
-arui
-calm
-candui
canui
clarui
com-pescui
con-ticui
(co-alitus)
con-ticesco, get all still con-ticescere
Also in the present system, con-ticisco, con-ticiscere, &c.
crebresco, get common
crudescS, wax bad
-dolesc5, get pained
duresco, get hard
e-vilesco, get cheap
fervesco, boil up
floresco, blossom out
horresco, bristle up
languesco, get -weak
late SCO, hide away
liquesco, melt
made sco, get moist
marcesco, pine away
maturesco, ripen
nigresco, get black
notesco, get known
ob-mutesco, get still
ob-surdesc5, get deaf
oc-callesco, get hard
pallesco, grow pale
putesco, get soaked
rigesco, stiffen up
rubescS, redden
sanesco, get well
senesco, grow old
Stupesco, get dazed
crebrescere
crudescere
-dolescere
durescere
e-vilescere
fervescere
florescere
horrescere
languescere
latescere
liquescere
madescere
marcescere
maturescere
nigrescere
notescere
ob-mutescere
ob-surdescere
oc-callescere
pallescere
putescere
rigescere
rubescere
sanescere
senescere
stupescere
-crebrui
(re-crudul)
-dolui
durui
e-vilui
-ferbul, -fervi
-florui
-horrui
langui
-litui
(de-licui)
madui
(e-marcui)
maturui
nigrui
notui
ob-mutui
ob-surdui
oc-callui
pallui
putui
rigui
rubui
-sanui
-senui
(ob-stupui)
Also op-stipesco or ob-stipesco, op-stipui or ob-stipul.
tab esc 5, waste away
tepeSCO, get lukewarm
-timesco, get scared
torpescS, get numb
tremesco, quake
tabescere
tepescere
-timescere
torpescere
tremescere
tabui
tepui
-timui
torpui
(con-tremui)
Also in the present system, con-tremlsco, con-tremiscere, &c.
tumesco, swell up . tumescere -tumui
valesc5, get strong valescere -valui
vanesco, wane vanescere (e-vanui)
i 68
The Verb: List of Verbs. [977-986.
DEPONENTS IN -I.
977 00 The following deponents in -I have the perfect participle
in -tus, except morior, which has -tuus:
978. (a). With the present stem in -o| e - (829).
fruor, enjoy frul fructus
loquor, speak loqui locutus
queror, complain queri questus
sequor,/0//0zt> sequi secutus
979. (b.) With the present stem in a nasalized root followed by -o| e - (831).
fungor, get quit fungi functus
980. (c.) With the present stem in -sco| e - (834).
apis cor, lay hold of apisci aptus
Compounds have i and e for a: as, ad-ipiscor, ad-ipisci, ad-eptus.
com-miniscor, devise com-mimsci com-mentus
ex-perglscor, stretch myself , -wake ex-pergisci ex-per-rectus
Perfect participle rarely ex-pergitus (Lucil., Lucr.).
nanciscor, ?/ nancisci nactus.nanctus
nascor, am born nasci natus
ob-liviscor,/0r^ ob-livisci ob-litus
paciscor, bargain pacisci pactus
Compounds: de-peciscor, de-pecisci, de-pectus; com-pectus.
pro-ficiscor, start on pro-ficisci pro-fectus
ulclscor, avenge ulcisci ultus
981. (d.) With the present stem in -io| e - (836).
morior, die mori mortuus
orior, rise oriri ortus
potior, master potiri potitus
For forms in -iri of these three verbs, see 791. For potiri, twice potl (Enn., Pac.).
982. (2.) The following deponents in -I have the perfect participle
in -sus (912):
983. (a.) With the present stem in -o| e . (829).
labor, tumble down labi lapsus
nitor, rest on niti msus, mxus
utor. use uti usus
984. (b.) With the present stem in -sco| e _ (834).
d&-itiiBCQT, get tired out de-fetisci de-fessus
985. (c.) With the present stem in -to| e - (835)0
am-plector, hug round am-plecti am-plexus
com-plector, hug up com-plecti corn-plexus
986. (d.) With the present stem in -io| e - (836).
gradior, step gradi gressus
patior, suffer pati passus
Compounds of these two verbs have e for a : as, ad-gredior, per-petior,
per-pessus ; for forms of -gredior in -iri, see 791.
G* 169
987-992-] Words: Inflection.
II. DENOMINATIVE VERBS.
987. Most verbs in -are, -ere, and -ire (or in -an, -en, and
-m), are denominatives.
988. Some primitives from vowel roots have the form of denomi-
natives in the present system, or throughout ; and some verbs with
a denominative prese-nt system have the perfect and perfect participle
formed directly from a root.
(i.) VERBS IN -are.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
989. (i.) The following verb in -are has a reduplicated perfect
stem (859) :
sto, stand stare steti
For -stiti, see 860. The compound prae-sto has rarely the perfect participle
prae-status (Brut., Plin.), and prae-stitus (Liv.).
990. (2.) The following verbs in -are have a perfect stem consist-
ing of a root which ends in -v- and has a long vowel (864), and the
perfect participle in -tus :
iuvo, help iuvare . iuvi iutus once
In the perfect system, iuverint, adiuvero, and adiuverit occur once each in
Catull., Enn.. Plaut., and Ter ; see 891. Perfect participle usual only in the com-
pound ad-iutus.
Iav5, bathe lavare lavi lautus
Forms in -ere are very common in the present tense (820) : lavis (Plaut., Hor.),
lavit (Plaut., Lucr., Catull., Verg., Hor.), lavimus (Hor.), lavitur (Val. Fl.),
layito (Cato), lavere often, lavi (Pomp.). Perfect participle often lotus in
writers of the empire; supine, lautum, lavatum.
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN -v- OR -U-.
PERFECT STEM IN -V-.
991. (la.) Two verbs in -are have the perfect stem in -v- (869),
and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus, both preceded by a long
-a- of the root
flo, blow flare flavi flatus
no, swim nare navi
992. (i.) Most verbs in -are have the perfect stem in -v-
(869), and the perfect participle in_-tus, both preceded by a
form of the present stem in long -a- : as,
Iaud5, praise laudare laudavi laudatus
libero, free liberate Hberavi liberatus
nomino, name nSminare nominavi nominatus
spero, hope sperare speravi speratus
170
993~994-l Tk^ Verb: List of Verbs.
PERFECT STEM IN -U-.
993- ( 2 -) The following verbs in -are have the perfect stem in -u-
(874), and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus ; in some parti-
ciples, -tus is preceded by a short i, thus, -itus (910) :
crepo, rattle crepare crepui (in-crepitus)
Forms of the perfect system in -v- (823) are: in-crepavit (Plaut.), dis-
crepavit (Varr.), in-creparit (Suet.).
cubo, lie cubare cubui
Forms of the perfect system in -v- (823) are: ex-cubaverant (Caes.), cu-
baris (Prop.), in-cubavere (Plin.), cubasse (Quintil.). Compound perfect
participle in-cubitus (Plin.).
domo, tame domare domui domitus
e-neco, murder e-necare e-necui e-nectus
The simple verb has necavi, necatus ; twice necuit (Enn., Phaedr.). e-
neco sometimes has i for e in the present and perfect system ; once (823) 6-nicavit,
and once (887) e-nicasso (Plaut.); perfect participle also e-necatus (Plin.).
ric5, rub down fricare fricui frictus
Perfect participle also fricatus (Vitr.), con-fricatus (Varr., Plin.), de-fricatus
(Catull., Col., Plin.), m-fricatus (Col., Plin.), per-fricatus (Vitr., Plin.).
mico, quiver micare micui
So the compounds ; except di-mico, di-micavi, di-micatum ; twice in pen-
tameter verse (823) di-micuisse (Ov.). /
-plico, fold -plicare -plicui -plicitus
A few forms of the present system of the simple verb occur. In the perfect and
perfect participle usually -plicavi, -plicatus ; but sometimes ap-plicui (Cic. once,
Tib., Ov., Liv., Sen., &c.); com-plicui (Sen.), ex-plicui (Verg., Hor., Liv., Sen.,
&c.), im-plicui (Verg., Tib., Ov., Sen., &c.); ap-plicitus (Col., Quintil., Plin.
Ep.), ex-plicitus (Caes., Sen., Plin. Ep.\ im-plicitus (Plaut., Cic., Liv.); once
re-plictus (Stat.).
seed, cut secare secui sectus
The compound with ex sometimes has i for e; once (823) exicaveris (Cato).
sono, sound sonare sonui
Also (820) sonit, sonunt (Enn., Ace.), sonere (Ace., Lucr.); re-sonunt
(Enn.). Perfect (823) re-sonarint (Hor.), re-sonavit (Man.), sonaturus (Hor.)
tono, thunder tonare tonui (at-tonitus)
Once (820) tonimus (Varr.). Perfect participle once in-tonatus (Hor.).
vet5, forbid vetare vetui vetitus
In old Latin, voto, &c. (143). Perfect once (823) vetavit (Pers.).
DEPONENTS IN -3ri.
994. There are many deponents in -ari, with the perfect participle
in -atus: as,
hortor, exhort hortari hortatus
For the primitive fan, speak, and compounds, see the dictionary.
171
995~~999-] Words: Inflection.
(2.) VERBS IN -ere.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
995- C 1 -) The following verbs in -ere have a reduplicated perfect
stem (859), and the perfect participle, when used, in -BUS (912) :
mordeo, bite mordere momordi morsus
The compound prae-mordeo has once (823) prae-morsisset (Plaut).
pendeo, am hung pendere pependi
The compound pr5-pendeo has the perfect participle pro-pensus.
spondeo, covenant spondere spopondi sponsus
For de-spondi and re-spondi, see 860 ; rarely de-spopondi (Plaut.).
tonde5, shear tondere -totondi, -tondi tonsus
For de-tondunt (Varr.), see 821. Perfect only in the compounds at-tondl and
de-tondi (860); once de-totonderat (Varr.), and perhaps de-totondit (Enn.).
996. (20.) The following verbs in -ere have a perfect stem con-
sisting of a root which ends in -v- and has a long vowel (864), and
the perfect participle, when used, in -tus :
caveo, lookout cavere cavi cautus
faveo, am friendly favere favi
foveo, warm, cherish fovere fovi fotus
move5, move movere movi motus
For short forms in the perfect system, particularly in compounds, see 891.
vove5, vow vovere v5vi votus
997. (2<5.) Three verbs in -ere have a perfect stem consisting of a
consonant root with a long vowel (864), and the perfect participle in
-sus (912):
sedeo, sit sedere sedi -sessus
Real compounds have i for e in the present system : as, ob-side5, &c. Com-
pounds with dis-, prae, and re- have no perfect participle,
strideo, grate stridere stridi
Often with a present system in -ere (821).
videS, see videre vidi visus
998. (3.) The following verbs in -ere have a perfect stem ending
in two consonants (866), and the perfect participle, when used, in
-sus (912) :
ferve5, boil fervere fervi, ferbui
Sometimes with forms in -ere (821) in verse. The perfect system is rare.
prandeS, lunch prandere prandi pransus
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN -s-, OR IN -v- OR -U-.
PERFECT STEM IN -S-.
999. (ifl.) The following verbs in -ere have the perfect stem in
-a- (868), and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus:
172
The Verb: List of Verbs. [1000-1001.
auged, increase
augere
auxi
auctus
in-dulgeo, am kind
in-dulgere
in-dulsi
luceo, beam
lucere
luxi
lugeo, mourn
lugere
luxi
torqueo, twist
torquere
torsi
tortus
IOOO. (i.) The following verbs in -Sre have the perfect stem in
-B- (868), and the perfect participle, when used, in -sus (912) :
algeo, feel cold algere alsi
ardeo, blaze ardere arsi
c5-nixi, co-mvi -
The perfects co-nixi (Turp.), co-nivi (Crass.), occur once each.
fulgeo, flash fulgere fulsi
Forms of the present in -ere (821) occur in verse : fulgit (Pomp., Lucil.,
Lucr.), fulgere (Pac., Ace., Lucil., Lucr., Verg.); ef-fulgere (Verg., Claud.).
haere5, stick haerere haesi
iubeo, order iubere iussi iussus
In old Latin, IOVBEO, after lovsi (ivsi); later iussi, iussus, after iubeo.
maneo, stay manere mansi mansurn
mulceo, stroke mulcere mulsi mulsus adjective
Perfect participle per-mulsus rare (Cornif., Varr.).
mulgeo, milk mulgere mulsi mulsus once
tided, laugh ridere risi -risus
suadeo, advise suadere suasi suasus
tergeo, -wife tergere tersi tersus
For forms in -ere in the present, as tergit, &c. (Varr., Prop., Stat., Col.),
see 821.
turgeo, am swelling turgere tursi once
Of the perfect system, turserat (Enn.).
urgeo, fush urgere ursi
PERFECT STEM IN -v- OR -U-.
PERFECT STEM IN -V-.
IOOI. (i.) The following verbs in -ere have the perfect stem in
-v- (869), and the perfect participle in -tus, both preceded by a long
-e- of the root :
de-leo, wipe out de-lere de-levi de-letus
fleo, weep flere flevi fletus
neo, spin nere nevi
For neunt (Tib.), see 837.
-ple5,>// -plere -plevi -pletus
1 002 - 1 oo 5 .] Words : Inflection.
1002. (i.) The following verb in -ere has the perfect stem in -v-
(869), preceded by long -I-, and the perfect participle in -tus, preceded
by short -i- of the root :
cie5, set a going ciere civi citus
Somewhat defective; also with a form in -ire (821). For the perfect participle
of compounds, see 919.
1003. (i<:.) The following verb in -ere has the perfect stem in -v-
(869), and the perfect participle in -itus (910) :
ab-oleo, destroy ab-olere ab-olevi ab-olitus
PERFECT STEM IN -U-.
1004. (20.) Most verbs in -ere have the perfect stem in -u-
(874), and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus, which is
usually preceded by a short i (910) : as,
doceo, teach docere docui doctus
habe5, have habere habul habitus
So also post-habeo; other compounds have i for a : as, pro-hibeo, pro-
hibere, pro-hibui, pro-hibitus ; twice contracted, probet, probeat (Lticr.).
Compounds with de and prae are regularly contracted, debeS, praebeS, &c. : but
in Plautus once de-hibuisti, and regularly prae-hibeo, &c., throughout.
mere5, earn merere merui meritus
Often deponent (800) : mereor, merer!, meritus.
misceo, mix miscere miscui mixtus, mistus
The present stem is an extension of the suffix -sc| e - (834) ; -so of the present
runs over into the perfect.
moneo, advise monere monui monitus
placeo, am pleasing placere placui placitus
So the compounds com-placeo and per-place5; dis-plice5 has i for a
throughout.
taceo, hold my tongue tacere tacui tacitus adjective
The compound re-ticeo has i for a and no perfect participle.
teneo, hold tenere tenui -tentus
Compounds have i for e in the present and perfect : as, de-tineo, de-tinui,
de-tentus.
terreo, scare terrere terrui territus
torreS, roast torrere torrui tostus
1005. (2*5.) The following verb in -ere has the perfect stem in -u-
(874), and the perfect participle in -sus (912) :
censeS, count, rate censere censui census
174
The Verb : List of Verbs. [ 1 006- 1 008.
1006. (3.) The following verbs in -ere have the perfect stem
in -u- (874), and no perfect participle (907) :
arce5, check arcere arcul
The compounds co-erceo and ex-erceo have e for a, and perfect participles
co-ercitus and ex-ercitus.
caleo, am -warm calere
candeo, glow -white candere
cared, have not carere
doleo, ache dolere
egeo, need egere
The compound ind-igeo, ind-igere,
e-mineo, stick out e-minere
floreo, bloom florere
horreo, bristle up horrere
iaceo, lie iacere
lateo, lie hid latere
liceo, am rated licere
liqueo, am melted liquere
madeS, am soaked madere
niteo, shine nitere
noceo, am hurtful nocere
oleo, smell olere
calui
candui
carui
dolui
egui
ind-igui, -
e-minui
florui
horrui
iacui
latui
licui
licui
madui
nitui
nocui
olui
-, has i for e.
For forms in -ere in the present system, see 821.
palleo, look f ale pallere pallui
pareo,w ait onamobedient parere parui
pateo, am open patere patui
rigeS, am stiff rigere rigui
sile5, am silent silere silui
sorbe5, suck up sorbere sorbui
The perfect system of the simple verb is rare: sorbuit, sorbuerint (Plin.); also
(823) sorpsit (Val. Max.) ; ab-sorbeo and ex-sorbeo have -sorbui ; but ab-
sorpsi (Plin., Luc., Macr.), ex-sorpsi (Sen.).
stude5, am eager studere studul
stupe5, am dazed stupere stupui
timeo,/^r timere timui
valeo, am strong valere valui
vigeo, feel strong vigere vigui
1007. For aude5, gaudeo, and soleo, see 801 ; for lubet or libet, licet,
miseret, oportet, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet, see 815 and 816.
DEPONENTS IN -eri.
1008. (10.) The following deponent in -eri has the perfect parti-
ciple in -tus :
reor, reckon, think reri ratus
1009-1014.] Words: Inflection.
IOOQ. (i.) The following deponents in -eri have the perfect
participle in -tus, which is preceded by a short 1(910):
liceor, bid licerl licitus
misereor, pity misereri miseritus
Perfect participle also misertus (Val. Max., Sen., Curt.). Active forms are:
miserete, misererent (Enn.), misereas (Ter.), miseret (Lucr.), miserent
(Val. Fl.). Passive forms are sometimes used impersonally (724): as, miseretur, &c
tueor, look to, protect tueri tuitus late
Forms in -I also occur in verse (821). As perfect participle, generally tutatUS.
vereor, am awed at vereri veritus
IOIO. (2.) One deponent in -eri has the perfect participle in -BUB
(912):
fateor, confess fateri fassus
Compounds have i and e for a : as, con-fiteor, con-fessus.
(3.) VERBS IN -ire.
(A.) PERFECT STEM WITHOUT A SUFFIX.
IOZI. (i.) The following verb in -Ire has a reduplicated perfect
stem (861), and the perfect participle in -tus:
re-perio, find re-perire re-pperi re-pertus
1012. (i.) The following verb in -ire has no reduplication in the
perfect stem, and the perfect participle in -tus :
com-peri5, find out com-perire com-peri com-pertus
As deponent: com-periar (Ter.), com-perior (Sail., Tac.).
1013. (2.) The following verb in -ire has a perfect stem con-
sisting of a consonant root with a long vowel (862), and the perfect
participle in -tus :
venio, come venire vem ventum, -ventus
For e-venunt, e-venat, e-venant, ad-venat, per-venat, see 822.
(B.) PERFECT STEM IN -S-, OR IN -v- OR -U-.
PERFECT STEM IN -S-.
1014. (i.) The following verbs in -ire have the perfect stem in -&
(868), and the perfect participle in -tus:
farci5, stuff farcire farsi fartus
Compounds have usually e for a throughout.
fulcio, prop fulcire fulsi fultus
haurio, drain haurire hausi haustus
A perfect subjunctive haurierint is quoted from Varro (823).
I 7 6
1015-1020.] The Verb: List of Verbs.
saepio, hedge in saepire saepsi saeptus
sancio, hallow sancire sanxl sanctus adjective
Perfect participle rarely sancitus (Lucr., Liv.). A pluperfect sancierat is
quoted from Pomponius Secundus (823).
sarcio, patch sarcire sarsi sartus
vincio, bind vincire vinxi vinctus
1015. (2.) The following verb in -ire has the perfect stem in -a-
(868), and the perfect participle in -sus (912) :
sentio, feel sentire sensi sensus
The compound with ad is generally deponent (800).
PERFECT STEM IN -V-.
1016. (la.) The following verb in -ire has the perfect stem in -v-
(869), and the perfect participle in -tus, both preceded by a long I of
the root :
scio, know scire scivi scitus
1017. (i.) The following verb in -ire has the perfect stem in -v-
(869), and the perfect participle in -tus :
sepeli5, bury sepelire sepelivi sepultus
1018. (i^.) Most verbs in -ire have the perfect stem in -v-
(869), and the perfect participle in -tus, both preceded by a
form of the present stem in long -I- : as,
audio, hear audire audivi auditus
PERFECT STEM IN -U-.
IOIQ. (2.) The following verbs in -ire have the perfect stem in
-u- (874), and the perfect participle, when used, in -tus :
am-icio, don am-icire am-icui am-ictus
Perfect rare: once am-icui (Brut.), once am-ixi (Varr.).
ap-eri5, open ap-erire ap-erui ap-ertus
op-erio, cover over op-erire op-erui op-ertus
salio, leap salire salui
Compounds have i for a throughout: as, m-sili5. A perfect system in -v-
(823, 893), as ex-silivi, occurs in late writers (Col., Sen., Plin., &c.).
DEPONENTS IN -iri.
I02O. (itf.) The following deponents in -iri have the perfect par-
ticiple in -tus :
ex-perior, try ex-periri ex-pertus
op-perior, -wait for op-periri op-pertus
Perfect participle once op-peritus (Plaut.).
12 177
IO2I-1O22.] Words : Inflection.
1021. (i.) The following deponents in -iri have the perfect par-
ticiple in -itus :
blandior, am agreeable blandiri blanditus
largior, shower largiri largitus
rnentior, tell lies mentirl mentitus
molior, -work hard molirl molitus
partior, share partiri partitus
sortior, draw lots sortiri sortitus
1022. (2.) The following deponents in -iri have the perfect par
ticiple in -SUB (912):
metior, measure metirl mensus
ordior, begin ordiri orsus
178
PART SECOND * SENTENCES
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS.
1023. A SENTENCE is a thought expressed by means of a
verb. The SUBJECT is that which is spoken of. The PREDICATE
is that which is said of the subject.
1024. A SIMPLE SENTENCE is one which has
only one subject and one predicate.
Thus, Rhodanus fluit, the Rhone flows, is a simple sentence: the subject
is Rhodanus and the predicate is fluit.
1025. The sentence may be declarative, stating a fact, exclamatory, crying
out about something, interrogative, asking a question, or imperative, giving a
command.
THE SUBJECT.
1026. The subject is a substantive, or any word or words
having the value of a substantive.
1027. The subject of a verb is in the nominative
case.
1028. The subject may be expressed, or may be merely indicated
by the person ending.
1029. (i.) With the first or the second person, the subject is expressed
by a personal pronoun (ego tu, nos vos) only when somewhat emphatic, or
in an indignant question. Otherwise the verb of the first or second person
is not attended by a personal pronoun: as, eram, I was, eras, thou wert.
1030. The subject is regularly omitted when it is general and indefinite, in the
first person plural; as, intellegimus, we understand; and second person singular,
as : putares, you, or anybody would have thought,
1031. The subject of the first or second person is sometimes a substantive, con-
trary to the English idiom : as, Hannibal peto pacem, I Hannibal am suing for
peace, pars spectatorum scis, a part of you spectators knows, exoriare ali-
quis nostris ex ossibus ultor, from out our bones mayst some avenger spring,
cpniuravirnus, three hundred of us have sworn an oath together \
179
i o 3 2 - 1 04 1 .] Sentences.
1032. (2.) With the third person the subject is regularly expressed,
unless the general 'he she it,' or 'they' implied in the person ending is
definite enough.
1033. The third person plural often refers to people in general, particularly of
verbs meaning say, name or call, think, and, with volg5 added, of other verbs also :
as, ferunt, they say, people say, or the world says. The singular verb inquit, is
rarely used in the sense of says somebody, it will be said, or quotha.
1034. Some verbs have no subject at all in the third person singular;
these are called Impersonal. Such are : a few verbs expressing ' operations
of nature,' five verbs of ' mental distress,' and any verb used to denote
merely the occurrence of action, without reference to any doer : as,
(a.) lucet, it is light, lucescit, it is getting light ; pluit, ;'/ rains, fulget,
it lightens, tonat, it thunders, (b.) miseret, it moves to pity, paenitet, /'/ re-
pents, piget, it grieves, pudet, it puts to shame, taedet, it bores, (c.) bene
erat, it went well; pugnatur, there is fighting, pugnatum est, there was
fighting. See also 816.
THE PREDICATE.
1035. The predicate is either a verb alone, or a verb of indeter-
minate meaning with a predicate nominative added to complete the
sense.
Verbs of indeterminate meaning are such as mean am (something), become,
remain, seem, am thought, am called or named, am chosen.
1036. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it is easily understood. So
particularly such everyday verbs as mean am, do, say, come, and go, in proverbs
and maxims, in short questions, and in emphatic or lively assertion or de-
scription : as,
quot homines, tot sententiae, sc. sunt, as many men, so many minds.
ornnia praeclara rara, sc. sunt, all that's very fair is rare, mortuus Cu-
rnis, sc. est, he. died at Cumae. bene mih!, sc. sit, be it well with me, i.e. a
health to me. haec hactenus, sc. dicam, thus much only, orno more of this.
ENLARGEMENT OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
1037. The parts of the simple sentence may be enlarged by addi-
tions. The commonest enlargements of the subject and of the predi-
cate are the following.
1038. I. The subject may be enlarged by the addition of
attributes, appositives, or objects.
1039. (i.) An ATTRIBUTE is an essential addition to a substan-
tive, uniting with it as one idea. The attribute may be :
1040. (a.) Genitive of a substantive of different meaning, denoting the
* agent, possessor, or the like : as, metus hostium, fear of the enemy, i. e.
which they feel, hostium castra, camp of the enemy.
1041. (b.) Genitive or ablative of a substantive with an adjective in
agreement: as, puer sedecim annorum, a boy of sixteen years ; boves
specie, kine of wondrous beauty.
Parts of the Sentence. [1042-1052.
1042. (c.) A noun in the same case, either an adjective or participle, or
else a substantive used adjectively: as, pugna Cannensis, the battle of
Cannae; civitates victae, the conquered communities; victor Romulus
rex, victorious king Romulus.
1043. (d.} A substantive in the accusative or ablative with a preposition:
as, pugna ad Cannas, the battle near Cannae, vir sine metu, a man without
fear (1427).
1044. An attribute is rarely attached immediately to a proper name : as, fortem
Gyan, Gyas the brave. Q. Lucanius, eiusdem oTd\nis,Lu<:amzts, of the same
rank. It is much oftener attached to a general word in apposition with the proper
name: as, vir clarissimus, M. Crassus, the illustrious Crassus.
1045. ( 2 Ari APPOSITIVE is a separate substantive added as an
explanation to another substantive, and in the same case, but not like
the attribute uniting with it as one idea : as,
avitum malum, regni cupido, the ancestral curse, ambition for a crown.
Hamilcar, Mars alter, Hamilcar, a second Mars. Cornelia, mater Grac-
chorum, Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi. Teutomatus, Olliviconis filius,
rex Nitiobrogum, Teutomatus, the son of Ollivico, the king of the Nitiobroges.
1046. (3.) The OBJECT of a substantive is another substantive
of different meaning in the genitive, denoting that on which action is
exerted : as,
metus host'mm,fear of the enemy, i. e. which is felt towards them, ven-
diti5 bonorum, sale of the goods.
1047. A substantive in any case may be modified like the subject.
1048. II. The predicate may be enlarged by the addition of
accusatives, datives, predicate nouns, or adverbial adjuncts.
1049. (i.) The ACCUSATIVE denotes the object of the verb; also
extent, duration, and aim of motion. See 1124.
1050. (2.) The DATIVE denotes that for or to which something is
or is done. See 1175.
1051. (3.) A predicate noun, either substantive or adjective, de-
noting 'office, time, age, order, condition,' or the like, is often added to
other verbs besides those of indeterminate meaning (1035) : as,
lunius aedem dictator dedicavit, Junius dedicated a temple in his ca-
pacity as dictator, not Junius the dictator, litteras Graecas senex didici, 1
learned Greek when I was an old man. princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus
excedebat, he was Whvays the first to go into battle, the last to come out. For
the predicative dative of the substantive, see 1219.
1052. In like manner a noun may be added as a predicate in agreement
with a substantive in any oblique case : as,
se incolumes recipiunt, they come back safe, ante me consulem, be-
fore mv consulship. Dolabella hoste decreto, Dolnbella having been voted an
enemy, natura duce, with nature as a guide.
181
IO 53~ IO 5^0 Sentences.
1053. (4.) An ADVERBIAL ADJUNCT is either an oblique case of
a noun, often with a preposition, or an adverb denoting ' place, time,
extent, degree, manner, cause,' or * circumstances ' generally : as,
silentio proficiscitur, he marches in silence, in e5 flumine pons erat,
over that river there was a bridge.
1054. A predicate substantive may be modified like the subject. An adjective,
either of the subject or of the predicate, may be modified by an oblique case or by an
adverb.
COMBINATION OF SENTENCES.
1055. Simple sentences may be combined in two differ-
ent ways. The added sentence may be I. Coordinate ; or
II. Subordinate.
Thus, in he died and we lived, the two sentences are coordinate, that is,
of equal rank. But in he died that we might live, the sentence beginning with
that is subordinate. In either combination the separate sentences are often
called Clauses or Members, in contradistinction to the more comprehensive
sentence of which they are parts.
I. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
1056. A COMPOUND SENTENCE is one which con-
sists of two or more coordinate simple sentences :
as,
tu me amas, ego te amo, PL Most. 305, thou art in love with me, I'm
in love with thee. nox erat et cael5 fulgebat luna sereno inter minora
sidera, H. Epod. 15, I, 'twas night, and in a cloudless sky, bright rode the moon
amid the lesser lights, a te peto, me defendas, Fam. 15, 8, 7 ask it of you,
protect me.
1057. A compound sentence is usually abridged when the members
have parts in common : as,
valebant preces et lacrimae, Mil. 34, prayers and tears had weight,
compound subject, for valebant preces et valebant lacrimae. rogat
oratque te, RA. 144, he begs and entreats you, compound predicate, for
rogat te oratque te. arma virumque can5, V. i, i,<arms and the man
I sing, compound object, for arma can5 virumque cano. diu atque
acriter pugnatum est, i, 26, I, there was long and sharp fighting, for did
pugnatum est atque acriter pugnatum est.
II. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.
1058. A COMPLEX SENTENCE is one which con-
sists of a main and a subordinate sentence : as,
182
Agreement: The Verb. [1059-1062.
centuriones praemittit (main sentence), qui locum idoneum castris
deligant (subordinate sentence), 2, 17, i, he sends some officers ahead to select
a suitable spot for the camp, nunc scio (main sentence), quid sit Amor
(subordinate sentence), V. E. 8, 43, now, now I know what Eros is. a te
peto (main sentence), ut me defendas (subordinate sentence), Fam. 15, 7,
/ ask it of you that you protect me.
1059. Several sentences are often subordinate to one and the same
main sentence, and subordinate sentences may in their turn be main
sentences to other subordinate sentences.
Thus, in the following sentence b is subordinate to A, and c to Ab:
(c.) qualis esset natura montis, (b.) qui cognoscerent, (A.) misit, i,
21, \, he sent some people to see what the character of the hill was.
1060. Subordinate sentences may be coordinated with each other,
as well as main sentences.
Thus, in the following sentence, and b are both subordinate to A, but
coordinate with each other: (A.) his rebus fiebat, (b.) ut et minus late
vagarentur (b.) et minus facile finitimis bellum inferre possent, i, 2, 4,
so it came to pass that, in the first place, they did not roam round much, and
secondly, they could not so easily make aggressive war on their neighbours.
1061. A subordinate sentence introductory in thought to the main
sentence, though not necessarily first in the order of the words, is
called a Protasis; the main sentence which completes the thought is
called an Apodosis : as,
quom videbis (protasis), turn scies (apodosis), PI. B. 145, when thou
see'st,then thou'lt know, ut sementem feceris (protasis), ita metes (apo-
dosis), DO. 2, 261, as a man soweth, so shall he reap, si sunt di (protasis),
benefici in homines sunt (apodosis), Div. 2, 104, if there are gods, they are
kind to men.
AGREEMENT.
(A.) OF THE VERB.
1062. A verb agrees with its subject in number
and person : as,
praedia mea tu possides, ego aliena misericordia vivo, RA.
sir, hold my estates, it is by the compassion of other people that I am supported.
Rhodanus fluit, i, 6, 2, the Rhone flows, nos, nos, dico aperte, consules
desumus, C. I, 3, it is ourselves, yes, ourselves, I will speak without reserve,
the consuls, who fail in our duty. v5s v5bis consulite, 7, 50, 4, do you look
out for yourselves diffugere nives, H. 4, 7, I, scattered and gone are snows.
183
1 06 3- 1 068.] Sentences.
1063. With a compound subject, two constructions are ad-
missible, as follows.
1064. (i.) With two or more singular subjects, the verb is
often in the plural : as,
(a.) Without connectives: persons: iisdem fere temporibus fuerunt
C. Cotta, P. Sulpicius, Q. Varius, Cn. Pomponius, Br. 182, in about the
same times lived Cotta, Sulpicius, Varius, arid Pomponius. Things : fides
Romana, iustitia imperatoris in foro et curia celebrantur, L. 5, 27, 11,
the chivalrous principle of Rome and the square dealing of her captain are
trumpeted in market place and council hall, (b.) With atque, et, or -que :
persons : ex his Cotta et Sulpicius facile primas tulerunt, Br. 182, of
these Cotta and Sulpicius indisputably bore the palm. Things: nox et amor
vmumque nihil moderabile suadent, O. Am. i, 6, 59, darkness and love
and wine to nothing governable tempt, cum senatus populusque Rom si-
nus pacem comprobaverint, L. 37, 45, 14, when the senate and the people of
Rome sanction peace, (c.) With et . . . et: persons: et Q. Maximus et
L. Paullus iis temporibus fuerunt, Fam. 4, 6, I, both Maximus and Paullus
lived in such times. Things : utrosque et laudis cupiditas et timor igno-
miniae excitabant, 7, 80, 5, both of these eagerness for glory in the first placf
and secondly fear of disgrace spurred on.
1065. The plural is sometimes demanded by the meaning of the verb: as, ius et
iniuria natura dliudicantur, Leg. i, 44, right and wrong are naturally dis-
tinguished from each other.
1066. (2.) Often, however, with two or more singular sub-
jects, the verb is put in the singular : as,
(a.) Without connectives : persons : turn Gorgias, Thrasymachus,
Prodicus, Hippias in magno honore fuit, Br. 30, at that time Gorgias,
Thrasymachtis, Prodicus, and Hippias were in high renown. Things : per-
suasit nox, amor, vinum, adulescentia, T. Ad. 470, the witchery was night,
flirtation, wine, and youth, (b.) With atque, et, or -que: persons: cur
Lysias et Hype rides amatur? Br. 68, why is a Lysias and a Hyperides
idolized? Things: Gallos a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit, i, 2, i,
the Matrona and Sequana cut off the Gauls from the Belgians, senatus
populusque Romanus voluit, L. 21, 40, ^senate and people of Rome or
dained. (c.) With et . . . et : persons: illam rationem et Pompeius et
Flaccus secutus est, Place. 32, that rule both Pompey and Flaccus followed.
Things : talis senatorum et dignitas et multitude fuit, Ph. 13, 13, both the
position and number of the senators was such.
1067. With two or more singular subjects denoting things, and making
a compound idea, a singular verb is very common, agreeing either with the
subjects taken as a unit, or with the nearest: as,
(a.) cum tempus necessitasque postulat, decertandum manu est,
Off. I, 81, when the emergency requires, we must fight it out by hand, tanta
laetitia ac gratulatio fuit, L. 10, 26, 4, so great was the demonstration of joy.
(b.) Cingetorigi principatus atque imperium est traditum, 6, 8, 9, the
headship and command was assigned to Cingetorix.
1068. (3.) With mixed subjects, singular and plural, the verb may like-
wise be either plural or singular : as,
184
Agreement: The Verb. [10691074.
(a.) vita mors, divitiae paupertas omnis homines permovent, Off.
2, 37, life and death, riches and poverty, tell much on everybody, (b.) quanto
in periculo et castra et legiones et imperator versaretur, 2, 26, 5, in
what imminent peril camp and legions and commander were involved, hoc
mihl et Peripatetic! et Academia concedit, Ac. 2, 113, this point both Peri-
patetics and Academy grant me.
1069. The plural is sometimes used with a singular subject limited by an ablative
with cum, with: as, Syrus cum illo vostro consusurrant, T. Hau. 473,
Syrus and yon man of yours are "whispering together. Bocchus cum peditibus
postremam R5man6rum aciem invadunt, S. /. 101, 5, Bocchus -with the
infantry falls on the rereward line of the Romans. Cicero commonly uses a singular
verb in this combination, Caesar has the plural once only.
1070. (4.) When the subjects are connected by nee . . . nee, aut, or
aut . . . aut, the verb is likewise either plural or singular: as,
(a.) neque multitude nostrum neque tel5mm vis arcere impetum
eius viri potuerunt, L. 26, 5, 17, neither the numbers of the enemy nor the
shower of missiles could arrest the onslaught of that intrepid soul, si quid
Socrates aut Aristippus fecerint, Off. I, 148, if a Socrates or an Aristippus
had done anything. (b.) neque pes neque mens satis suom omcium
facit, T. Eu. 729, nor foot nor mind its duty doth aright, si Socrates aut
Antisthenes diceret, TD. 5, 26, if a Socrates or an Antisthenes should say it.
1071. Collectives have usually a singular verb. But the plural is
sometimes used, especially when the subject is separated from its verb,
or is to be supplied from a preceding clause : as,
cum tanta multitude lapides conicerent, 2, 6, 3, when such a throng
were throwing stones, is civitati persuasit, ut de finibus suis exlrent,
I, 2, I, this person succeeded in inducing the community to leave their territory.
1072. The verb sometimes agrees with an appositive explaining
the subject, or with a substantive in the predicate : as,
(a.) flammae late fusae, certioris cladis indicium, progredi longius
prohibuit, L. 10, 43, 1 1, wide-spread flames, sign of a surer disaster, prevented
a further advance. When urbs, oppidum, civitas, or the like, is added to
plural names of places, the predicate usually agrees with the appellative :
as, Corioli oppidum captum, L. 2, 33, 9, Corioli town was taken, (b.} aman-
tium irae amoris integratiost, T. Andr. 555, lovers' 1 tiffs are love's renewal.
summa omnium fuerunt ad milia CCCLXVIII, i, 29, 3, the grand total was
about three hundred and sixty-eight thousand. The verb regularly agrees with
the predicate substantive when the subject is an infinitive : as, contentum
suis rebus esse maximae sunt divitiae, Par. $i,/0r a man to be content
with his own estate is the greatest possible riches.
1073. The verb sometimes agrees with a substantive introduced by such words as
quam, quantum, nisi, or praeterquam: as, quis ilium consulem nisi
latrones putant ? Ph. 4, 9, who but brigan_ds think that man a consul? So also
a predicate adjective or participle: as, mihl non tam copia quam modus
quaerendus est, IP. 3, / must aim not so much at comprehensiveness as at
moderation.
1074. A speaker in referring to himself sometimes uses the first person plural, as
a more modest torm of expression: as. Moloni dedimus operam, Br. 307, we at-
tended Molo>s instruction, \. e. I, Similarly n5s in all its cases for ego, &c., and
noster, &c., for meus, &c.
1075 IO79-] Sen fences.
1075. The singular imperative age is sometimes used in addressing more than
one, particularly in old Latin : as, age licemini, PI. St. 221, come, people, give a bid.
age igitur intro abite, PI. MG. 928, come then go in. Similarly, cave dirum-
patis, PI. Poen. 117, mind you don't break it off. Similarly ain.
1076. If the subjects are of different persons, the first person is
preferred to the second or the third, and the second to the third : as,
si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et suavissimus Cicero vale-
mus, Fam. 14, 5, I, if you and Tullia, our sunbeam, are well, darling Cicero
and I are well. But sometimes in contrasts the verb agrees with the nearest
person : as, quid indicat aut ipse Cornelius aut vos ? Sull. 54, what infor-
mation does Cornelius himself give, or you people ?
(B.) OF THE NOUN.
(i.) THE SUBSTANTIVE.
1077. A substantive which explains another substan-
tive referring to the same thing is put in the same case.
This applies to the substantive used as attribute, appositive, or predi-
cate. The two substantives often differ in gender or number, or both.
(a.) Attribute: tirone exercitu, Fam. 7, 3, 2, with a raw army, a mlma
uxore, Ph. 2, 20, from an actress-wife, mendicos homines, PI. St. 135,
beggar-men, oculi hominis histrionis, DO. 2, 193, the eyes of an actor man.
nemini homini, PI. As. 466, to no human being, servorn hominem, T. Ph.
292, a servant man. homines sicari53, RA. 8, professional bravoes. (b.) Ap-
positive : quid dicam de thesaur5 rerum omnium, memoria ? DO i, 18,
what shall I say of that universal storehouse, the memory ? duo fulmina
nostri imperi, Cn. et P. Scipiones, Balb. 34, the two thunderbolts of our
realm, the Scipios, Gnaeus and Publius. (c.) Predicate : ira furor brevis est,
H. E. i, 2, 62, wrath is a madness brief. Dolabella hoste decreto, Ph. 1 1, 16,
Dolabella having been voted a public enemy. Some apparent exceptions will
be noticed from time to time hereafter.
1078. Mobile substantives take also the gender and number of
the masculines or feminines they explain : as,
stilus optimus dicendi magister, DO. i, 150, pen is the best professor of
rhetoric, vita rustica parsimoniae _magistra est, RA. 75, country life is
a teacher of thrift, fluviorum rex Eridanus, V. G. \, 482, Eridanus, of
rivers king, et genus et formam regina pecunia donat, H. E. i, 6, 37,
both birth and shape the almighty dollar gives, ut omittam illas omnium
doctrmarum inventrices Athenas, DO. i, 13, to say nothing of the great origi-
nator of all intellectual pursuits, Athens.
1079. A substantive explaining two or more substantives, is put
in the plural : as,
foedus inter Romam Laviniumque urbes renovatum est, L. i, 14, 3,
the treaty between the cities of Rome and Lavinium was renewed. Cn. et P.
Scipiones, Balb. 34, the Scipios, Gnaeus and Publius.
186
Agreement: The Noun. [1080-1084.
1080. A plural subject, expressed or implied, is sometimes defined
by a singular word, which is generally a collective or distributive :
as,
ut ambo exercitus suas quisque abirent domos, L. 2, 7, i, so that both
armies -went back to their respective homes, uterque eorum ex castris exer-
citum educunt, Caes. C. 3, 30, 3, they bring their army out of camp, each of
them, heus foras exite hue aliquis, PI. E. 398, hallo, you boys, come out
of doors here, somebody, alius alium percontamur, PI. St. 370, we ask of one
another, cum accidisset ut alter alterum videremus, Fin. 3, 8, -when it
came to pass that we each saw the other. The verb sometimes agrees with the
defining singular : as, quando duo consules, alter morbo, alter ferro
periisset, L. 41, 18, 16, since the two consuls had died, one a natural death,
the other by the sword.
1081. A substantive in the accusative or nominative is sometimes
in apposition to a thought or clause : as,
manus intentantes, causam discordiae, Ta. i, 27, shaking their fists, a
provocation to quarrel, pars ingenti subiere feretro, triste ministerium,
V. 6, 222, a part put shoulder to the mighty bier, a service sad. nee Homerum
audio, qui Ganymeden ab dis raptum ait propter formam ; non iusta
causa cur Laomedonti tanta fieret iniuria, TD. i, 65, nor will I lend an
ear to Homer, who asserts that Ganymede was carried off by the gods for his
beauty ; no Just reason for doing Laomedon such injustice.
(2.) THE ADJECTIVE.
1082. An adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle,
agrees with its substantive in number, gender, and case :
as,
vir bonus, H. Ep. i, 16, 40, a good man, bona uxor, PL MG. 684, a good
wife, oleum bonum, Cato, 1?R. 3, good oil. Gallia est omnis divisa in
partes tres, I, I, I, Gaul, including everything under the name, is divided into
three parts, et variae volucres nemora avia pervolitantes aera per tene-
rum liquidis loca v5cibus opplent, Lucr. 2, 145, and motley birds, in path-
less woods that flit through lit her sky, fill space with carols clear.
1083. An adjective or participle, either attributive or predicate, some-
times takes the number and gender of the persons or things implied in the
substantive : as,
(a.) concursus populi mirantium quid ri esset, L. i, 41, i, a gather-
ing of the public, wondering what was the matter, (b. ) pars subeuntium
obruti, pars confixi, Ta. H. 2, 22, a part of those who came up were crushed,
a part were run through. Samnitium caesi tria milia ducenti, L. 10,
34> 3> f ^e Samnites were slain three thousand two hundred
1084. (i.) An attributive adjective referring to several substan-
tives is commonly expressed with one only, generally with the first or
the last: as,
187
1 08 5 - 1 09 2 . ] Sentences.
res erat multae operae et Iab5ris, 5, n, 5, it was a job that required
much work and trouble, semper amavi ingenium, studia, mores tuos,
O. 33, / have always admired your ability, your scholarly tastes, and your
character. In lively style, the adjective is often used with 'every substantive.
1085. Two or more attributive adjectives in the singular connected by a
conjunction may belong to a plural substantive : as,
circa portas Collmam Esquilinamque, L. 26, 10, 2, about the gates, the
Colline and the Esquiline. But the substantive may also be in the singular :
as, inter Esquilinam Collmamque portam, L. 26, 10, I, between the Esqui-
line and the Colline gate.
1086. The combined idea of a substantive with an attributive adjective
may be qualified by one or more adjectives : as,
navls longas triginta veteres, L. 27, 22, 12, thirty old men-of-war.
privata navis oneraria maxima, V. 5, 136, # -very large private freighting
vessel, ater alienus canis, T. Ph. 706, a strange black dog.
1087. (2.) A predicate adjective or participle referring to two or
more substantives is usually in the plural ; its gender is determined as
follows :
1088. (a.) If the substantives denote persons of the same gender, that
gender is used; if they denote persons of different gender, the masculine is
used : as,
veneno absumpti Hannibal et Philopoemen, L. 39, 52, 8, it was by
poison that Hannibal and Philopoemen were taken off. quam pridem pater
mihl et mater mortui essent, T. Eu. 517, how long my father and my
mother had been dead.
1089. (b.} If the substantives denote things, and are of different genders,
the neuter plural is used; also commonly when they are feminines denoting
things : as,
murus et porta de caelS tacta erant, L. 32, 29, I, the wall and town-gate
had been struck by lightning, ira et avaritia imperiS potentiora erant,
L. 37, 32, 13, hot blood and greed proved stronger than authority.
1090. (c.) If the substantives denote both persons and things, either the
gender of the substantives denoting persons is used, or the neuter. The
gender of the substantives denoting things is very rarely used : as,
et rex regiaque classis una profeeti, L. 21, 50, ir, the king too and the
kind's fleet set sail in his company, inimica inter se liberam civitatem et
regem, L. 44, 24, 2, that a free state and a monarch were irreconcilable things.
Dolopas et Athamaniam ereptas sibi querens, L. 38, 10, 3, complaining
tkat the Dolopians and Athamania were wrested from him.
1091. When the verb is arttached to the nearest only of two or more subjects, a
predicate participle or adjective naturally takes the gender of that substantive: as,
ib! Orgetorigis filia atque Gnus e filils captus est, i, 26. 5, there the
daughter of Orgetorix and one of the sons too was made prisoner, ut brachia
atque umeri liberl esse possent, 7, 56, 4, so that their arms and shoulders
might be unhampered.
1092. The ablative singular absente is used once each by Terence and Afranius
with a plural substantive : absente nobis, T. Eu. 649, -while -we -were out.
188
Agreement: The Noun. [1093-1098.
1093. A neuter adjective or pronoun is sometimes used as a substantive
in the predicate (1101): as,
triste lup_us stabulis, V. E. 3, 80, a baleful thing the wolf for folds.
quod ego fui ad Trasumennum, id tu hodie, L. 30, 30, 12, "what I was
myself at Trasumene, that you are today.
1094. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun
used substantively takes the number and gender of the substan-
tive it represents ; the case depends on the construction of the
clause in which it stands : as,
erant pedites, quos delegerant; cum his in proeliis versabantur ; ad
eos se recipiebant ; hi concurrebant, i, 48, 5, there were foot-soldiers whom
they had picked out ; with these men they kept company in action ; upon them
they would fall back; these people would always rally. Hippias gloriatus
est anulum quem haberet, pallium qu5 amictus, soccos quibus indutus
esset, se sua manu confecisse, DO. 3, 127, Hippias bragged he had made
with his own hand the ring which he wore, the cloak in which he was wrapped;
and the slippers which he had on.
1095. Sometimes, however, the number and gender of these pronouns
are determined by the sense, and not by the form of the substantive repre-
sented: as,
equitatum omnem praemittit, qui videant, i, 15, i, he sends all 'the horse
ahead, for them to see. hie sunt quinque minae. hoc tib! erus me iussit
ferre, PI. Ps. 1149, here are Jive minae ; this my master bade me bring for thee.
Domitius Massiliam pervenit atque ab iis receptus urbi praeficitur,
Caes. C. I, 36, i, Domitius arrived at Massilia, and was received by the people
and put in charge of the town. ad hirundininum nidum visast simia
adscensionem ut faceret admolirier; neque eas eripere quibat inde,
PI. R. 598, up to a swallow-nest methought an ape did strive to climb ; nor
could she snatch the nestlings thence; the eas refers to hirundines, implied
in hirundininum.
1096. A pronoun representing two or more substantives sometimes takes
the number and gender of the nearest. But usually it is plural, and its
gender is determined like that of an adjective (1087).
1097. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun used substan-
tively is generally attracted to the number and gender of a predicate sub-
stantive in its own clause : as,
haec est nobilis ad Trasumennum pugna, L. 22, 7, i, such is the far-
famed fight at Tras^lmene, 217 B. c. ista quidem vis est, Suet. lul. 82, now
that I call an outrage, Caesar's dying words, 44 B.C. But with a negative,
sometimes the neuter : as, nee sopor illud erat, V. 3, 173, nor was that sleep.
1098. A demonstrative, determinative, or relative pronoun in agreement
with a substantive is often equivalent to a genitive limiting the substantive :
as,
hoc metu vagari prohibebat, 5, 19, 2, by fear of this he stopped the
prowling round, is pavor perculit Romanes, L. 21, 46, 7, the panic occa-
sioned by this demoralized the Romans, qua spe adducti, 4, 6, 4, impelled by
the hope of this.
189
IO99- 11O 4-] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
(A.) USE OF THE NOUN.
NUMBER AND GENDER.
1099. The singular of a word denoting a person is sometimes
used in a collective sense.
This singular is generally a military designation: as, miles, eques,
pedes, hostis, Romanus, Poenus. But other substantives and adjectives
are occasionally thus used.
noo. A substantive or adjective denoting a person is often used in the
singular as representative of a class, particularly when two persons are
contrasted : as,
si tabulam de naufragio stultus adripuerit, extorquebitne earn sa-
piens ? Off. 3, 89, if a fool has seized a plank from a wreck, will the sage
twitch it away ?
HOI. The neuter singular of certain adjectives is used as an
abstract substantive.
These adjectives have commonly stems in -o-, and are often used in the
partitive genitive (1250). The nominative is rare, also the accusative and
ablative, except in prepositional constructions. Such are : bonum, malum ;
rectum, pravum ; decorum, indecorum ; honestum ; verum, falsum ;
iustum, iniustum ; aequum ; ambiguum ; ridiculum. utile, inane,
commune, msigne, simile, &c.
1102. Certain adjectives, which originally agreed with an appellative
denoting a thing, have dropped the appellative and become substantives.
Such are: Africus, sc. ventus ; Africa, sc. terra; calda, sc. aqua;
cam, sc. capilli ; circenses, sc. ludi ; decuma, sc. pars ; fera, sc. bestia ;
hiberna, sc. castra ; merum, sc. vinum ; natalis, sc. dies ; patria, sc.
terra; praetexta, sc. toga; summa, sc. res; triremis, sc. navis, and
many others.
1103. Certain adjectives denoting relationship, friendship, hostility,
connection, or age, may be used in both numbers as substantives.
Such are : (a.) adfinis, cognatus, consanguineus, gentilis, necessa-
rius, propmquus; (6.) adversarius, amicus, inimicus, familiaris, hostis,
intimus, invidus, socius, sodalis ; (c.) contubernalis, manipularis, vici-
nus; (d.} adulescens, aequalis, iuvenis, senex.
1104. The masculine plural of many adjectives is used substan-
tively to denote a class.
Such are : boni, the good, the well-disposed, conservatives, patriots, ottr party;
improbi, the wicked, the dangerous classes, revolutionists, anarchists^
party ; dpcti, indocti ; pii, impii, and the like.
The Noun : Case. [i 105-1 1 1 2.
1105. Proper names of men are used in the plural to denote different
persons of the same name, or as appellatives to express character, oftenest
good character : as,
duo Metelli, Celer et Nep5s, Br. 247, the two Metelluses, Celer and
Nepos. quid Crassds, quid Pompeios evertit ? J. 10, 108, what overthrew
a Crassus, Pompey what? i.e. men like Crassus and Pompey.
1106. The neuter plural of adjectives of all degrees of comparison
is very often used as a substantive.
Such adjectives are usually in the nominative or accusative, and may
have a pronoun, a numeral, or an adjective, agreeing with them. In English
the singular is often preferred. Such are : bona, mala ; vera, falsa ;
haec, this ; omnia, everything; haec omnia, all this, &c., &c.
1107. Names of countries are sometimes used in the plural when the country con-
sists of several parts which are called by the same name as the whole country : as,
Galliae, the Gauls ; Germaniae, the Germanies.
1108. Material substantives are often used in the plural to denote
different sorts of the substance designated, its constituent parts, or
objects made of it : as,
aera, lumps of bronze, bronzes, coppers, aquae, water in different places, me-
dicinal springs, cerae, pieces of -wax, tablets, wax masks, -waxworks, mar-
mora, kinds of marble, blocks of marble, works of marble, nives, snowftakes,
snowdrifts, snowstorms, repeated snows. spurn ae, masses of foam, sulpura,
lumps of sulphur. Vina, wines, different kinds of wine.
IIOQ. Abstract substantives are often used in the plural to denote
different kinds or instances of the abstract idea, or an abstract idea
pertaining to several persons or things : as,
sunt domesticae fortitudines n5n inferiores militaribus, Off. i, 78,
there are cases of heroism in civil life fully equal to those in war. te consci-
entiae stimulant maleficiorum tuorum, Par. 18, you are tormented by
pricks of conscience for your sins, propter siccitates paludum, 4, 38, 2, be-
cause the swamps were dry everywhere.
I IIO. The plural is sometimes used in generalizations, and in poetry to magnify
a single thing, to give mystery to the statement, or often merely for metrical conven-
ience : as, advenisse familiares dicito, PI. Am. 353, say that the people of the
house are come, the plural familiares denoting one person. Priami dum regna
manebant, V. 2, 22, while Priam's realms still stood, externos optate duces,
V. 8, 503, choose captains from a foreign strand, i. e. Aeneas.
CASE.
mi. There are two groups of cases, the principal and the
secondary.
1 1 12. The principal cases are the nominative and the accusative.
The principal cases, which have more complete inflections than the
secondary, express the two chief relations of the noun in the sentence,
those of the subject and of the object. The secondary cases are used
to express subordinate or supplementary relations.
191
11131118.] Sentences : 77te Simple Sentence.
THE NOMINATIVE.
1113. The nominative is principally used as the subject or predi-
cate noun of a verb or of an infinitive. Besides this use, the nomina-
tive occurs in titles, exclamations, and addresses (1114-1123).
THE NOMINATIVE OF TITLE.
1114. The nominative is used in inscriptions, notices, titles,
or headings: as,
L CORNELIVS CN F CN N sciPio, CIL. I, 34, on a tomb, Lucius Corne-
lius Scipio, son (filius) of Gnaeus, grandson (nepos) of Gnaeus. LABYRIN-
THVS Hie HABITAT MiNOTAVRVS, CIL. IV, 2331, on a plan of the Labyrinth
scratched by a Pompei schoolboy, The Maze. Here lives Minotaur. PRIVA-
TVM PRECARIO ADEITVR, CIL. I, 1 21 5, Private Grounds. No Admittance
without leave. Themistocles, Neocli filius, Atheniensis, N. 2, i, Themis-
tocles, son of Neocles, of Athens.
1115. The title proper of a book is often put in the genitive, dependent on liber
or libri: as, Cornell Taciti Historiarum Liber Primus, Tacitus' s Histories,
Book First. Or prepositional expressions are used : as, M. Tulll Ciceronis de
Fato Liber, Cicero, Fate, in One Book. Cornell Taciti ab Excessu divi
August! Liber Primus, Tacitus's Roman History from the Demise of the
sainted Augustus, Book First.
1116. Sometimes the nominative of a title or exclamation is retained in a sentence
for some other case : as, Gabinio cognSmen ' Cauchius* usurpare conces-
sit, Suet. Cl. 24, he allowed Gabinius to take the surname * Cauchius;' (compare
Cato quasi cognSmen habebat Sapientis, L. 6, Cato had the -virtual sur-
name of the Wise). * Marsya ' nomen habet, O. 6, 400, it has the name of ' Mar-
tyas; } (compare nomen Danuvium habet, S. Fr. 3, 55, it has the name
Danube), resonent mihi 'Cynthia' silvae, Prop, i, 18, 31, let -woods reecho
' Cynthia 1 for me; (compare tu, Tityre, formosam resonare doces Ama-
ryllida silvas, V. E. \, 4, thou, Tityrus t dost teach the woods to echo Amaryllis
Fair).
THE NOMINATIVE OF EXCLAMATION.
1117. The nominative is sometimes used in exclamations: as,
fortunae filius, omnes, H. S. 2, 6, 49, 'the child^ of Fortune,' all exclaim.
This nominative is often accompanied by an interjection, such as ecce, en,
heu, 5, pro, van: as, en Priamus, V. i, 461, lo, Priam here. 6 festus
dies, T. Eu. 560, oh day of cheer. For eccilla, see 667.
THE VOCATIVE NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE PROPER.
1118. The vocative nominative is used when a per-
son or thing is addressed : as,
quo Usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra ? C. i, i, in
heaven's name, how long, Catiline, wilt trifle with our patience? valete,
desideria mea, valete, Fam. 14, 2, ^,good bye, my absent loves, good bye. In-
stead of a proper name, an emphatic tu is often used : as, advorte animum
sis tu, PI. Cap. HQ, just pay attention, sirrah, please.
T 9 2
The Noun : Accusative. [11191126.
1 1 19. Masculine stems in -o- commonly use the special form
for the second person singular called the vocative : as,
urbem, urbem, mi Rufe, cole, Fain. 2, 12, 2, stick to town, dear Rufus,
yes, to town. But the vocative nominative is sometimes used even of -o-
stems: as, audi tu, populus Albanus, L. I, 24,7, hear thou, the people of
Alba.
1120. Poets use the vocative nominative or vocative proper very freely,
sometimes for liveliness, but often simply in place of other cases not allowed
by the metre : as,
ora manusque tua lavimus, Feronia, lympha H. S. i, 5, 24, our faces
and our hands, Feroni.i, in thy stream we wash, occiderat Tatius, populis-
que aequata duobus, Romule, iura dabas, O. 14, 805, now dead was
Tatius, and to peoples twain thou gavest, Romuhis, impartial laws, longum
tibi, Daedale, crimen, O. 8, 240, a lasting stigma, Daedalus, to thee. In
these three examples, Feroniae, Romulus, and Daedalo would be impos-
sible. In poetry, the vocative is particularly common in questions.
1121. Nominative forms and vocative forms are often combined: as, dulcis
amice, H. E. i, 7, 12, sweet friend, mi vir, PI. Am. 716, my husband. lane
pater, J. 6, 394, thou father Janus.
1 122. In verse the vocative is occasionally used even in the predicate : as, quo
moriture ruis ? V. 10, 811, -whither, on death intent, fliest thou '? quibus, Hec-
tor, ab orls exspectate venis ? V. 2, 282, out of -what limboes, Hector, dost thou
gladly welcomed come ?
1123. The vocative nominative or vocative proper is sometimes accompanied by
6, but only in impassioned addresses : as, o fortunate adulescens, Arch. 24, oh
thou thrice blest youth; also by pro in addresses to gods, by eho and heus in calls
on men. Rarely by au, ehem, hem, Sheu, eia or heia, i5.
THE ACCUSATIVE.
1124. The accusative is used primarily with verbs, or with
expressions equivalent to verbs. The relations expressed by
the accusative are all of one general kind ; but they vary some-
what, according to the nature of the verb.
1125. I. With most verbs, the accusative either (#.) denotes,
that which is affected or apprehended, or is produced by the
action of the verb (1132); or, less frequently (b.) it repeats the
meaning of the verb in the form of a substantive (1140).
Such accusatives, called accusatives of the Object, are never attended by
a preposition, and become nominative in the passive construction.
1126. II. With some verbs, the accusative denotes (a.) ex-
tent or duration (1151); with others it denotes (b.) aim of
motion (1157).
Both these accusatives sometimes have their places taken by a preposi-
tional expression, or by an adverb; in the passive construction, they are not
convertible into a nominative, but remain accusative.
J 3 J93
11271135-] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1127. Two or even three accusatives are sometimes used with one and the same
verb: see 1167-1174.
1128. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from the verb, with
which it originally stood, and used with a noun or a preposition.
1129. (i.) With substantives, the accusative is rare; it is used (a.) in
a few attributive expressions, chiefly old set forms, and rarely to denote
(b.) aim of motion.
Thus (a.) the predicative id aetatis, in id aetatis iarn surnus, we are
now of that age, becomes attributive in homines id aetatis, people of that
age. And (6.) as domum, home, is used with the verb rede5, go back, so also
rarely with the substantive reditio, a return.
1130. With adjectives, the accusative is commonly that of extent : so with
altus, high, latus, wide, and longus, long, sometimes with crassus, thick.
Thus, in eos surculos facito sint long! pedes bmos, see that the scions
be two feet long, the accusative pedes, which belongs with the predicate sint
longi, may be used with the attributive adjective longus alone, thus : surculi
longi pedes bmos, scions two feet long.
1131. (2.) The accusative is used with many prepositions : see 1410.
I. THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE OBJECT.
1132. The object of a verb is put in the accusative :
as,
(a.) oppida sua omnia incendunt, i, 5, 3, they set all their towns afire.
conspexit adrasum quendam, H. E. i, 7, 49, he spied a man all shaven
and shorn, (b.) duas fossas perduxit, 7, 72, 3, he made two trenches. This
accusative, is, as may be seen above, either (a.) receptive, i.e. existing inde-
pendently of the action of the verb, and only affected or apprehended by
it; or (b.) of product, i. e. produced by the action of the verb.
1133. Verbs thus used with an object are said to be used transi-
tively. Such verbs may also be used intransitively, that is without
an object, when stress is put on the action merely : thus,
(a.) Transitively: tu me amas, ego te amo, PI. Most. y>$, thou lovest
me, and I love thee. nova diruunt, alia aedificant, S. C. 20, 12, they pull
down new structures, and build up others, (b.} Intransitively : amo, PI. B. 51 1,
/ '#/ in love, diruit, aedificat, H. E. i, i, 100, it pulleth down, it buildeth up.
1134. Some verbs, in addition to the accusative, often take an infinitive also: thus,
eum vident sedere, V. 5, 107, they see him sit, they see that he is sitting. _ Here
the accusative eum, originally the object, they see him, becomes at the same time the
subject of the new statement appended, sedere, sit, thus giving rise to the construc-
tion known as the accusative with the infinitive.
1135. Instead of the proper accusative of the object, another accusative
is sometimes substituted, denoting the ultimate result : as,
rupere viam, L. 2, 50, 10, they broke a path, i. e. they broke through the
obstacles, and so made a path, foedusque feri, E. 33, and strike a covenant,
i.e. strike a victim, and so make a coz'enant.
194
The Noun : Accusative, [i 136-1 140.
1136. In Plautus, quid tib! with a substantive of action in -ti5 and est, has an
accusative like a verb used transitively : as, quid tib! hanc curatiost rem ? PI.
Am. 519, what business hast thou with this ?
1137. Many verbs ordinarily used intransitively, particularly
verbs of motion, have a transitive use when compounded with a
preposition.
Such prepositions are, ad, circum, ex, in, ob, per, prae, praeter, trans,
and some others: as, plures paucos circumsistebant, 4, 26, 2, a good many
took their stand round a few. Caesar omnem agrum PIcenum percurrit,
Caes. C. i, 15, I, Caesar runs over the whole Picene territory. praeterire
nemo pristrinum potest, PI. Cap. 808, no man can pass the mill, flumen
transierunt, 4, 4, 7, they crossed the river.
1138. A few verbs with a transitive use, have, when compounded with circum
and trans, besides the accusative of the object, a second accusative of the thing to
which the preposition refers : as, istum circumduce hasce aedis, PL Most. 843,
take that man round this house. Caesar funditores pontem traducit, 2, 10, i,
Caesar takes the slingers over the bridge, transfer limen aureolos pedes, Cat.
61, 166, over the threshold- put thy little golden foot. In the passive, the accusative
connected with the preposition is sometimes retained : as, Apolloniam praeter-
vehuntur, Caes. C. 3, 26, i, they sail by Apollonia.
1139. Verbs of weeping and wailing, and some other verbs
of feeling, which commonly have an intransitive use, sometimes
have a transitive use with an accusative : as,
(a.) luget senatus, maeret equester ordo, Mil. 20, the senate is in
mourning, the equestrian order betrays its sadness, (b.) matronae eum luxe-
runt, L. 2, 7, 4, the married women wore mourning for him. maereo casum
eius modi, Fain. 14, 2, 2, I cannot help showing my grief over a misfortune oj
such a kind, quid mortem congemis ac fles, Lucr. 3, 934. why dost thou
death bewail and weep ? Such verbs are fleo, weep, gemo, wail, lamentor,
queror, bewail, doled, am distressed, lugeo, mourn, maereo, betray sadness.
Similarly, horreo, shudder, reform! do, am in dread, fastidio, feel disdain,
rideo, laugh, &c., &c. The object is oftener a thing than a person, and pas-
sive constructions are rare, and mostly confined to poetry.
THE EMPHASIZING OR DEFINING ACCUSATIVE.
1140. The meaning of a verb, even of one ordinarily intran-
sitive, may be emphasized or more exactly defined by an accusa-
tive of kindred derivation added.
(a.) Seldom without an adjective: as, dum vitam vivas, PI. Per. 494,
as long as life thou liv'st, i. e. as long as you ever live and breathe, quorum
maiorum nemo servitutem servivit, T. 29, of whose ancestors not one has
served servitude, i. e. been a regular slave, vide ne facinus facias, Fin. 2, 95,
mind you don't do a deed, i. e. a misdeed, (b.} Commonly with an adjective :
as, scelestam servitutem serviunt, PI. Cu. 40, a wicked servitude they serve.
facinus memorabile fecistis, L. 24, 22, 16, you have done a deed well worth
mentioning, mirum atque mscitum somniavi somnium, PI. R. 597, a
ttrange and silly dream dreamed I.
1141-1147-] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1141. The verb sometimes has an accusative of kindred meaning,
but of different derivation: as,
ut vivas aetatcm miser, PL Am. 1023, that thou mayst live thy days in
woe. non pugnavit ingens Idomeneus Sthenelusve solus dicenda Mu-
sis proelia, H. 4, 9, 19, not towering Idomeneus nor Stheneius alone has battles
fought for Muses to rehearse.
1142. The neuter singular accusative of a descriptive adjective is used,
particularly by the poets, to denote manner : as,
magnum clamat, PI. MG. 823, he's bellowing big. suave locus voci
resonat conclusus, H. S. i, 4, 76, sweet to the voice the pent-up place rings back.
suave rubens hyacinthus, V. E. 3, 63, sweet-blushing hyacinth, cur tarn
cernis acutum ? H. S. i, 3, 26, why dost thou see so sharp? The plural is
not so common : as, asper, acerba tuens, Lucr. 5, 33, V. 9, 794, rough,
staring savageness.
1143. Some verbs of smell and of taste have an accusative defining what the smell
or the taste is : as, pastilles Rufillus olet, Gargonius hircum, H. S. i, 2, 27,
of lozenges Rufillus smells, Gargonius of the goat, doctrinam redolet pueri-
lem, DO. 2, 109, it smacks of ABC studies, non omnes possunt olere un-
guenta exotica, PI. Most. 42, not every man can of imported ointments reek.
meliora unguenta sunt quae terram quam quae crocum sapiunt, Cic.
in Plin. NH. 17, 5, 3, 38, essences that smell of earth are better than those that smell
of saffron.
1144. Any verb or verbal expression may be denned in a genera]
way by the neuter accusative of a pronoun or of an enumerative word,
as,
id gaudeo, T. Andr. 362, I'm glad of that, id maestast, PI. R. 397,
she's mournful over this, id prodeo, T..Eu. 1005, I'm coming out for this.
cetera adsentior Crasso, DO. I, 35, on all the other points I agree with Cras-
sus. So also quod,y<?r which, on account of which, aliquid, quicquam, nihil,
&c., &c., and particularly quid, why, in what respect, wherein, what, or what
. . . for: as, quid venisti, PI. Am. 377, why art thou come ? quid tib! obsto,
RA. 145, wherein do I stand in your way ?
1145. The accusative of an appellative is rarely used adverbially : as, magnam
partem ex iambis nostra constat 5ratio, O. 189, our own speech is made
up a great deal of iambs, maximam partem lacte vivunt, 4, i, 8, they live
on milk the most part, i. e. chiefly. Prepositional expressions are commoner: as,
magna ex parte, i, 16, 6, principally. For vicem, instead of, for, or like, see the
dictionary.
1146. The accusative is sometimes disengaged from a verb, and qualifies a sub-
stantive as an attribute, chiefly in a few set expressions (1129): as, orationes aut
aliquid id genus, Att. 13, 12, 3, speeches or something that kind, aucupium
omne genus, Cat. 114, 3, fowling of every kind, nugas hoc genus, H. S.
2, 6, 43, small talk this kind, hoc genus in rebus, Lucr. 6, 917, in matters
of this kind, cum id aetatis filio, Clu. 141, with a son of that age. Similarly
dies quindecim supplicatio, 2, 35, 4, a fortnight thanksgiving.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE PART CONCERNED.
1147. Poets use the accusative to express the part concerned, especially
a part of the human body : as,
196
The No^ln : Accusative. [ 1 1 48- 1 1 5 1 .
tremit artus, Lucr. 3, 489, V. G. 3, 84, he shivers in his limbs, tremis
ossa pavSre, H. S. 2, 7, 57, thou tremblest in thy bones with fear, viridi
membra sub arbut5 stratus, H. i, I, 21, stretching his limbs beneath
an arbute green. 6s umerosque de5 similis, V. i, 589, in face and shoulders
like a god.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE THING PUT ON.
1148. The accusative is used with reflexive verbs in poetry to denote the
thing put on : as,
comantem Androgei galeam induitur, V. 2, 391, Androgeus* high-haired
helm he dons, exuvias indutus Achilli, V. 2, 275, clad in Achilles' spoils.
Karely to denote the thing taken off : as, priores exuitur vultus, St. Th.
lo, 640, she doffs her former looks.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXCLAMATION.
1149. The accusative is used in exclamations, sometimes
merely to call attention to something, but generally with a pred-
icate to express a judgment with emphasis.
(a.) In calling attention, ecce or em is used in old Latin : as, ecce me,
PI. MG. 663, behold, your humble servant, em Davom tibf, T. Andr. 842,
there, Davos sir. For ellum, eccillum, &c., see 667 and 673. Also, from
Cicero on, en : as, en quattuor aras, V. E. 5, 65, see, altars four. (l>.) In
emphatic judgments sometimes the accusative alone : as, fortunatum Ni-
cobulum, PI. B. 455, lucky man that Nicobulus. testis egregiSs, Cael. 63,
mighty fine witnesses; sometimes with an interjection: as, 6 imperatorem
probum, PI. B. 759, oh what a good commander ; rarely so with ecastor,
edepol, euge, bravo, heu, ilicet, airs up, heu. Interrogatively: hancine
impudentiam ? V. 5, fa, possible, shamelessness like this?
1150. The accusative is used in excited orders, appeals, and questions, without
any verb expressed, or even distinctly felt : as, Tiberium in Tiberim, Suet. Tib.
75, Tiberius to the Tiber, di vostram fidem, T. Andr. 716, ye gods your help.
pr5 fidem, Thebani elves, PI. Am. 376, oh help, or murder, ye citizens of
Thebes. So with unde, quo, and quando, often followed by mih! or tibl : as,
quo mihi fortunam, si non conceditur uti? H. E. \, 5, 12, -why -wealth for
me, if -wealth I may not use ?
II. THE ACCUSATIVE OF SPACE AND TIME, AND OF
AIM OF MOTION.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF SPACE AND TIME.
1151. Extent of space or duration of time is denoted
by the accusative : as,
197
1152-1157-] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
(a.) milia passuum xx procedit, 5, 47, i, he pushes on twenty miles.
tridui viam progress!, 4, 4, 4, having advanced three days journey, agge-
rem latum pedes cccxxx, altum pedes LXXX exstrux'erunt, 7, 24, i, they
built ^lp a mound three hundred and thirty feet wide, and eighty feet high
(1130). (I).) matronae_annum luxerunt, L. 2, 7, 4, the married women wore
mourning a year, undeviginti annos natus erat, Br. 229, he was nineteen
years old. secutae sunt continues complures dies tempestates, 4, 34, 4,
there followed a good many days a succession of storms, triennium vagati,
4,4, 2, having led a nomad life three years, unum diem supplicatio habita
est, L. 10, 47, 7, a thanksgiving was held one day. dies quindecim suppli-
catio, 2, 35,4, a fortnight thanksgiving (1129). Sometimes per is added:
as, ludi per decem dies fact! sunt, C. 3, 20, games were celebrated ten days
long.
1152. The idea of traversing is sometimes not expressed: as, milia passuum
tria ab eorum castris castra ponit, i, 22, 5, he pitches carnp three miles away
from their camp, quadringentos inde passus constituit signa, L. 34, 20,
4, four hundred paces from there he set up the standards. See 1399.
1153. With absum and disto, the ablative of amount of difference is sometimes
us~dd393) : as, certior factus est Ariovisti copias anostris milibus pas-
suum quattuor et xx abesse, i, 41, 5, he -was informed that Ariovistus' 1 s troops
were four and twenty miles away from ours. If the place is not mentioned from
which distance is reckoned, ab or a is sometimes used before the expression of dis-
tance : as, positis castris a milibus passuum xv, 6, 7, 3, pitching camp fifteen
miles away.
1154. The accusative is used with abhinc, ago: as, quaestor fuisti abhinc
annos quattuordecim, V. i, 34, you were a quaestor fourteen years ago. Rarely
the ablative (1303) : as, quo tempore ? abhinc annis xv, RC, 37, -when ? fifteen
years ago; and once or twice with abhinc, meaning before (1393): as, comitiis
abhinc diebus triginta factis, V. 2, 130, the election having been held thirty
days before.
1155. The accusative singular is used with ordinals, to show the number of days,
months, or years since a particular event, including the day, month, or year of the
event itself: as, quod annum iam tertium et vicesimum regnat, IP. 7,
the circumstance that he has now been on the throne two and twenty years.
1156. The accusative in some pronominal expressions and adverbs passes over
from ' time through which ' to a loose ' time at which ' : as, id temporis, RA. 97, at
that time, hoc nqctis, PI. Am. 163^, at this time of night, turn, then, num,
nunc, now, nunc ipsum, PI. B. 940, Att. 10, 4, 10, this very minute, commo-
dum t just in time. For the locative ablative exceptionally used to denote duration,
see 1355.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE AIM OF MOTION.
1157. (i.) Proper names of towns and of little isl-
ands or peninsulas are put in the accusative to denote
the aim with expressions of motion : as,
Labienus Lutetiam proficiscitur, 7, 57, i, Labienus starts for Lutetia.
Leucadem venimus, Fam. 16, 9, i,we came to Leucas. nocturnus introitus
Zmyrnam, Ph. 11,5, the entrance into Smyrna by night ( 1 129) Plautus uses
Accheruns a few times like a town name: as,'vivom me accersunt Ac-
cheruntem mortui, Most. 509, the dead are taking me to Acheron alive.
198
The Noun : A ccusative. [11581166.
1158. With singular names of towns and little islands, Plautushas the accusative
alone twenty times, and twenty times with in ; Terence has, including Lemnum,
Ph. ^67, and Cyprum, Ad. 224, 230, the accusative alone six times, and twice with
in, in Lemnum, Ph. 66, and in Cyprum, Ad. 278. Plural town names never
have in.
1159. An appellative urbem or oppidum accompanying the_ accusative of a
town name is usually preceded by in or ad : as, ad urbem Fidenas tendunt,
L. 4,^33, 10, they make for the city of Fidenae. lugurtha Thalam pervenit, in
oppidum magnum, S. /. 75, i, Jugurtha arrived at Thala, a large town.
1160. When merely 'motion towards' or 'nearness' is meant, ad is used: as,
tres viae sunt ad Mutinam, Ph. 12, 22, there are three roads to Mutina. mi-
les ad Capuam profectus sum, CM. 10, I -went to the -war as a private, to the
region round about Capua.
1161. Proper names of countries are also sometimes put in the accusative in poe-
try, to denote aim of motion: as, abut Alidem, PI. Cap. 573, he -went away to
Elis. So in prose also, Aegyptus in Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, Livy, and Tacitus : as,
Germanicus Aegyptum proficiscitur, Ta. 2, ^9, Germanicus sets out for
Egypt. Rarely and in poetry names of peoples : as, sitientis ibimus Afros, V.
E. i, 64, to thirst-parched Afrians we shall go. In general the accusative of country
names is preceded by in or ad, as are also appellatives regularly in prose ; but in poetry,
even appellatives without a preposition are common.
1162. (2.) The accusatives domum, rus, and foras, are used like
proper names of towns : as,
(a.) eo domum, PI. Mer. 659, I'm going home, equites domum con-
tenderunt, 2, 24, 4, the cavalry hurried home, domum reditionis spe sub-
lata, i, 5, 3, the hope of a return home being out of the question ( 1 1 29). (b.) rus
ibo, T. Eu. 216, 1 shall go out of town, (c.) effiigl foras, T. Eu. 945, 1 ran
out of doors.
1163. The singular domum is always retained by Caesar, even when two or
more separate persons or parties are spoken of. Plautus, Sallust, and Nepos, have
the plural domos once each, and Cicero and Livy use it occasionally.
1164. The accusative domum or domos sometimes has an attribute, usually a
possessive pronoun : as, domum suam quemque reverti, 2, 10,4, for every man
to go back to his home, alius alium domos suas invitant, S. 7. 66, 3, they
invite each other to their homes, aurum domum regiam comportant, S. /.
76, 6, they bring all the gold to the house royal, cum domum regis devertis-
SCS, D. 17, when you went to stay at the king's palace. The preposition in is
sometimes used when the attribute is a genitive or a possessive pronoun, and com-
monly when it is any adjective but a possessive pronoun.
1165. (3.) In old Latin, exsequias and infitias are also used with eo,
and sometimes malam crucem and malam rem, though these last more
commonly have in : as,
exsequias Chremeti Ire, T. Ph. 1026, to go to Chremes's funeral, ut
eas malam crucem, PI. Men. 328, that thou mayst get thee to the accursed
cross. Later writers, as Nepos, Livy, and Quintilian, use infitias eo again,
and, from Sallust on, venum eo and venum do sometimes occur for veneo
and vendo.
1166. With the accusative in -turn (or -sum), called the supine, the idea of
'aim ' passes over into that of ' purpose : ' as militatum abiit, T. Hau. 117, he 's
gone away a soldiering (2270).
I 99
1167-1171.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
TWO ACCUSATIVES COMBINED.
OBJECT AND PREDICATE.
1167. Many verbs may take two accusatives, an
object and a predicate.
Such are verbs signifying make, keep, choose, name or call, have, think>
recognize or find, show oneself, &c , &c. : as, longiorem mensem faciunt,
V. 2, 129, they make the month longer, eum certiorem faciunt, 5, 37, 7, they
let him know. Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit, L. I, 32, \,the
people made Ancus Marcius king. me cepere arbitrum, T. Hau. 500,
they've chosen me as referee. Duellium ' Bellium ' nominaverunt, O. 153,
Duellius they named ' Bellius.' vicinam Capreis Insulam ' Apragopolim '
appellabat, Suet. Au. 98, the island next to Capreae he called ' the Castle
of Indolence.' conlegas adiutSres habebat, Sest. 87, he had his colleagues
as assistants, te sapientem existimant, L. 6, they consider you a sage.
quern virum P. Crassum vidimus, CM. 61, what a man we saw in Crassus.
severum me praebeo, C. 4, 12, / show myself stern. In the passive both
the object and the predicate become nominatives : as, Caesar certior factus
est, 3, 19, 5, Caesar was informed.
1168. In the sense of consider as equivalent to, duco and habeo, less fre-
quently puto, have the ablative with pr.5. Other constructions with these and the
above verbs may be found in the dictionary.
PERSON AND THING.
1169. (i.) Some verbs of teaching and hiding, de-
manding and questioning, may take two accusatives,
one of a person and one of a thing.
The commonest of these verbs are doceo and its compounds, and celo ;
flagito, oro, posco, and rogo, interrogo. The thing is usually the neuter
of a pronoun or enutnerative word (1144) : as > ( a -} peior magister te istaec
docuit, non ego, PI. B. 163, a worse instructor taught thee that, not I. quid
te litteras doceam ? Pis. 73, why should I teach you your A B C's ? (b.} non
te celavi sermonem T. Ampli, Fain. 2, 16, 3, I have not kept you in the
dark about the talk with Ampius. (c.) interim cotidie Caesar Aeduos
frumentum flagitare, I, 16, I, meantime Caesar every day a dunning the
Aeduans for the grain. Milesios navem poposcit, Y, I, 86, he called on
the Miletus people for a vessel, quid me istud rogas ? Fin. 5, 83, why do you
ask me that? Racilius me sententiam rogavit, QFr. 2, I, 3, Racilius asked
me my opinion.
1170. With doceo, meaning inform, celo, rogo, and interrogo, the ablative
of the thing with de is also used. And with flagito and posco, sometimes the abla-
tive of the person with ab, with ce!5 the ablative of the person with de.
1171. In the passive the person becomes the subject, and the accusative
of a neuter pronoun or adjective is retained : as,
200
The Noun : Dative. [11721176.
nosne hoc celatSs tarn diu, T. Hec. 645, for us not to be told of this so
long; rarely with reversed construction : quor haec celata me sunt ? PL
Ps. 490, why was this hid from me? Accusatives of appellatives are rare:
as, omnis militiae artis edoctus fuerat, L. 25, 37, 3, he had been thoroiighly
taught all the arts of war. interrogatus sententiam, L. 36, 7, i, being asked
his opinion. Other constructions of doctus, and of the passive of cel5,
flagito, posco, rogo and interrogd, may be found in the dictionary.
1172. (2.) Verbs of wishing, reminding, inducing, and accusing,
and some others, also sometimes take an accusative of the person and
one of the thing.
Such are vol5, moneS and its compounds, hortor and cogo ; accuso,
argu5, msimulo, obiurgo. The thing is usually the neuter of a pronoun
or enumerative word (1144) : as, quid m5 voltis ? PI. Mer. 868, -what do you
want of me? illud te esse admonitum velim, Gael. 8, on this point I want
you to be reminded (i 171). In old Latin, accusatives of appellatives also are
thus used, and sometimes also with don5 and condonS.
IX 73' (3-) The denning accusative is sometimes combined with an accusative of
the person : as, tarn te basia multa basiare, Cat. 7, 9, thee to kiss so many kisses
(1140). But usually with an accusative of the person, the ablative takes the place of
the denning accusative: as, odissem te odio Vatinian5, Cat. 14, 3, / should
hate thee -with a Vatinian hate.
OBJECT AND EXTENT, DURATION, OR AIM.
1174- The accusative of extent or duration, or of aim of motion is
often combined with that of the object : as,
(a.) milia passuum decem novem murum perducit, i, 8, i, he makes
a wall nineteen miles (1151). matronae annum eum luxerunt, L. 2, 7, 4. the
married women wore mourning for him a year (1151). (b.) Ancus multi-
tudinem omnem Romam traduxit, L. i, 33. i, Ancus moved the whole
population over to Rome (1157). eos domum remittit, 4, 21, 6, he sends
them home again (1162). For other combinations, see 1138, 1198, and 2270.
THE DATIVE.
1175. The dative denotes that for or to which a thing is or
is done, and either accompanies single words, such as verbs,
adjectives, sometimes adverbs, rarely substantives, or serves to
modify the entire sentence. It has two principal uses.
1176. I. The dative is used as a complement. Complements may be
roughly distinguished as essential or optional. But these two complements
are not always separated by a sharp line, and the same dative may sometimes
be referred indifferently to either head.
201
1 1 7 7 1 1 8 1 .] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1177. (i.) The ESSENTIAL COMPLEMENT is a dative of the
person or thing added to an idea which is felt as incomplete
without the dative (1180).
Thus, paret, he is obedient, is a statement which is felt as incomplete
without a dative added to denote what it is he is obedient to, in the sentence
paret senatui, he is obedient to the senate. But when stress is put on the
action merely, without reference to its bearing, such a verb may be used
without a dative : as, paret, he is obedient, he yields obedience.
1178. (2.) The OPTIONAL COMPLEMENT, that is, the dative
of interest, advantage, or disadvantage, adds something to an
idea that is already complete in itself (1205).
Thus, carmina canto, I chant verses, is a statement entirely complete in
itself; it may be modified or not, at option, by a dative, thus : carmina vir-
ginibus puerisque canto, verses for maids and boys I chant.
1179. II. The dative of certain substantives is used predicatively (1219).
I. THE COMPLEMENTARY DATIVE.
(i.) THE ESSENTIAL COMPLEMENT
THE DATIVE WITH VERBS.
1180. Many verbs require a dative to complete
their meaning.
WITH VERBS OF INTRANSITIVE USE.
Zi8i. (i.) Many verbs of intransitive use, particularly such
as denote a state, disposition, feeling, or quality, take the da-
tive : as,
quodne vobis placeat, displiceat mihi ? PI. MG. 614, shall that which
pleases you, displeasing be to me? si Asicia causa plus profuit quam invi-
dia nocuit, Gael. 23, if his case has been more helpful to Asicius than the
hostility has been damaging, imperat aut servit collecta pecunia cuique,
H. E. I, IO, 47, for every man his garnered hoard or master is or slave, nonne
huic leg! resistetis? Agr. 2, 85, will you not stand out against this law?
gymnasiis indulgent Graeculi, Traj. in Plin. Ep. 40 [49], 2, our Greek
cousins are partial to gymnasiums. Ign5scas velim huic festinatiom meae,
in a letter, Fam. 5, 12, i, please excuse haste, huic legiom Caesar conflde-
bat maxima, i, 40, 15, Caesar trusted this legion most of all. an C. Trebo-
ni5 ego persuasi ? cui ne suadere quidem ausus essem, Ph. 2, 27, or
was it I that brought conviction to Trebonius ? a man to whom I should not have
presumed evert to offer advice. In the passive, such verbs are used impersonally,
the dative remaining (1034) ; personal constructions are rare and poetical.
202
The Noun . Dative. [1182-1189.
1182. This dative is used with such verbs or verbal expressions as mean
am pleasing or displeasing, helpful or injurious, command, yield, or am obedi-
ent, am friendly, partial, or opposed ; spare, pardon, threaten, trust, advise,
persuade, happen, meet. But the English translation is not a safe guide :
many of the verbs used with a dative are represented transitively in English ;
and some verbs of the meanings above are used transitively in Latin : as,
delecto, iuvo, laedo, &c., &c.
1183. The dative is rarely used with a form of sum and a predicate noun corre-
sponding in meaning with the verbs above (1181) : as, quid mihi scelesto tib!
erat auscultatiS ? PI. R. 502, i. e. quid tibi auscultabam ? why did I, ill-
starred wretch, lend ear to thee? qui studiosus rei null! aliaest, PI. MG.
802, i. e. qui studet, who lends his soul to nothing else. Or immediately with a
noun : as, servitus opulent5 homini, PL Am. 166, slavery to a millionaire.
optemperatio legibus, Leg. i, 42, obedience to the laws, aemula labra
rosis, Mart. 4, 42, 10, lips rivalling the rose.
1184. Some verbs have a variable use without any difference of meaning: thus,
euro, decet, and vitS, have sometimes the dative in old Latin, but usually the accu-
sative. In Cicero, adulor has the accusative; from Nepos on, the dative as well.
medeor, medicor, and praestolor take either the accusative or the dative.
1185. Some verbs have an accusative with one meaning, a dative of the complement,
essential or optional, with another : see aemulor, caveo, comitor, consuls, con-
venio, cupiS, despero, maneo, metup, moderor, prospicio, tempers,
timeo, and the different uses of invideo, in the dictionary.
1186. In poetry, verbs of union, of contention, and of difference, often take a
dative: as, (a.) haeret later! letalis harundS, V. 4, 73, sticks to her side the
deadly shaft. So with coe'S, concurro, haereS, and similarly with iungS, mis-
ceS. (b.) quid enim contendat hirundS cycnis ? Lucr. 3, 6, for how can
swallow cope with swans? So with bellS, certS, contends, pugnp. (c.) m-
fido scurrae distabit amicus, H. E. i, 18, 4, a friend will differ from a
faithless hanger-on. So with differs, discrepS, dissentiS, distS.
1187. A verb often takes the dative, when combined with adversum,
obviam, or praestS, also with bene, male, or satis, and the like : as,
fit ob viam ClSdiS, Mil. 29, he runs across Clodius. cui bene dixit um-
quam bonS ? Sest. no, for what patriot had he ever a good word ? nSs, viri
fortes, satis facere rli publicae videmur, C. 1,2, we doughty champions
flatter ourselves we are doing our whole duty by the state. Similarly with verbs
of transitive use.
1188. (2.) Many verbs of intransitive use compounded with
a preposition take a dative connected in sense with the preposi-
tion : as,
manus extrema non accessit operibus eius, Br. 126, the last touch
was not put upon his works, omnibus adfuit his pugnis Dolabella, Ph. 2,
75, Dolabella was on hand in all these battles. pontS nox incubat atra, V.
I, 89, over the deep, night broodeth black, cognitionibus de Christianis
interful numquam, Plin. Ep. ad Trai. 96 [97], i, / have never been to any
of the trials of the Christians.
1189. The prepositions are chiefly ad, ante, com-, in, inter, ob, prae,
sub, or super. In many compounds of these prepositions, however, the da-
tive is due to the general meaning of the verb, as in confidit mih!, he puts
all trust in me (1181), as contrasted with cSnsentit mihi, he feels with me,
nearly equivalent to sentit mecum (1188).
203
1 190-1 196.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1 190. Instead of the dative, such verbs often have a prepositional con-
struction, particularly when place, literal or figurative, is distinctly to be
expressed: as,
accedere in funus, Leg. 2, 66, to go to a funeral, in morbum incidit,
Clu. 175, he fell ill.
ligi. Some verbs of intransitive use take, when compounded, either the dative or
the accusative. See adiaceS, antecedo, anteeo, praecurro, praestS, incedo,
inludp, insulto, invado, in the dictionary. And some compounds acquire a
transitive use altogether, as obe5, oppugno : see 1137.
WITH VERBS OF TRANSITIVE USE.
1192. (i.) Many verbs of transitive use take the dative : as,
i filiam suam in matrimSnium dat, I, 3, 5, he gives this person his own
daughter in marriage decima legio 61 gratias egit, 1,41, i t the tenth le-
gion gave him thanks huic fert subsidium Pulio, 5, 44, 13, to him Pulio
brings aid. multis idem minatur Antonius, Ph. n, 2, to many Antony
threatens the same, reliqui sese fugae mandarunt, i, 12, 3, the rest betook
themselves to flight, commando vobis meum parvum filium, C. 4, 23, tin to
your keeping do I commit the little son of mine, multi se alienissimis credi-
derunt, 6, 31, 4, many people put themselves in the hands of utter strangers
equites imperat civitatibus, 6, 4, 6, he issues orders to the communities for
horse.
1193. This dative is used with such verbs as do, trado, tribuo, divid5,
fer5, praebeo, praesto, polliceor, pr5mitt5, debeo, nego, monstro, dic5,
narro, mando, praecipio, &c., &c. In the passive construction, the accusa-
tive becomes nominative, the dative remaining.
1194. (2.) Many verbs of transitive use compounded with a
preposition take a dative connected in sense with the preposi-
tion : as,
nihil novi vobis adferam, RP. i, 21, 7 shall not lay any novelty before
you. leges omnium salutem singulorum saluti anteponunt, Fin. 3, 64,
the law always puts the general safety before the safety of the individual, timo-
rem bonis iniecistis, Agr. i, 23, you have struck terror into the hearts of
patriots, noluerunt fens corpus obicere, RA. 71, they would not cast his
person before ravenous beasts, neminem huic praefero, N. 8, i, i, there is
nobody I put before him. hibernis Labienum praeposuit, i, 54, 2, he put
Labienus over the winter-quarters, anitum ova gallmis saepe supponimus,
DN. 2, 124, we often put ducks' eggs under hens.
1195. The prepositions are circum, de, ex, post, or those named in
1189. In many compounds of transitive use, however, the dative is due to
the general meaning of the verb, as with those spoken of in 1189.
1196. With these verbs, a prepositional construction is often used, as
with the verbs of intransitive use (1190) : as,
iam diu nihil novi ad nos adferebatur, Fam. 2, 14, no news has got to
us this long time. For compounds of circum and trans with two accusa-
tives, see 1138.
204
The Noun : Dative. [i 1 97-1 204.
1197. Verbs of transitive use compounded with com- have oftener the ablative
with cum: as, cSnferte hanc pacem cum illo bel!5, V. 4, 115, just compare
this peace -with that -war. See also in the dictionary, coniungo and compono;
also the indirect compounds comparS, compare, from compar, and communico.
1198. With a few compounds of ad or in, a second accusative is exceptionally
used: as, arbitrum ilium adegit, Off. 3, 66, he had the other man up before
a daysman. So with inmitto, PI. Cap. 548, insinuo, Lucr. i, 116, &c., &c.
Regularly with animum adverto: as, animum advert! columellam, TD.
5, 65, / noticed a modest shaft, qua re animum adversa, Caes. C. i, 80, 4,
this fact being paid heed' to: compare 1138.
1199. A few compound verbs admit either the dative of the person or thing and
accusative of the thing, or the accusative of the person or thing and ablative of the
thing ; such are adspergS and mspergo, circumdo, circumfundS, exuo and
induo, impertio, intercludo; also the uncompounded dono : as, praedam
militibus donat, 7, 11, 9, he presents the booty to the soldiers, scribam tuum
anulo donasti, V. 3, 185, you presented your clerk -with a ring. For the differ-
ent constructions of interdico, see the dictionary.
THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.
1200. The dative with many adjectives and some
adverbs denotes that to which the quality is directed.
Such have the meaning of tiseful, necessary, fit, easy, agreeable, known,
near, belonging, friendly, faithful, like, and most of their opposites ; the
adjective is often predicative: as, ver utile silvis (1036), V. G. 2, 323, the
spring is good for woods, est senator! necessarium nosse rem publicam,
Leg. 3, \\,for a senator it is indispensable to be conversant with government.
Srationis genus pompae quam pugnae aptius, O. 42, a style better suited
to the parade than to the field, convenienter naturae vivere, Off. 3, 13, to
live in touch with nature.
1201. Some adjectives of this class have the dative of a person, the accusative
with ad of a thing: so accommodatus, aptus, idoneus, necessarius, and
Utilis ; and some denoting feeling have also the accusative with a preposition : ae-
quus, iniquus, fidelis with in, benevolus with erga, and impius with
adversus. propior and proximus sometimes accompany an accusative, like
prope, propius, and proxime.
1202. The adjectives communis, proprius or alienus, sacer, totus,
often accompany the construction of the genitive of the owner: see 1238. For
alienus with the ablative, see 1306. Sometimes alienus has the ablative 'with ab.
1203. Some adjectives denoting relationship, connection, friendship or
hostility, become substantives, and as such, admit the genitive also (1103) ;
such are (a.) adfinis, cognatus ; (b.) aequalis, familiaris, finitimus, par
and dispar, propinquus, vlcinus; (c.) adversarius, amicus, inimlcus, ne-
cessarius.
1204. T n Plautus and Terence, similis, the like, the counterpart, and its com-
pounds, regularly take the genitive. The dative, as well as the genitive, is also used
from Ennius on, particularly of a limited or approximate likeness : see the dictionary.
205
1 2051 2 10.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
(2.) THE OPTIONAL COMPLEMENT.
1205. The dative of a person or thing interested,
benefited, harmed, may be added at option to almost
any verb : as,
conservate parent! f ilium, parentem filio, Gael. 80, save the son for the
father, the father for the son. mea domus tib! patet, mihl clausa est, RA.
145, the very house I own is open for you, is shut upon me. cui flavam religas
comam, simplex munditiis ? H. i, 5, 4, for whom bind'st thou in wreaths
thy golden hair, plain in thy neatness ? non auderet facere haec viduae
rnulierl, quae in me fecit, T. Hau. 953, he durst not to an unprotected female
do what he hath done towards me.
1206. The place of a verb with the dative of interest is sometimes filled by an
interjection, ecce, ei, em, or vae : as, ei mihi qualis erat, E. i, 7, V. 2, 274,
ah me, how ghastly he did look, vae victis, PI. Ps. 1317, said by lirennus,
390 B. c., L. 5, 48, 9, woe worth the worsted, vae capiti atque aetati tuae,
PI. R. 375, a murrain on thy head and life.
1207. The dative is often added to the entire sentence, where
either a genitive or a possessive pronoun limiting a substantive might
be used.
In such cases the dative expresses interest, advantage, or disadvantage,
while the genitive would simply indicate the owner or the object: as,
transfigitur scutum Pulioni, 5, 44, 7, unfortunately for Pulio,_ his shield
gets pierced through and through, militant! in Hispania pater 6! moritur,
L. 29, 29, 6, while serving in Spain he had the misfortune to lose his father.
huic ego me bello ducem profiteer, C.2, 11, I here proclaim myself captain
for this war. sese Caesar! ad pedes prSiecerunt, 1,31,2, they cast them-
selves at Caesar's feet, nostris militibus spem minuit, 5, 33, 5, it dashed
the hopes of our soldiers, exterge tibi manus, PI. Most. 267, wipe off thy
hands, vellunt tibi barbam lascivi pueri, H. S. I, 3, 133, the wanton
gamins pull thy beard, poor soul.
1208. This dative is sometimes detached from the verb, and used immediately
with a substantive, instead of the genitive: as, Philocomasio custos, PI. MG.
271, the keeper for Philocomasium. rector iuveni, Ta. i, 24, a mentor for the
young man. So particularly with a gerundive in official expressions : as, curator
muris reficiendis, OG. 19, commissioner for rebuilding the -walls.
1209. Verbs of warding off sometimes take a dative, especially in poetry, also
those of robbing and ridding : as, (a.) hunc quoque arcebis gravido pecori,
V. G. 3, 154, him also wilt thou for the pregnant herd keep far. solstltium
pecofl defendite, V. E. 7, 47, the summer's heat keep distant for the flock,
(b.} torquem detraxit host!, Fin. i, 35, he pulled a torque away from his enemy.
eripies mih! hunc errorem, Att. 10, 4, 6, you will rid me of this mistake.
1210. With verbs of motion the dative of the person interested denotes in poetry
the end of motion also : as, multos Danaum demittimus Oreo, V. 2, 398, we
send down many a Danaan for the nether king. So also the dative of personified
words of place : as, it clamor caelo, V. 5, 451, up goes a shout for heaven, i. e.
heaven hears a shout, sedibus hunc refer ante suls, V. 6, \s>z, first bear him
duly to his place of rest, i. e. let his expectant grave receive him,
206
The Noun : Dative. [1211-1216.
THE EMOTIONAL DATIVE.
121 1. The dative of the personal pronoun is often used with
expressions of emotion, interest, surprise, or derision : as,
quid mihi Celsus agit ? H. E. i, 3, 15, how fares me Celsus? Tongi-
lium mihl eduxit, C. 2, 4, he took out Tongilius, bless my soul, at tib! repente,
cum minime exspectarem, venit ad me Canmius mane, Fam. 9, 2, i,
but bless you, sir, when I least dreamt of it, who should drop in on me all at
once but Caninius, bright and early.
THE DATIVE OF THE POSSESSOR.
1212. The dative is used with forms of sum to
denote the possessor : as,
est homini cum de5 similitude, Leg. I, 25, man has a resemblance to
god. an nescis longas regibus esse manus ? O. E. 16, 166, dost possibly
not know kings have long arms ? suos quoique mos. T. Ph. 454, to every man
his (nvn pet way. So also with the compounds absum, desum, supersum :
as, hoc unum Caesar! defuit, 4, 26, 5, this was all Caesar lacked.
1213. (i.) With mih! est nomen, the name is put either
in the dative or in the nominative: as,
mih! nomen est Iuli5, or mih! nomen est lulius, Cell. 15, 29, i, my
name is Julius. In old Latin and in Sallust, the dative : as, nomen Mercu-
riost mihi, PI. Am. prol. 19, my name is Mercury ; later the nominative : as,
canibus pigris nomen erit Pardus, Tigris, Leo, J. 8, 34, the craven cur
shall sport the name of "* Lion, Tiger, Pard? Cicero uses the nominative or
rarely the dative, Livy oftener the dative than the nominative. Tacitus
puts adjectives in the dative, substantives in the nominative, rarely in the
genitive. Caesar does not use the construction.
1214. (2.) With the actives nomen do, ind5, pono, tribuo, &c., the name
may be in the dative or in the accusative ; with the passive of these expres-
sions, the name may be in the dative or in the nominative : as,
qui tibi nomen insano posuere, H. S. 2, 3, 47, who 've put on thee the
nickname Crank, qui filiis Philippum atque Alexandrum n5mina inpo-
suerat, L. 35, 47, 5, who had given his sons the names Philip and Alexander.
A genitive dependent on nomen is used once by Tacitus and in very late
Latin.
1215. With a gerundive, the dative of the possessor denotes the person who has
the action to do : see 2243. For the ablative with ab, or for habeo, see 2243, 2245.
1216. This dative is sometimes used with the perfect participle, and the tenses
formed with it : as, mih! est elaboratum, Caecil. 40, / have it all worked out.
carmina nulla mihi sunt scripta, O. Tr. 5, 12, 35, no poetry have I ready
made. Rarely with passives of the present system : as, nulla placere diu nee
vivere carmina possunt, quae scribuntur aquae potoribus, H. E. i, 19,
2, no verse can take or be longlived that by teetotallers is -writ.
207
12171222.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
THE DATIVE OF RELATION.
1217. The dative may denote the person viewing or judging: as,
eris mihi magnus ApollS, V. E. 3, 104, thou shall to me the gteat Apollo
be. Quintia formosa est multis, mihi Candida, longa, recta est, Cat.
86, I, in many eves is Quintia fair, to me she 's bonny, tall, and straight. From
Caesar on, participles are often used to denote the person viewing or judg-
ing: as, est urbe egressis tumulus, V. 2, 713, there is, as yon get out of town,
a mound, in universum aestimanti, Ta. G. 6, looking at it generally.
1218. In imitation of a Greek idiom, volens, cupiens, or invitus, is used by
Sallust and Tacitus in agreement with a dative dependent on a form of sum, the
combination being equivalent to a subject with a form of volo, cupio, or invitus
sum, respectively: as, ceteris remanere volentibus fuit, Ta. H. 3, 43, i.e.
ceteri remanere voluerunt, the rest were minded to bide -where they were.
Once in Livy.
II. THE PREDICATIVE DATIVE.
THE DATIVE OF TENDENCY OR RESULT.
1219 (i.) Certain datives are used with a form of
sum to denote what a thing tends to, proves, or is.
This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the
person interested : as,
auxilio is fuit, PI. Am. prol. 92, he -was a help to them, odio sum R6-
manis, L. 35, 19, 6, / am an abomination in the eyes of Rome, potestne
bonum cuiquam malo esse ? Par. 7, can good prove bad for any hitman
being? L. Cassius identidem quaerere solebat, cui bono fuisset, RA.
84, Cassius used to ask for ever and ever, who the person benefited was, or who
the gainer was. nemini meus adventus labor! aut sumptui fuit, V. I,
1 6, my visit did not prove a bother or an expense to a soul, res et fortunae
tuae mih! maximae curae sunt, Fam. 6, 5, I, your money-matlers are an
all-absorbing interest to me.
1220. There are many of these datives, mostly abstracts and all singular , some
of the commonest are curae, usui, praesidiS, cordi, odio, auxilio, impedi-
ments, saluti, voluptati. The adjectives magnus, maior, maximus, or
tantus and quantus, are sometimes used in agreement with them , and the dative
frugi sometimes has bonae.
1221. Instead of the dative of tendency, a predicative nominative or accusative is
rarely used : thus, possessionem liberam Dardaniae solacio fore, L. 40,
57, 9, that the unrestricted occupancy of Dardania would prove comforting, but,
domestica quies solacium fuit, L. 6, 30, 9, the peace that prevailed at home
was a solid comfort. Prepositional expressions with pr5 and in also occur.
1222. (2.) The dative is also used with a few verbs of consider-
ing or accounting to denote what a thing is accounted.
208
The Noun : Genitive. [1223-1227.
So with such verbs as do, duco, habeS, tribuo, and verto: as, vitio
mihl dant, quod mortem hominis necessarii graviter fero, Matius in
Fam. ii, 28, 2, the world scores it against me that I take the murder of a near
and dear friend to heart. postquam paupertas probro haberi coepit,
S. C. 12, I, after lack of wealth began to count as a stigma.
THE DATIVE OF PURPOSE OR INTENTION.
1223. A few datives are used to denote what a thing is intended
to be. This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the person
interested.
So (a.) dono and muneri : as, emit earn dono mihf, T. Eu. 135, he
bought her as a gift forme, centum boves militibus dono dedit, L. 7, 37, 3,
he gave the soldiers a tnindred oxen as a present. Also (b.} auxilio, praesidio,
and subsidio, used of military operations, chiefly with verbs of motion : as,
ii, qui praesidio contra castra erant relicti, subsidio suis ierunt, 7, 62, 8,
the men that had been left as a protection against the camp, went as a rein-
forcement to their own side.
1224. For the datives dono and muneri, a predicative nominative or accusative
is sometimes used : as, coronam lovi donum in capitolium mittunt, L. 2,
22, 6, they send a crown to the capital as a present for Jupiter. Prepositional
expressions are also used for auxilio, &c. : as. ad praesidium, L. 3, 5, 3, in
praesidium, L. 31, 16, 7, for protection, auxilii causa, L. 2, 24, 4, to help.
1225. The dative receptui is also used in military language to denote purpose :
as, Caesar receptui can! iussit, 7,47, i, Caesar ordered the retreat sounded.
Quinctius receptui canere iussit, L. 34, 39, 13. This dative is sometimes at-
tached immediately to a substantive : as, receptui signum, Ph. 13, 15, the trumpet
for retreat.
THE GENITIVE.
1226. The genitive is principally used with nouns, less fre-
quently with verbs. Sometimes even when it seems to be de-
pendent on a verb, it really depends on a substantive understood,
or on a noun virtually contained or implied in the verb. Some
verbs require an accusative also, in addition to the genitive.
I. THE GENITIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES.
1227. A substantive is often limited by another
substantive in the genitive.
The things denoted by the two words are usually distinct: as, metus
hostium, the fear of the enemy, i.e. either (a.} which they feel (1231), or
(b.) which is felt towards them (1260) ; magni ponderis saxa, stones of
great weight (1239). Sometimes, however, they are more or less the same:
as, militum pars, part of the soldiers (1242); magna multitude perdito-
rum hominum, a perfect swarm of desperadoes (1255).
14 209
1 2 2 8- 1 2 3 3 .] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1228. Two or even three genitives expressing different relations, sometimes limit
one substantive : as, superiprum dierum Sabini cunctatio, 3, 18, 6, Sabinus's.
dilatoriness in days preceding, eorum dierum consuetudine itineris no-
Stri exercitus perspecta, 2, 17, 2, studying up the order of march folio-wed by
our army in those days.
1229. The limited substantive is often omitted, when it is obvious from the con-
text: as, ventum erat ad Vestae, sc. aedem, H. S. i, 9,35, to Vesta's -were
we come, i. e. to her temple, aberam bidui, sc. iter, Att. 5, 17, i, I -was two days
distant. Usually so, when it is expressed with another genitive, which generally
precedes: as, quis est, qui possit conferre vitam Treboni cum Dola-
bellae? Ph. u. 9, who is there that can compare the life of Trebonius -with
Dolabella's?
1230. Instead of the genitive depending on a substantive, an equivalent
adjective or a prepositional expression is often used. Such substitutions
will be mentioned below in their appropriate places.
1231. The relations expressed by the limiting genitive vary very much
according to the context. These relations may be put in classes, as below
(1232-1260). But it must be remembered that as the genitive connects sub-
stantives in a loose way, the same construction may sometimes be referred
to more than one head.
THE GENITIVE OF THE SUBJECT, CAUSE, ORIGIN, OR
OWNER.
1232. (i.) The genitive is used to denote that which does
the action, or which causes, originates, or possesses the object
designated by the substantive it limits : as,
metus hostium, Gell. 9, 12, 13, the fear of the enemy, i. e. which they feel,
adventus Caesaris, 6, 41, 4, the arrival of Caesar, bellum Venetorum, 3,
1 6, i, the war -with the Venetans. illud Solonis, CM. 50, Solon's memorable
words. Canachi signa, Br. 70, statues by Canachus. Cupidinis signum,
V. 4, 135, the statue representing Cupid, huius signis, V. 3, 9, with statues
belonging to this man. pacem Ariovisti, i, 37, 2, a peaceful policy on Ario-
vistus's part. Cannarum pugna, L. 23, 43, 4, the 'battle of Cannae (1427).
abaci vasa omnia, V. 4, 35, all the vessels on the sideboard, pridie eius diei,
i, 47, 2, the day before that day (1413). labrorum tenus, Lucr. 1, 940, the length
of the lips (1420).
1233. Instead of the genitive, an adjective is often used to express
such relations ; less frequently a prepositional construction : as,
(a.) odium paternum, N. 23, i, 3, the hatred felt by his father, servfli
tumultu, i, 40, 5, in the slave insurrection, bello Cassiano, I, 13, 2, in the
war with Cassius. illud Cassianum, cui bono fuerit, Ph. 2, 35, Cassius's
test question, 'who the gainer was.' erilis patria, PI. B. 170, my master's
birthplace, intra domesticos parietes, C. 2, i, within the walls of o*r houses.
So usually with names of countries and of towns : as, anus Corinthia, T.
Hau. 600, an old woman of Corinth, pugna Cannensis, L. 22, 50, i, the
battle of Cannae. Often in a generalizing sense : as, paternus maternus-
que sangufs, RA. 66, the blood of a father and of a mother, (b.) ad Cannas
pugnam, L. 22, 58, i, the baffle of Cannae.
210
The Noun : Genitive. [ 1 2 34- 1 2 39.
1234. The possessive pronoun is regularly used instead of the possessive
genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun (1230) : as,
mea domus, RA. 145, my own house, in tua quadam epistola, Att. 9,
10, 3, in a letter of yours. But sometimes, for emphasis, the genitive of the
personal or reflexive is used : as, magn5 sui cum periculo, 4, 28, 2, with
great personal risk ; commonly so with omnium or utriusque : as, volun-
tati vestrum omnium parui, DO. 3, 208, I yielded to your joint wish ; see
however 1235.
1235. A word in apposition with the possessive pronoun is put in the genitive :
as, mea unius opera, Pis. 6, by my sole instrumentality, ad vestram om-
nium caedem, C. 4, 4, for the murder of you all (1230). So particularly ipse,
omnis, solus, and unus.
1236. The genitive is often used predicatively with verbs meaning
am, belong, became, make, seem, am accounted, &c., &c. : as,
litterarii ista sunt ludi, Quint, i, 4, 27, such questions belong to the infant
school, hie versus Plauti non est, hie est, Fam. 9, 16, 4, this line is not
Plautus's, this one is. omnia, quae mulieris fuerunt, viri fiunt, Top. 23,
everything which was the woman's becomes the man's, neque se iudicare
Galliam potius esse Ariovisti quam populi Roman!, i, 45, r, and that
he did not think Gaul was any more Ariovistus' s than it was the Romans'.
hostiumst potita, PI. E. 562, into the foemen's hands she fell.
1237. The possessive genitive of a person or of an abstract is
particularly common when the subject of the verb is an infinitive or
sentence : as,
(a.) scyphis pugnare Thracum est, H. i, 27, i, to fight with bowls is
Vandal work, erat amentis, cum aciem videres, pacem cogitare, Lig.
28, it was a madman's act, dreaming of peace when you saw the troops in battalia.
temper! cedere semper sapientis est habitum, Fam. 4, 9, 2, shaping your
course to circumstance has always passed as the sign of a wise man. mentiri
non est meum, T. Hau. 549, telling lies is not my style (1234). (b.) non est
pudSris mei, me propugnat5rem P. Sclpionis profiler!, V. 4, 80, it is not
in keeping with my delicacy to set up as the champion of Scipio. harum rerum
esse defensorem magni anim! est, Sest. 99, to be the defender of these inter-
ests takes heroism, hoc sentire prvidentiae est, facere fortitudinis, Sest.
86, to think thus shows wisdom, to act thus, courage, negavit moris esse
Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres, V. i, 66, he
said it was not manners among the Greeks to have women at table at a men's
dinner-party.
1238. With the possessive genitive, the limited substantive is sometimes defined by
communis, proprius or alienus, sacer, or t5tus added : as, hoc proprium
Virtutis existimant, 6, 23, 2, this they consider a special characteristic of bra-very.
omnia quae nostra erant propria, RA. 150, everything -which -was our peculiar
property (1234). ilia insula eorum deorum sacra putatur, V. i, 48, that
island is considered the hallowed property of those gods, iam me Pompei totum
esse SC1S, Fam. 2, 13, 2, you are aware that I am become Pompey's, out and out.
THE GENITIVE OF QUALITY.
1239. ( 2 ) The genitive with an adjective in agreement is
used to denote quality, either attributively or predicatively : as,
211
12401243-] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
(a.) Attributively : magni ponderis saxa, 2, 29, 3, stones of great weight.
summae speT adulescentes, 7, 63, 9, young men of high promise, dierum
viginti supplicatio, 4, 38, 5, a twenty day thanksgiving, belua multorum
es capitum, H. E. I, I, 76, a many-headed beast art thou. eius modi consi-
lium, 5, 29, 5, such a plan, demitto auriculas ut iniquae mentis asellus,
II. S. I, 9, 20, I drop my ears like Neddy in the sulks (269). vallo pedum IX,
5, 42, i, with a nine foot palisade, (b.} Predicatively : magriae habitus auc-
tSritatis, 7, 77, $< passing for a man of great influence, fluminis erat alti-
tude circiter pedum trium, 2, 18, 3, the depth of the river was about three feet.
The genitive of quality resembles the ablative of quality (1375) ; the two are
sometimes combined : as, hominem maximi corporis terribilique facie,
N. 15, 4, I, a man of gigantic frame and with an awe-inspiring presence. But
the genitive is common in designations of size and number.
1240. A substantive expressing quality with aequus, par, similis, or dissi-
milis in agreement, is put not in the genitive, but in the ablative, by Cicero, Caesar,
Nepos, and Livy.
THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE.
1241. (3.) The partitive genitive denotes a whole of which
the limited substantive denotes a part. There are two kinds of
partitive genitive, the numerical and the quantitative : as,
(a.) militum pars, 6,40, 8, part of the soldiers, numerical partitive (1242).
(b.} multum aestatis, 5, 22, 4, much of the summer, quantitative partitive
(1247).
1242. (a.} The numerical partitive is a plural or a collective,
limiting a word expressing part of the number : as,
militum pars, 6, 40, 8, part of the soldiers, pars equitatus, 4, 16, 2, part
of the cavalry, alter consulum, L. 6, 35, 5, one of the two consuls, uter est
Insanior horum ? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these two is crazier ? eorum
neuter, Pis. 62, neither of the two. multae istarum arborum, CM. 59,
many of the trees you see there, quis omnium mortalium ? V. 5, 179, who
among all the sons of men ? nemo nostrum, RA. 55, not one of us. nihil ho-
rum, RA. 138, none of these things. Stertinius, sapientum octavos, H. S.
2, 3. 296, Stertinius, of sages eighth. 6 maior iuvenum, H. AP. 366, O elder
of the youths, horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, i, i, 3, of all these
the stoutest fighters are the Belgians. Also with superlative adverbs : as,
deorum maxime Mercurium colunt, Ta. G. 9, of the gods, they revere
Mercury most, minume gentium, PI. Poen. 690, T. Eu. 625, no, never in the
world.
1243. uterque, each, both, often takes the genitive plural of a pronoun : as,
quorum uterque, uterque eorum, horum, nostrum, &c. ; sometimes of a
substantive and pronoun combined : as, utriusque harum rerum, TD. i, 65, of
each of these things, quarum civitatum utraque, V. 5, 56, each of these com-
munities. With a substantive alone, it is oftener attributive : as, uterque dux,
Marc. 24, each commander , and sometimes with neuter pronouns : as, quod
utrumque, Brut, in Fam. u, i, i, N. 25, 2, 4. The plural utrique is used both
ways: as, ab utrisque vestrum, Fam. n, 21, 5, and ab utrisque nobis,
Brut, in Fam. u. 20, 3.
212
The Noun : Genitive. [1244-1250,
1244. The plurals tot, totidem, and quot, are not used partitively, and orn-
nes and cuncti only so by poets and late prose writers, plerique is used either
way, in agreement, or with the genitive.
1245. The numerical partitive is exceptionally used in poetry with the positive ot
a descriptive adjective : as, sancte deorum,V. 4, 576, thou holy of the gods. And
in late prose, particularly with words denoting a class of persons : as, cum delectis
peditum, L. 26, 5, 3, -with the pick of the infantry, levis cohortium, Ta. 3, 39,
the light-armed of the cohorts.
1246. Instead of the numerical partitive, a prepositional expression with ante,
inter, or in, or with ex or de, is sometimes used : as, ante alios acceptissimus,
L. i, 15, 8, most welcome before others. So particularly quidam and unus, duo,
tres, with ex or de : as, quidam ex his, 2, 17, 2, one of these, unus de multis,
Fin. 2, 66, one of the common herd. But unus sometimes has the genitive: as,
unus multorum, H. S. i, 9, 71. And usually so in a series, when unus is fol-
lowed by alter, alius, tertius, &c.
1247. (.) The quantitative partitive is usually a singular, limiting
a neuter singular word denoting amount. The limited word is either
a nominative, or an accusative without a preposition. This genitive
often borders very closely on the genitive of definition (1255) : as,
multum aestatis, 5, 22, 4, much of the summer, amplius obsidum, 6.
9, 7, something more extensive in the way of hostages, minus dubitationis,
i, 14, i, less of hesitation, quam minimum spatii, 3, 19, i, as little time as
possible, id aetatis, DO. i, 207, at that time of life, id temporis, Fin. 5, i,
at that time of day. quid causae est ? Ac. I, 10, what earthly reason is th?re . ?
hoc litterularum, Att. 12, i, I, this apology for a letter, or this hasty line.
hoc sibl solaci proponebant, 7, 15, 2, they laid this flattering unction to
their souls.
1248. Such neuters are : multum, plerumque, plurimum, amplius,
plus, paulum, minus, minimum, tantum, quantum, tantundem, ni-
mium ; in poetry and late prose, also many other adjectives singular and
plural. Furthermore, id, hoc, illud, quod, quid, &c., and nihil; also
abunde, adfatim, largiter, nimis, partim, parum, and satis.
1249. A few adjectives of place and time indicating a particular part of
an object, are commonly used in immediate agreement with their substan-
tives : as,
summus mons, i, 22, i, the highest part of the mountain, or the mountain-
top, extrema hieme, media aestate, IP. 35, at the end of the winter, in
midsummer. Such are : primus, intimus, medius, extremus, postremus,
ultimus, summus, infimus, imus, reliquus. But the neuter is sometimes
used partitively : as, aestatis extremum erat, S. 7. 90, i, it was the end of
summer, summa pectoris, Fam. i, 9, 15, the upper parts of the breast,.
1250. The limiting genitive is often the neuter singular of an adjective
used substantively : as,
aliquid boni, T. Andr. 398, something good, aliquid mall, T. Eu. 999,
something bad. numquid tandem novi ? Br. 10, nothing new, pray ? This
use is ordinarily confined to stems in -o-; rarely otherwise: as, plus ina-
nis, Lucr. i. 365, more of the void ; and usually only when joined with an -o-
stem: as, nihil solid!, nihil eminentis, DN. i, 75, no solidity, no projection.
213
12511256.] Sen tences : The Simple Sentence.
1251. The partitive construction sometimes extends to the predicate: as, id erit
Sign! me invitum facere, RA. 83, this will be something of an indication that I
act with reluctance; sign! is here in the predicate, and yet made dependent on id.
quid ergo est tui consili ? Brut, in Pant, n, i, 3, what then is your advice?
quid sui consili sit ostendit, i, 21, 2, he explains what his plan is. quid est
enim huic reliqul ? Sull. 89, for what is there left for my client ? hi milites
nihil reliqui victis fecere, S. C. i_i, 7, these soldiers left nothing over to the con-
quered, nihil ad celeritatem sibl reliqui fecerunt, 2, 26, 5, as for speed,
they left no effort ^lnspared.
1252. The accusative with a preposition also sometimes has the genitive: as, in
id redactus sum loci, T. Ph. 979, / am reduced to such a strait, ad id loci,
S. C. 45, 3, to that spot, ad id locorum, S. 7. 63, 6, up to that time, in
multum diei, L. 9, 44, u, till late in the day. In Cicero, also the ablatives e5,
eodem, and quo, with loci: as, e5 loci, Sest. 68, in that position. And in later
writers, other ablatives, with or without a preposition, also have a genitive.
1253. Some appellatives of place are put in the genitive with adverbs of place : as,
ubinam gentium? PL Mer. 434, C. i, 9, where in the world? nusquam
gentium, T. Ad. 540, nowhere in the world. Similarly, loci with adverbs of time
or order, as with interea in Plautus and Terence, postidea in Plautus, postea in
Sallust, and inde in Lucretius ; also locSrum with adhuc and postid in Plautus.
1254. In Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, genitives of abstracts are used with the
adverbs eo, qu5, and hue : as, eo miseriarum, S. /. 14, 3, to that pitch of
distress. Once with ut : ut quisque audentiae habuisset, adcurrerent,
Ta. 15, 53, they should run up, with a speed commensurate in every case to their
daring.
THE GENITIVE OF DEFINITION.
1255. (4.) The genitive is used to define that of which a
thing consists : as,
magna multitude perditorum hominum, 3, 17, 4, a perfect swarm of
desperadoes, innumerabile pondus auri, Sest. 93, a w 'eight of gold too great ^
to count, mille numero navium classem, V. i, 48, an armada a thousand
sail strong.
1256. The genitive of an explicit word containing the leading idea
is sometimes used to define a more general word ; as,
praedae pecudum hominumque, L. 24, 20, 5, booty consisting of cattle
and human beings, pignora coniugum ac Iiber5rum, L. 2, i, 5, pledges in
the shape of wives and children, confisus munitione fossae, Caes. C. i, 42, 3,
relying on the defensive works in the shape of a moat. Rarely in poetry and
late prose, the proper name of a place, with urbs, promunturium, &c. : as,
urbem Patavi, V. i, 247, the city of Patavium (1045). Particularly with the
words vox, nomen, genus, and especially causa: as, haec vox voluptatis,
Fin. 2, 6, this word 'pleasure.' nomen amicitiae, Fin. 2, 78, the name
'friendship. 1 Compare nomen fraternum, i, 36, 5, the name of brothers
(1233). haec ignominiae causa, Clu. 120, this reason, namely the censor's
stigma, parvulae causae vel falsae suspicionis vel terroris repentinl,
Caes. C. 3, 72, 4, insignificant causes, as for instance ungrounded suspicion or
a panic, propter earn causam sceleris istius, V. 4, 113, for this reason,
namely the crime of the defendant.
214
The Nou n : Gen itive. [1257-1262.
1257. The genitive of definition is very common with causa, less common
with gratia, to define what the motive or cause is : as,
amicitiae causa, i, 39, 2, from motives of friendship . Compare vestra
magis hoc causa volebam, quam mea, DO. I, 164, I wished this more for
your sake than for my own (i ^4). honestatis amplitudinisque gratia,
RA. 15, in compliment to their respectability and high social standing. So also
sometimes with n5mine, and in old or official Latin, with ergo.
1258. Conversely, the genitive of a generic word denoting a person is sometimes
added to a leading word defining the kind of a person : as, frustum pueri, PI. Per.
849, thou bit of a boy. monstrum hominis, T. Eu. 696, thou fiend in human
shafe. quaedam pastes hominum, Fam. 5, 8, 2, some regular plagues in the
shape of men.
1259. quidquid est, quantum est, quod est, or quodcumque est, with
a genitive, is equivalent to an emphatic omnis : as, quidquid patrum est, L. 3,
17, 5, whatever there is in the shape of senators, i. e. every single senator, quod
est pecuniae, tradit, Caes. C. 2, 20, 8, -what there is in the -way of money, he
hands over. Similarly tantum for tot : as, tantum hominum, PI. Poen. 619,
such a mass of men.
THE OBJECTIVE GENITIVE.
1260. (5.) The objective genitive denotes the object of the
action expressed in the limited substantive : as,
metus hostium, Gell. 9, 12, 13, the fear of the enemy, i. e. which is felt
towards them, venditio bonorum, RA. no, sale of the goods, luctu fill,
DO. 2, 193, from grief for his son. This construction is freely used, even
when the parallel verb has a dative, an ablative, or a prepositional expres-
sion : as, fiducia loci, 7, 19, 2, from confidence in the position. Kberationem
culpae, Lig. i, acquittal from gtiilt. militiae vacationem, 6, 14, i, exemption
from military service, opinione trium legionum deiectus, 5, 48, i, disap-
pointed in his hope of three legions, deorum opinio, TD. i, 30, a conception
of the gods, miserrima est contentio honorum, Off. i, 87, a scramble for
office is a pitiful thing.
1261. Instead of the objective genitive, a prepositional expression is
sometimes used with greater precision: as,
metus a vi atque Ira deorum, DN. i, 45, fear of " the might and wrath
of the gods. So especially the accusative, usually denoting a person, with in,
erga, or adversus, combined with substantives denoting feeling : as, odium
in hominum universum genus, TD. 4,25, hatred to all mankind, vestra
erga me voluntas, C. 4, i, your good-will towards me.
1262. A possessive pronoun or adjective is sometimes used for the
objective genitive : as,
(a.) odio tu5, T. Ph. 1016, from hate to thee. tua fiducia, V. 5, 176,
from his reliance on you. aspectuque suo, Lucr. I, 91, and at the sight of her.
(b.} metus hostilis, S. /. 41, 2, fear felt of the enemy, servilis percontatio,
DO. 2,327, crossqitestioning of the servant-girls, firmus adversus militarem
largitiSnem, Ta. H. 2, 82, dead-set against any largess to the military.
21 5
12631266.] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
II. THE GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.
1263. (!) The genitive is used with many adjec-
tives to denote the object.
Such are chiefly adjectives meaning (a.) desirous, (b.) knowing, or remem-
bering, (c.) participating, controlling, or guilty, (d.) full, and most of their
opposites: as, (a.) auri cupidus, PI. Poen. 179, eager for gold, sapientiae
studiSsos, id est enim philosophos, TD. 5, 9, devotees of wisdom, for that is
what 'philosophers ' means. So also aemulus, avidus, fastidiosus, invidus.
(b.) gnarus r6i publicae, Br. 228, familiar with government. r6i militaris
peritissimus, I, 21, 4, a master of the art military, homines adulescentu-
los, inperitos rerum, T. Andr. 910, mere hobbledehoys, not Tip in the world's
ways, imperitus morum, RA. 143, behind the times, immemor bene-
ficiorum, mernor patriae, Ph. 2, 27, forgetful of kindnesses, never forgetting
his country So also cSnscius, consultus, inscius, insolens, insolitus,
msuetus, ieiunus, providus, prudens, rudis. (c.) praedae participes,
Caes. C. 3, 82, i, sharing in the booty, manifestus tanti sceleris, S. /. 35,
8, caught in committing this atrocious crime, expers gloriae, IP. 57, without
a share in the glory. So also adfinis, compos, censors, exheres, potens,
reus. (d.) neg5ti plenus, PI. Ps. 380, full of business, fons plenissimus
piscium, V. 4, 1 18, a fountain swarming with fish, referto praedonum mari,
IP. 31, when the sea was crammed with corsairs. So also fertilis, inops,
liberalis, nudus, profusus.
1264. In poetry and late prose, a great many other adjectives of these meanings,
besides those mentioned above, are also used with the genitive. Such are principally :
(a.) avarus, curiosus, incuriosus, securus. (b.) nescius, praesagus,
praescius, scitus. (c.) exsors, immunis, impos, impotens, innocens,
innoxius, insons, noxius, suspectus. (d.) abundans, dives, egenus,
inanis, indigus, largus, parcus, pauper, prodigus, sterilis, vacuus.
1265. With conscius and the genitive of a thing, the dative of a person is
sometimes added: as, tot flagitiSrum exercitui meo conscius, Ta. 1,43, a
participant with my army in so many outrages. Sometimes conscius has the
dative of a thing: as, mens conscia factis, Lucr. 3, 1018, the mind of guilt
aware.
1266. (2.) The genitive of the object is often used with present
participles which express permanent condition.
These participles are chiefly from verbs which have a transitive use.
Not common in old Latin: as, amantem uxoris, PI. As. 857, devoted to his
wife, fugitans litium, T. Ph. 623, inclined to dodge a suit at law. Very com-
mon in Cicero: as, semper appetentes gloriae praeter ceteras gentis
fuistis, IP. 7, you have always been more hungry for glory than any other
nation. Especially in set expressions : as, homo amantissimus patriae,
Sull. 34, vir amantissimus ri publicae, C. 4, 13, ever a devoted patriot.
negoti gerentes, Sest. 97, business men. alien! appetens, DO. 2, 135, S
C. 5, 4, always hankering after other people's things. In Caesar seldom : as,
fugiens laboris, C. I, 69, 3, apt to shirk exertion.
216
The Noun : Genitive. [1267-1271.
1267. The genitive is hardly ever found with adjectives in -ax (284) : as, huius
rei mendacem, PI. As. 855, untruthful in this point. But in poetry, from Vergil
and Horace on, and in late prose, a few genitives occur with adjectives whose parallel
verbs have a transitive use, such as capax, edax, tenax, &c. : as, tempus edax
rerum, O. 15, 234, thou all-devourer time.
1268. Some of the adjectives which usually take the genitive have occa-
sionally other constructions.
Thus, with adfinis the dative also occurs (1200), rarely with aemulus
(1183) ; the ablative with adjectives of fulness, as dives, plenus, and refertus
(1387); iure with cdnsultus and peritus (1385). For vacuus, &c., see
1306. Prepositional constructions also occur with these adjectives, such as
the accusative with ad or in, or the ablative with ab, de, or in : see the
dictionary.
1269. For the genitive, with words denoting relationship, connection, friendship,
or hostility, see 1203; with similis, 1204. With dignus and indignus, worthy
and unworthy, the ablative is regularly used (1392) ; rarely the genitive : as, non ego
sum dignus salutis ? PL Tri. 1153, don't I deserve a greeting too ? indignus
avorum, V. 12, 649, unworthy of my sires.
1270. (3.) In poetry and late prose, the genitive is used very freely with
many adjectives of various meanings, often merely to indicate what they
apply to : as,
nemo militaris r6i callidior habebatur, Ta. H. 2, 32, at soldiering
nobody was thought to have a greater knack, vetus operis ac laboris, Ta.
I, 20, an old hand at the toil and moil of army life, aevi maturus Acestes,
V. 5, 73, Acestes, ripe in years, sen studiorum, H. S. I, IO, 21, what laggards
at your books, integer vltae scelerisque purus, H. i, 22, I, the man un-
spotted in his life and clean of sin. fessi rerum, V. I, 178, in travail spent.
satin tu sanu's mentis aut animi tui ? PI. Tri. 454, art thou quite right in
thy five wits ? ( 1 339 ) .
III. THE GENITIVE WITH VERBS.
VERBS OF VALUING.
1271. A few neuter adjectives of quantity are put in the gen-
itive with verbs of valuing to denote the amount of estimation ;
such genitives are :
magni, pluris, plurimi ; parvi, minoris, minimi ; tanti, quanti.
The verbs with which these genitives are used are aestim5, duco, fa-
cio, habeo, pendS, puto, and sum ; rarely existim5 : as, magni opera eius
aestimata est, N. 24, i, 2, his services were rated high, non magni pendo,
PI. As. 460, / don't care much, sua parvi pendere, S. C. 12, 2, a setting
small store by what they had of their own. Verresne tib! tanti fuit ? V.
I, 77, was Verres so important in your eyes? est mihi tanti, C. 2, 15, it is
well worth my while, quanti is a civibus suis fieret ignorabas ? V. 4, 19,
did not you know how the man was prized by his own townsmen ? Rarely
maximi : as, maximi aestimare, Clu. 159, to think all the world of .
217
1272-1278.] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
1272. In expressions of worthlessness, other genitives are also used thus ; such
are nihill, or, usually with a negative, assis, flocci, nauci, pili, terunci : as,
n5n assis facis ? Cat. 43, 13, car'st not a doit? So also huius : as, huius non
faciam, T. Ad. 163, / shall not care a snap.
1273. With aestimo, the ablatives magn5 and permagno are sometimes
used: as, quid ? tu ista permagnS aestimas? V. 4, 13, tell me, do you rate
that sort of thing -very high yourself? Compare 1390.
1274. The genitives tanti and quanti, pluris and minoris are also used with
verbs of buying and selling, hiring and letting, and costing. But other words are put
in the ablative with these verbs : see 1391. For magni, &c., with refert and inter-
est, see 1279.
1275. A similar genitive occurs in one or two set forms, such as aequi bonique
dico, or facio. aequi facid, and bom consuls : as, istuc, Chremes, aequi
bonique facio, T. Hau. 787, / count that, Chremes, fair and good, aequi
istuc facio, PL MG. 784, that 'j all the same to me.
THE VERBS refert AND interest.
1276. refert and interest, it concerns, are much alike in meaning and
in construction. Eut the use of refert is characteristic of old Latin and
poetry ; in prose from Cicero on it is almost supplanted by interest, espe-
cially where persons are concerned.
1277. C 1 -) With refert and interest, a first or second per-
son concerned is denoted by the possessive pronoun forms mea,
tua, nostra, vestra ; and, from Cicero on, the third person
reflexive by sua : as,
(a.) quid id refert mea? PI. Cur. 395, what's that tome? tua istuc
refert maxume, PI. Tri. 319, that is of most concern to thee. non sua
referre, Quinct. 19, that it did not concern him. non nostra magis quam
vestra refert vos non rebellare, L. 34, 17, 7, it is not more for our interest
than for your own that you should not make war again. Without the verb :
as, quid istuc nostra, or quid id nostra ? T. Ph. 800, 940, what's that to us ?
(b.) tua et mea maxime interest te valere, Fam. 16, 4, 4, your health is a
matter of the highest importance to you and to me- vestra hoc maxime in-
terest, Suit. 79, this is of -vital moment to you.
1278. (2.) With interest, from Cicero on, a third person or
thing concerned is denoted by the genitive. Also with refert,
a few times from Sallust on : as,
(a.) quid eius intererat ? RA. 96, what concern was it of his? interesse
ri publicae se cum Pompei5 colldqui, Caes. C. I, 24, 5, that it was of
importance to the common -weal that he should have a parley with Pompey.
(b.) faciundum aliquid, quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse vide-
retur, S. /. Ill, I, that he must do something which should seem more for the
other side's good than his own. For the accusative with ad with these verbs,
or for the dative with refert, see the dictionary.
9X8
The Noun : Genitive. [127912 84.
1279. The matter of concern is expressed by a sentence or infinitive, or by a
neuter pronoun ; rarely by an appellative : as, non quo mea interesset loci
natura, Att. 3, 19, i, not that the character of the place concerned me. The degree
of concern is expressed by an adverb, as magnopere, by a neuter accusative, as
multum, or by a genitive of estimation, rnagm, permagni, pluris, parvi,
tanti, quanti (1271).
JUDICIAL VERBS.
1280. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning,
and acquitting, take a genitive of the charge : as,
C. Verrem insimulat avaritiae, V. i, 128,^ charges Verres with ava-
rice, accusatus est proditionis, N. I, 7, 5, he "was charged -with treason.
capitis arcessere, D. 30, accuse on a capital charge, proditionis damna-
tus est, N. 2, 8, 2, he was convicted of treason. Pollis pecuniae publicae
est condemnatus, Place. 43, Pollis was condemned for embezzlement of gov-
ernment money, maiestatis absoluti sunt permulti, Chi. 116, a good many
were acquitted of high treason. With this genitive, an ablative, crimine,
iudicio, nomine, or lege, is sometimes expressed (1377): as, ne quern
umquam innocentem iudiciS capitis arcessas, Off. 2, 51, that you are never
to accuse any innocent man on a charge affecting his status as a citizen.
1281. The charge is sometimes denoted by a prepositional construction: as.
sescenti sunt, qui inter sicarios et de veneficiis accusabant, RA. 90,
there are hundreds and hundreds that brought charges of murder, by steel and by
poison. So also de alea, of gambling, in Cicero regularly de pecuniis repetun-
dis, of extortion, and necessarily de vi, of an act of violence, as vis has no genitive.
For the neuter accusative, see 1172.
1282. The penalty also is sometimes denoted by the genitive : as, cupio octu-
pll damnari Apr5nium, V. 3, 28, / -want to have Apronius condemned to a pay-
ment of eightfold, damnatusque long! Sisyphus Aeolides labpris, H. 2,
14, 19, and Sisyphiis the Aeolid, amerced -with penance long. Sometimes by the
ablative: as, capite, V. 5, 109. So usually from Livy on, when the penalty is a
definite sum of money or fractional part of a thing.
IMPERSONAL VERBS OF MENTAL DISTRESS.
1283. A genitive of the thing, commonly with an accusative of the
person, is used with five impersonals of mental distress:
miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet : as,
tui me miseret, mei piget, E. in Div. i, 66, I pity thee, I loathe my-
self, fratris me pudet pigetque, T. Ad. 391, my brother stirs my shame and
my disgust, mi pater, me tui pudet, T. Ad. 681, dear father, in thy presence
I'm abashed, galeatum sero duelli paenitet, J. i, 169, too late, with casque
on head, a combatant repenteth him of^ war. So also miseretur, and in old
Latin inceptively, miserescit, commiserescit.
1284. These verbs sometimes have a sentence or a neuter pronoun as subject : as,
non te haec pudent ? T. Ad. 754, does not this make thce blush for shame?
Rarely an appellative: as, me quidem haec condicio non paenitet, PI. St. 5_i,
for my part, with my wedded state I'm well content. Or a person : as, pudeo,
PI. Cas. 877, 1 feel ashamed. For participles and gerundives, see 817.
219
1285-1291.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1285. The genitive is used with the personals misereor or misereo, and
in poetry with miseresco : as,
aliquando miseremini sociorum, V. i, 72, do take pity on your allies, it
is high time, neminis miserere certumst, quia mei miseret neminem,
PI. Cap. 764, /'/ bound to care for nobody, as no one cares for me. Arcadii
miserescite regis, V. 8, 573, take pity on the king of A ready.
1286. Personal verbs of desiring, loathing, admiring, and dreading, sometimes take
the genitive: as, pol, quamquam domi cupiS, opperiar, PI. Tri. 84 \, although
I yearn for home, I vow I '// -wait (1263). fastldit mei, PI. Aul. 245, he views me
with disdain (1263). iustitiaene prius mirer, belline labprum ? V. n, 126,
thy justice first shall I admire? thy toils in war? ne tui quidem testimSni
veritus, Att. 8, 4, i, not having any awe about your recommendation either.
VERBS OF MEMORY.
1287. The genitive is used with verbs of remembering and for-
getting when they denote an inherent state of memory or~of forget-
fulness : as,
faciam ut mei memineris dum vitam vivas, PI. Per. 494, /'// make
you remember me as long as you live, num potui magis oblivisci tem-
porum meorum, meminisse actionum ? Fam. i, 9, 8, could I have been
more forgetful of my present interests, more mindful of my past career ? re-
mimsceretur incommodi populi R5mam, i, 13, 4, he had better bear in
mind the rebuff dealt out to Rome, oblitusque meorum obliviscendus et
illis, H. . I, II, 10, of friends forgetful and by friends forgot. See 1263.
1288. The accusative is used with these verbs when they denote
the mere intellectual exercise of memory or a failure to remember : as,
equid meministi tubm parentum nomina ? PI. Poen. 1062, do you
remember your parents' names ? Cinnam memini vidi Sullam, Ph. 5 I7>
I can remember Cinna, I have seen Sulla, utinam memet possim ob-
liscier! Accius ap. Non. 500, 5, oh that myself I could forget ! subito
tot am causam oblitus est, Br. 217, suddenly he forgot the whole case.
1289. recorder has once the genitive (Pis. 12), but from its meaning bring to
heart it is naturally found oftener with the accusative. With it and with memini,
the ablative with de also occurs. The rare reminiscor has the genitive once each in
Caesar and Nepos; twice later; oftener the accusative. Neuter pronouns are in the
accusative with all these verbs.
1290. The impersonal venit in mentem also takes the genitive: as, venit
mih! Platonis in mentem, Fin. 5, 2, Plato comes into my head ; very excep-
tionally the ablative with de. But the verb in this combination is often used person-
ally, with the thing occurring to the mind as the subject, and regularly in Cicero,
when it is res or genus, or a neuter pronoun.
1291. Verbs of reminding take the accusative of a person and sometimes
with it the genitive of a thing : as,
admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae, S. C. 21, 4, he
reminded one man of his beggary, another of his greed. So also commoneo,
commonfaci5, and, in Tacitus only, moneo. Oftener however the thing
is in the ablative with de, or, if it is a neuter pronoun or adjective, in the
accusative (1172). Rarely a substantive equivalent to a neuter pronoun : as,
earn rem nos locus admonuit, S. 7. 79, i, the place has reminded me of that.
220
The Noun: Ablative. [1292-1297.
VERBS OF PARTICIPATION AND MASTERY.
1292. Verbs of participation_and mastery sometimes take the genitive in old Latin
and in poetry : as, servom sui participat consili, PI. Cist. 163, she makes a
slave a sharer in her plot (1263). qua Daunus agrestium regnavit populo-
rum, H. 3, 30, n, where Daunus "was the lord of rural folk (1260). So, even in
prose, potior, which usually has the ablative (1379): as, totius Galliae sese
potiri posse sperant, i, 3, 8, they_ hope they can get the mastery over the whole of
Gaul. Especially with persons, or with the genitive plural rerum: rerum potior,
get to be, or often, am, master of the situation, or / am monarch of^all I survey. Simi-
larly in Tacitus apiscor, adiplscor : as, arma, quis Servius Galba rerum
adeptUS est, Ta. 3, 55, the war by which Galba became master of the throne. In
Plautus credo sometimes has the genitive of a thing and dative of a person.
VERBS OF FULNESS AND WANT.
1293. The genitive is sometimes used with verbs of filling, abounding,
and lacking, as it is with the corresponding adjectives (1263) : as,
convivium vicinorum cotidie compleo, CM. 46, I fill out a dinner-
party every day "with neighbours, haec res vitae me, soror, saturant,
PI. St. 18, these things, my sister, sicken me of life, terra ferarum nunc
etiam scatit, Lucr. 5, 39, still teems the earth with ravin beasts. So with
egeo sometimes : as, egeo consili, Att. 7, 22, 2, I am in need of some advice.
And usually with indigeo : as, hoc bellum indiget celeritatis, Ph. 6, 7,
this war requires rapid action. But, from Livy on, the ablative is commoner
with indigeo : see 1305.
1294. With verbs of separating and abstaining, the ablative is_ regularly used
(1302). But the genitive is sometimes found in poetry : as, me omnium laborum
levas, PI. R. 247, thou riddest me of all my -woes, abstineto irarum calidae-
que rixae, H. 3, 27, 69, from bursts of rage keep thou and hot affray.
IV. THE GENITIVE OF EXCLAMATION.
1295. In poetry, the genitive with an adjective in agreement occurs two or three
times in exclamation : as, fpederis heu taciti, Prop. 5, 7, 21, alas^ that secret
covenant. Usually the nominative (1117), or the accusative (1149).
THE ABLATIVE.
1296. The ablative is used principally with verbs and their
participles, or with adjectives, and consists of three cases that
were originally distinct.
1297. I* The ABLATIVE proper denotes that from which
something parts or proceeds (1302).
221
1298-1302.] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
The ablative proper is often accompanied -by the prepositions ab, de,
ex, prae, pro, sine, or tenus.
1298. With the ablative proper two other cases, originally distinct, a
locative case and an instrumental case, were confounded, and merged under
the common name of the ablative.
1299. II. The LOCATIVE case denotes the place in, at, or on
which action occurs. A few forms of the locative proper are
still preserved (1331)- But the place where is ordinarily de-
noted by the locative ablative (1342).
The locative ablative is often accompanied by the prepositions in or
sub.
1300. III. The INSTRUMENTAL case denotes that by which or
with which a main person or thing is attended (1356).
The instrumental ablative is often accompanied by the prepositions cum
or coram.
1301. The ablative or locative is sometimes attached immediately
to a substantive.
Thus, (a.) sometimes to a substantive which denotes or implies action:
as, interitus ferr5, destruction -with the sword, like intereo ferro ; see 1307,
1331, 1342, 1376, 1377. (b.) In constructions in which the ablative is due to
an older combination with a verb: as, vir singular! virtute, a man of unex-
ampled bravery. See 1309 and 1375.
I. THE ABLATIVE PROPER.
THE ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION AND WANT, AND OF
DEPARTURE.
1302. Verbs of separation take an ablative of the
thing from which separation takes place : as,
(a ) caruit foro postea Pompeius, caruit senatu, caruit publico, Mil,
18, after that Pompey had to keep away from the market place, from the senate,
from highways and byways, adhuc Q. Ligarius omni culpa vacat, Lig. 4,
thus far Ligarius proves devoid of any guilt, egeo consilio, Att. 15, I, A, 5>-^
need advice (1305). (b.} Italia prohibetur: non tu eum patria privare,
qua caret, sed vita vis, Lig. n, he is kept out of Italy ; you want to deprive
him not of his country, from which he is debarred, but of life, liberemus cura
populum Romanum, L. 39, 51, 9, Hannibal's words when he took poison,
183 B. c., let me relieve Rome of anxiety.
223
The Nou n : A blative. [1303-1 309.
1303. This ablative is used (a.} with such verbs as mean abstain, abs-
tineo, desisto, superseded ; am devoid of, careo, vac5 ; need, egeo ; and
in addition to the accusative of the object, (b.} with verbs used transitively,
such as mean keep off, arceo, exclud5 and intercludo, prohibeo ; drive
away, remove, pello, moveo, and their compounds ; free, expedio, libero,
levo, solv5 and exsolvo ; deprive, orbo, privo, spolio, nudo, fraudo.
1304. A preposition, ab or ex, is often used with these verbs, and regu-
larly when the ablative denotes a person. But careo and egeo, and exsolvo
and levo, never have a preposition.
1305. With egeo, the genitive is sometimes used, and often with indigeo : see
1293. Also in poetry, with verbs of abstaining and separating : see 1294.
1306. The ablative of separation is sometimes used with such adjectives as ali-
enus, expers, liber, nudus, vacuus, &c. : as, negant id esse alienum
maiestate deorum, Div. 2, 105, they maintain that this is not at variance -with
the greatness of the gods, vacui curis, Fin. 2, 46, devoid of cares, arce et
urbe orba sum, E. Tr. 114, of tower and town bereft am I. But sometimes
the genitive: see 1263 and 1264; sometimes also prepositional constructions: for
these, and particularly for the different constructions of alienus, see the dictionary.
TOWN AND ISLAND NAMES.
1307. (i.) Proper names of towns and of little islands
are put in the ablative with verbs of motion, to denote
the place from which motion proceeds : as,
Damaratus fugit Tarquinios Corinth 5, TD. 5, 109, Damaratus ran
away from Corinth to Tarquinii. signum Carthagine captum, V. 4, 82,
the statue carried off from Carthage. Megaribus, PI. Per. \"$],from Megara.
Lemno, PI. Tru. op, from Lemnos. Roma acceperam litteras, Att. 5,8, 2,
I had got a letter from Rome. Rarely with a substantive of motion (1301) :
as, de illms Alexandria discessu, Att. n, 18, I, about his departure from
Alexandrea. Also in dating letters : as, v kal. Sextil., Regio, Fam.j, 19,
Regium, 28 July ; less often the locative: as, Idibus luniis, Thessalomcae,
QFr. i, 3, 10, Thessalonica, 13 "June. Like a town name : Acherunte, poet,
in TD. i, yj,from Acheron. With an attribute : ipsa Samo, V. i, 51, from
Samos itself. TeanS Sidiclno, Att. 8, u, B, 2, from Sidicinian Teanum.
1308. Singular town or island names sometimes have ex in old Latin : thus,
Carysto, PI. Ps. 730, from Carystus, or, ex Carysto, Ps. 737, indifferently, ex
Andro, T. Andr. 70, from Andros. In classical Latin, town names rarely have ab:
as, ab Athenis proficisci, Serv. in Fam. 4, 12, 2, to start from Athens; chiefly
of neighbourhood: as, ab Gergovia, 7, 43, 5 ; 7, 59, \,from camp at Gergovia ; or
direction : as, a Salonis ad Oricum, Caes. C. 3, 8, 4, from Salonae to Oricum ;
regularly with longe : as, longe a Syracusis, V. 4, 107, far from Syracuse.
1309. The ablative of a town or country name is rarely attached immediately to a
substantive, to denote origin : as, Periphanes Rhodo mercator dives, PL As.
499, Periphanes from Rhodes a chapman rich, video ibl hospitem Zacyntho,
PI. Mer. 940, I see the friend there from Zacynthus. Rarely in Cicero : as, Tean5
ApulS laudatores, Clu. 197, eulogists from Apulian Teanum; in Caesar twice.
In Livy with ab only : as, Turnus ab Aricia, L. i, 50, 3. Turnus from Aricia.
But the Roman tribe one belongs to, is regularly in the ablative : as, Q. Verrem
Romilia, sc. tribu, F". a. pr. i, 23, Verres of the tribe Romilia.
223
13101315-] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1310. With a verb, country names regularly have a preposition, and always in
Cicero, Sallust, and Livy : as, e Cilicia decedens, Br. i, going away from Cilicia.
The ablative alone is rare : as, Aegypto advenio domum, PI. Most. 440, from
Egypt I come home. Chiefly in Tacitus : as, AegyptS remeans, 2, 69, coming back
from Egypt. In Caesar, by attraction : cogebantur Corcyra atque Acarnania
pabulum supportare, C. 3, 58, 4, they were forced to fetch fodder from Corcyra
and even Acarnania.
1311. (2.) The ablatives domo and rure, and in poetry
humo, are used like proper names of towns : as,
(a.) domo excesserant, 4, 14,5, they had gone away from home. Also
metaphorically : as, domo doctus, PI. Mer. 355, by home-experience taught,
(b.) rure rediit uxor mea, PI. Mer. 705, my wife's come back from out of town.
\c.} hum5, in Vergil first: as, vix oculos attollit humo, O. 2, 448, scarce
from the ground her eyes she lifts.
THE ABLATIVE OF SOURCE, STUFF, OR MATERIAL.
1312. The verb nascor and participles of origin take an ablative to
denote parentage or rank in life.
Such participles are : natus, prognatus, and ortus ; in poetry and late
prose, also cretus, editus, generatus, genitus, satus, and oriundus : as,
(a.) Romulus deo prognatus, L. i, 40, 3, Romulus, sprung from a god. dis
genite, V. 9, 642,^02* sired of gods. Of a parent, ex is sometimes used : as
ex me hie natus non est, T. Ad. 40, he 'j not my son ; and of remoter ances-
tors, ab. (b.) loco natus honesto, 5, 45, 2, respectably descended, summo
loco natus, 5, 25, i, of high birth, familia antiquissima natum, 7, 32, 4,
a member of an old family. Rarely with de : as, quo de genere gnatust
Philocrates ? PI. Cap. 277, what is the parentage of Philocrates ?
1313. The ablative with an attribute, attached to a substantive, sometimes denotes
stuff or material : as, acre cavo clipeum, V. 3, 286, a targe of hollow bronze.
perenni fronde coronam, Lucr. i, 118, a crown of amaranthine leaf, so-
lidpque adamante columnae, V. 6, 552, and pillars of the solid adamant.
This construction borders closely on the ablative of quality (1375). Rarely without an
attribute: as, pictas abiete puppis, V. 5, 663, painted sterns of fir.
1314. A substantive denoting stuff or material is generally put in the
ablative with de or ex; thus,
(a.) Directly with a substantive : pocula ex auro, V. 4, 62, cups of gold,
(b.) Oftener with an auxiliary verb or participle : signum erat hoc Cupidi-
nis e marmore, V. 4, 5, this statue of Cupid was made of marble, scutis
ex cortice factis, 2, 33, 2, -with long shields made out of bark, ex una
gemma pergrandi triilla excavata, V. 4, 62, a ladle scooped out of a single
enormous semi-precious stone.
1315. The ablative with forms of facio and sum denotes that with which or
to which something is done : as, quid h5c homine facias ? Sest. 29, what can
you do with such a fellow? quid me fiet ? T. Andr. 709, what will become of
me? But often the dative (120^): as, quid tibl faciam ? Aft. 7, 3, 2, what shall
I do to you? Or the ablative with de : as, de fratre quid fiet ? T. Ad. 996, as to
my brother, what will come to pass?
224
The Noun : A blative. [1316-1320.
THE ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, INFLUENCE, OR MOTIVE.
1316. The ablative is used to denote cause, influ-
ence, or motive : as,
madeo metu, PI. Most. 395, I'm drenched with dread, tu imprudentia
laberis, Mur. 78, you, sir, slip from inadvertence, maerore et lacrimis
consenescebat, Clu. 13, she just pined away in sorrow and tears. Ira incen-
dor, PL Ps. 201, I'm getting hot with wrath, premor luctu, Att. 3, 22, 3,
I am bowed down with grief, quod ego non superbia faciebam, DO. i, 99, 2
did not act thus from superciliousness, not I. non movetur pecunia, V. 4, 18,
he is not moved by money, boat caelum fremitu virum, PI. Am. 232, the
welkin rings with roar_ of men. delicto dolere, correctione gaudere, L.
90, be pained by the sin, take pleasure in the reproof, aetate non quis optu-
erier, PI. Most. 840, owing to age thou canst not see. lovis iussu venio, PI.
Am.prol. 19, at Jove's behest I come. Seianus nimia fortuna socors, Ta.
4, 39, Sej anus giddy with over-prosperity, ferox praeda gloriaque exercitus,
Ta. H. i, 51, the army flushed with booty and glory, exercitus nostri interitus
ferro, Pis. 40, the annihilation of our army by the sword (1301).
1317. Instead of the ablative, other constructions often occur,
especially with verbs used transitively; such are:
(a.} Prepositional phrases with de or ex, in Varro and Livy with ab ;
also with ob, per, or propter: as, rnulti in oppidum propter timorem
sese recipiunt, Caes. C. 2, 35, 6, a good many retreated to the town from fear.
Sometimes with prae : as, prae amore exclusti hunc foras, T. Eu. 98, //
was for love you turned him out of doors ; in classical Latin, usually of hin-
drance: as, solem prae iaculorum multitudine non videbitis, TD. i, 101,
you won't see the sun for the cloud of javelins, (b.) Circumlocutions with
causa, less frequently with gratia (1257). (c.) Ablatives absolute, or parti-
ciples, particularly auxiliary participles with an ablative to express cause,
oftener motive, such as captus, ductus, excitatus or incitatus, impulsus,
incensus, inflammatus, mStus, perterritus : as, nonnulli pudore adducti
remanebant, i, 39, 3, some stuck by from shame.
1318. The person by whom the action of a passive verb is done, is denoted by the
ablative with ab or a. Also occasionally with verbs equivalent to a passive, such as
cado, intereo, pereS, veneS, &c., &c. Things or animals are sometimes repre-
sented as persons by the use of ab: as, animus bene informatus a natura,
Off. i, i^, a soul meetly fashioned by dame nature. See 1476-1478.
1319. In poetry, an ablative denoting a person, with an adjective in agreement, is
sometimes equivalent to an expression with an abstract substantive: as, et adsidud
ruptae lectore COlumnae, J. i, 13, and pillars by persistent reader riven, i. e.
adsiduitate lectoris, or adsidua lectione. curatus inaequali t5nsore
capillos, H. E. i, i, 94, my locks by unsymmetric barber trimmed.
THE ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON.
1320. (i.) The ablative may be used with a com-
parative adjective, when the first of two things compared
is in the nominative, or is a subject-accusative.
i 5 225
1321-1325.] Sentences : The Simple Sen tence.
Such an ablative is translated byt/ian: as, (a.) luce sunt clariora nobis
tua consilia, C. i, 6, your schemes are plainer to us than day. 6 matre
pulchra filia pulchrior, H. i, 16, I, O daughter fairer than a mother fair.
Particularly in sentences of negative import: as, quis Karthaginiensium
pluris fuit Hannibale ? Sest. 142, of all the sons of Carthage, -who was rated
/tinker than Hannibal ? nee mihl est te iucundius quicquam nee carius,
Fam. 2, IO, I, and there is nothing in the world nearer and dearer to me than
you. (b.) illud cognSsces prefects, mihl te neque cariorem neque iu-
cundiorem esse quemquam, Fam. 2, 3, 2, one thing I am sure you will see,
that there is nobody nearer and dearer to me than you.
1321. (2.) The ablative of comparison is similarly used
when the first member of comparison is an accusative of the
object : as,
exegi monumentum acre perennius, H. 3, 30, I, / have builded up a
monument more durable than bronze. Particularly so in sentences of negative
import: as, hoc mih! gratius facere nihil potes, Fam. 13, 44, you can do
nothing for me more welcome than this. Also with predicate adjectives de-
pendent on a verb of thinking (1167): as, Herodotum cur veraciorem
ducam Knnio ? Div. 2, 1 16, why should I count Herodotus any more truthful
than Ennius? Regularly when the second member of comparison is a rela-
tive : as, qua pecude nihil genuit natura fecundius, DN. 2, 160, nature
has created nothing more prolific than this animal, i. e. the sow.
1322. (3.) In poetry, the ablative of comparison may be used with the first mem-
ber of comparison in any case: as, Lucili ritu, nostrum melioris utroque,
H. S. 2, i, 29, after Lucilius's -way, a better man than thou or I.
1323. (4.) In sentences of negative import, the ablative is sometimes used with
alter and alius, as with a comparative: as, neque mest alter quisquam, PI.
As. 492, and there's no other man than I. nee quicquam aliud Hbertate
commum quaesisse, Brut, and Cass. in Fam. u, 2, 2, and to have aimed at
nothing else than freedom for all. But in prose, quam is commonly used.
1324. (i.) The second member of comparison is often introduced by
quam, than, or in poetry by atque or ac. This member, whatever the case
of the first member, is sometimes made the subject of a form of sum in a
new sentence : as,
meliorem quam ego sum suppon5 tibf, PI. Cur. 256, 1 give you as a
substitute a belter than I am myself, verba M. Varronis, hominis quam
fuit Claudius doctioris, Gell. 10, i, 4, the words _of Varro, a better scholar
than Claudius ever was. ut tib! maiori quam Africanus fuit, me ad-
iunctum esse patiare, Fam. 5, 7, 3, so that you will allow me to be associated
with you, a bigger man than Africanus ever was.
1325. (2.) When the first member is in the nominative or
accusative, quam is commonly a mere coordinating word, with
both members in the same case : as,
(a.) pluris est oculatus testis Gnus quam auriti decem, PI. Tru. 490,
a single witness with an eye rates higher than a dozen with the ear. (b. ) tu
velim existimes neminem cuiquam neque cariorem neque iucundiorem
umquam fuisse quam te mihl, Fam. i, 9, 24, 1 hope you will be convinced
that nobody was ever nearer and dearer to anybody than yoii to me.
226
The Noun : A blative. [1326-1331.
1326. An introductory ablative of a demonstrative or relative pronoun sometimes
precedes the construction with quam: as, quid hoc est clarius, quam omnis
Segestae matronas et virgines convenisse ? V. 4, 77, what fact is there
better known than this, to wit, that all the women in Segesta, married and single,
came streaming together ?
1327. The ablative is sometimes used with comparative adverbs
also.
So particularly in sentences of negative import : as, nihil lacrima citius
arescit, Corn. 2, 50, nothing dries up quicker than a tear. Less frequently
in positive sentences in prose : as, fortuna, quae plus consilis humanis
pollet, contraxit certamen, L. 44, 40, 3, fortune, who is mightier than the
devices of man, precipitated the engagement. Very commonly, however,
quam is used with comparative adverbs.
1328. Designations of number or extent are often qualified by
amplius, longius, or plus, over, or by minus, under.
The word thus qualified is put in the case which the context would re-
quire without any such qualification : as, plus septingenti capti, L. 41, 12, 8,
over seven hundred were taken prisoners, tecum plus annum vlxit, Q. 41, he
lived with you (ruer a year (1151). cum equis plus qumgentis, L. 40, 32, 6,
with over five hundred horses. Less frequently with quam. When these
words are felt as real substantives in the nominative or accusative, the abla-
tive of comparison may be used (1320) : as, plus triduo, RA. 74, more than
three days,
1329. In expressions of age with natus, the adjectives maior and minor are
used as well as amplius and minus, and with the same construction (1328) : as,
annos natus maior quadraginta, RA. 39, over forty years old. For other
constructions, see the dictionary. Similarly conlectus aquae digitum non
altior unum, Lucr. 4, 414, a pool no deeper than a finger's breadth (1130). But
commonly with comparative adjectives of extent, quam is used, or the ablative
(1320): as, palus non latior pedibus qumquaginta, 7, 19, i, a marsh not
wider than fifty feet.
1330. With a comparative adjective or adverb, the ablatives opmione,
exspectatione, and spe, and some others, chiefly in poetry, take the place
of a sentence with quam : as,
opmione melius, PI. Cas. 338, better than you thought, minora opini-
one, Caes. C. 2, 31, 5, more insignificant than is thought, latius opmione
disseminatum est hoc malum, C. 4, 6, this infection is more sweeping than
anybody dreams, spe omnium serius, L. 2, 3, I, later than was generally
expected.
II. THE LOCATIVE ABLATIVE.
(A.) THE LOCATIVE PROPER.
1331. (i.) Singular proper names of towns and of
little islands are put in the locative to denote the place
in or at which action occurs : as,
227
I33 2 ~ I 337] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
quid Romae faciam ? mentiri nescio, J. 3, 41, what can I do in Rome?
I don't know how to lie. Corinth! et Karthagini, Agr. 2, 90, at Corinth
and at Carthage. Lacedaemoni, N.praef. 4, in Lacedaemon. Tiburi, Att.
1 6, 3, i, at Tibur. Rhodi, Fam. 4, 7, 4, at Rhodes. mansi5nes diutinae
Lemni, T. Ph. 1012, protracted stays at Lemnos (1301). Sometimes in
dates: as, data Thessalonicae, Att. 3, 20, 3, given at Thessalonica (1307).
The locative rarely means near: as, Antii, L. 22, I, 10, round about Antium.
In Plautus only two singular town names with consonant stems occur, and
these regularly in the locative, Carthagini and Sicyoni, three times each;
once in a doubtful example, Sicyone, Cist. 128. Terence has no examples
of these stems. From. Cicero on, the locative ablative is commoner with
them (1343).
1332. With an adjective attribute also, the locative is used : as, Team Apuli,
Clu. 27, at the Apulian Teanum. Suessae Auruncae. L. 32, 9, 3, at the
Auruncan Suessa. The appellative forum, market place, used, with an attribute,
as a proper name, is sometimes put in the accusative with ad : as, Claternae, ad
Forum Cornelium, Fam. 12, 5, 2, at Claterna and at Forum Cornelium ;
sometimes in the locative ablative : Foro lull, Plin. Ep. 5, 19, 7.
1333. When the locative is further explained by an appellative following, the
appellative is put in the locative ablative, either alone, or with in : as, Antiochiae,
celebri quondam urbe, Arch. 4, at Antioch, once a bustling town. Neapoli,
in celeberrimo oppido, RabP. 26, at Neapolis, a town swarming -with people.
An appellative in the ablative with in may be further denned by a proper name in the
locative: as, duabus ininsulis, Melitae et Sami, V. 5, 184, in two islands at
Melita and Samos. in oppidS, Antiochiae, Att. 5, 18, i, within town walls
at Antioch. in secessu, Apolloniae, Suet. Aug. 94, out of town at Apollonia.
Or in the ablative: as, in oppido Citio, N. 5, 3, 4, in the town of Citium. in
urbe R5ma, L. 39, 14, 7, in the city of Rome.
1334. In Plautus, singular town names with stems in -a- or -o- are put in the
locative ten or twelve times, in the ablative with in some fifteen times. Three such
have only in, never the locative: in Anactorio, Poen. 896, in Seleucia, Tri.
QOI, in Sparta, Poen. 663 ; furthermore, in Epidamno, Men. 267, 380 twice, in
Epheso, B. 309, MG. 441, 778, and in Epidaur5, Cur. 341, 429, E. 540, 541,
554, but also Epidamni, Men. prol. 51, Ephesi, B. 336, 1047, MG. 648, and
Epidauri, E. 636. Terence, who has only -o- stems, uses the locative six times,
the ablative with in four times: only with in: in Andro, Andr. 931, in Imbro,
Hec. 171. Furthermore in Lemno, Ph. 873, 1004, but also Lemni, Ph. 680, 942,
1013. Also Mileti, Ad. 654, Rhodi, Eu. 107, Sunii, Eu. 519.
1335. A town name is sometimes put in the ablative with in by assimilation with
a parallel in : as, in Illyrico, in ipsa Alexandria, Att. n, 16, i, in Illyricum,
and at Alexandrea itself. Antiochum in Syria, Ptclemaeum in Alexan-
dria esse, L. 42, 26, 7, that Antiochus was in Syria, Ptolemy at Alexandria, in
monte Albano Lavinioque, L. 5, 52, 8, on the Alban mount and at Lavinium.
Also without assimilation: as, navis et in Caieta est parata npbis et Brun-
dusii, Att. 8, 3, 6, we have a vessel all chartered, one in Cajeta and one at
Brundusium. in Hispali, Caes. 67. 2, 18, i, in Hispalis.
1336. With country names, the locative is very exceptional : as, Chersonesi,
N. i, 2, 4, at the Peninsula. Aegypti, Val. M. 4, i, 15, in Egypt. Similarly
Accherunti, PI. Cap. 689. 998, Mer. 606, Tru. 749, in Acheron ; Accherunte
however once: Accheruntest, PI. Poen. 431. In Sallust, Romae Numidiae-
que, /. 33, 4, with assimilation of Numidiae to Romae.
1337. (2.) The locatives domi, run, humi, and rarely orbi,
are used like proper names of towns : as,
228
The Noun : Ablaiive. [1338-1342.
(a.) cenab5 domi, PL St. 482, / shall dine at home. Metaphorically,
domi est, nascitur, or habeo, I can get at home, I need not go abroad for, or
I have in plenty : as, id quidem domi est, Att. 10, 14, 2, as for that, I have
it myself. With a possessive pronoun or alienus in agreement, either the
locative is used, or the ablative with in ; for domui, as, Off. 3, 99, see 594;
with other adjectives the ablative with in. (b.) run, T. Ph. 363, up in the
country ; for rure, see 1344 and 1345. (c.} humi, on the ground, or to the
ground, in Terence first: as, hunc ante nostram ianuam appone : : obsecro,
humme ? T. Andr. 724, set down this baby at our door : : good gracious ; on the
ground? iacere humi, C. I, 26, sleeping on bare ground, (d.) orbi with
terrae or terrarum : as, amplissimum orbi terrarum monumentum, V.
4, 82, the grandest monument in the wide wide world.
1338. The locatives belli, older duelli, and militiae are sometimes used in
contrast with dorm : as, domi duellique, PI. Cap. prol. 68, domi bellique, L.
2, 50, u, domi militiaeque, TD. 5, 55, militiae et domi, T. Ad. 495, at home
and in the field. Rarely without domi : as, belli, RP. 2, 56, militiae, S. /. 84, 2.
1339. (3.) Other appellatives rarely have the locative : as, proxumae viciniae,
PI. B. 205, MG. 273, in the next neighbourhood, terrae, L. 5, 51, 9, in the earth.
With verbs of suspense, doubt, and distress, and with many adjectives, animi, in soul,
is not infrequent ; and animi being mistaken for a genitive, mentis is also used: as,
desipiebam mentis, PI. E. 138, / was beside myself. Oftener anim6 (1344).
1340. Many original locatives have become set as adverbs : as, peregri, abroad.
Particularly of pronouns : as, illi, PI. Am. 249, off there, oftener illic ; isti or istic,
hie ; sometimes further denned by an added expression; as, hie viciniae, T. Ph. 95,
here in the neighbourhood, hie proxumae viciniae, MG. 273, here in the Jiouse
next door, hie in Veneris fano meae viciniae, PI. R. 613, here, in the shrine
of Venus, in my neighbourhood, hie RSmae, Arch. 5, here in Rome.
1341. The locative proper sometimes denotes time when: as, luci, by light,
temperi, betimes, heri or here, yesterday, vesperi, at evening, heri vesperi,
DO. 2, 13, last evening. In Plautus, die septimi, Men. 1156, Per. 260, on the
seventh day, mane sane septimi, Men. 1157, bright and early on the seventh, die
crastini, Most. 881, tomorrow. Often with an adjective juxtaposed : as, postri-
die, the day after, postridie mane, Fatn. n, 6, i, early next day, cotidie, each
day, daily, pridie, the day before.
(B.) THE ABLATIVE USED AS LOCATIVE.
PLACE IN, ON, OR AT WHICH.
1342. (i.) Plural proper names of towns and of little
islands are put in the locative ablative to denote the
place in or at which action occurs : as,
mortuus Cumis, L. 2, 21, 5, he died at Cumae. Athenis tenue caelum,
crassum Thebis, Fat. 7, in Athens the air is thin, at Thebes it is thick, locus
ostenditur Capreis, Suet. Tib. 62, the place is pointed out at Capreae. Rarely
with substantives of action (1301) : as, mansio Formiis, Att. 9, 5, i, the stay
at Formiae. With an attribute : Athenis tuis, Att. 16, 6, 2, in your darling
Athens. Curibus Sabinis, L. i, 18, i, at the Sabine Cures.
229
1 34 3- 1 348.] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
1343. (2.) Singular proper names of towns with consonant
stems are oftener put in the locative ablative than in the locative
proper : as,
adulescentium greges Lacedaemone vidimus, TD. 5, 77, -we have
seen the companies of young men in Lacedaemon. Karthagine, Alt. 16, 4, 2,
at Carthage. Tlbure, H. E. i, 8, 12, at Tibur. Narbone, Ph. 2, 76, at
Narbo. See 1331. So also Acherunte, Lucr. 3,984, in Acheron. Calydone
et Naupact5, Caes. C. 3, 35, I, at Calydon and Naupactus, with Naupact5
attracted by Calydone. With an attribute: Carthagine Nova, L. 28, 17,
II, at New Carthage. Acherunte profundS, Lucr. 3, 978, in vasty Acheron.
1344. (3,) A few general appellatives are used in the locative ablative
without an attribute, especially in set expressions, to denote the place
where : as,
terra marique, IP. 48, by land and sea ; less commonly marl atque
terra, S. C. 53, 2, by sea and land, dextra Piraeus, sinistra Corinthus,
Gael, in Fam. 4, 5, 4, Piraeus on the right, Corinth on the left. Rarely, rure,
PI. Cas. no, H. E. i, 7, I, in the country, for run (1337). So animo, animis,
with verbs of feeling: as, angor animo, Br. 7, / am distressed in soul, or
/ am heart-broken. Metaphorically : loco, (a.) in the right place, also suo
loco, or in loco, (b.) Ioc5, instead ; numero, in the category, both with a
genitive. principiS, initio, in the beginning.
1345. Certain appellatives, with an attribute, often denote the place where by the
locative ablative ; so especially loco, locis, rure, librp, libris, parte, partibus :
as, remote, salubri, amoeno Ioc5, Fam. 7, 20, 2, in a sequestered^ healthy, and
picturesque nook, idoneo loco, 3, 17, 5, in an advantageous spot, iniquo loco,
5, 51, i, on unsuitable ground, campestribus ac demissis locis, 7, 72, 3, in
level and sunken places, rure meo, H. E. i, 15, 17, at my own country box.
rure paterno, H. E. i, 18, 60, J. 6, 55, on the ancestral farm, alio libro, Off.
2, 31, in another book.
1346. Substantives are often used in the locative ablative with totus in agree-
ment, less often with cunctus, omnis, or medius, to denote the place where: as,
tota Gallia, 5, 55, 3, all over Gaul, totis trepidatur castris, 6, 37, 6, there
is a panic all over the camp, omnibus oppidis, V. 2, 136, in all the_ towns.
omnibus oppidis maritimis, Caes. C. 3, 5, i, in^all the seaports, media urbe,
L. i, 33, 8, in the heart of Rome. But sometimes in is used, or the accusative with
per.
1347. (4.) With country names and most appellatives, the place
where is generally expressed by the ablative with in. But even with-
out an attribute, the ablative alone is sometimes used, especially in
poetry : as,
Italia, V. i, 263, in Italy, Ktore, V. i, 184, upon the beach, corde, V. i,
209, in heart, pectore, V. i, 657, in breast, thalamo, H. i, 15, 16, in bower,
umer5, V. i, 501, on shoulder, Esquiliis, DN. 3, 63, on the Esquiline.
Once in Plautus Alide, Cap. 330, in Elis, but eight times in Alide.
1348. The locative ablative is sometimes used with such verbs as teneo and
recipio: as, (a.) Ariovistus exercitum castris continuit, 1,48,4, Ariovistus
kept nis infantry in camp. oppidS sese continebant, 2, 30, 2, they kept inside
the town. (.) oppidis recipere, 2, 3, 3, to receive inside their towns. rex
ecquis est, qui senatorem tecto ac domo non invitet ? V. 4, 25, is there a
monarch in the wide world that would not welcome a senator to house and home ?
230
The Noun : A blative. [1349-1353.
1349. The locative ablative is used with fido and confido, glorior, laetor,
nitor, sto, and with fretus: as, barbari cpnfisi loci natura in acie per-
manserunt, 8, 15, i, the natives, trusting in the nature of their position, kept
their stand in battle array, superioribus victoriis fretl, 3, 21, i, relying on
their former victories. For other constructions with these words, see the dictionary.
TIME AT WHICH OR TIME WITHIN WHICH.
1350. (i.) The locative ablative is used to denote
the point of time at which action occurs.
So particularly of substantives denoting periods or points of time, thus :
hieme, 5, i, i, in the winter. Kalendis, H. Epod. 2, 70, upon the first, i. e.
of the month. Generally with an attribute : as, prlmo vere, 6, 3, 4, in the
first month of spring. Martiis Kalendis, H. 3, 8, i, upon the first of March.
With a parallel locative (1341) : vesperi eodem die, Att. 8, 5, i, the evening
of the same day.
1351. Words not in themselves denoting periods or points of time,
are in the same way put in the ablative : as,
patrum nostrorum memoria, i, 12, 5, in the memory of our fathers.
non modo illis Punicis bellis, sed etiam hac praedonum multitudine,
V. 4, 103, not only in the Punic wars of yore, but also in the present swarm of
pirates, proxumis comitiis, 7, 67, 7, at the last election, spectaculls, Att.
2 > J 9> 3i at the shows. Especially substantives of action in -tus or -sus
(235): as, solis occasu, 1,50, 3, at sunset, adventu in Galliam Caesaris,
5, 54, 2, at Caesar's arrival in Gaul, eorum adventu, 7, 65, 5, after these
people came, discessu ceterorum, C. i, 7, when the rest went away.
1352. (2.) The locative ablative is used to denote the space
of time within which action occurs : as,
paucis diebus opus efficitur, 6, 9, 4, the job is finished up in a few days.
tribus hSris Aduatucam venire potestis, 6, 35, 8, in three hours you can
get to Aduatuca. quae hie monstra fiunt, anno vix possum eloqui,
PI. Most. 505, what ghost-transactions take place here I scarce could tell you in
a year, cum ad oppidum Senonum Vellaunodunum venisset, id biduo
circumvallavit, 7, II, I, arriving at Vellaunodunum, a town of the Senons,
in two days time he investedit. quicquid est, biduo sciemus, Att. 9, 14, 2,
whatever it may be, we shall know in a couple of days.
1353. The ablative of the time at or within which action occurs is sometimes
accompanied by in : as, in bello, 6, i, 3, in the war. in tempore, T. Hau. 364,
in the nick of time, in adulescentia, PL B. 410, in my young days, in tall
tempore, Lucr. i, 93, L. 22, 35, 7, in such a stress, at such an hour, in hoc
triduo, PI. Ps. 316, -within the next three days. Especially of repeated action, in
the sense of a or every, with numerals: as, ter in anno, PI. B. 1127, RA. 132,
three times a year, in hora saepe ducentos versus dictabat, H. S. \, 4,9,
two hundred verses in an hour he 'd often dictate off. But occasionally without in :
as, me deciens die uno extrudit aedibus, PI. Aul. 70, ten times a day he*
thrusts me from the house, septiens die, L. 28, 6, 10, seven times a day.
2 3 I
1 3 54- 1 3 5 9.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1354. An ablative of the time within which action occurs is sometimes followed
by a relative pronoun sentence, with the relative pronoun likewise in the ablative : as,
quadriduS, qu5 haec gesta sunt, res ad Chrysogonum defertur, RA.
20, -within the four days space in which this occurred, the incident is reported to
Chrysogonus,\. e. four days after this occurred, diebus decem, quibus materia
coepta erat conportari, omni opere effects, 4, 18, i, the job being all done
ten days after the carting of the stuff had begun.
1355. The ablative is exceptionally used to denote duration of time : as,
t5ta nocte continenter ierunt, i, 26, 5, they went on and on all night
without interrttption. Regularly, however, the accusative (1151); but the
ablative is common in inscriptions.
III. THE INSTRUMENTAL ABLATIVE.
(A.) THE ABLATIVE OF ATTENDANCE.
THE ABLATIVE OF ACCOMPANIMENT.
1356. A few indefinite designations of military forces denote accompani-
ment by the ablative alone, or oftener with cum : as,
(a.) ad castra Caesaris omnibus copiis contenderunt, 2, 7, 3, they
marched upon Caesar's camp with all their forces, omnibus copiis ad Iler-
dam proficiscitur, Caes. C. i, 41, 2, he marches before Ilerda, horse, foot, and
dragoons, (b.} is civitati persuasit, ut cum omnibus copiis exirent, i, 2, i,
well, this man induced the community to emigrate in a body, bag and baggage.
1357. The participles iunctus and coniunctus take the ablative of the thing
joined with: as, defensione iuncta laudatio, Br. 162, a eulogy combined -with a
defence. But sometimes the ablative with cum is used, or the dative (1186).
THE ABLATIVE OF MANNER.
1358. (i.) Certain substantives without an attribute are put in the
ablative alone to denote manner ; but usually substantives without an
attribute have cum.
(a.) Such adverbial ablatives are iure and iniuria, ratione et vi, si-
lentio, vitio, ordine, sponte, consuetudine, &c. : as, Aratus iure laudatur,
Off. 2, 81, Aratus is justly admired, iniuria suspectum, C. i, 17, wrongfully
suspected, in omnibus, quae ratione docentur et via, O. 116, in everything
that is taught with philosophic method. silenti5 egressus, 7, 58, 2, going
out in silence, censores vitio creati, L. 6, 27, 5, censors irregularly ap-
pointed. 5rdine cuncta exposuit, L. 3, 50, 4, he told the whole story from
beginning to end, i. e. with all the particulars, (b.) With cum: face rem
hanc cum cura geras, PI. Per. 198, see that this job with care thou dost.
cum virtute vivere, Fin. 3, 29, to live virtuously.
1359. (2.) The ablative of a substantive with an attribute is
often used to denote manner, sometimes with cum : as,
232
The Noun : Ablative. [i 360- i 365.
(a.) i pede fausto, H. E. 2, 2, 37, go with a blessing on thy foot, dat
sonitu magno stragem, Lucr. i, 288, it deals destruction with a mighty roar.
ferarum ritu sternuntur, L. 5> 44> 6, they throw themselves down beast-fashion.
apis Matlnae more modoque operosa carmina fingo, H. 4, 2, 27, in way
and wise of Matin bee laborious lays I mould. ' indoctus ' dicimus brevi
prima littera, ' insanus ' producta, 'inhumanus' brevi,_'infelix' longa,
O. 159, we pronounce indoctus with the first letter short, insanus with it long,
inhumanus with it short, inf elix with it long ( 167 ). terno consurgunt ordine
remi, V. 5, 120, with triple bank each time in concert rise the oars, (b.} Allo-
broges magna cum cura suos fines tuentur, 7, 65, 3, the Allobrogans
guard their own territory with great care.
1360. With a substantive meaning way or manner , as modo, ritu, &c., feeling
or intention, as hac mente, aequo animo, condition, as ea condicione, or a
part of the body, as in nudo capite, bareheaded, cum is not used.
1361. Other expressions denoting manner, particularly prepositional expressions
with per, may be found in the dictionary: as, per dolum, 4, 13, i, by deceit, per
iocum, Agr. 2, 96, in fun, per litteras, Att. 5, 21, 13, by letter, in writing, per
vim, RA. 32, violently, per praestigias, V. 4, 53, by some hocus pocus or other,
&c., &c. Sometimes the ablative with ex.
THE ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE.
1362. (i.) The ablative of a substantive, with a
predicate participle in agreement, is used to denote
an attendant circumstance of an action.
In this construction, which is called the Ablative Absolute, (a.) the present
participle is sometimes, used : as, nullo hoste prohibente incolumem le-
gionem in Nantuatis perduxit, 3, 6, 5, with no enemy hindering, he con-
ducted the legion in safety to the Nantuates. Much oftener, however, (b.) the
perfect participle: as, h5c respSnso dato discessit, i, 14, 7, this answer
given he went away, (c.) The future participle is also used in the ablative
absolute from Livy on: as, hospite venture, cessabit nemo tuSrum, J.
14, 59, a visitor to come, your slaves will bustle each and all.
1363. A predicate ablative with a participle meaning made, kept, chosen, or the
like, occurs in Cicero, Caesar, Nepos, and Livy, but is rare (1167) : as, Dolabella
hoste decret5, Ph. n, 16, Dolabella having been voted an enemy of the state.
1364. The perfect participles of deponents used actively in the ablative absolute,
are chiefly those of intransitive use, such as natus, mortuus, ortus, profectus.
From Sallust on, other perfect deponent participles also are used actively with an ac-
cusative. Cicero and Caesar use a few deponent participles, such as emeritus,
pactus, partitus, depopulatus, as passives, and later authors use many other
participles so.
1365. (2.) The ablative of a substantive, with a predicate
noun in agreement, is often used to denote an attendant cir-
cumstance of an action : as,
233
1 366- 1372.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
brevitatem secutus sum te magistro, Fam. n, 25, i, I aimed at brevity
-with you as a teacher, natus dis inimicis, PI Most. 563, born under wrath of
gods. M. Messala et M. PIsone consulibus, i, 2, i, in the consulship of
Messala and Piso. isto praetore venit Syracusas, V. 4, 61, in the defen-
dant 1 s praetorship he came to Syracuse.
1366. The nominative quisque, plerique, or ipse, sometimes accompanies
the ablative absolute: as, causa ipse pro se dicta, damnatur, L. 4, 44, 10, he
is condemned after pleading his case in person.
1367. The ablative absolute may denote in a loose way various re-
lations which might be more distinctly expressed by subordinate sen-
tences.
So particularly : (a.) Time: as, tertia inita vigilia exercitum educit,
Caes. C. 3, 54, 2, at the beginning of the third watch he leads the army out.
(b.) Cause or means : as, C. Flaminium Caelius religione neglecta ceci-
disse apud Trasumenum scribit, DN. 2, 8, Caelius writes that Flaminius
fell at Trasumene in consequence of his neglect of religious observances,
(c.) Concession: as, id paucis defendentibus expugnare non potuit, 2,
\2, 2, though the defenders were few, he could not take it by storm, (d.) Hy-
pothesis : as, quae potest esse vitae iucunditas sublatis amicitiis ? PI.
80, what pleasure can there be in life, if you take friendships away ? (e.) De-
scription : as, domum venit capite obvoluto, Ph. 2, 77, he came home with
his head all muffled up.
1368. It may be seen from the examples above that a change of construction is
often desirable in translating the ablative absolute. Particularly so in many set idio-
matic expressions: as, nulla interposita mora, Caes. C. 3, 75, i, -without a mo-
ment's delay, instantly. equ5 admissd, i, 22, 2, equo citato, Caes. C. 3, 96, 3,
full gallop, clamore sublato, 7, 12, 5, -with a round of cheers, bene re gesta
salvos redeo, PI. TrL 1182, crowned with success I come back safe and sound.
1369. The substantive of the ablative absolute usually denotes a different
person or thing from any in the main sentence. But exceptions to this usage
sometimes occur : as,
quibus audit is, e5s domum remittit, 4, 21, 6, after listening to these men,
he sends them home again, si ego me sciente paterer, PL MG. 559, if 1
should wittingly myself allow, more emphatic than sciens. se iudice nemo
nocens absolvitur, J. 13, 2, himself the judge, no criminal gets free.
1370. Two ablatives absolute often occur together, of which the first indicates the
time, circumstances, or cause of the second: as, exauditS clamSre perturbatls
Srdinibus, 2, 11,5, the ranks being demoralized from hearing the shouts, con-
sumptis omnibus tells gladiis destrictis, Caes. C. i, 46. i, drawing their
swords after expending all their missiles.
1371. The substantive is sometimes omitted in the ablative absolute, particularly
when it is a general word for a person or a thing which is explained by a relative : as,
praemissis, qui repurgarent iter, L. 44, 4, n, sending sappers and miners
ahead to clear a way. relatis ordine, quae vidissent, L. 42, 25, 2, telling
circumstantially all they had seen.
1372. The ablative neuter of some perfect participles is used impersonally (10^4).
This use is rare in old Latin, in classical Latin commonest in Cicero, and afterwards
in Livy: as, auspicate, DN. 2, n, with auspices taken, sortito, K 2, 126, lots
being drawn, or by lot. Such ablatives readily become adverbs (704). Substantives
are also sometimes used alone: as, austro, Div. 2, 58, when the wind is south.
tranquiilitate, Plin. Ep. 8, 20, 6, when it is calm, sereno, L. 37, 3, 3, the day
being clear.
234
The Noun : A blative. [ 1 3 7 3 - 1 377-
1 373- The ablative neuter of some perfect participles is occasionally used in agree-
ment with a sentence or an infinitive: as, cSgnitS vivere Ptolomaeum, L. 33,
41,5, it being known that Ptolomy was alive. This construction is not used in old
Latin, and is rare in classical Latin, but common in Livy and Tacitus. So adjectives
also : as, incertS quid vitarent, L. ^8, 36, 12, it not being obvious -what they were
to steer clear of.
1374. The ablative absolute is sometimes attended, especially in Livy and Tacitus,
by an explanatory word, such as etsi, tamen, nisi, quasi, quamquam, or
quamvis : as, etsi aliquo accepts detriments, tamen summa exercitus
salva, Caes. C. i, 67, 5, though with some loss, yet with the safety of the army as a
whole.
THE ABLATIVE OF QUALITY.
1375. The ablative with an adjective in agreement or with a
limiting genitive is used to denote quality, either predicatively
or attributively : as,
(a.) Predicatively: capillS sunt promissS, 5, 14, 3, they have long hair,
or let their hair grow long, singular! fuit industria, N. 24, 3, I, he had un-
paralleled activity. animS bonS 's, PI. Aul. 732, be of good cheer, ad flumen
Genusum, quod ripis erat impeditis, Caes. C 3, 75, 4, to the river Genusus,
which had impracticable banks, (b.) Attributively: difficili transitu flumen
ripisque praeruptis, 6, 7, 5, a river hard to cross and with steep banks, inter-
fectus est C. Gracchus, clarissimo patre, avS, maiSribus, C. I, 4, Grac-
chus was done to death, a man with an illustrious father, grandfather, and
ancestors in general (1044). bos cervi figura, 6, 26, i, an ox with the shape
of a stag. Compare the genitive of quality (1239).
THE ABLATIVE OF THE ROUTE TAKEN.
1376. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of motion to
denote the route taken : as.
Aurelia via profectus est, C 2, 6, he has gone off by the Aurelia Road.
omnibus viis semitlsque essedariSs ex silvis emittebat, 5, 19, 2, he kept
sending his chariot men out by all possible highways and byways, his pontibus
pabulatum mittebat, Caes. C. i, 40, i, by 'these bridges he sent foraging.
frumentum Tiber! venit, L. 2, 34, 5, some grain came by the Tiber, lupus
Esquilina porta ingressus per portam Capenam prope intactus evase-
rat, L. 33, 26, 9, a wolf that came in town by the Esquiline gate had got out
through the Capene gate, almost unscathed. This construction gives rise to
some adverbs : see 707. The ablative of the route is sometimes used with a
substantive of action ( 1301 ) : as,*navigatio Infero, Att. 9, 5, i, the cruise by the
loiver sea. eSdem flumine invectio, Fin. 5, 70, entrance by the same river.
(B.) THE INSTRUMENTAL PROPER.
THE ABLATIVE OF INSTRUMENT OR MEANS.
1377. The ablative is used to denote the instru-
ment or means as,
235
1378-1383-] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
pugnabant armis, H. S. I, 3, 103, they fought with arms, dare oculis
video, sum pernix pedibus, manibus mobilis, PI. MG. 630, I can see dis-
tinctly with my eyes, I 'm nimble with my legs, and active with my arms.
iuvabo aut re te aut opera aut consijio bono, PI. Ps. 19, /'// help thee
either with my purse or hand or good advice, lacte et carne vivunt, pelli-
busque sunt vestiti, 5, 14, 2, they live on milk and meat, and they are clad in
skins, contentus paucis lectoribus, H. S. I, 10, 74, content with readers
few. centenaque arbore fluctum verberat, V. 10, 207, and 'with an hundred
beams at every stroke the wave he smites. Rarely with substantives denoting
action (1301) : as, gestores linguis, audltores auribus, PI. Ps. 429, repor-
ters with their tongues and listeners with their ears, teneris labellis molles
morsiunculae, PI. Ps. 67 a , caressing bites with velvet lips.
1378. When the instrument is a person, the accusative with per is used: as,
haec quoque per exploratores ad hostes deferuntur, 6, 7, 9, this too is re-
ported to the enemy through the medium of scouts. Or a circumlocution, such as
virtute, beneficiS, _benignitate, or especially opera, with a genitive or posses-
sive; as, deum virtute multa bona bene parta habemus, PI. Trt. 346,
thanks to the gods, we've many a pretty penny prettily put by. mea opera Ta-
rentum recepistl, CM. n, it -was through me you got Tarentum back. Rarely
the ablative of a person, the person being then regarded as a thing : as, iacent suis
testibus, Mil. 47, they are cast by their own witnesses.
1379. The instrumental ablative is used with the five deponents fruor,
fungor, potior, utor, vescor, and several of their compounds, and with
usus est and opus est : as,
pace numquam fruemur, Ph. 7, 19, we never shall enjoy ourselves with
peace, i.e. we never shall enjoy peace, fungar vice cotis, H. AP. 304, I'll
play the whetstone's part, castris nostri potiti sunt, I, 26, 4, our people made
themselves masters of the camp, vestra opera utar, L. 3, 46, 8, / will avail
myself of your services, carne vescor, TD. 5, 90, / live on meat, opust
chlamyde, PI. Ps. 734, there is a job with a cloak, i. e. we need a cloak.
1380. Instead of the instrumental ablative, some of the above verbs take the ac-
cusative occasionally in old and post-Augustan Latin : thus, in Plautus, Terence, Cato,
always abutor, also fungor, except once in Terence ; fruor in Cato and Terence,
and perfungor in Lucretius, once each; potior twice in Plautus and three times in
Terence, often also the genitive (1292). The gerundive of these verbs is commonly
used personally in the passive, as if the verbs were regularly used transitively (2244).
1381. utor often has a second predicative ablative : as, administris druidibus
Utuntur, 6, 16, 2, they use the druids as assistants, facill me utetur patre, T.
Hau. 217, an easy-going father he will find in me.
1382. usus est and opus est sometimes tjfke a neuter participle, especially in
old Latin: as, V1SO opust cautost opus, PI. Cap. 225, there's need of sight,
there's need of care. Sometimes the ablative with a predicate participle : as, celeri-
ter mi eo homine conventost opus, PI. Cur. 302, / needs must see that man
at once.
1383. With opus est, the thing wanted is often made the subject nominative
or subject accusative, with opus in the predicate: as, dux nobis et auctor opus
est, Fam. 2, 6, 4, we need a leader and adviser. Usually so when the thing needed
is a neuter adjective or neuter pronoun: as, multa sib! opus esse, V. i, 126, that
he needed much. A genitive dependent on opus is found once or twice in late Latin
(1227).
2 3 6
The Noun : A blative. [ 1 384- 1 388.
1384. usus est is employed chiefly in comedy, but also once or twice in Cicero,
Lucretius, Vergil, and Livy. Once with the accusative : usust hominem astu-
tum, PI. Ps. 385, there 's need of a sharp man.
THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION.
1385. The instrumental ablative is used to denote that in
respect of which an assertion or a term is to be taken : as,
temporibus errasti, Ph. 2, 23, you have slipped up in your chronology.
excellebat actione, Br. 215, his" forte lay in delivery. Helvetii reliquos
Gallos virtute praecedunt, i, i, 4, the Helvetians outdo the rest of the Kelts
in bravery, hi omnes lingua, institutls, legibus inter se differunt, i, i, 2,
these people all differ from each other in language, usages, and laws. sunt
quid am homines non re sed nomine, Off. i, 105, some people are human
beings not in reality but in name, una Sueba natione, altera NSrica, i, 53,
4, one woman a Suebe by birth, the other Noric. vicistis cochleam tarditu-
dine, PI. Poen. 532, you 've beaten snail in slowness. demen iudicio volgi,
H. S. i, 6, 97, mad in the judgement of the world sapiunt mea sententia, T.
Ph. 335, in my opinion they are wise, mea quidem sententia, CM. 56, /';/
my humble opinion, quis hire peritior commemorarl potest ? Clu. 107,
who can be named that is better versed in the law ?
THE ABLATIVE OF FULNESS.
1386. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of abound-
ing, rilling, and furnishing: as,
villa abundat porco, haedo, agno, CM. 56, the country place is running
over with swine, kid, and lamb. tStum montem hominibus compleri ius-
sit, i, 24, 3, he gave orders for the whole mountain to be covered over with men.
Magonem poena adfecerunt, N. 23, 8, 2, they visited Mago with punish-
ment, legiones nimis pulcris armis praeditas, PI. Am. 218, brigades in
goodliest arms arrayed, consular! imperio praeditus, Pis. 55, vested with the
authority of consul. For the genitive with comple5 and impleo, see 1293.
1387. The ablative is sometimes used with adjectives of fulness, instead of the
regular genitive (1263). Thus, in later Latin, rarely with plenus : as, maxima
quaeque domus servis est plena superbis, T- 5, 66, a grand establishment
is always full of stuck-up slaves, et ille quidem plenus anms abiit, plenus
honoribus, Plin. Ep. 2, i, 7, well, as for him, he has passed away, full of years
and full of honours. So in Cicero and Caesar, once each. Also with dives in poe-
try, and, from Livy on, in prose. With refertus, the ablative of things is common,
while persons are usually in the genitive (1263). With onustus, the ablative is gen-
erally used, rarely the genitive.
THE ABLATIVE OF MEASURE, EXCHANGE, AND PRICE.
1388. The instrumental ablative is used with verbs of meas-
uring and of exchanging, and in expressions of value and price ;
as,
2 37
I 3^9~ I 393-] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
(a.) quod magnos homines virtiite metrmur, N. 18, I, i, because we
gauge great men by their merit, (b.) nemo nisi victor pace bellum muta-
vit, S. C. 58, 15, nobody except a conqueror has ever exchanged war for peace,
(c.) haec signa sestertiiimsex millibus quingentis esse vendita, V. 4, 12,
that these statues were sold for sixty-five hundred sesterces, aestimavit dena-
riis in, V. 3, 214, he valued it at three denars. triginta millibus dixistis eum
habitare, Gael. 17, you have said he pays thirty thousand rent, quod non
opus est, asse carum est, Cato in Sen. Ep. 94, 28, what you don't need, at
a penny is dear, hem, istuc verbum, mea voluptas, vilest viginti minis,
Pi. Most. 297, bless me, that compliment, my charmer, were at twenty miiias
cheap.
1389. With muto and commute, the ablative usually denotes the thing re-
ceived. But sometimes in Plautus, and especially in Horace, Livy, jind late prose, it
denotes the thing parted with : as, cur valle permutem Sabina dlvitias ope-
rosiores ? H. 3, i, 47, why change my Sabine dale for -wealth that brings more
care? Similarly with cum in the prose of Cicero's age : as, mortem cum vita
commutare, Sulp. in Fam. 4, 5, 3, to exchange life for death.
1390. The ablative of price or value is thus used chiefly with verbs or
verbal expressions of bargaining, buying or selling, hiring or letting, costing,
being cheap or dear. Also with aestimo, of a definite price, and sometimes
magno, permagno (1273).
1391. The ablatives thus used, are (a.) those of general substantives of
value and price, such as pretium, (.) numerical designations of money,
or (c.) neuter adjectives of quantity, magno, permagno, quam plurimo,
parvo, minimo, nihilo, nonnihilo : as, magno decumas vendidi, V. 3, 40,
I sold the tithes at a high figure. For tanti and quanti, pluris and minoris,
see 1274.
1392. The ablative is also used with dignus and indignus : as,
dignl maiorum loco, Agr. 2, i, well worthy^ of the high standing of their
ancestors, nulla vox est audita populi Roman! maiestate indigna, 7, 17,
3, not a word was heard out of keeping with the grandeur of Rome. See also
dignor in the dictionary. Similarly in Plautus with condigne, decorus,
decet, aeque, aequos. For the genitive with dignus, see 1269; for the
accusative with dignus and a form of sum, 1144.
THE ABLATIVE OF THE AMOUNT OF DIFFERENCE.
1393. The instrumental ablative is used to denote
the amount of difference.
This ablative is used with any words whatever of comparative or of super-
lative meaning: as, uno die longiorem mensem faciunt aut biduo, V. 2,
129, they make the month longer by a day, or even by two days, ubl adbibit
plus paulS, T. Hau. 220, when he has drunk a drop too much, nummo
divitior, PI. Ps. 1323, a penny richer, biduo post, i, 47, i, two days after.
multis ante diebus. 7, 9, 4, many days before, paucis ante diebus, C. 3, 3,
a few days aeo. nimio praestat, PI. B. 396, 'tis ever so much better, multo
malim, Br. 184, / would much rather, multo maxima pars, C. 4, *7i
the largest part by far,
238
The Noun : A blative. [ 1 394- 1 400.
1394. In expressions of time, the accusative is sometimes used with post, less
frequently with ante, as prepositions, instead of the ablative of difference : as, post
Eaucos dies, L. 21, 51, 2, post dies paucos, L. 37, 13, 6, paucds post dies,
. 33, 39, 2, after a few days, paucos ante dies, L. 39, 28, 4, dies ante
paucos, L. 31, 24, 5, a few days before. With this prepositional construction,
ordinals are common : as, post diem tertium, 4, 9, i, after the third day, accord-
ing to the Roman way of reckoning, i. e. the next day but one.
1395. (i.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is de-
noted by a substantive, the substantive is put in the accusative with ante or
post : as,
paulo ante tertiam vigiliam, 7, 24, 2, a little before the third watch.
biduo ante victoriam, Fam. 10, 14, i, the day but one before the victory.
paucis diebus post mortem African!, L. 3, a few days after the death of
Africanus.
1396. Sometimes in late writers, as Tacitus, Pliny the younger, and Suetonius, a
genitive is loosely used : as, sextum post cladis annum, Ta. i, 62, i.e. sexto
post cladem anno, six years after the humiliating defeat, post decimum
mortis annum, Plin. Rp. 6, 10, 3, ten years after his death. Similarly intra
sextum adoptionis diem, Suet. Galb. 17, not longer than six days after the
adoption-day.
1397. (2.) When the time before or after which anything occurs is de-
noted by a sentence, the sentence may be introduced :
(a.) By quam : as, post diem tertium gesta res est quam dixerat,
Mil. 44, it took place two days after he said it. With quam, post is sometimes
omitted. Or (b.) less frequently by cum : as, quern triduo, cum has da-
bam litteras, exspectabam, Plane, in Fam. 10, 23, 3, I am looking for him
three days after this writing (1601). For a relative pronoun sentence, see
1354-
1398. Verbs of surpassing sometimes have an accusative of extent (1151): as,
miramur hunc hominem tantum excellere ceteris ? IP. 39, are -we sur-
prised that this man, so far outshines everybody else ? With comparatives, the
accusative is rare : as, aliquantum iniquior, T. Hau. 201, somewhat too hard.
Similarly permultum ante, Fam. 3, n, i, long long before.
1399. In numerical designations of distance, the words intervallum and spa-
tium are regularly put in the ablative : as, rex vi milium passuum intervallo
a Saburra consederat, Caes. C. 2, 38, 3, the king had pitched six miles away
from Saburra. So sometimes mille : as, milibus passuum vi a Caesaris
castris sub monte consedit, i, 48, i. See 1152.
TWO OR MORE ABLATIVES COMBINED.
1400. Two or more ablatives denoting different relations are
often combined in the same sentence : as,
Menippus, meo iudicio (1385) t5ta Asia (1346) illis temporibus (1350)
disertissimus, Br. 315, Menipptis, in my opinion the most gifted speaker of
that day in all Asia, hac habita 6rati5ne (1362) militibus studio (1316)
pugnae ardentibus (1370) tuba (1377) signum dedit, Caes. C. 3, 90, 4,
seeing that his soldiers were hot for battle after this speech, he gave the signal
by trumpet.
2 39
1401-1410.] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
USE OF CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
1401. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative,
are used with prepositions.
1402. Prepositions were originally adverbs which served to
define more exactly the meaning of a verb.
Thus, endo, in, on, the older form of in, is an adverb, in an injunction
occurring in a law of the Twelve Tables, 451 B.C., manum endo iacito,
let him lay hand on. Similarly, trans, over, in transque dato, and he must
hand over, i. e. traditoque.
1403. In the course of time such adverbs became verbal prefixes ; the verbs com-
pounded with them may take the case, accusative or ablative, required by the meaning
of the compound. Thus, amicos adeo, I go to my friends (1137) ; urbe exeo,
I go out oj town (1302).
1404. For distinctness or emphasis, the prefix of the verb may be repeated before
the case : as, ad amicos adeo ; ex urbe exeo. And when it is thus separately
expressed before the case, it may be dropped from the verb : as, ad amicos eo ; ex
urbe e5
1405. The preposition thus detached from the verb becomes an
attendant on a substantive, and serves to show the relation of the
substantive in a sentence more distinctly than the case alone could.
1406. A great many adverbs which are never used in composition with
a verb likewise become prepositions : as, apud, circiter, infra, iuxta, pone,
propter, c., &c. The inflected forms of substantives, pridie, postridie
(1413), tenus (1420), and fini (1419), are also sometimes used as preposi-
tions. And vicem (1145), causa, gratia, nomine, ergo (1257), resemble
prepositions closely in meaning.
1407. A trace of the original adverbial use of prepositions is sometimes retained,
chiefly in poetry, when the prefix is separated from its word by what is called Tmesis :
as, ire inque gredi, i. e. ingredique, Lucr. 4, 887, to walk and to step off. per
mih! mirum visum est, DO. i, 214, passing strange it seemed to me.
1408. Even such words as are used almost exclusively as prepositions sometimes
retain their original adverbial meaning also : as, adque adque, E. in Cell. 10, 29, 2,
and up and up, and on and on, or and nearer still and still more near. OCCISIS ad
hominum milibus quattuor, 2, 33, 5, about four thousand men being killed.
susque deque, Att. 14, 6, i, up and down, topsy turvy, no matter how.
1409. On the other hand, some verbal prefixes are never used as separate preposi-
tions with a substantive. These are called Inseparable Prepositions-, they are:
amb-, round, an-, up, dis-, in two, por-, towards, rid-, back. Usually also
sed-, apart (1417).
PREPOSITIONS USED WITH THE ACCUSATIVE.
1410. The accusative is accompanied by the following
prepositions :
240
The Noun : Preposition. [1411-1417.
ad, to, adversus or adversum, towards, against, ante, in composition
also antid-, before, apud, near, at, circa, circum, circiter, round, about, cis,
citra, this side of, contra, opposite to, erga, towards, extra, oiitside, infra,
below, inter, between, intra, within, iuxta, near, ob, against, penes, in the
possession of, per, through, pone, post, in Plautus postid, poste, pos, behind,
praeter, past, prope (propius, proxime), propter, near, secundum, after,
subter, under, supra, above, trans, across, uls, ultra, beyond. For the
various shades of meaning and applications of these prepositions, see the
dictionary.
1411. Prepositions which accompany the accusative may be
easily remembered in this order :
ante, apud, ad, adversum,
circum, cis, ob, trans, secundum,
penes, pone, prope, per,
post, and all in -a and -ter.
1412. Of the above named words some are not used as prepositions till
a relatively late period.
Thus, infra is first used as a preposition by Terence and once only ; circa
somewhat before and citra about Cicero's time ; ultra first by Cato ; iuxta
by Varro. In Cicero iuxta is still used only as an adverb, in Caesar and
Nepos as a preposition.
1413. The substantive forms pridie, the day before^ and postridie, the day
after, are sometimes used with an accusative like prepositions, mostly in Cicero, to
denote dates : as, pridie nonas Maias, Att. 2, n, 2, the day before the nones of
May, i. e. 6 May. postridie ludos Apollinaris, Att. 16, 4, i, the day after the
games of A folio, i. e. 6 July. For the genitive with these words, see 1232.
1414. The adverb versus or versus, wards, occurs as a postpositive (1434)
preposition rarely: once in Sallust, Aegyptum versus, J. 19, 3, Egypt-wards, in
Cicero a few times, twice in Pliny the elder, usque, even to, occurs with names of
towns in Terence (once), Cicero, and later ; with appellatives in Cato (once) and late
writers.
1415. clam, secretly, is ordinarily an adverb. But in old Latin it is used often
as a preposition, unknown to, with an accusative of a person. Terence has once the
diminutive form clanculum, Ad. 52. With the ablative only in the MSS. of Caesar,
once, clam v5bis, C. 2, 32, 8, without your knowledge, and in Bell. Afr. n, 4.
1416. subter, under, is used in poetry, once by Catullus and once by Vergil,
with the locative ablative: as, Rhoete5 subter litore, Cat. 65, 7, beneath Rhoe-
teuni's strand.
PREPOSITIONS USED WITH THE ABLATIVE.
1417. The ablative is accompanied by the following preposi-
tions :
abs, ab, or a, from, coram, face to face, de, down from, from, of, ex or
, out of, prae, at the fore, in front of, pr5, before, quom or cum, with, sine,
without. In official or legal language, also sed or se, without. For the dif-
ferent classes of ablatives with these prepositions, see 1297-1300; for the
various shades of meanings and applications, see the dictionary.
16 241
1418-1424.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1418. Prepositions which accompany the ablative may be
easily remembered in this order :
abs (ab, a), cum, coram, de,
prae, pro, sine, ex (or e).
1419. The ablative fini, as far as, is used in old Latin as a preposition with the
ablative: as, osse fini, PI. Men. 859, down to the bone, operito terra radi-
cibus fini, Cato, RR. 28, 2, cover -with loam the length of the roots. Also, as a
real substantive, with a genitive (1255): as, ansarum infimarum fini, Cato, RR.
113, 2, up to the bottom of the handles. Rarely fine, and before the genitive : as,
fine genus, O. 10, 537, as far as the knee.
1420. tenus, the length, was originally a substantive accusative (1151). From
Cicero on, it is used as a preposition with the ablative, and standing after its case : as,
Tauro tenus, D. 36, not further than Taurus, pectoribus tenus, L. 21, 54, 9,
quite tip to the breast, hactenus, thus far, only thus far. Also, as a real sub-
stantive, with a genitive, usually a plural, mostly in verse (1232): as, labrdrum
tenus, Lucr. i, 940, the length of the lips, up to the lips. Cumarum tenus,
Gael, in Fam. 8, i, 2, as far as Cumae.
1421. The adverbs palam, in presence of, procul, apart from, either near or
far, simul, "with, are rarely used in poetry and late prose as prepositions with the
ablative, coram occurs but once as a preposition (inscriptional) before Cicero's time.
absque with the ablative occurs once each in Cicero and Quintilian ; in Plautus and
Terence only in a coordinate protasis (1701; 2110).
PREPOSITIONS USED WITH THE ACCUSATIVE OR
THE ABLATIVE.
1422. Two cases, the accusative and the ablative, are accompanied by
the prepositions in, older endo, indu, into, in, sub, under, and super, over,
on.
1423. (i.) in and sub accompany the accusative of the end
of motion, the locative ablative of rest : as,
(a.) in curiam venimus, V. 4, 138, we went to the senate-house, in
vincla coniectus est, V. 5, 17, he was put in irons, hie pagus eius exer-
citum sub iugum miserat, 1,12, 5, this canton had sent his army under
the yoke, (b.} erimus in castris, Ph. 12, 28, we shall be in camp, viridi
membra sub arbuto stratus, H. i, i, 21, stretched out his limbs all under
an arbute green.
1424. Verbs of rest sometimes have in with the accusative, because of
an implied idea of motion. And, conversely, verbs of motion sometimes
have in with the ablative, because of an implied idea of rest: as,
(a.) mihi in mentem fuit, PI. Am. 180, it popped into my head,\.z.
came in and is in (compare venit hoc mi in mentem, PI. Aul 226. in eius
potestatem venire nolebant, V. i, 150. in eorum potestatem portum fu-
turum intellegebant, V. 5, 98, they knew full well the haven would get under
the control of these people}, (b.} Caesar exercitum in hibernis conlocavit,
3, 29, 3, Caesar put the army away in winter quarters, i. e. put them into and
left them in. earn in lectS conlocarunt, T. Eu. 593, they laid the lady on
her couch. So commonly with loco, conloco, statuS, constituo, pono, and
its compounds. For exp5n5 and imponS, see the dictionary.
242
The Noun : Preposition. [ 1 4 2 5 - 1 4 30.
1425. (2.) super accompanies the ablative when it has colloquially the sense of
de, about, in reference to: as, hac super re scribam ad te Regio, Att. 16,6, i,
/'// write you about this from Regium. In other senses, the accusative, but some-
times in poetry the ablative, chiefly in the sense of on: as, ligna super foco
large reponens, H. i, 9, 5, piling on hearth the faggots high, nocte super
media, V. 9, 61, at dead of mght. paulum silvae super his, H. S. 2, 6, 3,
a bit of wood to crown the whole.
COMBINATION OF SUBSTANTIVES BY A PREPOSITION.
1426. (i.) Two substantives are sometimes connected by a preposition,
to indicate certain attributive relations (1043) such are particularly:
(a.) Place : as, illam pugnam navalem ad Tenedum, Mur. 33, the sea-
fight off Tenedus. excessum e vita, Fin. 3, 60, the departure from life,
(b.) Source, origin, material: as, ex Aethiopia ancillulam, T. Eu. 165, a
lady's maid from Aethiopia. pocula ex aurd, V. 4, 62, bowls of gold (1314).
(c.) Direction of action, connection, separation : as, amor in patriam, Fl. 103,
love of country. vestra erga me voluntas, C. 4, i, your good will towards
me. proelium cum Tuscis ad laniculum, L 2, 52, 7, the battle with the
Tuscans at Janiculum. vir sine metu, TD. 5, 48, a man devoid of fear (1043).
1427. (2.) Very commonly, however, other constructions are used, even
to indicate the relations above : as,
bellum Venetorum, 3, 16, i, war with the Venetans (1231). bello Cas-
siano, i, 13, 2, in the war with Cassius (1233). in aureis poculis, V. 4, 54,
in golden bowls (1233). scutis ex cortice factis, 2, 33, 2, with long shields
made out of bark (1314). post victoriam eius belli, quod cum Persis fuit,
Off. 3, 49, after the victory in the war with the Persians.
1428. Prepositional expressions are sometimes used predicatively : as, sunt
omnes sine macula, PL 6, 14, they are all without spot or blemish. And some-
times they are equivalent to adjectives : as, contra naturam, TD. 4. 11, unnatural,
supra hominem, DN. 2, 34, superhuman. Or to substantives : as, sine pondere,
O. i, 20, things without weight. Or to adverbs : as, sine labSre, PI. R. 461, easily.
REPETITION OR OMISSION OF A PREPOSITION WITH
SEVERAL SUBSTANTIVES.
1429. (i.) A preposition is often repeated with emphasis before two or
more substantives : as,
in labore atque in dolore, PI. Ps. 685, in toil and in trouble. _ Particu-
larly so with et . . . et, aut . . . aut, non solum . . . sed etiam, non minus
. . . quam, &c., &c. : as, et ex urbe et ex agris, C. 2, 21, from Rome ana
from the country too.
1430. (2.) A preposition is often used with the first only of two or more substan-
tives : as, in labore ac dolore, TD. 5, 41, in toil and trouble, incidit in
eandem invidiam quam pater suus, N. 5, 3, i, he fell under the selfsame ban
as his father. Particularly when the second is in apposition: as, cum duobus
ducibus, Pyrrho et Hannibale, L. 28, with two commanders, Pyrrhus and
Hannibal,
243
1 43 1 - 1 438.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
Two PREPOSITIONS WITH ONE SUBSTANTIVE.
1431. (i.) When two prepositions belong to one and the same substan-
tive, the substantive is expressed with the first. With the second, the
substantive is repeated, or its place is taken by a pronoun : as,
contra legem proque lege, L. 34, 8, i, against the law and for the law,
partim contra Avitum, partim pr5 hoc, Clu. 88, partly against Avitus,
partly for him. If, however, the two prepositions accompany the same case,
the substantive need not be repeated : as, intra extraque munitiones,
Caes. C, 3, 72, 2, inside and outside the works,
1432. (2.) The second preposition is often used adverbially, without any substan-
tive : as, et in corpore et extra, Fin. 2, 68, both in the body and outside.
POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS.
1433. In general a preposition precedes its case : see 178.
1434. Disyllabic prepositions sometimes follow their substantives. Thus,
in Cicero, contra, ultra, and sine, sometimes stand after a relative; so
likewise inter in Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust ; occasionally also penes and
propter. For versus, see 1414 ; for fini, 1419; for tenus, 1420.
1435. Of monosyllables, ad and de often follow a relative. Also cum
often in Cicero and Sallust, and regularly in Caesar. With a personal
or a reflexive pronoun, cum regularly follows, as mecum, nobiscum.
secum.
1436. In poetry and late prose, prepositions are freely put after their cases.
1437. In oaths and adjurations, per is often separated from its proper accusative
by the accusative of the object : as, per te deos 6r5, T. Andr, 538, / begthee by the
gods, in the gods 1 name.
USE OF ADVERBS.
1438. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
(a.} With verbs, all sorts of adverbs are used : as, of Place : quis istic
habet ? PI. B. 114, who lives in there? Time : turn dentes mihi cadebant
primulum, PL Men. 1116, my teeth were just beginning then to go. Number :
bis consul fuerat P. Africanus, Mur. 58, Africanus had twice been consul.
Degree, Amount : Ubii magnopere orabant, 4, 16, 5, the Ubians earnestly
entreated. Dumnorix plurimum poterat, i, 9, 3, Dumnorix was all-powerful.
Manner: bene quievit, libenter cibum sumpsit, Plin. Ep, 3, 16, 4, he has
slept beautifully, he has relished his food, (b.) With adjectives and adverbs,
oftenest adverbs of degree or amount only, or their equivalents, such as bene,
egregie, &c. : as, valde diligens, Ac. 2, 98, very particular, egregie fortis,
DO. 2, 268, exceptionally brave. Adverbs of manner, however, are also used,
especially in poetry: as, turpiter hirtum, H. E. i, 3, 22, disreputably rough,
i. e. disreputable and rough.
2 44
The Noun: Adverb. [1439-1445.
1439. An adverb is sometimes used with the meaning of an ad-
jective : as,
reliquis deinceps diebus, 3, 29, I, the remaining successive days, de
suis privatim rebus, 5, 3, 5, in relation to their personal interests, undique
silvae, Plin. Ep. I, 6, 2, the surrounding -woods. Particularly when the sub-
stantive expresses character, like an adjective : as, vere Metellus, Sest. 130,
a tmeblooded Metellus. rusticanus vir, sed plane vir, TD. 2, 53, a country
man, but every inch a man.
1440. Perfect participles used as substantives are commonly qualified by an ad-
verb, and not by an adjective. Particularly so dictum, factum, inventum,
responsum, with bene and male, and their synonymes: as, recte ac turpiter
factum, 7, 80, 5, heroism and cowardice, bene facta male locata male
facta arbitror, E. in Off. 2, 62, good deeds ill put, bad deeds I count. In superla-
tive qualifications, however, the adjective is preferred.
1441. Other substantives also may be qualified by an adverb, when a verb construc-
tion or a participle is implied: as, C. Flaminius consul iterum, Div. i, 77,
Flaminius in his second consulship. 5 totiens servos, H. S. 2, 7, 70, time and
again a slave, ictu comminus, Caecin. 43, by a hand-to-hand blow, publice
testem, V. 2, 156, a government witness, populum late regem, V. 1,21, a
nation regnant wide, late tyrannus, H. 3, 17, 9, lord paramount far and near.
1442. An adverb sometimes takes the place of a substantive : as, cum amici
partim deseruerint me, partim etiam prodiderint, QFr. i, 3, 5, since my
friends have some of them abandoned me, and others again have actually betrayed
me, i.e. alii . . . alii, postquam satis tuta circa videbantur, L. i, 58, 2,
finding every thing round about looked^ pretty safe, i.e. quae circa erant. pa-
lam laudares, secreta male audiebant, Ta. H i, 10. his outward walk you
would have admired ; his private life was in bad odour, i. e. quae palam fiebarit.
NEGATIVE ADVERBS.
1443. (i.) The negative oftenest used in declaration or inter-
rogation is n5n, not: as,
non metuo mihi, PI. B. 225, 1 fear not for myself, non semper imbres
nubibus hispidos manant in agros, H. 2, 9, i, not always from the clouds
do showers on stubbly fields come dripping dropping down, non dices hodie ?
H. S. 2, 7, 21, will you not say without delay ?
1444. non is a modification of noenum or noenu, compounded of ne, no,
and the accusative oinom or oenum, the older form of unum, one thing, noenum
occurs in Plautus twice, in Ennius, Lucilius, Afranius, and Varro, once each, and
noenu occurs twice in Lucretius (99).
1445. Negation is often expressed by other compounds of ne. In such
cases the Latin idiom frequently differs from .the English, and a transfer of
the negative is required in translation.
Such compounds are: (a.) Verbs, such as nego, nequeo, nescio, nolo:
as, negat verum esse, Mur. 74, he maintains it is not true, (b.) Nouns,
such as nem5, neuter, nullus, nihil : as, nemini meus adventus labor!
fuit, V. i, 16, my visit did not trouble anybody, (c.) Adverbs, such as num-
quam, nusquam. (d.) Similarly, the conjunction neque is used for and
not, but not, unless a single word is to be emphasized or contrasted: as, nee
frustra, 8, 5, 3, and not in vain.
245
1 446- 1454.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1446. A form nee is used rarely in old Latin in the sense of non : as, tu dis
nee recte dicis, PI. B. 119, fhou dost abuse the gods, i. e. non recte or male
dicis. After Plautus's time, nee for non occurs in a few set combinations, such as
nee opinans, not expecting, and, from Livy on, necdum, not yet, i. e. nondum.
1447. The form ne usually introduces an imperative or a subjunctive, as will be
explained further on. But ne is also used in the combination ne . . . quidem, not
even, not . . . either, with the emphatic word between ne and quidem: as, ne turn
quidem, i, 50, 2, not even then, ne Vorenus quidem sese vallo continet,
5, 44, 6, Vorenus did not keep inside the palisade either.
1448. The adjective nullus is sometimes used, chiefly in colloquial language, for
non or ne (1051): as, Pnilotimus nullus venit, Att. IT, 24, 4, no Philotimus
has shown himself, nullus creduas, PI. Tri. 606, you needn't believe it at all.
1449. (2.) The negative haut or baud, not, is used principally
with adjectives and adverbs, less frequently with verbs : as,
(a.) baud mediocris vir, RP. 2, 55, no ordinary man. rem baud sane
difficilem, CM. 4, a thing not particularly hard, baud procul, CM. 15, not
far. In all periods of the language often combined with quisquam, ullus,
umquam, usquam. (b.) In old Latin baud is freely used with all sorts of
verbs, especially with possum. In Cicero, it occurs here and there with a
few verbs, such as adsentior, erro, Ignore, nitor, amo, but is principally
confined to scio, in the combination baud sci5 an, / don't know but (1782).
Caesar uses baud once only, and then in this combination.
1450. A shorter form, hau, occurs often in old Latin, and a few times in the
classical period: as, heic est sepulcrum hau pulcrum pulcrai feminae,
CIL. I, 1007, 2, on the burial site of a woman, here is the site not sightly of a sightly
dame. In Plautus it is juxtaposed with scio, making hauscio, i. e. nesci5.
1451. (3.) Negation may also be intimated by such words as vix, hardly, pa-
rum, not . . . enough, not quite, minus, less, not, minime, least of all, male, &c.
1452. Two negatives in the same sentence are usually equivalent
to an affirmative.
Thus, with non first, an indefinite affirmative : as, non nemo, somebody,
a certain gentleman, one or another, non nullus, some, non nihil, something,
somervkat. n5n numquam, sometimes. With non second, a universal affir-
mative : as, nemo non, everybody, every human being, nullus non, every.
nihil non, every thing, numquam non, always, non possum non confiteri,
Fam. 9, 14, I, I must confess, nemo Ignorat, V. 2, in, everybody knows.
1453. Sometimes, however, in old Latin, a second negation is used merely to
emphasize the negative idea: as, lapideo sunt corde multi, quos non miseret
neminis, E. in Fest. p. 162, there's many a man with heart of stone, that feels for
nobody. For doubled negatives in compound sentences, see 1660.
USE OF DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
THE POSITIVE.
1454. The positive sometimes expresses an idea of disproportion : as,
pro multitudine hominum angustos se finis habere arbitrabantur,
I, 2, 5, in view of their large numbers they thought they had a crampec. place to
live in. Generally, however, disproportion is expressed as in 1460 or 1461.
246
The Noun : Comparison. [ 1 45 5- 1 46 1 .
THE COMPARATIVE.
1455. When two things only are compared, the comparative
is used : as,
uter igitur melior ? Div. 2, 133, which of the two then is the better? uter
est insanior horum ? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these two is crazier? uter
eratis, tun an ille, maior ? PI. Men. ing, you were which of the two the
bigger, thou or he ?
1456. The superlative is sometimes loosely used when only two things are meant :
as, Numitori, qui stirpis maximus erat, regnum legat, L. i, 3, 10, to Nu-
mitor, -who was the eldest of the family, he bequeaths the crown, of two brothers, Nu-
mitor and Amulius. id mea minume refert, qui sum natu maxumus, T.
Ad. 881, that is of small concern to me, who am the eldest son, says Demea, who has
only one brother.
1457. From Cicero on, an adjective or adverb is sometimes compared
with another adjective or adverb. In such comparisons quam is always
used.
In this case: (a.) Both members may have the positive form, the first
with magis : as, Celer disertus magis est quam sapiens, Att. 10, I, 4,
Celer is more eloquent than wise, magis audacter quam parate, Br. 241,
with more assurance than preparation. Or (b.) Both members may have the
comparative suffix: as, lubentius quam verius, Mil. 78, with greater satisfac-
tion than truth, pestilentia minacior quam perniciosior, L. 4, 52, 3, a
plague more alarming than destructive.
1458. But sometimes the second member is put in the positive, even when the
first has the comparative suffix: as, acrius quam considerate, Ta. H. i, 83, with
more spirit than deliberation. And sometimes both members : as, Claris maiSribus
quam vetustis, Ta. 4, 61, of a house famous rather than ancient.
1459. The comparative may be modified by ablatives of difference, such
as multo, far, aliquanto, considerably, paullo or paulo, a little, nimio, too
much, ever so much (1393). Also by etiam, even, still, and in Catullus, Sal-
lust, Vergil, and later Latin by longe,_/ar, adhuc, still,
1460. The comparative of an adjective or adverb often
denotes that which is more than usual or more than is right :
as,
solere aiunt reges Persarum plures uxores habere, V. 3, 76, they say
the Persian kings generally have 'several wives, senectus est natura loqua-
cior, CM. 55, age is naturally rather garrulous, stomachabatur senex, si
quid asperius dixeram, DN. I, 93, the old gentleman always got provoked if
I said anything a bit rough.
1461. The comparative of disproportion is often defined by some added
expression : as,
privatis maiSra focis, J. 4, 66, something too great for private hearths
(1321). flagrantior aequo non debet dolor esse viri, J. 13, u, the indig-
nation of a man must not be over hot ( 1330). In Livy and Tacitus by quam
pro with the ablative : see the dictionary. Sometimes a new sentence is
added: as, sum avidior, quam satis est, gl5riae, Fam. 9, 14, 2, I am over
greedy of glory. For quam ut or quam qui, see 1896.
247
14621468.] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
1462. The comparative with a sentence of negative import is often pre-
ferred to the superlative with a positive sentence : as,
elephanto beluarum nulla prudentior, DN. i, 97, of the larger beasts not
one is more sagacious than the elephant, or the elephant is the most sagacious of
beasts, sequamur Polybium, quo nem5 fuit diligentior, RP. 2, 27, let us
follow Polybius, the most scrupulous of men. For nemo or quis, the more
emphatic nihil or quid is often used : as, Phaedro nihil elegantius, nihil
humanius, DN. i, 93, Phaedrus was the most refined and sympathetic of men.
1463. In colloquial language, a comparative suffix is sometimes emphasized by the
addition of magis : as, mollior magis, PI. Aul. 422, more tenderer. And
sometimes by a mixture of construction, the comparative is modified by aeque, like
the positive: as, homo me miserior nullus est aeque, PI. Mer. 335, there" 1 *
not a man so woebegone as I, for miserior alone, or aeque miser.
1464. The comparative with the ablative is particularly common, when a thing is
illustrated by some striking typical object, usually an object of nature. In such illustra-
tions, the positive with as is commonly used in English : as, luce clarius, V. 2, 186,
pl.-iin as day. 5 fons Bandusiae, splendidior vitrS, H. 3, 13, i, ye -waters of
Bandusia, as glittering^as glass, melle dulcior oratio, E. in CM. 31, words sweet
as honey, ventis ocior, V. 5, 319, quick as the winds, vacca candidior ni-
vibus, O. Am. 3, 5, 10, a cow as white as driven snow, caelum pice nigrius,
O. H. 17, 7, a sky as black as fitch, durior ferro et saxo, O. 14, 712, as hard
as steel and stone.
THE SUPERLATIVE.
1465. When more than two things are compared, the super-
lative is used to represent a quality as belonging in the highest
degree to an individual or to a number of a class : as,
proximi sunt Germanis, i, i, 3, they live the nearest to the Germans.
horum omnium fortissimi, i, i, 3, the bravest of these all.
1466. The superlative may be strengthened by the addition of such words
as unus, preeminently, usually with a genitive, maxime, quam, with or
without a form of possum, as possible, &c., &c. (1892). In old Latin by
multo; fromCicero on, by longe,/ar, and v&\, perhaps, even: as,
cSnfirmaverim rem unam esse omnium dimcillimam, Br. 25, I am
not afraid to avouch it is the one hardest thing in the world, longe nobilis-
simus, i, 2, i. the man of highest birth by far. quam maximis potest
itineribus in Galliam contendit, i, 7, i, he pushes into Gaul by the quickest
marches he can. quam maturrime, i, 33, 4, as early as possible.
1467. The superlative is also used to denote a very high
degree of the quality.
This superlative, called the Absolute Superlative, or the Superlative of
Eminence, may be translated by the positive with some such word as most,
very: as, homo turpissimus, V. 4, 16, an iitterly unprincipled man. Often
best by the positive alone: as, vir fortissimus, Piso Aqultanus, 4, 12, 4,
the heroic Piso of Aquitain (1044).
1468. In exaggerated style, the superlative of eminence may be capped by a com-
parative: as, stultior stultissumo, Pi. Am. 907, a greater than the greatest foal.
ego miserior sum quam tu, quae es miserrima, Fam. 14, 3, i, I am myself
more unhappy than you, who are a most unhappy woman.
2 4 8
The Verb: Voice. [14691475
(B.) USE OF THE VERB.
VOICE.
THE ACTIVE VOICE.
1469. In the active voice, the subject is represented
as performing the action of the verb.
1470. By action is meant the operation of any verb, whether active or
passive, and whether used intransitively or transitively.
1471. The active of one verb sometimes serves as the passive of another : thus,
pereo, go to destruction, die, serves as the passive of perdS, destroy, and veneo,
go to sale, am sold, as the passive of vendo, fut for sale, sell. Similarly flo, become,
get to be, am made, is used in the present system as the passive of facio, make (788).
THE PASSIVE VOICE.
1472. In the passive voice, the subject is represented
as acted upon.
1473. The object accusative of the active voice becomes the
subject of the passive voice (1125) ; and the predicate accusa-
tive of the active voice becomes a predicate nominative with the
passive voice (1167).
Thus (a.) in the active construction : ilium laudabunt bom, hunc etiam
ipsi culpabunt mall, PI. B. 397, the one the good will praise, the other e*en
the bad themselves 'will blame. In the passive : laudatur ab his, culpatur
ab illis, H. S. I, 2, n, he 's praised by some, by others blamed. Active : cives
Romanes interficiunt, 7, 3, I, they slay some citizens of Rome. Passive:
Indutiomarus interficitur, 5, 58, 6, Indutiomarus is slain. (b.) Active :
milites certi5res facit, 3, 5, 3, he informs the soldiers. Passive : certior
factus est, 2, 34, he was informed.
1474. Verbs which have two accusatives, one of the person and one of the thing
in the active voice, generally have the person as subject in the passive, less frequently
the thing: see 1171.
1475. An emphasizing or defining accusative, or an accusative of extent
or duration, is occasionally made the subject of a passive : as,
haec illic est pugnata pugna, PI. Am. 253, this fight was fought off
there (1140). tota mihi dormitur hiems, Mart. 13, 59, I, all winter long by
me is slept, i. e. totam dormio hiemem (1151).
249
1 4 7 6- 1 48 3 .] Sen tences : The Simple Sentence.
1476. The person by whom the action is done is put in the abla-
tive with ab or a (1318) ; the thing by which it is done is put in the
instrumental ablative (1377) ; as,
(a.) non numquam latro a viatore occiditur, Mil. 55, once in a while
the robber gets killed by the wayfarer, respondit, a cive se spoliari malle
quam ab hoste venire, Quintil. 12, i, 43, he said in reply that he would
rather be phtndered by a Roman than sold by an enemy (1471). (b.) unius
viri prudentia Graecia liberata est, N. 2, 5, 3, Greece was saved from sla-
very by the sagacity of a single man, i. e. Themistocles. Very often, however,
the person or thing is not expressed, particularly with impersonals.
1477. When the person is represented as a mere instrument, the ablative
is used without ab (1378) ; and when collectives, animals, or things without
life are personified, the ablative takes ab (1318) : as,
(a.) neque vero minus Plato delectatus est Dione, N. 10, 2, 3, and
Plato on his part was just as much bewitched with Dion, (b.) eius oratio a
multitudine et a foro devorabatur, Br. 283, his oratory was swallowed whole
by the tintutored many and by the bar.
1478. Sometimes the person by whom the action is done is indicated by the dative
of the possessor: see 1216. And regularly with the gerund and gerundive construc-
tion (2243).
1479. Only verbs of transitive use have ordinarily a complete pas-
sive. Verbs of intransitive use have only the impersonal forms of the
passive (1034) : as,
diu atque acriter pugnatum est, i, 26, i, there was long and sharp
fighting, totis trepidatur castris, 6, 37, 6, all through the camp there was
tumult and affright, mih! quidem persuader! numquam potuit, animos
emori, CM. 80, for my part, I never could be convinced that the soul becomes
extinct at death ( 1 181 ). Similarly verbs which have a transitive use may also
be used impersonally: as, digs noctisque estur, bibitur, PI. Most. 235, there
is eating and drinking all day and all night (i 133).
1480. The complementary dative of a verb in the active voice is in poetry very
rarely made the subject of a passive verb: as, invideor, H. AP. 56, I am envied.
imperor, H. E. i, 5, 21, 1 charge myself.
1481. The passive had originally a reflexive meaning, which is still to
be seen in the passive of many verbs : as,
exercebatur plurimum currend5 et luctando, N. 15, 2, 4, he took a great
deal of exercise in running and wrestling, densos fertur in hostis, V. 2, 511,
he tries to charge upon the serried foes, quod semper movetur, aeternum
est, TD. I, 53, anything that is always mwing, is eternal.
1482. The present participle of reflexives is sometimes used in a reflexive sense :
as, exercens, exercising oneself, exercising, ferens, tearing along, vehens,
riding, andinvehens, mounted on, pascens, browsing, versans, playing, being,
volvens, rolling. Also the gerund : as, ius vehendi, the privilege of riding.
1483. Passive forms of coepi and desino are commonly used in the
perfect system, when a dependent infinitive is passive : as,
250
The Verb: Voice. [14841492
litteris oratio est coepta mandari, Br. 26, oratory began to be put in
black and white, veteres orationes legi sunt desitae, Br. 123, the old
speeches ceased to be read. But the active forms are sometimes used by Cor-
nificius, Sallust, and Livy, and regularly by Tacitus. The active forms are
used with fieri also, which is not passive (789) ; but even with fieri, Livy
uses the passive forms.
1484. Similar attractions with a passive infinitive occur in potestur, &c., qui-
tur and quitus sum, nequitur, &c., rarely, and mostly in old Latin : as, forma
in tenebns nosci non quitast, T. Hec. 572, her shape could hardly be distin-
guished in the dark.
1485. Some perfect participles have an active meaning: as, adultus, grown up.
See 907, and also in the dictionary cautus, consultus, concretus, denagratus,
inconsideratus, occasus, nupta.
DEPONENTS.
1486. Many verbs have only passive inflections, but
with the meaning of active inflections. Such verbs are
called Deponents.
1487. In many deponents, a reflexive, passive, or reciprocal action is still
clearly to be seen : as,
nascor, am born; motor, delay myself ] get delayed ; utor, avail myself;
amplectimur, hug each other ; fabulamur, talk together ; partimur, share
"with one another.
1488. Some verbs have both active and deponent inflections: as, adsen-
tio, agree, more commonly adsentior. mereo, earn, and mereor, deserve.
See also in the dictionary altercor, auguror, comitor, conflictor, fabricor,
faeneror, muneror, oscitor, palpor, populor, revertor. The following have
active inflections in the present system and deponent inflections in the perfect
system : audeo, confido and diffido, gaudeo, soleo: see also 801.
1489. In old Latin especially, many verbs which afterwards became fixed as
deponents occur with active inflections also : as, adulo, arbitro, aucupS, auspico,
lucto, ludificS, moro, partio, venero, &c., &c.
1490. Verbs which are usually deponent are rarely found with a passive meaning :
as, Sullanas res defendere criminor, LAgr. 3, 13, / am charged -with de-
fending Suva's policy.
1491. When it is desirable to express the passive of a deponent, a synonyme is
sometimes used : thus, the passive of miror, admire, may sometimes be represented
by laudpr, am praised. Or some circumlocution : as, habet venerationem
quidquid excellit, DN. i, 4=;, anything best in its kind is looked on with respect,
as passive of veneror. familia in suspicionem est vocata, V. 5, 10, the
household was suspected, as passive of suspicor.
1492. The perfect participle of deponents is sometimes used with a pas-
sive meaning. Some of the commonest of these participles are : adeptus,
commentus, complexus, confessus, ementitus, expertus, meditatus,
opinatus, pactus, partitus, testatus, &c., &c.
25 1
1 49 3-1 49 7.] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
MOOD.
THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
DECLARATIONS.
1493. The indicative mood is used in simple, abso-
lute declarations : as,
arma virumque cano, V. I, i, arms and the man I sing, leve fit quod
bene fertur onus, O. A. 4, 2, 10, light gets the load that's bravely borne.
1494. The negative used with the indicative is commonly non, not (1443).
For other negative expressions, see 1445-1451.
1495. Certain verbs and verbal expressions denoting ability, duty,
propriety, necessity, and the like, mostly with an infinitive, are regu-
larly put in the indicative, even when the action of the infinitive is not
performed.
This applies to declarations, questions, or exclamations : as, (a.) possum
de ichneumonum utilitate dicere, sed nolo esse longus, DN. I, 101, 1
might expatiate on the usefulness of the ichneumon, but I do not care to be long-
winded, inter feras satius est aetatem degere quam in hac tanta im-
manitate versari, RA. 150, it would be better to pass your days in the midst
of howling beasts than to live and move among such brutish men. (b ) stulti
erat sperare, Ph. 2. 23, it would have been folly to hope, quid enim facere
poteramus ? Pis. \T>, for what else could we have done? (c.) licuit uxorem
genere summ5 ducere, PI. MG. 680, / might have married a wife of high
degree. n5n potuit pictor rectius describere eius formam, PI. As. 402,
no painter could have hit his likeness more exactly, (d.) quant5 melius fue-
rat promissum patris non esse servatum, Off. 3, 94, how much better it
would have been, for the father's word not to have been kept.
1496. The principal verbs and verbal expressions thus used are: (a.) possum,
licet, debeo, oportet, convenit, decet. (<*.) aequum, aequius, iustum,
fas, necesse est ; consentaneum, satis, satius, optabile, optabilius est ;
utilius, melius, optimum, par, rectum est; facile, difficile, grave, infi-
nitum, longum, magnum est ; est with the predicative genitive, or a possessive
pronoun (1237). (c.) Similarly, but without an infinitive, forms of sum with a
gerund, a gerundive, or a future participle.
1497. The imperfect of most of the above verbs and verbal expressions
often relates to action not performed at the present time : as,
his alias poteram subnectere causas ; sed eundum est, J. 3, 315, to
these I might add other grounds ; but I must go. The context must determine
whether the imperfect relates (a.) to action not performed either in the present
as here, or in the past as in 1495, or (b.) to action performed in the past : as,
sollicitare poterat, audebat, C. 3, 16, he had at once the assurance and the
ability to play the tempter 's part.
2 5 2
The Verb: Mood. [1498-1504.
1498. Forms of possum are sometimes put in the subjunctive (1554). Thus,
possim, &c., often (1556), also possem, &c., usually of present time (1560), less
frequently of past time (1559), potuissem, &c., particularly in sentences of negative
import (1561), rarely potuerim, &c. (1558). Sometimes also deberem, &c., of
present time (1560), debuissem, &c., chiefly in apodosis.
QUESTIONS.
1499. The indicative is the mood ordinarily used in
enquiries and in exclamations : as,
(a.) huic ego ' studes ? ' inquam. respondit * etiam.' * ubl ? ' ' Me-
diolani.' ' cur non hie ? ' ' quia nullos hie praeceptores habemus,' Plin.
Ep. 4, 13, 3, said I to the boy, 'do you go to school?" 1 'yes, sir' said he ;
' where ?' 'at Mediolanum ; ' ' why not here ?' 'oh because we have n't any
teachers here' (b.) ut ego tuum amorem et dolorem desiderS, Att. 3, u,
12, how I always feel the absence of your affectionate sympathy.
1500. Questions and exclamations are used much more freely in Latin
than in English. Particularly common are two questions, of which the first
is short and general, leading up to the real question : as,
sed quid ais ? ubi nunc adulescens habet ? PL Tri. 156, but tell me,
where is the youngster living now ? estne ? vici ? et tib! saepe litteras do ?
Gael, in Fam. 8, 3, I, is it true ? have I beaten ? and do I write to you often ?
The real question is often preceded by quid est, quid dicis, or by quid,
quid vero, quid turn, quid postea, quid igitur, quid ergo, &c., &c. : as,
quid ? canis nonne similis lupo ? DN. I, 97, why, is not the dog like the wolf?
1501. There are two kinds of questions: (i.) Such questions as call for
the answer yes or no in English : as, is he gone? These may conveniently be
called Yes or No Questions. (2.) Questions introduced by an interrogative
pronoun, or by a word derived from an interrogative pronoun: as. who is
gone ? where is he ? These are called Pronoun Questions.
YES OR No QUESTIONS.
1502. (i.) Yes or No questions are sometimes put without any interrog-
ative particle : as,
Thraex est Gallma Syro par? H. S. 2, 5, 44, of two gladiators, is
Thracian Bantam for the Syrian a match ? Often intimating censure : as,
rogas ? PI. Aul. 634, dost ask ? or what an absurd question, prompsisti
tu ill! vmum ? : : non pr5mpsi, PI. MG. 830, thou hast been broaching
wine for him ? : : not I. Especially with non : as, patere tua consilia non
sentis ? C. I, l, you don't see that your schemes are out? It is often doubtful
whether such sentences are questions, exclamations, or declarations.
1503. (2.) Yes or No questions are usually introduced by one
of the interrogative particles -ne or -n, nonne, num, an, anne.
1504. A question with -ne or -n may enquire simply, without any impli-
cation as to the character of the answer, or it may either expect an affirmative
answer like nonne, or less frequently a negative answer like num : as,
253
1505 1 59-] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
(a.) valen? PI." Tri. 50, art well? habetin aurum ? PI. B. 269, have
you got the gold ? (b.) iussin in splendorem dari bullas has foribus ? PI.
As. 426, didn't I give orders to polish up the bosses of the door ? facitne ut
dixi? PL Am. 526, isn't he acting as 2 said? (c.) isto immenso spatio
quaere, Balbe, cur Pronoea vestra cessaverit. laboremne fugiebat ?
DN. I, 22, / want to know, Balbus, why your people's Providence lay idle all
that immeasurable time ; it was work she was shirking, was it? quid, mun-
dum praeter hunc umquamne vidisti ? negabis, DN. i, 96, tell me, did you
ever see any universe except this one ? you will say no-
1505. Sometimes the -ne of an interrogative sentence is transferred to a following
relative, chiefly in Plautus and Terence : as, rogas ? qume arrab5nem a me
accepisti ob mulierem ? PI. R. 860, ho-w can you ask, when you have got the
hansel for the girl from me? Similarly, 6 sen studiorum, quine putetis dif-
ficile, H. .S. I, 10, 21, what laggards^ at your^ books, to think it hard, i. e. nonne
estis seri studiorum, qui putetis difficile ? Compare 1569.
1506. To a question with nonne, a positive answer is usually expected,
seldom a negative : as,
(a.) nonne meministi ? : : memini vero, TD. 2, 10, don't you remember?
: : oh yes. Sometimes a second or third question also has nonne, but oftener
non : ^as, nonne ad te L. Lentulus, non Q. Sanga, n5n L. Torquatus
venit ? Pis. 77, did not Lentulus and Sanga and Torqitatus come to see you ?
(b.) nonne cogitas ? RA. 80, do you bear in mind? nonne is rare in Plautus,
comparatively so in Terence, but very common in classical Latin.
1507. To a question with num a negative answer is generally expected.
Less frequently either a positive or a negative answer indifferently : 'as,
(a.) num negare audes? C. I, 8, do you undertake to deny it? num,
tibi cum fauces urit sitis, aurea quaeris pocula ? H S. I, 2, 114, when
thirst thy throat consumes, dost call for cups of gold? Rarely numne : as,
quid, deum ipsum numne vidisti ? DN I, 88, tell me, did you ez>er see god
in person? (b.) sed quid ais? num obdormivisti dudum ? PI. Am. 620,
but harkee, wert asleep a while ago? numquid vis? PI. Tri. 192, hast any
further wish ?
1508. A question with an, less often anne, or if negative, with an
non, usually challenges or comments emphatically on something previously
expressed or implied: as,
an habent quas gallinae manus ? PI. Ps. 29, what, what, do hens^ have
hands? an is also particularly common in argumentative language, in an-
ticipating, criticising, or refuting an opponent : as, quid dicis ? an bello
Siciliam virtute tua Hberatam ? F. i, 5, what do you say ? possibly that it
was by your prowess that Sicily was rid of the war? at vero Cn. Pompel
voluntatem a me alienabat oratio mea. an ille quemquam plus dilexit ?
Ph. 2, 38, but it may be urged that my way of speaking estranged Pompey from
me. why, was there anybody the man loved more ? In old Latin, an is oftener
used in a single than in an alternative question, while in classical Latin it is
rather the reverse.
1509. (3.) Yes or No questions are sometimes introduced by ecquis,
ecquo, ecquando, or en umquam: as,
heus, ecquis hie est ? PI. Am. 420, hollo, is e'er a person here? ecquid
animadvertis horum silentium ? C. i, 20, do you possibly observe the silence
of this audience? (1144). 6 pater, en umquam aspiciam te ? PI. Tri. 588.
O father, shall I ever set mine eyes on thee ?
2 54
The Verb: Mood. [1510-1518.
1510. (4.) In Plautus, satin or satin Ut, really, actually, sometimes becomes a
mere interrogative or exclamatory particle : as, satin abut ille ? PI. MG. 481, has
that man, really gone his -way ?
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ANSWERS.
1511. There are no two current Latin words corresponding exactly with
yes and no in answers.
1512. (i.) A positive answer is expressed by some emphatic
word of the question, repeated with such change as the context may
require : as,
an non dixi esse hoc futurum ? : : dixti, T. Andr. 621, didn't I say that
this would be ? : : you did. hue abilt Clitipho : : solus ? : : solus, T. Hau.
904, here Clitipho repaired :: alone ?:: alone. The repeated word may be
emphasized by sane, vero : as, dasne manere animos post mortem ? : : do
vero, TD. I, 25, do you grant that the soul lives on after death ? : : oh yes. O
ten, however, adverbs are used, without the repetition, such as certe, certo,
etiam, factum, ita, ita enimvero, ita vero, sane, sane quidem, scilicet,
oh of course, vero, rarely verum.
1513. (2.) A negative answer is expressed by a similar repetition,
with non or some other negative added : as,
estne frater intus ? : : non est, T. Ad. 569. is brother in ? : : he's not. Or,
without repetition, by such words as non, non ita, non quidem, non hercle
vero, minime, minime quidem, minime vero, nihil minus.
1514. imm5 introduces a sentence rectifying a mistake, implied doubt, or under-
statement in a question : as, nullane habes vitia? : : immo alia, et fortasse
minora, H. S. I, 3, 20, have you no faults ? : : I beg your pardon, other faults,
and perad-ventrire lesser ones, causa igitur non bona est ? immo optima,
Att. 9, 7, 4, is n't the cause a good one then ? good ! yes. more than good, -very good.
ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS.
1515. The alternative question belongs properly under the head of the
compound sentence. But as the interrogative particles employed in the single
question are also used in the alternative question, the alternative question is
most conveniently considered here.
1516. In old English, the first of two alternative questions is often introduced by
the interrogative particle -whether, and the second by or: as, whether is it easier to
say, Thy sins be forgiven thee, or to say Arise ? In modern English, -whether is not
used thus.
1517. The history of the Latin alternative question is just the reverse of
the English. In old Latin, the first question is very often put without any
interrogative particle. Later, in the classical period, the use of -ne, or
oftener of utrum, etymologically the same as whether, is overwhelmingly
predominant.
1518. In the simplest form of the alternative sentence, neither question
is introduced by an interrogative particle : as,
quid ago ? adeo, maneo ? T. Ph. 736, what shall I do ? go up and speak,
or wait? (1531).
2 55
1 5 1 9~~ 1 5 2 ^-] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1519. Of two alternative questions, the first either has no
interrogative particle at all, or is more commonly introduced by
utrum, -ne, or -n. The second is introduced by an, rarely by
anne, or if it is negative, by an non : as,
(a.) album an atrum vinum pot as ? PI. Men. 915, do you take light wine 01
dark? Tacitus es an Plinius ? Plin. Ep. 9, 23, 3, are you Tacitus or Pliny?
sortietur an non? PC. 37, will he draw lots or not? (b.) iam id porro
utrum libentes an invitl dabant ? V. 3, 118, then furthermore did they offer
it voluntarily or did they consent to give it Tinder stress? utrum cetera no-
mina in codicem accept! et expensi digesta habes an non ? RC. 9, have
you all other items methodically posted in your ledger or not? (c.) servosne
es an liber? PI. Am. 343, art bond or free ? esne tu an non es ab ills
militi Macedonio ? PI. Ps. 616, art thou or art thou not the Macedonian cap-
tain's man ? videon Clmiam an non ? T. Hau. 405, do I see Clinia or not ?
1520. necne for an non is rare : as, semina praeterea linquontur necne
animal corpore in exanimo? Lucr. 3, 713, are seeds moreover left or not of
soul -within the lifeless frame? Twice in Cicero: as, sunt haec tua verba
necne ? TD. 3, 41, are these your words or not ? But necne is common in indirect
questions.
1521. Instead of a single second question with an, several questions may be used
if the thought requires it, each introduced by an.
1522. Sometimes an introductory utrum precedes two alternative questions with
-ne and an : as, utrum tu masne an femina's ? PI. ./?. 104, -which is it, art
thou man or maid? This construction has its origin in questions in which utrum
is used as a live pronoun : as, utrum mavis? statimne nos vela facere an
paululum remigare ? TD. 4, 9, -which -would you rather do, have us make sail at
once, or ro-w just a little bit? In Horace and late prose, utrumne ... an is found
a few times.
1523 Sometimes a second alternative question is not put at all : as, utrum hoc
bellum non est ? Ph. 8, 7, in old English, -whether is not this -war ?
1524. Two or more separate questions asked with -ne . . . -ne, or with num
. . . num, must not be mistaken for alternative questions : as, num Homerum,
num Hesiodum coegit obmutescere senectus? CM. 23, did length of days
compel either Homer or Hesiod to hush his voice ? (1692).
1525. An alternative question is answered by repeating one member or
some part of it, with such changes as the context may require.
PRONOUN QUESTIONS.
1526. Pronoun questions or exclamations are introduced
by interrogative pronouns, or words of pronoun origin.
Such words are: (a.) quis qui, quoius, uter, qualis, quantus, quotus :
as, quid rides? H. 6". 2, 5, 3, why dost thou laugh ? (1144). uter est m-
sanior horum ? H. S. 2, 3, 102, which of these is the greater crank? hora
quota est? H. S. 2, 6, 44, what's o'clock? (b.) Or unde, ubl, quo, quor
or cur, qui ablative, how. quin, why not. quam, hcnv, quando, quotiens : as,
unde venis et quo tendis ? II S. i, 9, 62, whence dost thou come, and whithes
art thou bound ? deus f alii qui potuit ? DN. 3, 76. how could a god have
been taken in? (1495). quam bellum erat confiteri nesclre, DN. I, 84,
kmv pretty it would have been to own up that you did not know ( 1 495 )
256
The Verb : Mood. [ 1 5 2 7- 1 5 3 2.
1527. Sometimes quin loses its interrogative force, and introduces an
impatient imperative, particularly in Plautus and Terence, or an indicative
of sudden declaration of something obvious or startling: as,
(a.) quin me aspice, PI. Most. 172, why look me over, won't you ? i. e.
me aspice, quin aspicis ? So twice in Cicero's orations. (.) quin discu-
pio dicere, PI. Tri. 932, why I am bursting with desire to tell.
1528. Tn Plautus, Terence, Horace, and Livy, ut, how, also is used in questions:
as, ut vales? PI. R. 1304, how do you do? ut sese in Samnio res habent ?
L. 10, 18, ii, how is every thing in Samnium ? Very commonly, and in Cicero only so,
in exclamations also : as, ut fortunati sunt fabri ferrarii, qui apud carbo-
nes adsident ; semper calent, PI. R. 531, what lucky dogs the blacksmiths be,
that sit by redhot coals ; they ''re always warm.
1529. In poetry, quis, uter, and quantus are found a few times with -ne at-
tached ; as, uterne ad casus dubios fidet sibi certius? H. S. 2, 2,107,
which of the two in doubtful straits will better in himself confide?
1530. Two or more questions or exclamations are sometimes united with
one and the same verb : as,
unde quo veni ? H. 3, 27, 37, whence whither am I come ? quot dies
quam frigidis rebus absumpsi, Plin. Ep. I, 9, 3, how many days have 1
frittered away in utter vapidities, quantae quotiens occasiones quam
praeclarae fuerunt, Mil. 38, what great chances there were, time and again,
splendid ones too.
SOME APPLICATIONS OF QUESTIONS.
1531. A question in the indicative present or future may be used
to intimate command or exhortation, deliberation, or appeal : as,
(a.) abin hinc ? T. Eu. 861, will you get out of this ? abin an non ? : :
abeo, PI. Aul. 660, will you begone or not? : : I'll go. quin abis ? PI. -MG.
1087, why won 1 1 you begone ? or get you gone, begone, non taces ? T. Ph. 987,
won't you just hold your tongue? ecquis currit pollinctorem arcessere ?
PI. As. 910, won't some one run to fetch the undertaker man? quin con-
scendimus equos ? L. I, 57, 7, why not mount? or to horse, to horse,
(b.) quid est, Crasse, imusne sessum ? DO. 3, 17, what say you, Crassus,
shall we go and take a seat ? quoi dono lepidum novum libellum ? Cat. i, I,
tinto whom shall I give the neat new booklet? quid ago ? adeo, maneo ?
T. Ph. 736, what shall I do ? go up and speak, or wait? (c.} eon ? voco hue
hominem ? : : I, voca, PI. Most. 774, shall I^go, and shall I call him here?
:: go call him. See also 1623. Such indicative questions occur particularly
in old Latin, in Catullus, in Cicero's early works and letters, and in Vergil.
1532. Some set forms occur repeatedly, especially in questions of curios-
ity, surprise, incredulity, wrath, or captiousness : as,
sed quid ais ? T. Andr. 575. but apropos, or but by the way (1500). quid
istic ? T. Andr. 572, well, well, have it your way: compare quid istic verba
facimus? PI. E. 141. ain tu ? Br. 152, no, not seriously? itane? T. Eu.
1058, not really? Frequently egone : as, quid mine facere cogitas ? ::
egone ? T. Hau. 608, what do you think of doing now? :: what, I? In
Plautus, threats are sometimes introduced by scin quo modo? do you know
how ? i. e. at your peril.
17 257
1 5 3 3~ * 5 3 8 ] Sentences : The Simple Sen tence.
1533. A question is sometimes united with a participle, or an ablative
absolute, or thrown into a subordinate sentence : as,
quem fructum petentes scire cupimus ilia quo modo moveantur?
Fin. 3, 37, with what practical end in view do we seek to know how yon bodies
in the sky keep in motion ? qua frequentia prosequente creditis nos
illinc profectos ? L. 7, 30, 21, by what multitudes do you think we were seen
off when we left that town ? ' homines ' inquit ' emisti.' quid uti faceret ?
Sest. 84, ''you bought up men ' says he ; with what purpose ?
THE INFINITIVE OF INTIMATION.
1534. The infinitive is principally used in subordination, and will be
spoken of under that head. One use, however, of the present infinitive
in main sentences, as a kind of substitute for a past indicative, requires
mention here.
1535. In animated narration, the present infinitive
with a subject in the nominative sometimes takes the
place of the imperfect or perfect indicative : as,
interim cotidie Caesar Aeduos frumentum flagitare, i, 16, I, there
was Caesar meantime every day dunning and dunning the Aeduans for the
grain. Diodorus sordidatus circum hospites cursare, rem omnibus
narrate, V. 4, 41, Diodorus kept running round in sackcloth and ashes from
friend to friend, telling his tale to everybody, interea Catilina in prlma acle
versari, labSrantibus succurrere, S. C. 60, 4, Catiline meantime bustling
round in the forefront of battle, helping them that were sore bestead, turn vero
ingenti son5 caelum strepere, et micare ignes, metu omnes torpere,
L. 21, 58. 5, at this crisis the welkin ringing with a dreadful roa v , fires flash-
ing, everybody paralyzed with fear. This infinitive occurs in almost all writers,
for instance, Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Horace, and particularly Sallust, Livy,
and Tacitus. Less commonly in Caesar. Usually two or more infinitives are
combined, and infinitives are freely mixed with indicatives. The subject is
never in the second person.
1536. This infinitive is used to sketch or outline persistent, striking, or porten-
tous action, where description fails ; and as it merely intimates the action, without
distinct declaration, and without notation of time, number, or person, it is called the
Infinitive of Intimation. It cannot be adequately represented in English.
1537. The infinitive of intimation is sometimes used without a subject,
when emphasis centres in the action alone ; as,
ub! turrim procul constitui viderunt, inridere ex muro, 2, 30, 3, when
they saw the tozver planted some way off", jeer after jeer from the wall, turn
spectaculum horribile in campis patentibus: sequi fugere, occidi capi,
S. /. IOI, II, then a heartrending spectacle in the open fields : chasing and rac-
ing, killing and catching.
1538. Terence and Petrnnius have it in questions: as, rex te erg5 in rculis : :
scilicet : : gestare ? : : vero, T. Eu. 401, your king then always bearing you : :
of course^ of course : : in eye ? : : oJi yes. qui morl timore nisi ego ? Petr. 62.
The Verb: Mood. [i 539-1542.
1539. It may be mentioned here, that the infinitive of intimation is some-
times used from Sallust on in relative clauses and with cum, -when. Also
by Tacitus in a temporal protasis with ubf, ut, donee, or postquam, co-
ordinated with a present or imperfect indicative protasis : as,
(a.) cingebatur interim milite domus, cum Libo vocare percusso-
rem, Ta. 2, 31, the house meantime was encompassed with soldiers, when Libo
called for somebody to kill him (1869). (b.) ub! crudescere seditiS et a con-
viciis ad tela transibant, inici catenas Flavians iubet, Ta. H. 3, 10, when
the riot was waxing hot, and they were proceeding from invectives to open vio-
lence, he orders Flavian to be clapped in irons ( 1933).
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
DECLARATIONS.
I. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF DESIRE.
(A.) WISH.
1540. The subjunctive may be used to express a
wish.
Wishes are of ten introduced by utinam, in old and poetical Latin also by
uti, ut, and curses in old Latin by qui ; these words were originally inter-
rogative, how. Sometimes the wish is limited by modo, only. In negative
wishes ne is used, either alone, or preceded by utinam or modo; rarely
non, or the old-fashioned nee, not (1446).
1541. (i.) The present and perfect represent a wish as prac-
ticable ; although a hopeless wish may, of course, if the speaker
chooses, be represented as practicable : as,
(a.) te spectem, suprema mihi cum venerit hora, Tib. i, i, 59, on
thee I'd gaze, when my last hour shall come, utinam ilium diem videam,
Att. 3, 3, 1 hope I may see the day. (b.} utinam cSnere, Ph, 2, 101, I hope
you may make the effort, (c.) di vortant bene quod agas, T. Hec. 196, mav
gods speed well whatever you undertake, qui ilium di omnes perduint, T.
P/t_ 123, him may all gods fordo. 6 utinam hibernae duplicentur tempora
brumae, Prop, i, 8, 9, oh that the winter's time may doubled be. utinam
reviviscat frater, Gell. 10, 6, 2, / hope my brother may rise from his grave.
ne istuc luppiter sirit, L. 28, 28, u, now Jupiter for ef end. The perfect is
found principally in old Latin.
1542. The present is very common in asseveration : as,
peream, nisi sollicitus sum, Fam. 15, 19, 4, may I die, if I am not wor-
ried, sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua valetudo, Fam. 16, 20, your state of
health worries me, as I hope to live, ita vivam, ut maximos sumptus facio,
Att. 5, 15, 2, as I hope to be saved, I am making great outlays. See also 1622.
259
I 543~ I 54^.] Sentences: The Simple Sentence.
1543. The perfect subjunctive sometimes refers to past action now completed .
as, utinam abierit malam crucem, PI. Poen. 799, / hope he "s got him to the
bitter cross (1165). utinam spern impleverim, Plin. Ep. i, 10, 3, I hope I may
have fulfilled the expectations.
1544. (2.) The imperfect represents a wish as hopeless in
the present or immediate future, the pluperfect represents it as
unfulfilled in the past : as,
(a.) tecum ludere sicut ipsa possem, Cat. 2, 9, could I with thee but
play, e'en as thy mistress'' self, to Lesbia's sparrow, utinam ego tertius vo-
bis amicus adscriberer, TD. 5, 63, would that I could be enrolled with you
myself, as the third friend, says tyrant Dionysius to Damon and Phintias.
(6.) utinam me mortuum prius vidisses, QFr. i, 3, i, I wish you had seen
me dead first, (c.) utinam ne in nemore Pelio securibus caesa acce-
disset abiegna ad terram trabes, E. in Cornif. 2, 34, had but, in Pelion's
grove, by axes felled, ne'er fallen to the earth the beam of fir, i. e. for the Argo.
utinam ille omnis secum copias eduxisset, C. 2, 4, / only wish the man
had marched out all his train-bands with him.
1545. In old or poetical Latin, the imperfect sometimes denotes unfulfilled past
action, like the usual pluperfect ; as, utinam in Sicilia perbiteres, PI. R. 494,
would thou hadst died in Sicily, utinam te di prius perderent, PI. Cap. 537,
/ wish the gods had cut thee off before. See 2075.
1546. In poetry, a wish is sometimes thrown into the form of a conditional protasis
with si or 5 si : as, 6 si urnam argent! fors quae mihi monstret, H. S. 2,
6, 10, oh if some chance a pot of money may to me reveal.
(B.) EXHORTATION, DIRECTION, STATEMENT OF PROPRIETY.
1547. The subjunctive may be used to express an
exhortation, a direction, or a statement of propriety.
The subjunctive of exhortation is sometimes preceded in old Latin by
uti or ut, originally interrogative. In negative exhortations or directions,
ne, nemo, nihil, or numquam, &c., is used, rarely non.
1548. (i.) The present expresses what is to be done or is not
to be done in the future : as,
(a.) hoc quod coepi primum enarrem, T. Hau. 273, first let me tell the
story I've begun, taceam nunc iam, PL B. 1058, let me now hold my tongue.
considamus hie in umbra, Leg. 2, 7, let us sit down here in the shade, ne
dimcilia optemus, V. 4, 15, let us not hanker after impossibilities, (b.} HAICE
VTEl IN COVENTIONID EXDEICATIS, GIL. I, 196, 23, this you are to proclaim
in public assembly, (c.) nomina declinare et verba in primis pueri sciant,
Quintil. I, 4, 22, first and foremost boys are to know hoiv to infiect nouns and
verbs, uti adserventur magna diligentia, PI. Cap. 115, let them be watched
with all due care, ne quis tamquam parva fastidiat grammatices ele-
menta, Quintil. i, 4, 6, let no man look down on the rudiments of grammar ',
fancying them insignificant.
The Verb: Mood. [ I 549~ I 554-
1549. (2.) The perfect subjunctive is rare: as, idem dictum sit, Qumtil. i, i,
8, the same be said, once for all. Mostly in prohibitions : as, moratus sit nemo
qu5 minus abeant, L. 9, u, 13, let no man hinder them from going away.
1550. In positive commands, the second person singular often has a defi-
nite subject in old or epistolary Latin, and particularly sis, for the imperative
es or esto. Usually however an indefinite subject (1030) : as,
(a.) eas, PI. R. 519, be off. hie apud n5s hodie cenes, PI. Most. 1129,
dine here with us today, cautus sis, mi Tir5, Fam. 16, 9, 4, you must be care-
ful, dear Tiro, (b.} ist5 bono utare, dum adsit, CM. 33, enjoy this blessing
while you have it with you.
1551. When a prohibition is expressed in the subjunctive, the second person of
the present is often used in old Latin, sometimes the perfect. Later, however, the per-
fect is generally prevalent. In the classical period, the present is almost confined to
poetry. For the imperative in prohibitions, see 1581-1586.
(a.) ne ilium verberes, PL B. 7 47, you must n' t thrash the man. Once in
Horace : ne sis patruos mini, S. 2, 3, 88, don't play stern governor to me.
(b.) ne transieris Iberum, L. 21, 44, 6, do not cross the Iberus. quod dubi-
tas ne feceris, Plin. Ep. i, 18, 5, what you have doubt about, never do.
1552. (3.) The imperfect or (but not in old Latin) pluperfect subjunctive
is sometimes used to express past obligation or necessity : as,
(a.) Imperfect: quae hie erant curares, T. Hec. 230, thou should st have
looked to matters here, pateretur, T. Hau. 202, he should have stood it. quod
si meis incommodis laetabantur, urbis tamen periculd commoverentur,
Sest. 54, welly if they did gloat over my mishaps, still thev ought to have been
touched by the danger to Rome, eras ires potius, PL Per. 710, you 'd better
have gone tomorrow, i. e. have resolved to go tomorrow, poenas penderes,
PL B. 427, thou hadst to pay a penalty, (b.) Pluperfect : restitisses, repug-
nasses, mortem pugnans oppetisses, Poet, in Sest. 45, thou shouldst have
made a stand, fought back, and fighting met thy fate, quid facere debuisti?
frumentum ne emisses, V. 3, 195, what ought you to have done ? you shoitld
not have bought any wheat. Usually, however, past obligation or necessity is
expressed by the gerundive construction, or by some separate verb meaning
ought (1496).
(C.) WILLINGNESS, ASSUMPTION, CONCESSION.
1553. The subjunctive of desire may be used to denote will-
ingness, assumption, or concession : as,
oderint dum metuant, Poet, in Suet. Cal. 30, they are welcome to hate, as
long as they fear, ne sit sane summum malum dolor, malum certe est,
TD. 2, 14, grant for aught I care that pain is not the worst evil, an evil it
certainly is. nil fecerit, esto, J. 6, 222, he may be guiltless, be it so.
II. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF ACTION CONCEIVABLE.
1554. The subjunctive is often used to represent ac-
tion as conceivable, without asserting that it actually
takes place.
261
1 5 5 5 ~ 1 5 5 &] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
In some of its applications, this subjunctive is often more exactly defined
by an expression of doubt or of assurance : as, fors fuat an in Plautus,
forsitan from Terence on (rarely forsan, fors), fortasse, may be, perhaps ;
opmor, baud scio an, I fancy ; facile, easily, sine ulla dubitatione, uti/'ies-
itatingly, &c., &c. The negative used with this subjunctive is non.
1555. This subjunctive is particularly common in guarded or diffident state-
ments : thus, yehm, / could wish, nolim, / should not be -willing, malim, / wouLi
rather, dixerim, I should say, are often preferred to a blunter volo, I insist, noiO,
/ won't, malo, I prefer, or dico, / say.
1556. The present denotes action in an indefinite future : as,
(a.) ego forsitan in grege adnumerer, RA. 89, as for me. /might per-
haps be counted in the common herd, mutuom argentum rogem, PI. Tri. 758,
money I might borrow, baud scio an recte dicamus, Sest. 58, 1 rather think
we may say with propriety. (b.\ The second person singular generally has an
imaginary subject (1030) : as, dicas hie forsitan, J. I, 150, here peradventure
thou mayst say, i. e. anybody may say. roges me quid sit deus, auctore
utar Sim5nide, DN. I, 60, you may ask me what god is ; I should folloiu the
lead of Simonides. migrantis cernas, V. 4, 401, thozi canst descry them on the
move (1635). Often with some generalizing word, such as saepe, numquam,
plures : as, saepe vide as, H. S. I, 4, 86, thou oft canst see. Fortunam
citius reperias quam retineas, Publil. Syr. 168, dame Fortune thou mayst
sooner find than bind, (c.) mule aliquis dicat mihi, H. S. I, 3, 19, now
somebody may say to me (more commonly dicet aliquis, dices, 1620). for-
sitan aliquis dicat, L. 5, 52, 5, perhaps somebody may say- hoc vobis
incredibile videatur, V. 3, 109, this may seem incredible to you.
J 557- (*) Tne perfect seldom occurs in old Latin. Later, it is rarely used
of past time. In this use it resembles the perfect of concession (1553) : as,
(a.) forsitan tern ere fecerim, RA. 31, peradventure I may have acted
rashly, erraverim fortasse, Plin. Ep. I, 23, 2, / may have been mistaken
perhaps, (b.} concedo; forsitan aliquis aliquando eius modi quippiam
fecerit, V. 2, 78, I grant it; perhaps somebody, at some time or other, may
have done something of the sort, haec ipsa forsitan fuerint non necessaria,
Br. 52, even this may perhaps have been superfluous.
1558. (2.) The perfect is oftenest used with a future meaning, and
particularly the first person singular active of verbs meaning think or
say: as,
(a.) non facile dixerim, TD. 5, 121, 1 could not readily say. hoc sine
ulla dubitatione confirmaverim, Br. 25, this I can assert without any hesita-
tion, pace tua dixerim, TD. 5, 12, by your leave I would say. The first
person plural occurs first in Cornificius, and is rare : as, hunc deum rite
beatum dixerimus, DN. I, 52, such a god we should be right in pronouncing
happy, (b.) plane perfectum Demosthenem facile dixeris, Br. 35, you
would readily pronounce Demosthenes absolutely perfect (1030). tu ver5 eum
nec nimis valde umquam nee nimis saepe laudaveris, Leg. 3, I, oh no,
rest assured you never can praise him too emphatically nor too often, conlu-
viem istam non nisi metu coercueris, Ta. 14, 44, such a motley Brabble
you can only keep under by terrorism, (r.) forsitan quispiam dixerit, Off.
3> 2 9 perhaps somebody may say.
262
The Verb: Mood. [i 559-1563.
J 559' (i-) Tne imperfect properly denotes action which might
have taken place in the past : as,
(a.) non ego hoc ferrem calidus iuventa consule Planco, H. 3, 14,
27, this I should not have brooked in my hot youth, in Plancus' consulate,
(b.) The second person singular, particularly of verbs meaning see, make out,
think, say, generally has an imaginary subject (1030) : as, videres, H. S. 2,
8, 77, thou mightst have seen, cerneres, L. 22, 7, 12, you might have descried.
nescires, L. 3, 35, 3, you could not have told, te columen ri publicae
diceres intueri, Sest. 19, you would have sworn you were gazing on a pillar
of the state, (c.) qui videret, urbem captam diceret, V. 4, 52, anybody who
saw it, would have said it was a captured city, dici hoc in te non potest,
posset in Tarquinio, cum regno esset expulsus, 7Z>. i, 88, this cannot be
said in your case ; it might have been said in Tar qtiin's, when he was driven
from the throne, numquam faceret, T. Ph. \2\,he never would have done it.
1560. (2.) The imperfect often denotes action not performed at
the present time ; so especially vellem (nollem, mallem) : as,
(a.) nimis vellem habere perticam, PI. As. 589, I wish so much I had
a stick, vellem adesse posset Panaetius; quaererem ex eo, TD. i, 81,
/ only wish Panaetius could be with us: I should ask him (Panaetius was
dead), cuperem voltum videre tuum, Ait. 4, 16, 7, I should like to see the
expression of your face, mallem Cerberum metueres, TD. 1,12, I would
rather you stood in dread of Cerberus, possem idem facere, ID. i, 84,
I could do the same, (b.) melius sequerere cupidine captam, O. 14, 28,
better for the e it were a loving bride to woo. (c.) in hac fortuna perutilis
eius opera esset, Att. 9, 17, 2, in the present pinch his services would be
extremely vahtable.
1561. The pluperfect represents action which did not take place
in the past: as,
(a.) vellem quidem liceret: hoc dixissem, RA. 138, I only wish it
were allowed; I should have said so and so. (b.) dedisses huic animo par
corpus, fecisset quod optabat, Plin. Ep. i, 12, 8, you might have given this
spirit a body to match ; he would have done what he craved to do. (c ) urbes
et regna celeriter tanta nequitia devorare potuisset, Ph. 2, 67, such colos-
sal prodigality might have been capable of swallowing down cities and kingdoms
speedily, vicissent inprobos bom ; quid deinde ? Sest. 43, the good might
have overpowered the bad ; what next ?
1562. It may be mentioned here, that the subjunctive of action conceiv-
able often extends to subordinate sentences : see 1731.
QUESTIONS.
1563. I. The subjunctive is often used to ask what action
or whether any action is desired, commanded, proper, or neces-
sary.
In many instances a negative answer or no answer at all is expected
The negative is ne, sometimes non.
263
1 5 64- 1567.] Sen tences : The Simple Sentence.
praescribe
5, lay down
thou, no verse at all ? quid igitur faciam ? non earn ? T. Eu. 46, what then
am I to do ? not go? quid m meminerim ? DO. 2, 273, why should not Ire-
member ? or of course I remember, huic cedamus ? huius condiciones
audiamus ? Ph. 13, 16, shall we bow the knee to him ? shall we listen to his
terms? (b.) quid tandem me facere decuit? quiescerem et paterer ? L.
42, 41, 12, what in the world ought I to have done ? keep inactive and stand it?
1564. Such questions sometimes have the alternative form : as, Corinthiis bel-
lum indicamus, an non ? Inv. I, 17, are -we to declare war against Corinth, or
not? utrum indicate me el thensaurum aequom fuit, an ego alium do-
minum paterer fieri hisce aedibus? PI. Tri. 175, should I have pointed out
the hoard to him, or should I have allowed another to become the owner of this
hoyse? here paterer is equivalent to aequom fuit pati (1495).
1565. II. The subjunctive is often used to ask whether action
is conceivable : as,
(a.) quis putet celeritatem ingeni L. Bruto defuisse ? Br. 53, who
can suppose that Brutus lacked ready wit ? i. e. nemS putet (1556), putabit
(1620), or putare potest. si enim Zenom licuit, cur non liceat Catoni ?
Pin 3, 1 5, for if it was allowed Zeno, why should not it be allowed Cato ?
(b.} hoc tantum bellum quis umquam arbitraretur ab uno imperatore
confici posse ? IP. 31, who would ever have dreamed that this stupendous
war could be brought to a close by a single commander ? The imperfect
sometimes denotes action not performed at the present time (1560) :
quis enim civis regi non faveret ? D. 6, for what Roman would not feel
for the king? (c.) ego te videre noluerim ? QFr. 1,3, i, I have objected to
seeing you ?
1566. The subjunctive is often used in interrogative outbursts of
surprise, disapprobation, indignation, or captious rejoinder. In such
questions a pronoun, ego, tu (ille), is usually expressed. The nega-
tive is non.
This subjunctive occurs in Plautus and Terence, in Cicero, oftenest the
letters, in Horace, Vergil, and Livy. Not in Caesar nor Sallust.
1567. (i.) The question may have no interrogative word, or may have
-ne, especially in comedy : as,
(a.) non taces ? : : taceam ? T. Ph. 987, vou hold vour tongue : : I hold
my tongue? ne fle : : egone ilium non fleam? PI. Cap. 139, weep not : :
what, I not weep for him ? tu pulses omne quod obstat ? H. S. 2, 6, 30,
what, you, sir, punch whatever 's in your way ? faveas tu host! ? ille litteras
ad te mittat? Ph. 7, 5, you, sir, sympathize with the enemy? he correspond with
you? sapiensne non timeat? Ac. 2, 135, a sage not be afraid? (b.) ego
mih! umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem ? Mil. 94, could
I have dreamed that I should ever lack the protection of the patriotic ? (c. ) ' apud
exercitum mih! fueris ' inquit 'tot annos ?' Mur. 21, ' to think of 'your hav-
ing been with the army, bless my soul? says he, ' so many years? (d. ) mih! cuius-
quam salus tanti fuisset, ut meam neglegerem ? Snll. 45, could anybody 1 s
safety have been so important in my eyes as to make me disregard my own ?
264
The Verb: Mood. [1568-1571.
1568. (2.) The question may have uti or ut: as,
te ut ulla res frangat ? tu ut umquam te corrigas ? C. i, 22, any thing
break you down ? you ever reform ? pater ut obesse filiS debeat ? Plane.
31, a father morally bound to work against his son ?
- (3-) The question with uti or ut is sometimes attended by a remnant
of another question with -ne or -n. In this combination, -ne either pre-
cedes, joined to an emphatic word, or it is attached directly to uti or ut : as,
(a.) egone ut te interpellem ? TD. 2, 42, what I? interrupt you ? illine
ut impune concitent finitima bella ? L. 4, 2, 12, what, they be allowed to stir
up border warfare with impunity ? virgo haec liberast : : meane ancilla
libera ut sit, quam ego numquam emisi manu ? PI. Cttr. 615, this girl is
free : : my servant-girl ? she to be free, when I have never set her free ? (b.) utne
tegam spurco Damae latus ? H. S. 2, 5, 18, what, I^m to shield a nasty
Dama's side ? somnium. utine haec ignoraret sudm patrem ? T. Ph.
874, oh bosh, not to have known the father that begat her ? See 1505 and 1532.
1570. It may be mentioned here, that the interrogative subjunctive is
often used in subordinate sentences : see 1731.
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.
COMMAND.
1571. The second person of the imperative mood is
used in commands, either particular or general.
Commands are very often attended by a vocative or vocative nominative,
or by tu, sir, sirrah, or vos, gentlemen, you people ( 1 1 18). They are of various
kinds, as follows : (a.) Order, often to an inferior : thus, to an official : lictor,
conliga manus, Rab. 13, L. i, 26, 7, Cell. 12, 3, 2, lictor, tie up his wrists.
To soldiers : as, desilite milites, 4, 25, 3, overboard, my men. signifer,
statue signum, L. 5, 55, i, standardbearer, plant your standard, infer miles
signum, L. 6, 8, i, advance your standard, man, or charge. To sailors: as,
hue dirigite naves, L. 29, 27, 13, head your galleys this way. To slaves : as,
convorrite aedes scopis, agite strenue, PI. B. 10, sweep up the house with
brooms, be brisk. Also to an equal : as, aperite aliquis, PI. Mer. 130, open the
door there somebodv (1080). Or to a superior : as, heus, exi, Phaedrome,
PI. Cur. 276, ho Phaedromus, come out. (b.} Exhortation, entreaty, summons,
request, prayer, imprecation, wish, concession, &c. : as, vos v5bis consulite,
7, 50, 5, every man of you for himself, es, bibe, anim5 obsequere, PI. MG.
677. eat, drink, and be merry, sperne voluptates, H. E. I, 2, 55, scorn thou
delights, qum tu I intro, PI. Most. 815, go in, go in, won't you go in ? (1527).
patent portae, proficiscere, educ tecum etiam omms tuos, C. i, 10, the
gates are open, march forth ; take out all your myrmidons with you too. audi,
luppiter, L. i, 32, 6, bow down thine ear, Jupiter. I in crucem, PI. As. 940,
get you gone to the cross, vive valeque, H. S. 2, 5, 109, long live and thrive,
or farewell, tibl habe, PI. Men. 690, you keep it yourself.
26 5
1 5 7 2 - 1 5 7 9.] Sentences : T/ie Simple Sen tence.
1572. The imperative is often softened by the addition of amabo, obse-
cro, quaes6,/r?//^, I beg, or sis, sultis, sodes, please (97). It is sharp-
ened by age, agedum or agidum, age sis, mark me, or I, go, come on, or by
modo, only. The concessive imperative sometimes has sane,yfrr all me.
1573. In Plautus and Terence, the enclitic dum, a -while, a minute, just, is often
attached to the imperative: as, manedum, PL As. 585, wait a minute. In classi-
cal Latin, dum is retained with age and agite : as, agedum conferte cum
illius Vita P. Sullae, Sull. 72, come now, compare Sulla's life -with that man's
(1075).
1574. It may be mentioned here, that the imperative is often used in the
protasis of a conditional sentence : as,
tolle hanc opmionem, luctum sustuleris, TD. i, 30, dn away "with
this notion, and you will do away with mourning for the dead. Once only in
old Latin, but often in late Latin, with a copulative : as, perge, ac facile
ecfeceris, PI. B. 695, start on, and you will do it easily.
1575. (i.) The third person, and the longer forms of the sec-
ond person, are used particularly in laws, legal documents, and
treaties, and also in impressive general rules and maxims : as,
(a.) regi5 imperid duo sunto, Leg. 3, 8, there shall be two men vested with
the power of kings, amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo Romano his le-
gibus est5, L. 38, 38, I, there shall be amity between king Antiochus and Rome
on the fot 'lowing terms, (b.) vicinis bonus esto, Cato, J?R. 4, always be good
to your neighbours, moribus vivito antiquis, PI. Tri. 295, live thou in old-
time ways. The longer forms are often called the Future Imperative.
1576. (2.) The longer forms of the second person are also sometimes used in the
ordinary speech of everyday life : as, caveto, QFr. T, 3, 8, beware. In old Latin,
often es, be thou, but in classical Latin, oftener esto (or sis). Usually habeto,
meaning keep, or consider, regularly scito, scitote, you must know (846). In verse,
the long forms may sometimes be due to the metre : as, hie hodie cenato, PI. R.
1417, take dinner here today, par pro par! referto, T. Eu. 445, pay tit for tat.
But also without such necessity : as, aufert5 intro, PI. Tru. 914, take it -within.
quietus esto, inquam, T. Ph. 713, be not concerned, I say.
1577. (3.) It may be mentioned here, that the longer forms are
very often used in the apodosis of a complex sentence, particularly
with a future or a future perfect protasis : as,
si iste ibit, ito, PI. Ps. 863, if he shall go, go thou. medico mercedis
quantum poscet, prSmitti iubet5, Fam. 16, 14, i,you must order your med-
ical man to be promised all he shall charge in the way of a fee. ub! nihil erit
quod scribas, id ipsum scribito, Att. 4, 8 b, 4. when you dorft have anything
to write, then write just that, cum ego P. Granium testem produxero,
refellito, si poteris, V. 5, 154, when I put Granius on the witness stand,
refute him if you can.
1578. In such combinations, however, the shorter forms are sometimes found :
as, ubi voles, accerse, T. Andr. %$, fetch me -when you -will. ^ And conversely
the longer forms are also found with a present protasis : as, unum illud videto, si
me amas, Fam. 16, *, 2, attend to this one thing, an thou lovest me.
1579. A command is sometimes expressed by the subjunctive, accompany-
ing fac, facito, fac ut, facito ut, cura ut, cfirato ut, vide, vide ut, volo,
or particularly velim : as,
266
The Verb: Mood, [1580-1586.
magnum fac animum habeas et spem bonam, QFr. i, 2, 16, see that
you keep up an heroic soul and iinabated hope (1712). fac cogites, Fam. II,
3, 4, see that you bear in mind, cura ut valeas, Fam. 12, 29, 3, take good care
of yourself . velim existimes, Fam. 12, 29, 2, / should like to have you
consider. For commands in the subjunctive alone, see 1547; in the future
indicative, 1624; in the form of a question, 1531.
1580. A periphrastic perfect passive form is rare: as, iure caesus esto, Twelve
Tables in Macrob. Sat. i, 4, 19, he shall be regarded as killed -with justifying cir-
cumstances, probe facturn est5, L. 22, 10, 6, let it be considered justified, at
vos admoniti nostris quoque casibus este, O. Tr. 4, 8, 51, but be ye -warned
by our misfortunes too,
PROHIBITION.
1581. (i.) In prohibitions with the second person, the imperative with
ne is used in old Latin, and with neve as a connective, rarely neque : as,
ne fle, PI. Cap. 139, weep not. ne saevi tanto opere, T. Andr. 868, be
not thus wroth. Sometimes in classical poetry also, in imitation of old style :
as, ne saevi, magna sacerdos, V. 6, 544, rave not, thou priestess grand.
Once in Livy : ne timete, 3, 2, 9, be not afraid.
1582. From Ovid on, non is used a few times for ne : as, non caris aures
onerate lapillis, O. A A. 3, 129, load not -with precious stones your ears.
1583. (2.) Prohibitions in the second person are usually ex-
pressed by noli or nolite with the infinitive, particularly in
classical prose : as,
obiurgare noli, Att. 3, n, 2, don't scold, nolite id velle quod fieri non
potest, Ph. 7, 25, don't yearn after the unattainable.
1584. In poetry, equivalents for noli are sometimes used with the infinitive, such
as fuge, parce or comperce, conpesce, mitte or omitte, absiste : as, quid
sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere, H. i, 9, 13, -what fate the morrow brings,
forbear to ask. Livy has once parce, 34, 32, 20.
1585. (3.) A prohibition in the second person is often expressed by the
subjunctive accompanying cavS, fac ne, vide ne, videto ne, cura ne,
curato ne, or nolim, and in old Latin cav6 ne : as,
cave festines, Fam. 16, 12, 6, don't be in a hurry, caveto ne suscen-
seas, PI. As. 372, see that thou beest not wroth, hoc nolim me iocari putes,
Fam. 9, 15, 4, / should hate to have you think I am saying this in fun. For
prohibitions in the second person with ne and the present or perfect sub-
junctive, see 1551. For the subjunctive coordinated with cav6, see 1711.
1586. In law language, prohibitions are expressed by the third person of
the imperative with ne, and with neve as a connective : as,
hominem mortuom in urbe ne sepelito neve unto, Twelve Tables in
j. 2, 58, he shall not bury nor yet shall he burn a dead man in town, mulie-
;s genas ne radunto nSve lessum funeris ergo habento, Twelve Tables
Let?. 2, 59, women shall not tear their cheeks nor shall they keen in lamentation
for the dead (1257). Likewise with nemo: as, nemihi parento, Twelve
Tables in Leg. 3, 8, they shall not be subject to anybody. See also 1 548.
267
1587 15 9-j Sentences: 7^ he Simple Sentence.
TENS E.
THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.
THE PRESENT TENSE.
1587. The present indicative represents action as
going on at the time of speaking or writing : as,
scribS, I write, or / am writing, nunc primum audio, T. Andr. 936,
for the first time I hear, notat ad caedem unum quemque nostrum,
,C. I, 2, he is marking us out for death, each and all. domus aedificatur,
Att. 4, 2, 7, the house is building.
1588. The present is used to denote action customary or
repeated at any time, or a general truth : as,
agri culturae non student, 6, 22, i, they do not apply themselves to farm-
ing, viri in uxores vitae necisque habent potestatem, 6, 19, 3, the mar-
ried men have, power of life and death over their wives, probitas laudatur et
alget, J. i, 74, uprightness gets extolled, and left out in the cold, dum vitant
stulti vitia, in contraria currunt, H. S. i, 2, 24, while fools essay a vice to
shun, into its opposite they rtin. mors sola fatetur quantula sint hominum
corpuscula, J. IO, 172, death is the only thing that tells what pygmy things
men's bodies be. stultdrum plena sunt omnia, Fam. 9, 22, 4, the world is
full of fools, risu inept5 res ineptior nullast, Cat. 39, 16, there's nothing
sillier than a silly laugh.
1589. The present, when accompanied by some expression of
duration of time, is often used to denote action which has been going
on some time and is still going on.
This present is translated by the English perfect : as, Lilybaei multos
iam annos habitat, V. 4, 38, he has lived at Lilybaeum this many a year.
iam dudum ausculto, H. S.2,j, i, I have been listening for an age. satis
diu hoc iam saxum vorso, T. JSu. 1085, I've trundled at this boulder long
enough as 'tis, nimium diu te castra desiderant, C. i, 10, the camp has
felt your absence altogether too long, iam diu ignore quid agas, Fam. 7, 9, T,
/ have not known this long time how you are getting on. This use extends to
the subjunctive and to nouns of the verb also. But if the action is conceived
as completed, the perfect is used : as, sero resistimus 1, quern per annos
decem aluimus, Att. 7, 5, 5, it is too late to oppose a man whom we have been
supporting ten long years.
1590. The present is often used to represent past action as
going on now. This is called the Present of Vivid Narration : as,
transfigitur scutum Pulioni et verutum in balteo defigitur. avertit
hie casus vaginam, inpeditumque hostes circumsistunt, 5, 44, 7, Piilio
has his shield run through, and a javelin sticks fast in his sword belt. This
mischance puts his scabbard out of reach, and the enemy encompass him in
this hampered condition. This present often stands side by side with a past
tense. It is common in subordinate sentences also.
268
The Verb : Tense, [ 1 5 9 1 - 1 5 96,
1591. The present is sometimes used in brief historical or personal
memoranda, to note incidents day by day or year by year as they occur.
This is called the Annalistic Present: as,
Proca dcinde regnat. is Numitorem procreat. Numitori regnurn
vetustum Silviae gentis legat, L. I, 3, 9, after this Proca is king ; this man
begets fifutnitor ; to Numitor he bequeaths the ancient throne of the Silvian
race, duplicator civium numerus. Caelius additur urbi mons, L. i,
30, i, number of citizens doubled ; Mt. Caelius added to city, in Mamurrarum
lassi deinde urbe manemus, H. S. i, 5, 37, in the Mamurras' city then
forspent we sleep. Particularly common with dates : as, A. Verginius inde
et T. Vetusius consulatum ineunt, L. 2, 28, i, then Verginius and Vettisius
enter on the consulship. M. Silano L. Norbano consulibus Germanicus
Aegyptum proficiscitur, Ta. 2, 59, in the consulship of Silanus and Norbanus,
Germanicus leaves for Egypt.
1592. Verbs of hearing, seeing, and saying are often put in the present,
even when they refer to action really past : as,
audio Valerium Martialem decessisse, Plin. Ep. 3, 21, i, I hear that
Martial is dead, i. e. the epigrammatist, 102 A. D. Particularly of things men-
tioned in books, or in quoting what an author says : as, Hercyniam silvam,
quam Eratostheni notam esse video, 6, 24, 2, the Hercynian forest, which
/ see was known to Eratosthenes. Plato ' escam malorum ' appellat vo-
luptatem, CM. 44, Plato calls pleasiire the ' bait of sin?
I 593- The present is sometimes loosely used of future action : as,
eras est mih! iudicium, T. Eu. 338, tomorrow I've a case in court.
ego sycophantam iam conduc5 de for5, PI. Tri. 8i$,for me, a sharper
from the market place I'll straight engage, quam mox inruimus ? T. Eu.
788, how soon do we pitch in ? This present is also used in subordinate seji-
tences with antequam and priusquam (1912, 1915), with dum, until (2006),
and sometimes with si.
THE IMPERFECT TENSE.
1594. The imperfect indicative represents action as
going on in past time : as,
scribebam, 7 was writing, or / wrote, ei mihi qualis erat, V. 2, 274,
woe 's me, how ghastly he appeared, multosque per annos errabant act!
fatis, V. i, 31, and they for many a year were roaminground, by fates pursued.
1595. The imperfect often denotes past action lasting while
something else occurred : as,
an turn eras cSnsul, cum mea domus ardebat? Pis. 26, were you per-
haps consul at the time my house was burning down ? neque ver5 turn
ignorabat se ad exquisita supplicia proficisci, Off. 3, 100, and all the
time he knew perfectly well that he was starting off to suffer studied torments.
1596. The imperfect is used to denote repeated or customary
past action or condition : as,
commentabar declamitans cotidie, Br. 310, I always practised speaking
my compositions every day. noctu ambulabat in publico Themistocles,
TD. 4, 44, Themistocles ztsed to promenade the. streets nights*
1 5 9 7- 1 603.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1597. The imperfect, when accompanied by some expression of
duration of time, is used to denote action which had been going on for
some time, and was still going on.
This imperfect, which is translated by the English pluperfect, is analo-
gous to the present in 1589: as, pater grandis natu iam diu lecto teneba-
tur, V. 5, 16, his aged father had long been bedridden, horam amplius iam
permulti homines moliebantur, V. 4, 95, something over an hour a good
many men had been prizing away. But if the action is conceived as completed
at a past time, the pluperfect is used : as, diem iam quintum cibo caruerat,
6, 38, \,four whole days he had gone without eating.
1598. In a few examples, the imperfect is used to denote action suddenly recog-
nized, though going on before: as, ehem, Parmeno, tun hie eras ? T. Hec. 340,
why bless me, Parmeno, were you here all this time ?
1599. In descriptions of place or in general truths, where the present might be
expected, the imperfect is sometimes used, by assimilation to past action in the con-
text : as, ipsum erat oppidum Alesia in colle summo, 7, 69, i, Alesia proper
was situated on the top of a hill. Often also in subordinate sentences.
1600. For the imperfect indicative of certain verbs relating to action not per-
formed at the present time, see 1497 ; for the conative use, see 2302.
1601. In letters, the imperfect may denote action at the time of writing,
the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,
haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae, H. E. i, 10, 49, I dic-
tate this for thee behind Vacuncfs crumbling shrine, nihil habebam quod
scrlberem, Att. 9, 10, I, / have nothing to ivrite. Similarly in the delivery
of messages : as, scribae orabant, H. S. 2, 6, 36, the clerks request. The
present, however, is very often used where the imperfect would be applicable.
Compare 1616.
THE PERFECT TENSE.
1602. The Latin perfect indicative represents two English tenses : thus,
the preterite, / wrote, and the perfect, I have written, are both expressed by
the perfect scrips!. In the first sense, this perfect is called the Historical
Perfect ; in the second sense, it is called the Perfect Definite.
THE HISTORICAL PERFECT.
1603. The historical perfect simply expresses action
as having occurred at an indefinite past time, without
implying anything as to the duration of the action : as,
scrips!, I wrote, veni, vidi, vie!, Caesar in Suet. lul. 37, came, saw, over-
came, apud Helvetios longe nobilissimus fuit Orgetorix, i, 2, i, among
the Helvetians, the man of highest birth by all odds was Orgetorix. Diodorus
prope triennium domo caruit, V. 4, 41, for marly three years Diodorus had
to keep away from home, in Graecia music! floruerunt, discebantque id
omnes, TD. r, 4, in Greece musicians stood high^ and everybody studied the
art (1596).
990
The Verb: Tense. [1604-1610.
1604. It may be mentioned here, that in subordinate sentences the historical per-
fect is sometimes loosely used from the writer's point of view, instead of the more
exact pluperfect demanded by the context : as, aliquantum spatii ex eo loco,
ubl pugnatum est, aufugerat, L. i, 25,8,^ had run off some distance from
the spot -where the fighting had occurred. See 1925.
THE PERFECT DEFINITE.
1605. The perfect definite expresses action which is
already completed at the present time, and the effects
of which are regarded as continuing : as,
scrips!, I have written, dixerunt, Chi. 73, dixere, Quintil. I, 5, 43, they
have finished speaking, spectatores, fabula haec est acta, PI. Most. 1181,
ladies and gentlemen, this play is done.
1606. In old Latin, habeo with the perfect participle is sometimes equivalent to
a periphrastic perfect: as, ilia omnia missa habeo, PI. Ps. 602, I've dropped
all that, i.e. misi. But in classical Latin, the participle and a tense of habeo are
more or less distinct in their force : as, Caesar aciern instructam habuit, i,
48,3, Caesar kept his line drawn up, not had drawn up. Compare 2297.
1607. With verbs of inceptive meaning the perfect definite is equivalent
to the English present : as,
consists, take my stand, constiti, stand, consuesco, get used, consuevi,
am used, nosco, learn, novi, know. Similarly memini, remember, and Sdi,
hate. The pluperfect of such verbs is represented by the English imperfect,
and the future perfect by the English future.
1608. The perfect often denotes a present resulting state: as, vicine, peril,
interil, PI. Most. 1031., my neighbour, I am dead and gone. Particularly in the
passive voice : as, Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, i, i, i, Gaul, includ-
ing everything under the name, is divided into three parts. Compare 1615.
1609. In the perfect passive, forms of fui, &c., are sometimes used to represent
a state no longer existing : as, monuments statua superimposita fuit, quam
deiectam nuper vidimus ipsi, L. 38, 56, 3, on the monument there once stood
a statue which I saw not long ago with my own eyes, lying flat on the ground. Sim-
ilarly, in the pluperfect, fueram, &c. : as, arma quae fixa in parietibus fue-
rant, ea sunt humi inventa, Div. i, 74, the arms which had once been fastened
on the walls were found on the floor. Sometimes, however, forms of fui, &c.,
fueram, &c., and fuero, &c., are used by Plautus, Cicero, especially in his letters,
Nepos, Sallust, and particularly Livy, in passives and deponents, quite in the sense of
sum, &c.
1610. The perfect of some verbs may imply a negative idea emphatically by
understatement, as :
fuit Ilium, V. 2, 3215, Ilium has been, i.e. Ilium is no more, viximus,
floruimus, Fam. 14, 4. 5, we have lived our life, we have had our day. filium
unicum adulescentulum habeo. ah, quid dixi ? habere me ? immo ha-
bui, T. Hau. 93, I have one only son, a growing boy. Ah me, what did I say,
I have ? Oh no, have had.
271
1 6 1 1 1 6 1 6.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1611. The perfect may denote an action often done, or never done : as,
iam saepe homines patriam carosque parentes prodiderunt, Lucr.
3, 85, time and again have men their land betrayed and parents dear, nort
aens acervus et auri deduxit corpore febris, H. E. i, 2, 47, no pile of
brass and gold hath fevers from the body drawn, multi, cum obesse vellent,
profuerunt et, cum prodesse, obfuerunt, DN. 3, 70, many a man has done
good, when he meant to do harm, and when he meant to do good, has done harm.
Common from Cicero, Sallust, and Catullus on, especially in poetry.
1612. The perfect is sometimes used as a lively future perfect to express
completed future action : as,
quam mox coctumst prandium ? PI. R. 342, how soon is lunch all cooked?
cui si esse in urbe licebit, vicimus, Att. 14, 20, 3, if he shall be allowed to
stay in town, the day is ours, peril, si me aspexerit, PL Am. 320, I'm gone,
if he lays eyes on me.
1613. It may be mentioned here, that the perfect is regularly used in a
subordinate sentence denoting time anterior to a present of repeated action
(1588). In such sentences the present is preferred in English : as,
reliqui, qui dorm manserunt, se atque illos alunt, 4, i, 5, the others,
that stay at home, always support themselves and the above-mentioned also, si
qui aut privatus aut populus eorum decreto non stetit, sacrificiis in-
terdicunt, 6, 13, 6, if any man or any community does not abide by their decree,
they always debar them from sacrifices. So also with quom or cum, quo-
tiens, simul atque, ub!. Compare 1618.
THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.
1614. The pluperfect indicative expresses past ac-
tion, completed before another past action expressed or
understood : as,
scripseram, / had written. Pyrrhi temporibus iam Apollo versus
facere desierat, Div. 2, 116, in Pyrrhns's day Apollo had quite given up
making poetry . mortuus erat Agis rex. filium reliquerat Leotychidem,
N. 17, i, 4, Agis the king had died ; he had left a son Leotychides.
1615. The pluperfect often expresses a past resulting state : as,
castra oportunis locis erant posita, 7, 69, 7, the camp was pitched on
favourable ground, ita uno tempore et longas naves aestus compleverat,
et onerarias tempestas adflictabat, 4, 29, 2, thus at one and the same time
the tide had filled the men-of-war, and the gale of wind kept knocking the trans-
ports about. This use is analogous to that of the perfect in 1608.
1616. In letters, the pluperfect is sometimes used to denote action occur-
ring previous to the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the
time of the reader : as,
unam adhuc a te epistolam acceperam, Att. 7, 12, i, I have only had
one letter from yon thus far. This use is analogous to that of the imperfect
in 1601, and very often, where this pluperfect would be applicable, the perfect
is used.
272
The Verb : Tense. [1617-1622.
1617. The pluperfect is sometimes used where the perfect would be expected.
Particularly so when it anticipates a past tense to follow in a new sentence : as, quod
factum primS popularis coniurationis concusserat. neque tamen
Catilinae furor minuebatur, S. C. 24, i, this terrified the conspirators at first ;
and yet Catiline 's frenzy -was not getting abated. Verbs of saying are also often put
in the pluperfect in subordinate sentences referring to a preceding statement : as,
Epidamniensis ille, quern dudum dixeram, adoptat ilium puerum sur-
rupticium, PI. Men. prol. 57, said man of Epidamnus that I named erevuhile
adopts said kidnapped boy.
1618. It may be mentioned here, that the pluperfect is used in a subordi-
nate sentence denoting time anterior to a past tense of repeated action. In
such sentences the preterite is preferred in English : as,
hostes ub! aliquos singulares conspexerant, incitatis equis adorie-
bantur, 4, 26, 2, every time the enemy caught sight of detached parties, they would
always charge full gallop. Compare the analogous perfect in 1613.
THE FUTURE TENSE.
1619. The future indicative expresses future action,
either momentary or continuous : as,
scribam, I shall write, I shall be writing, or I will write, I will be writing.
The future commonly expresses either prediction, or will, determination,
promise, threat : as, (a.) tuas litteras exspectabo, Att. 5, 7, I shall be on the
lookout for letters from you. (b.) vivum te n5n relinquam; moriere virgis,
V. 4, 85, I will not leave you alive ; you shall die under the rod. But separate
forms to mark the sharp distinction which exists between shall and will in
the English future and future perfect are utterly unknown in Latin : thus, in
occidar equidem, sed victus non peribo, Cornif. 4, 65, 1 shall be murdered,
to be sure, but I will not die a vanquished man, the difference between the
prediction contained in / shall, and the determination contained in I will,
cannot be expressed in Latin by the future indicative.
1620. The future is often used in diffident assertion, to express an as-
sumption, a belief, conviction, or concession, of the speaker himself, without
implying its universal acceptance : as,
dices, TD. 2, 60, you ivill say. dicet aliquis, TD. 3, 46, somebody will
say (1556). dabit hoc Zenoni Polemo, Fin. 4, 51, Polemo will concede this
point to Zeno. excudent alii spirantia mollius aera, credS equidem, V. 6,
847, with greater grace, I well believe, shall others shape the bronze that breathes.
Particularly in conclusions : as, sequetur igitur vel ad supplicium beata
vita virtutem, TD. 5, 87, happiness then will walk with goodness even to the
scaffold. Or in general truths : as, cantabit vacuus coram latrone viator,
J. 10, 22, the poure man whan he goth by the weye, bifore the theves he may
synge and pleye.
1621. The future sometimes predicts that a thing not yet known to be true will
prove to be true : as, haec erit bono genere nata, PL Per. 645, this maid, you '//
find, is come of honest stock, i. e. esse reperietur. Compare the imperfect in
1598.
1622. In Plautus and Terence, the future is sometimes used in protestations,
wishes, or thanks : as, ita me di amabunt, T. Hau. 749, so help me heaven, di
te amabunt, PI. Men. 278, the gods shall bless thee. Usually, however, the sub-
junctive : see 1542 and 1541.
18 273
1623-1629.] Sentences : The Simple Sentence.
1623. The future is sometimes used in questions of deliberation or appeal : as,
dedemus ergo Hannibalem ? L. 21, 10, n,are we then to surrender Hannibal?
hancine ego ad rem natam memorabp? PI. R. 188, am I to say that I -was
born for such a fate? Oftener the present subjunctive (1563), or sometimes the pres-
ent indicative (1531).
1624. The future is sometimes used, particularly in the second person,
to express an exhortation, a direction, a request, a command, or with non
a prohibition : as,
eras ferramenta Teanum tolletis, H. E. I, i, 86, tomorrow to Teanum
you will take your tools, bona venia me audies, DN. I, 59, you will listen
to me with kind indulgence, tu interea non cessabis, Fam. 5, 12, 10, mean-
time you will not be inactive, haec igitur tibl erunt curae, Fam. 3, 9, 4,
vou will attend to this then, i. e. haec curabis.
1625. It may be mentioned here, that the future is used in sentences sub-
ordinate to a future, an imperative, or a subjunctive implying a future : as,
profecto nihil accipiam iniuriae, si tu aderis, Att. 5, 18, 3, I am sure
I shall suffer no harm, if you are with me. ut med esse voles, ita ero, PI.
Ps. 239, as you will have me be, so will I be. ut is qui audiet, cogitet plura,
quam videat, DO. 2, 242, so that the hearer may imagine more than he sees.
But sometimes a present is used (1593).
THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
1626. The future perfect indicative expresses com-
pleted future action : as,
scripsero, / shall have written, or / will have written. The future perfect
is very common in Latin, particularly in protasis with a relative, with cum,
ubl, &c., with antequam or priusquam, with ut (. . . ita), as (. . . so), or
with si, to express action anterior in time to a future ; in English, this future
perfect is usually represented by a loose present or perfect : as, quicquid
feceris, adprobabo, Fam. 3, 3, 2, whatever you do, I shall think right.
Examples will be given further on, in speaking of the complex sentence.
1627. It may be mentioned here that the future perfect in protasis and
apodosis both denotes two actions occurring at one and the same time;
these actions are usually identical : as,
qui Antonium oppresserit, is hoc bellum taeterrimum confecerit,
Fam. 10, 19, 2, the man that puts down Antony will put an end to this cruel
war, i. e. putting down Antony will be ending the war. respirarS, si te
vider5, Att. 2, 24, 5, 1 shall take breath again, if I set eyes on you.
1628. The future perfect sometimes denotes a future resulting state : as,
molestus certe ei fuero, T. Andr. 641, at all events I shall have proved a
ban'e to him. meum ri publicae atque imperatori officium praestitero,
4, 25, 3, I will have my diity all done to country and commander too.
1629. The future perfect is sometimes used to express rapidity of future
action, often with the implication of assurance, promise, or threat : as,
abier5, PI. Most. 590, I'll instantly be gone, iam hue revenero, PI. MG.
863, B. 1066, /'// be back here again forthwith, primus impetus castra
ceperit, L. 25, 38, 17, the first rush will see the camp carried.
274
The Verb : Tense. [ 1 6 30- 1 6 3 5 .
1630. The future perfect often denotes action postponed to a more con-
venient season, or thrown upon another person.
Often thus with post, alias, and particularly mox: as, vobis post nar-
ravero, PI. Ps. 721, I'll tell you by and by, i. e. I won't tell you now. ad
fratrem mox Ier5, PI. Cap. 194, / '// to my brother's by and by, i. e. not yet.
fuerit ista eius deliberatio, L. i, 23, 8, that is a question for him to settle,
i.e. not me. Especially videro: as, quae fuerit causa, mox viderS, Fin.
i, 35, what the reason was, I won't consider now. recte secusne alias vide-
rimus, Ac. 2, 135, whether right or not, we will consider some other time, i. e.
never, vos videritis, L. i, 58, 10, that is a question for you, i. e. not me.
1631. The future perfect sometimes denotes action which will have oc-
curred while something else takes place : as,
non er5 vobis morae : tibicen vos interea hie delectaverit, PI. Ps.
573*, / will not keep you long ; meantime the piper will hare entertained you
here, tu invita mulieres, ego accivero pueros, Att. 5, i, 3, do you, sir, in-
vite the ladies, and I will meantime have fetched the children.
1632. The future perfect is often not perceptibly different from the future,
especially in the first person singular in old Latin : as,
ego mihi providers, PI. Most. 526, 7V/ look out for myself, eros in
obsidione linquet, inimlcum animos auxerit, PI. As. 280, he'll leave his
owners in a state of siege, he '// swell the courage of the enemy. Similarly Cicero,
in the protases si potuero, si voluerS, si licuerit, si placuerit.
THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE WITH sum.
1633. The future active participle combined with the tenses of
sum expresses action impending, resolved on, or destined, at the time
indicated by the tense of the verb : as,
cum h5c equite pugnaturi estis, L. 21, 40, 10, with this kind of cavalry
are you going to fight, bellum scripturus sum, quod populus Romanus
cum lugurtha gessit, Sail. /. 5, i, I purpose to write the history of the war
that the people of Rome carried on with Jugurtha. fiet illud, quod futurum
Iest, Div. 2, 21, whatever is destined to be, will be. Delphos petiit, ubl co-
lumnas, quibus imposituri statuas regis Persei fuerant, suis statuis
destinavit, L. 45, 27, 6, he went to Delphi, where he appropriated jor his own
statues the pillars on ^vhich they had intended to put statues of king Perses.
THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
1634. In simple sentences, the tenses of the subjunctive correspond in
general to the same tenses of the indicative. But the present has a future
meaning ; the imperfect sometimes expresses past, sometimes present action;
and the perfect sometimes expresses past action, and sometimes future action.
1635. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in reference to past action, like
the indicative present of vivid narration (1590) : as, migrantis cernas, V.^4, 401,
you can descry them swarming out (1556). comprehend! iussit ; quis non
pertimescat ? V. 5, 14, he ordered them to be arrested ; -who would not fre thor-
oughly scared.? (1565). See also 2075.
'
16361641.] Sentences: The Coordinate Sentence.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE, OR COORDINATION.
1636. Two or more independent simple sentences
may be coordinated to form a compound sentence in
one of two ways : either without a connective, or with
a connective.
What applies to the coordination of sentences, also applies to the
coordination of the parts of sentences in abridged sentences (1057).
(A.) WITHOUT A CONNECTIVE.
1637. When simple sentences or parts of sentences are co-
ordinated without any connective, this mode of arrangement is
called Asyndetic Coordination or Asyndeton.
Asyndeton, whether in unabridged or in abridged sentences, is more usual
with three or more members than with two.- It occurs particularly often in
Plautus, Terence, Ennius, and Cato, also in Cicero, especially in his early
works and letters.
1638. The sentences in which asyndeton occurs are commonly such as
might be connected by words meaning and or but ; less often by words
meaning as ; for, &c. Asyndeton is especially common :
1639. (a.) In animated narration of events happening at the same
moment, in description, and in climaxes. Also in mention of col-
leagues in office, and in many set phrases and formulas : as,
veni, vidi, vici, Caesar in Suet. lul. 37, came, saw, overcame, nostri ce-
leriter ad arma concurrunt, vallum conscendunt, 5, 39, 3, our men rush
speedily to arms, clamber tip the palisade, huic s. c. intercessit C. Caelius,
C- Pansa, tribuni pi., Fam. 8, 8, 7, this decree of the senate was objected to by
Caelius and Pansa, tribunes of the commons, hi ferre agere plebem, L. 3,
37, 7, there "were these people worrying and harrying the commons (1535)-
1640. (.) In contrasts or antitheses : as,
opmionis commenta delet dies, naturae iudicia confirmat, DN. 2,
5, the fictions of speculation are swept away* by time, but the judgements of nature
are confirmed. Particularly when either member is positive, the other nega-
tive : vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis, L. 22, 51, ^, you know
how to conquer, Hannibal, but not how to use victory, says Maharbal after
Cannae, 216 B. c.
1641. Asyndeton is very common with two or more imperatives : as, egredere
ex urbe, Catilina, Hbera rem publicam metu, in exsilium proficiscere,
C. i, ZQ, go forth from Rome, Catiline, relieve the commonwealth from its fear, depart
into exile. Particularly when the first is age, come on, mark me, or I, go (1572).
Rut from Horace on, I nunc, go to now, is followed by et with a second imperative
in derisive orders. In old Latin, the imperatives may be joined by et or even atqUe,
2 7 6
Copulative Coordination. [1642-1647.
1642. Asyndeton is also_common with parentheses. These often take the place
theses however are often introduced, from Terence on by nam, and from Sallust and
Cicero on, by et, neque, autem, enim, &c.
(B.) WITH A CONNECTIVE.
(i.) CONJUNCTIONS AS CONNECTIVES.
1643. Simple sentences or parts of sentences may be con-
nected by copulative, disjunctive, or adversative conjunctions.
(a.) COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.
1644. Copulative conjunctions denote union, and connect
both the sentences and their meaning. They are et, -que,
atque or ac, and, and neque or nee, neither.
1645* 00 e *> find, is the commonest copulative, and connects ei-
ther likes or unlikes ; with two members only, it is either used between
them, or is prefixed for emphasis to both : as,
Dumnorix apud Sequanos plurimum poterat et Helvetiis erat ami-
cus, I, 9, 3, Dumnorix was very influential among the Sequam and a friend
to the Helvetians. Democritus alba discernere et atra non poterat, TD.
5, 114, Democritus could not tell "white and black apart, et discipulus et
magister perhibebantur inprobi, PI. B. 425, both pupil and master were
rated as knaves.
1646. With three or more members, et is either used between the mem-
bers or, frequently, prefixed for emphasis to all. Often, however, it is
omitted throughout (1637), or a third member is appended by -que (1651):
as,
persuadent Rauricis et Tulingis et Latovicis uti una cum his profi-
ciscantur, I, 5, 4, they induce the Rauricans, Tulingans, and Latovicans to
join them in their march, is et in custodiam elves Romanes dedit et
supplicationem mih! decrevit et indices maximis praemiis adfecit, C.
4, 10, this person voted in the first place to pzit Roman citizens in ward, then
to decree a thanksgiving in my honour, and lastly to reward the informers with
liberal gifts.
1647. Two members belonging closely together as a pair, and connected
by et, atque, or -que, are sometimes put asyndetically with another member
or members : as,
Aedui ferunt se deiectos principatu ; queruntur fortunae commu-
tati5nem et Caesaris indulgentiam in se requirunt, 7, 63, 8, the Aeduans
set forth that they were cast down from the chief place ; they complain of the
change of fortune, and say they miss Caesar* s former kindness to them, nun-
tiatum est equites Ariovisti propius tumulum accedere et ad nostros
adequitare ; lapides in nostros conicere, i, 46, I, // was reported that Ario-
vistus's cavalry were moving nearer the hillock and galloping up to the Romans ;
that they were throTving stones at our men.
277
1648-1654-] Sentences: The Coordinate Sentence.
1648. et has sometimes the meaning of also or of and also, particularly when there
is a change of speakers, or before a pronoun : as, et hoc scio, Plin. Ep. i, 12, n, /
know that too. Sometimes also after verum, nam, and simul, especially when a
pronoun follows. Not in Caesar.
1649. ( 2> ) -<l ue ' an d<, combines members which belong together
and make a whole, though they may be different or opposed to each
other ; the second member is often a mere appendage : as,
rogat oratque te, RA. 144, he begs and entreats you, or he earnestly entreats
you. liberti servolique nobilium, RA. 141, the freedmen and slaves of
the great, or retainers, bond and free, ornnes ea, quae bona videntur,
sequuntur fugiuntque contraria, TD. 4, 12, everybody runs after -what seems
good and avoids the opposite, -que is usually put after the first word of the
new member. It is particularly common in old or legal style.
1650. The combination -que . . . -que, both . . . and, is very common in poetry :
as, noctesque diesque, E. in CM. i, both night and day. In prose, it is used
by Sallust when the first word is a pronoun: as, meque regnumque meum,
/. 10, 2, both myself and my throne : and by Livy to connect two relative sentences:
as. omnes quique Romae quique in exercitu erant, 22, 26, 5, everybody,
both people in Rome and people in the army.
1651. After two members without a connective, a third member is some-
times appended by -que : as,
satis habebat hostem rapinis, pabulati5nibus, populationibusque
prohibere, I, 15, 4, he was satisfied with keeping the enemy from plundering,
foraging, and ravaging.
1652. (3.) atque, or before any consonant except h often ac, and,
and besides, adds something belonging essentially to what goes before,
but more important as a supplement or extension ; as,
se ex navi proiecit atque in hostes aquilam ferre coepit, 4, 25, 4, he
sprang overboard and furthermore proceeded to bear the eagle upon the enemy.
magna dis immortalibus babenda est atque huic lovi Statori gratia,
C. i, n, we owe a great debt of gratitude to the gods immortal in general, and to
yon Jove the Stayer in particular, atque . . . atque occurs for et . . . et
once in Vergil, and once in Silius Italicus.
1653. atque is used in comparisons, after words of likeness and unlike-
ness : as,
pan spatio transmissus, atque ex Gallia est in Britanniam, 5, 13, 2,
the journey across is just as long as it is from Gaul to Britain, idemque ius-
serunt simulacrum lovis facere maius et contra, atque antea fuerat,
ad orientem convertere, C. 3, 20, and they furthermore gave orders to make
a statue of Jupiter, a bigger one, and to turn it round to the east, the opposite of
the way it originally faced. Sometimes et is thus used after alius, aliter,
aeque, pariter, &c. : see the dictionary.
1654. With adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree, atque sometimes
takes the place of quam than, when the first member of comparison is negative
(1895) : as, amicior rnihi nullus vivit atque is est, PI. Mer. 897, 1 have no
greater friend alive than that man is. So in Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, Catullus,
Vergil, rarely in Cicero, and in Horace even when the first member is positive.
2 7 8
Copulative Coordination. [1655-1661
1655. A sentence is often introduced by et, -que, or atque, where but
would be used in English, particularly so when a posiiive sentence follows
a negative one : as,
Socrates nee patronum quaesivit nee iudicibus supplex fuit adhi-
buitque liberam contumaciam, 7Y). i, 71, Socrates did not try to find an
advocate nor bow the knee to his judges, but he was plain-spoken and defiant.
nostrorum militum impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga ver-
terunt, 4, 35, 2, the enemy could not stand the dash of our people, but turned
their backs, hominis ne Graeci quidem ac Mysl potius, QFr. i, i, 19,
a creature who is not even a Greek, but more of a Mysian.
1656. Two sentences, one of which would ordinarily be introduced by a subordinat-
ing temporal conjunction, are sometimes, mostly in poetry, coordinated by et or -que:
as, dixit et in silvam penms ablata refugit, V. 3, 258, she spake, and on her
pinions sweeping, vanished to the wood, i. e. simul atque dixit, refugit.
1657. (4.) neque or iiec, neither, nor, and . . . not, but . . . not, is
used as a negative copulative, sometimes as a negative adversative :
as,
opini5nibus volgi rapimur in errorem nee vera cernimus, Leg, 2, 43,
we are swept into error by the delusions of the world and cannot make out the
truth. n5n enim temere nee fortufto creati sumus, TD. i, 118, for we
were not created at adventure nor by accident, subsidio suis ierunt col-
lemque ceperunt, neque nostrorum militum impetum sustinere potu-
erunt, 7, 62, 8, they went to aid their people and carried the hill, but they could
not stand the fiery onset of otir soldiers, neque or nee is often repeated: as,
nee meliores nee beatiores esse possumus, RP. i, 32, we can neither be
better nor wiser.
1658. nee is rarely used in the sense of ne . . . quidem, not even, not . . . ei-
ther: as, nee nunc, H. S. 2, ^, 262, not even now, a free quotation of ne nunc
quidem, T. Eu. 46. nee . . . quidem, and not even, is used once or twice for
the common ac ne . . . quidem or et ne . . . quidem.
1659. Instead of neque or nee, and not^ the copulatives et, atque, rarely
-que, followed by a negative, non, nemo, nihil, &c., are sometimes used in Cicero
and Livy, less often in old Latin, and rarely in Caesar and Sallust : as, quid tu
fecisses, si te Tarentum et non Samarobrivam misissem ? Fam. 7, 12,
i, what would you have done, if I had sent you to Tarentum, and not to Samaro-
briva ? Particularly thus et non, or oftener ac non, in corrections. But ordinarily
neque or nee is preferred to et non, and nee quisquam, &c., to et nemo,
&c. (1445).
1660. When neque is followed by another negative, the assertion is
positive (1452) : as,
nee hoc ille non vidit, Fin. 4, 60, and the man did not fail to see this.
This positive use begins with Varro. In old Latin two negatives, and partic-
ularly neque . . . baud, are often used, as in old English, to strengthen the
negation (1453).
1661. After a general negative, a word may be emphasized by ne . .
quidem or non modo, or the parts of a compound sentence may be distrib-
uted by neque . . . neque, without destroying the negation: as,
279
1 66 2- 1 668.] Sentences: Tke Coordinate Sentence.
nihil in locis communibus, ne in fanis quidem, nihil istum neque
privati neque publici tota in Sicilia rellquisse, V. 4, 2, that the defendant
has left nothing untouched in public places, no, not even in the temples, nothing
either in the way of private or of public property , in all Sicily. Similarly when
a coordinate member is appended with neque : as, nequeo satis mirarl
neque conicere, T. Eu. 547, I can't quite puzzle out or guess.
COMBINATION OF DIFFERENT COPULATIVES.
1662. Different copulatives are sometimes combined, as follows.
1663. (i.) The affirmative copulatives et and -que are sometimes com-
bined, particularly in abridged sentences : as,
et Epaminondas praeclare cecinisse dicitur, Themistoclesque est
habitus indoctior, TD. I, 4, Epaminondas in the first place is said to have
played beautifully, and Themistocles was not considered exactly an educated
man. This combination is used by Cicero rarely, by Horace in the satires,
and rarely by late writers.
1664. The sequence -que . . . et is rare in old Latin, and not used by Caesar,
Vergil, or Horace, -que . . . atque is first used by Lucretius, then by Vergil, Ovid,
Livy, and Tacitus.
1665. (2.) Affirmative and negative copulatives are sometimes combined.
Thus neque or nee combined with et, in the sequences neque . . . et and
et . . . neque, which is rare in old Latin, is common in Cicero: as,
nee miror et gaudeo, Fam. 10, i, 4, in the first place I am not surprised,
and in the second place I feel glad ; neque . . . et non, however, is rare, pa-
tebat via et certa neque longa, Ph. n, 4, there lay a road open at once
plain and not long, neque . . . -que begins with Cicero, but is rare (1655),
neque . . . ac begins with Tacitus.
1666. Of all the Latin writers, Tacitus aims most at variety by combination of
asyndeton and by the use of different copulatives : as, regern Rhamsen Libya
Aethiopia Medisque et Persls et Bactriano ac Scytha potitum, 2, 60,
that king Rhamses got control of Libya and Aethiopia and the Medes and Persians,
and the Bactrian and Scythian.
(.) DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS.
1667. Disjunctive conjunctions connect the sentences, but
disconnect the meaning. They are aut, vel, sive or seu,
-ve, and an, or. Of these conjunctions, aut, vel, and sive,
are often placed before two or more members of a sentence in
the sense of either . . . or. And in poetry, -ve . . . -ve sometimes
occurs.
1668. (i.) aut, or, sometimes or even, or at least, is used between
two members which are to be represented as essentially different in
meaning, and of which one excludes the other: as,
280
Disjunctive Coordination. [1669-1673.
hie vincendum aut moriendum, milites, est, L. 21, 43, 5, here you
must conquer, my men, or die. horae moments cita mors venit aut
victSria laeta, H. S. i, I, 7, within an hour's brief turn comes speedy death or
victory glad, aut vivam aut moriar, T. Ph. 483, / shall either live or die.
sideribus dubiis aut illo tempore quo se frigida circumagunt pigri
serraca Bootae, J. 5, 22, when stars blink faint, or even at the time when
round rolls slow Bodies' frigid wain, qua re vi aut clam agendum est,
Att. 10, 12, 5 [10, 12 b, 2], so we must use force, or at any rate secrecy. Some-
times aut connects kindred ideas : as, equi icti aut vulnerati consterna-
bantur, L. 21, 33, 6, the horses kept getting frantic from being hit or wounded.
1669. aut, in the sense of otherwise, or else, sometimes intro-
duces a statement of what necessarily follows, if something else is not
done: as,
audendum est aliquid universis, aut omnia singulis patienda, L.
6, 18, 7, you must make some bold dash collectively, or else you must suffer every
thing individually, vel is also occasionally used in this sense.
1670. (2.) vel, or, introduces an alternative as a matter of choice
or preference, and often relates merely to the selection of an expres-
sion : as,
eius modi coniunctionem tectSrum oppidum vel urbem appellave-
runt, RP. i, 41, such a collection of dwelling-houses they called, well, a town or
a city, whichever you please, vel imperatore vel milite me utimini, S. C.
20, 1 6, use me as your generalissimo or as a private, whichever you will. Catili-
nam ex urbe vel eiecimus vel emlsimus vel ipsum egredientem verbis
prosecuti sumus, C. 2, I, we have what shall I say ? driven Catiline out
of town, or allorved him to go out, or, when he was going out of his own accord,
wished him a pleasant journey, vel is often followed by etiam, potius, or
dicam. From Tacitus on, vel is sometimes used in the sense of aut : as,
vincendum vel cadendum esse, Ta. 14, 35, they nnist do or die (1668).
1671. vel is sometimes used in the sense of if you will, even, or perhaps,
especially before superlatives, or in the sense oifor instance : as,
huius domus est vel optima Messanae, notissima quidem certe,
V. 4, 3, this gentleman's house is perhaps the finest in all Messana, at any rate
the best known, amant ted omnes mulieres, neque iniuria : vel illae, quae
here pallio me reprehenderunt, PI. MG. 58, the girls all idolize you, well
they may ; for instance those that buttonholed me yesterday.
1672. (3.) sive or seu, or, used as a disjunctive conjunction, de-
notes a distinction which is not essential, or the speaker's uncertainty
as to some matter of detail; when used once only, it is chiefly in
corrections, often with potius, rather, added ; as,
is Ascanius urbem matri seu novercae reliquit, L. 1,3,3, said Asca-
nius left the city to his mother, or his stepmother, if you prefer, dixit Pom-
peius, sive voluit, QFr. 2, 3, 2, Pompey made a speech, or rather attempted to
make one.
1673. sive is often repeated in the sense of either, or no matter
whether . . . or : as,
281
i674~ I 68o.] Sentences: The Coordinate Sentence.
ita sive casu sive consilio deorum, quae pars calamitatem populo
Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenas persolvit, I, 12, 6, thus, no matter
whether from chance or through special providence, the part which had done
damage to Rome was the first to pay penalty in full.
1674. (4.) -ve rarely connects main sentences, usually only the less impor-
tant parts of the sentence, or, oftener still, subordinate sentences : as,
cur timeam dubitemve locum defendere ? J. i, 103, why should I fear
or hesitate to stand my ground ? Appius ad me bis terve litteras miserat,
Att. 6, 1,2, Appius had written me two or three times. With ne it forms neve
or neu, which is used as a continuation of ne or ut : see 1581 ; 1586; 1947.
1675. (5.) The interrogative particle an sometimes becomes a disjunctive conjunc-
tion, or, or possibly, or perhaps : as, Simonides an quis alius, Fin. 2, 104,
Simonides or possibly somebody else. Common in Cicero, though not so in his
speeches, and in Livy, commonest in Tacitus.
(c.) ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.
1676. Adversative conjunctions connect the sentences, but
contrast the meaning. They are autem, on the other hand,
sed, verum, ceterum, but, vero, but, indeed, at, but, tamen,
nihilo minus, nevertheless.
Of these conjunctions, autem and vero are put after one word, or some-
times after two closely connected words ; tamen is put either at the begin-
ning, or after an emphatic word.
1677* 00 autem, again, on the other hand, however, simply
continues the discourse by a statement appended to the preceding,
without setting it aside : as,
horum principibus pecunias, civitati autem imperium totius pro-
vinciae pollicetur. 7. 64, 8, to the chieftains of this nation on the. one hand he
promises moneys, and to the community on the other hand the hegemony of the
whole province. The opposition in a sentence introduced by autem, again,
is often so weak that a copulative, and, might be used : as, ille qui Dlo-
genem adulescens, post autem Panaetium audierat, Fin. 2, 24, the man
who in his early youth had sat at the feet of Diogenes, and afterwards oj
Panaetius. autem is oftenest used in philosophical or didactic discourse,
less frequently in history, oratory, or poetry.
1678. autem is often used in questions : as, metuo credere : : credere
autem ? PL Ps. 304, / am afraid to trust : trust, do you say ?
1679. (2.) sed or set, and verum, but, are used either in restric-
tion, or, after a negative, in direct opposition : as,
vera dico, sed nequiquam, quoniam non vis credere, PI. Am. 835, /
tell the truth, but all in vain, since you are bent not to believe, non ego erus
tibi, sed servos sum, PI. Cap. 241, I am not your master, but your slave.
1680. non modo, or non solum, not only, not alone, is followed
by sed etiam or verum etiam, but also, by sed . . . quoque, but . . .
as well, or sometimes by sed or verum alone : as,
282
Adversative Coordination. [1681-1686.
qui n5n solum interfuit his rebus, sed etiam praefuit, Fam. i, 8, i,
who has not had a hand only in these matters, but complete charge, qui omni-
bus negotiis n5n interfuit solum, sed praefuit, Fam. i, 6, i. non tantum
is sometimes used by Livy, and once or twice by Cicero, but not by Caesar
or Sallust, for non modo. Livy and Tacitus sometimes omit sed or verum.
1681. non modo has sometimes the meaning of non dicam : as, n5n modo
ad certam mortem, sed in magnum vitae discrimen, Sest. 45, / won't say
to certain death, but to great risk of life.
1682. non modo or non solum, when attended by another negative,
may also be followed by sed ne . . . quidem, but not even, or sed vix, but
hardly: as,
non modo tib! non irascor, sed ne reprehends quidem factum tuum,
Sull. 50, so far from being angry with you I do not even criticise your action.
When both members have the same predicate, usually placed last, the nega-
tion in ne . . . quidem or vix usually applies*to the first member also : as,
talis vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare quidem quicquam audebit,
quod non audeat praedicare, Off. 3, 77, a man of this kind will not only not
venture to do, but not even to conceive anything which he would not venture to
trumpet to the world, or will not venture to conceive, much less do.
1683. (3.) ceterum is sometimes used in the sense_of sed, in Terence, Sallust,
and Livy. Sometimes also in the sense of sed re vera, in Sallust and Tacitus,
to contrast reality with pretence.
1684. (4.) vero, but, indeed, introduces an emphatic contrast or a
climax: as,
sed sunt haec leviora, ilia vero gravia atque magna, PL 86, however,
all this is less important, but the following is weighty and great, scimus mu-
sicen nostris moribus abesse a principis persona, saltare vero etiam
in vitils pom, N. 15, 1,2, we know that, according to our Roman code of ethics,
music is not in keeping with the character of an eminent man, and as to dancing,
why that is classed among vices. In Plautus, vero is only used as an adverb ;
its use as an adversative conjunction begins with Terence. In the historians,
vero is often equivalent to autem.
1685. (5.) at, but, denotes emphatic lively opposition, an objec-
tion, or a contrast : as,
brevis a natura n5bis vita data est ; at memoria bene redditae vitae
sempiterna, Ph. 14, 32, a short life hath been given by nature unto man ; but
the memory of a life laid down in a good cause endureth for ever, at is often
used before a word indicating a person or a place, to shift the scene, espe-
cially in history. In law language, ast sometimes occurs, and ast is also
sometimes used, generally for the metre, in Vergil, Horace, and late poetry.
1686. (6.) tamen, nihilo minus, nevertheless.
accusatus capitis absolvitur, multatur tamen pecunia, N. 4, 2, 6, he
is accused on a capital charge and acquitted, but is nevertheless fined in a sum
of money, minus dolendum fuit re non perfecta, sed poeniendum certe
nihilo minus, Mil. 19, there was less occasion for sorrow because the thing was
not done, but certainly none the less for punishment.
283
1687-1692 .] Sentences : The Coordinate Sentence.
(2.) OTHER WORDS AS CONNECTIVES.
1687. Instead of a conjunction, other words are often used as
connectives : as, pars . . . pars, alii . . . alii ; adverbs of order or
time: as, primum,yr.r/, or primo, at first . . . delude . . . turn, &c. ;
and particularly adverbs in pairs : as, modo . . . modo, turn . . . turn,
less frequently qua . . . qua, simul . . . simul : as,
multitude pars prScurrit in vias, pars in vestibulis stat, pars ex
tectis prospectant, L. 24, 21, 8, part of the throng runs out into the streets,
others stand in the fore-courts, others gaze from the house-tops, proferebant
alii purpuram, tus alii, gemmas alii, V. 5, 146, they produced tome of them
purple, others frankincense, others precious stones, primo pecuniae, deinde
imperi cupido crevit, S. C. 10, 3, at first a love ofjnoney waxed strong, then
of power, turn hoc mih! probabilius, turn illud videtur, Ac. 2, 134,0*;
minute this seems to me more likely, and another minute that.
1688. Simple sentences may also be coordinated by words denoting infer-
ence or cause, such as ergo, igitur, itaque, therefore ; nam, namque, enim,
for, etenim, /or you see: as,
adfectus animi in bon5 viro laudabilis, et vita igitur laudabilis boni
viri, et honesta ergo, quoniam laudabilis, TD. 5, 47, the disposition in a
good man is praiseworthy, and the life therefore of a good man is praiseworthy,
and virtuous accordingly, seeing it is praiseworthy. Of these words, nam,
namque, and itaque are usually put first in the sentence ; enim and igitur.
usually after one word, rarely after two. But in Plautus regularly, and gener-
ally in Terence, enim has the meaning of indeed, verily, truly, depend upon it,
and may stand at the beginning.
1689. In Plautus, the combination ergo igitur occurs, and in Terence and Livy,
itaque ergo : as, itaque erg5 consulibus dies dicta est, L. 3, 31, 5, accord-
ingly then a day was set for the trial of the consuls.
1690. The interrogative quippe, -why? losing its interrogative meaning, is also
used as a coordinating word, why, or for: as, hoc genus omne maestum ac
sollicitum est cantoris morte Tigelli : quippe benignus erat, H. S. i, 2,
2, such worthies all are sad, are woebegone over Tigellius the minstrel's death ; why
he was generosity itself.
1691. Simple sentences may also be coordinated by pronominal words,
such as hinc, inde, hence, eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea", so, on that accmmt,
&c. : as,
nocte perveniebant ; eo cust5dias hostium fallebant, L. 23, 19, 10,
they got there in the night ; in that way they eluded the enemy's pickets. But
eo and ideo are not used thus by Cicero, Caesar, or Sallust, or idcirco and
propterea by Cicero or Caesar.
1692. In animated rhetorical discourse any word repeated with emphasis
may serve as a copulative ; this is called Anaphora : as,
miles in forum, miles in curiam comitabatur, Ta. I, 7 ', soldiers went,
with him to the forum, soldiers to the senate chamber, erepti estis ex interitu,
erepti sine sanguine, sine exercitu, sine dimicatione, C. 3, 23, you are
rescued from death, rescued without bloodshed, without an army, without a
struggle.
284
The Intermediate Coordinate Sentence. [1693-1698.
THE INTERMEDIATE COORDINATE SENTENCE.
1693. A sentence coordinate in form with another sentence
is often equivalent in meaning to a subordinate sentence. Such
sentences are called Intermediate Coordinate Sentences.
The most varied relations of a subordinate sentence may be thus ex-
pressed by a coordinate sentence, and the combination of the two coordinate
sentences is in sense equivalent to a complex sentence.
1694. Such coordinated sentences are a survival of a more primitive state
of the language. They occur oftenest in Plautus and Terence, in Cicero's
philosophical works and letters, in Horace's satires and epistles, and in
Juvenal. In general they have been superseded by complex sentences, even
in the oldest specimens of the language.
1695. ! The relation of the two members may not be indi-
cated by the mood, but left to be determined from the context.
Thus, in the combination amat, sapit, PI. Am. 995, he is in love, he shows
his sense, the two members amat and sapit are alike in form. But in sense,
sapit is the main member and amat is the subordinate member. Just what
the relation of the amat is, whether it is si amat, if he is in love, cum amat,
when he is in love, quod amat, because he is in love, or etsi amat, though
he is in love, &c., &c., is left to the reader to make out. The following are
some of the commonest combinations of this class :
1696. (r.) The coordinated member may stand instead of the commoner
accusative and infinitive with a verb of perceiving, thinking, knowing, or
saying (2175). Such are cred5, fateor, opinor, puto, certum est, &c. : as,
Iud5s me facitis, intellego, PI. Per. 802, you are making game of me, 1
am aware. narr5 tib! : plane relegatus mih! videor, Att. 2, n, i, / tell
you what, I seem to myself regularly banished, spero, servabit fidem, PI. E.
124, I hope he 'II keep his word (2235).
1697. (2.) The coordinated member may be a direct question or an ex-
clamation.
Thus (a.) in enquiries calling for an answer: as, sign! die quid est, PI.
Am. 421, tell me, what is there in the shape of seal? (1251). Or (b.) in ejacu-
lation : as, viden ut astat furcifer ? PI. Most. \\']2,seest how the knave is
posing there ? videte quaeso, quid potest pecunia, PI. St. 410, see pray how
all-commanding money is. This construction occurs oftenest in comedy, and
with an imperative meaning say, fell, or look. The subordinate construction
is the rule : see 1773-
1698. (3.) The coordinated member rarely represents a relative sentence
(1816) : as,
urbs antiqua fuit, Tyrii tenuere colon!, V. I, 12, there was an ancient
iown, which Tyrian settlers held, est locus, Hesperiam Grai cognomine
dicunt, V. i, 530, there is a place, the Greeks by name Hesperia call, imitated
from est locus Hesperiam quam mortales perhibebant, E. in Macrob
Sat. 6, I, there is a place which sons of men Hesperia called.
28$
.~ Sentences: The Coordinate Sentence*
1699. (4.) The coordinated member may represent a subordinate tempo-
ral member : as,
venit hiemps, teritur Sicuonia baca trapetis, V. G. 2, 519, has winter
come, in mills zs Sicyon' s olive ground (1860). vix prorarn attigerat, rumpit
Saturnia funem, V. 12, 650, scarce had he touched the prow, Saturnia snaps
the rope, i. e. cum rumpit (1869). lucebat iam fere, procedit in medium,
V. 5, 94, it was just about light, when he presents himself before tJiem. fuit
ornandus in Manilia lege Pompeius ; temperata oratione ornandi
copiam persecuti sumus, O. 102, when / had to glorify Pompey in the mat-
ter of the Manilius law, I went through the ample material for glorification in
moderate language.
1700. (5.) The coordinated member may be equivalent to a member
with ut, expressing result (1965) : as,
iam faxo scies, T. Eu. 663, /'// let you know at once, i. e. scias (1712) or
ut scias (1965). iam faxo hie erunt, PI. B. 715, /'// warrant they shall
soon be here, adeo res rediit, adulescentulus victus est, T. Hau. 113,
things came to such a pass the youngster was put down, cetera de genere
hoc, adeo sunt multa, loquacem delassare valent Fabium, H. S. i, i, n,
the other cases of the kind, so plentiful are they, might tire the gabbling Fabius
out. ita haec umore tigna putent, n5n videor mihi sarcife posse aedis
meas, PI. Most. 146, so sopping rotten are these joists, / don't think / can patch
my house, ita avido ingenio fuit, numquam indicare id filio voluit suo,
PI. Aul. prol. 9, so niggardly was he, he d never point it out to his own son.
tanta incepta res est, baud somniculSse hoc agundumst, PI. Cap. 227,
so big a job have we begun, not drowsily must this be done.
1701. (6.) The coordinated member may be equivalent to a conditional
protasis : as,
(a.) filiam quis habet, pecunia opus est, Par. 44, a man has a (laugh-
ter, he needs money, tristis es, indignor, O. Tr. 4, 3, 33, if you are sad, 1
feel provoked, (b.) si iste ibit, Ito ; stabit, astato simul, PL Ps. 863, if he
shall mcz>e, move thou ; but shall he stand, stand by his side. in caelum,
iusseris, ibit, J. 3, 78, say but the word, he'll mount the sky. (c.) subdue
cibum unum diem athletae, lovem Olympium inplorabit, TD. 2, 40,
cut off an athlete from his food just a day, he will t>ray to Jupiter aloft in
Olympus (1574). (d.) Zenonem roges, respondent totidem verbis, Fin.
4, 69, you may ask Zeno, he would answer in just as many words ( it; 56 ).
(e.) tu quoque magnam partem opere in tanto, sineret dolor, Icare,
haberes, V. 6, 31, thou too a goodly space in work so vast, had grief allowed,
Icarus, hadst filled (1559). at dares hanc vim M. Crass5, in foro sal-
taret, Off. 3, 75, but had you given this chance to Crassus, he would have
capered in the market place (1559). nam absque te esset, hodie num-
quam ad solem occasum viverem, PI. Men. 1022, for were it not for you,
1 ne'er should live this blessed day till set of sun ( 1 560, 21 10). (/.) una fuis-
semus, c5nsilium certe non defuisset, Aft. 9, 6, 6, had we been together,
we certainly should not have lacked a programme ( 1 561 ).
1702. (7.) The coordinated member may be equivalent to a concession :
as,
id fortasse non perfecimus, conati quidem sumus, O. 210 ; though
we have perhaps not attained unto this, yet we have attempted it. erg5 illl
intellegunt quid Epicurus dicat, ego non intellego ? Fin, 2, 13, do those,
gentlemen then understand what Epicurus means, and / not f
286
The Intermediate Coordinate Sentence. [1703-1707.
1703. (8.) The coordinated member may denote efficient cause or rea-
son : as,
peregrinus ego sum, Sauream non novi, PI. As. 464, I am a stranger,
and I don't know Saurea. mulier es, audacter iuras, PI. Am. 836, because
you are a woman, you are bold to swear, tacent, satis laudant, T. Eu. 476,
their silence is sufficient praise.
1704. (9.) The coordinated member may represent the protasis of a com-
parative sentence with ut (1937) : as,
ita me di ament, honestust, T. Eu. 474, so help me heaven, he is a
proper man. sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua, mi Tiro, valetudo, Fam. 16,20,
your health, dear Tiro, keeps me fidgety, as I hope to live.
1705. II. The subordinate idea is often indicated by the
subjunctive of desire coordinated with another verb, usually
with one which has a different subject.
Thus, the combination amis : oportet, you should love ; it is right ( 1 547 ),
in which the two verbs are used separately, blends into one whole, ames
oportet, Fin. 2, 35, it is right you should love. The verb with which the sub-
junctive is coordinated specifies more exactly the general idea of desire, con-
tained in the subjunctive itself. The tense of the coordinate subjunctive is
regulated by that of the other verb.
1706. The negative employed with coordinated subjunctives is the
adverb ne, not.
Thus, the combination vide: ne me ludas, see to it; don't you fool me
(1547), in which the two verbs are used separately, blends into one whole,
vide ne me ludas, PI. Cur. 325, see to it you don't fool me. Similarly, metuo :
ne peccet, / am afraid; let her not slip up (1548), becomes metuo ne
peccet, PI. Per. 624, I am afraid she may slip up. From its frequent use in
sentences of subordinate meaning, ne came at an early period to be regarded
as a subordinating conjunction also, lest, that . . . not, as well as an adverb,
and took the place of the less usual ut ne. Hence members with ne are
more conveniently treated under the head of subordination (1947).
1707. (i.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with verbs of wishing.
Such are volo, nolo, rarely malo, opto, placet, &c. : as,
animum advortas volo, PI. Cap. 388, I wish you would pay heed (1548).
quid vis faciam ? T. Hau. 846, what wilt thou I should do? (1563). vin
conmutemus ? tuam ego ducam et tu meam ? PI. Tri. 59, would you
like to swap? I take your wife, and you take mine ? (1563). malo te sapiens
hostis metuat, quam stulti cives laudent, L. 22, 39, 20, / would rather
a wise enemy should fear you, than stupid fellow-citizens admire you (1548).
Coordination is the rule with velim, vellem, &c., used in the sense of
utinam (1540) ; as, de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim
verum sit, Alt. 15, 4, 4, about Menedemus I could wish it had been true, about
the queen I hope it may be true, tellus optem prius ima dehiscat, V. 4, 24,
/ would the earth to deepest depths might sooner yawn. L. Domitius dixit
placere sibl sententias de singulis ferrent, Caes. C. 3, 83, 3, Domitius said
his view was they should vote on the men separately.
287
1 708-1 710.] Sentences : The Coordinate Sentence.
1708. (2.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with verbs of request,
entreaty, encouragement, exhortation, charge, direction, command. Such
are precor, rogo, oro, peto, hortor, postulo, moneo, censed ; mando,
impero, praecipio, decerno ; and chiefly in old Latin, iubeo : as,
(a.) reddas incolumem precor, H. I, 3, 7, deliver him up safe I pray.
rogat finem orandi faciat, i, 20, 5, he requests him to make an end of
entreaty, a te id quod suesti peto, me absentem defendas, Fam. 15, 8, /
ask you to do as you always do, stand up for me when J am away, non hortor
solum sed etiam rogo atque oro, te colligas virumque praebeas, Fam.
5, 18, I, / not only exhort you, but more than that I beg and entreat yoi4, pull
yourself together and quit you like a man. postulo etiam atque etiam con-
sideres qu5 progrediare, L. 3, 45, 10, / charge you think again and again
what you are coming to. te moneo videas, quid agas. magno opere censeo,
desistas, V. 5, 174, I advise you to consider what yott are doing. I earnestly
recommend you to stop, hunc admonet iter caute faciat, 5, 49. 3, he warns
him he must pursue his march with care, (d.) huic mandat Remos adeat,
3, 1 1, 2, he directs him to go to the Remans, praecipit unum omnes peterent
Indutiomarum, 5, 58, 5, he says they must all concentrate tlicir attack on In-
dutiomarus. huic imperat quas possit adeat civitates, 4, 21, 8, he orders
him to visit such communities as he can. senatus decrevit darent operam
c5nsules ne quid res publica detriment! caperet, S. C. 29, 2, the senate
decreed the consuls must see to it that the commonwealth received no harm.
iube maneat, T. Hau. 737, tell her she must stay, milites certiores facit,
paulisper intermitterent proelium, 3, 5, 3, he tells the soldiers they must stop
fighting a little while, abl, nuntia patribus urbem Romanam muniant,
L. 22, 49, 10, go tell the fathers they must fortify Rome town, dixi equidem
in carcerem Ires, PI. St. 624, I'm sure I told you you must go to jail, scrlbit
Labieno cum legione veniat, 5, 46, 3, he writes to Labienus he tmist come
with a legion, legationem mittunt si velit suos recipere, obsides sib!
remittat, 3, 8, 5, they send an embassy, if he wishes to get his own men back,
he must send back the hostages to them.
1709. (3.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with expressions of pro-
priety or necessity. Such are oportet, optumum est, opus est, decet,
necesse est.
me ipsum ames oportet, n5n mea, Fin. 2, 85, it is myself you should
love, not my possessions, quoniam habes istum equom, aut emeris opor-
tet, aut hereditate possideas, aut surripueris necesse est, Inv. i, 84,
since you are in possession of that horse, you must either have bought him or
inherited him, or else you must necessarily have stolen him. sed taceam
optumumst, PI. E. 60, but I'd best hold my tongue, nihil opust resciscat,
PI. Mer. 1004, she needn't find it out at all. condemnetur necesse est,
RA. Hi, be condemned he needs must.
1710. (4.) The subjunctive is sometimes coordinated with verbs of permis-
sion or concession. Such are permitto in Sallust and Livy, concede, also
sino, mostly in the imperative, chiefly in old Latin and poetry, and the im-
personal licet (used thus often in Cicero, rarely before or after) : as,
supplementum scrlberent consules, permissum, L. 27, 22, n, leave
was given that the consuls might fill tip the army, sine sciam, L. 2, 40, 5,
let me know, sine modo adveniat senex, PI. Most, n, Lt but the old man
come, fremant omnes licet, dlcam quod sentio, DO. i, 195, though
everybody may grow I , I will say what I think. See 1904.
288
Subordination. [1711 1715.
1711. (5.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with the imperative
cave, cavetd, cavete, beware, used in the sense of ne (1585): as,
cave facias, Att. 13, 33, 4, don't do it. cave dirumpatis, PI. Poen.prot.
117, don't break it off (1075).
1712. (6.) The subjunctive is often coordinated with verbs of giving,
persuading, accomplishing, taking care. In this case the subjunctive has the
meaning of purpose or result. Such are the imperative cedo, and do, per-
suadeo, impetro, euro, also facio, particularly fac and facito : as,
cedo bibam, PI. Most. 373, give me to drink, date bibat tibicini, PI. St.
757 '' gi ve the piper to drink, huic Sp. Albinus persuadet regnum Numi-
diae a senatu petat, S. /. 35, 2, Albinus induces him to ask of the senate the
throne of Ntimidia. tandem inpetravi abiret, PI. Tri. 591, at last I've coaxed
him to clear out. fac sciarn, Fam. 7, 16, 3, let me know. fax5 scias, PI. Men.
644, /'// let you know, much oftener scies or scibis (1700). fac bellus
revertare, Fam. 16, 18, i, mind you come back a beauty (1579).
1713. A subjunctive is now and then loosely coordinated with
verbs in general, to indicate the purpose of the action : as,
evocate hue Sosiam, Blepharonem arcessat, PI. Am. 949, call Sosia
here, let him fetch Blepharo. dare advorsum fabulabor, hie auscultet
quae loquar, PI. Am. 300, / '// speak distinctly face to face, that he may hear
what I shall say. operarn hanc subrupui tibf, ex me scires, PI. Am. 523,
I did this secretly for you, that you might learn from me. manibus date lilia
plenis, purpureos spargam flores, V. 6, 883, lilies in handfuls give, I fain
would scatter purple flowers, that is, that I may scatter.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE, OR SUBORDINATION.
1714. In a complex sentence, that is one consisting
of a main and a subordinate sentence, the subordinate
member is introduced by some subordinating word:
such are,
I. Interrogative words, in indirect questions; II. Relative pro-
nouns; III. Relative conjunctive particles, or conjunctive particles
not of relative origin.
1715. Subordinate sentences may have the value of a substantive,
usually as subject or as object ; of an attributive ; or of an adverb or
adverbial adjunct : as,
(a.) eadem nocte accidit ut esset luna plena, 4, 29, i, it came to pass
the same night that there was a full moon, video quid agas, Fam. 16, 17,
I see what you are driving at. (b.} fundus qui est in agro, qul Sabinus
vocatur, eum meum esse aio, Mur. 26, the estate which is in the territory
which is called Sabine, that I maintain is mine, lawyers' wordiness for fundus
Sabinus. (c.) cum advesperasceret, ad pontem Mulvium pervenerunt,
C- 3> S> when it was getting dark, they reached the Mulvius bridge, i. e. veSi
peri, or primo vespere.
19 289
17161722.] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
1716. Subordinate sentences which express time or place, are called Tem-
l or Local sentences ; comparison or manner, Comparative or Modal sen-
tences ; condition, cause, or concession, Conditional, Causal, or Concessive
sentences ; purpose, Final sentences ; result, Consecutive sentences.
1717. In a main sentence, the indicative present, future, and
future perfect, and the imperative, are called Primary Tenses ;
the indicative imperfect, historical perfect, and pluperfect, and
the infinitive of intimation, are called Secondary Tenses. The
perfect definite and the present of vivid narration are sometimes
regarded as primary tenses, oftener as secondary tenses.
1718. Verbs which have an implication of futurity, such as those meaning can,
ought, must, &c., with an infinitive, also subjunctives of wish (1540) or of exhorta-
tion (1547), may be called Virtual Futures.
1719. Sometimes the subjunctive serves as a main sentence : see 1762;
sometimes a noun of the verb : see 1766.
MOOD OF THE SUBORDINATE SENTENCE.
1720. The indicative and the subjunctive are both used in subor-
dinate sentences, as will be shown in the treatment of the several
words of subordination. Some general uses may be mentioned col-
lectively here.
THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
1721. The indicative 4s ordinarily used in sentences intro-
duced by a relative pronoun, or by a causal conjunctive word
other than cum.
pontem, qui erat ad Genavam, iubet rescind!, i, 7, 2, he orders the
bridge which was near Geneva torn up. concedS, quia necesse est, RA.
145, / give up, because I have to. In sentences of this class, however, the
subjunctive is often required, particularly in indirect discourse (1722), or in
cases of attraction (1728).
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF INDIRECT DISCOURSE AND OF
ATTRACTION.
1722. The subjunctive is used in relative, causal,
temporal and conditional sentences in indirect discourse,
and in cases of attraction.
290
Mood of the Subordinate Sentence. [1723-1728.
1723. A direct quotation or question gives the words of the original
speaker without alteration. When the original words of a quotation or
question are changed to conform to the construction of the sentence in
which they are quoted, it is called Indirect Discourse.
1724. In the complete form of indirect discourse, the sub-
junctive is subordinate to an infinitive or an accusative with the
infinitive, dependent on a verb of saying or thinking (2175) : as,
negat Epicurus iucunde posse vivi, nisi cum virtute vivatur, TD.
3, 49, Kpicurus avers there is no living happily, without living virtuously ;
directly, iucunde vivi non potest, nisi cum virtute vivitur. Socrates
dicere solebat, omnes in eo quod scirent, satis esse eloquentes, DO.
1 , 63, Socrates used to maintain that all men were eloquent enough in a matter
they knew ; directly, omnes in eo quod sciunt satis sunt eloquentes.
1725. The idea of saying or thinking is often not formally ex-
pressed in the main sentence, and the indirect discourse is intimated
by the subordinate subjunctive only: as,
noctu ambulabat in publics Themistocles, quod somnum capere
non posset, TD. 4, 44, Themistocles used to walk the streets nights, ' because he
could not sleep? given as Themistocles's reason ; the writer's would be pote-
rat. Paetus omnes libros, quos frater suus reliquisset, mih! donavit,
Att. 2, I, 12, Paetus made me a present of all the books 'that his brother had
left' dum reliquae naves eo convenient, in ancoris expectavit, 4, 23,
4, he waited at anchor till the rest of the vessels should gather there (2005).
pervenit priusquam Pompeius sentire posset, Caes. C. 3, 67, 4, he got
there before Pompey should be able to learn of his coming (1919). Xerxes
praemium proposuit, qui invenisset novam voluptatem, TD. 5, 20,
Xerxes offered a reward to anybody who should devise a new form of entertain-
ment (2110).
1726. A speaker or writer may quote his own thoughts in the indirect form, like
another person's : as, haec tibi dictabam post fanum putre Vacunae, ex-
ceptS quod non simul esses, cetera laetus, H. E. i, 10, 49, / -write thee this
behind yacuna's mouldering pile, in all else well, except that thou ''rt not here the
while (1601).
1727. Instead of an intimation of indirect discourse by a mere subjunctive, a verb
of thinking or saying is sometimes introduced by qui, or especially quod, sometimes
by cum, and put illogically itself in the subjunctive : as, litteras, quas me sib!
misisse diceret, recitavit, Ph. z, 7, he read off a letter, -which he said I sent
him, i.e.. quas misissem. impetrare non potui, quod religione se im-
pediri dicerent, Sulpicius in Fam. 4, 12, 3, / could not get leave, because they said
they -were hampered by religious scruple, i. e. quod impedirentur. cum dice-
ret, DN. 3, 83, saying as he did. This construction is common in Cicero, somewhat
so in Caesar, rare in Sallust.
1728. The subjunctive is used in sentences expressing an essential
part of the thought, which are subordinate to another subjunctive, or
to an infinitive. This is called the Subjunctive of Attraction, or of
Assimilation: as,
291
i 729- 1 73 1 .] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
vereor ne, dum minuere velim laborem, augeam, Leg. i, 12, I am
afraid I may make the "work harder, while I am aiming to make it less, si
solos eos diceres miseros, quibus moriendum esset, neminem eorum,
qui viverent exciperes, TD. i, 9, if you should pronounce only such people
unhappy as had to die, you would not except one of those who were living.
mos est Syracusis, ut si qua de re ad senatum referatur, dicat senten-
tiam qui velit, V. 4, 142, // is the custom at Syracuse, that if any question is
discussed in the senate, anybody who pleases may express his opinion, sapiens
non dubitat, si ita melius sit, migrate de vita, Fin. I, 62, the sage does not
hesitate, if this be the better course, to withdraw from life, mos est Athenis
laudari in contione eos, qui sint in proeliis interfecti, O 151, it is the
custom in Athens to eulogize in public assembly such as have fallen in action.
1729. The indicative is kept in subordinate statements added or vouched
for by the person reporting, and also in circumlocutions equivalent to a
substantive : as,
nuntiatum est Ariovistum ad occupandum Vesontionem, quod est
oppidum maximum Sequanorum, contendere, i, 38, i, it was reported that
Ariovistus was pressing on to seize Vesontio, which is the most considerable town
of the Seqiians. prudentissima civitas Atheniensium, dum ea rerum
potita est, fuisse traditur, RA. 70, Athens is said to have been passing wise,
as long as she held the hegemony, vis, quae restant, me loqui? T. Andr.
195, wilt have me tell the rest? i. e. relicua. fieri potest, ut id quod sentit
polite eloqui non possit, TD. i, 6, it may be that he cannot express his
thought in polished style, i. e. sententiam suam.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF REPEATED ACTION.
1730. The subjunctive is sometimes used in relative, tem-
poral, or conditional sentences, to express action repeated or
occurring at no particular time : as,
(a.) rieque aliter si faciat, ullam inter suos habet auctoritatem, 6, n,
4, and if he does not do this, he never has any ascendancy at all over his people.
With this present and perfect, however, this subjunctive is confined princi-
pally to the indefinite second person singular (1030) : as, bonus segnior fit,
ubf neglegas, S. /. 31, 28, the good man always gets slacker, when you are
neglectful, siquoi mutuom quid dederis, fit pro proprio perditum, PI. Tri.
1050, if you 've lent anything to any man, 'tis not your own, but lost, (b.} The
imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive begin with Catullus and Caesar, and
get to be common with Livy and Tacitus: as, si quis prehenderetur,
consensu militum eripiebatur, Caes. C. 3, no, 4, every time a man was
taken up, he was rescued by the joint action of the rank and file, quemcum-
que lictor prendisset, tfibunus mitti iubebat, L. 3, 11, 2, every man the
lictor arrested, a tribune would order released.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE AS IN THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
1731. The subjunctive of wish, of action conceivable, or of inter-
rogation, is sometimes used in a subordinate sentence exactly as in
main sentences : as,
292
Tense of the Subordinate Sentence. [1732-1735.
haec die natali me5 scrips!, quo utinam susceptus non essem, Att.
II, 9, 3, this I have written on my birthday, on which day I wish I had never
been lifted from the grotmd (1544). ut videas, Lucr. 3, 348, so that you can
see (1556). neque id facio, ut forsitan quibusdam videar, simufatione
Fam. 1,8, 2, nor do I do it, as perhaps I may seem to some to do, from hypoc-
risy (1556). etiamst paucis v5s quod monitos voluerim, PI. Cap. 53,
there^s one point more, on which I'd have you briefly warned (1558). erant
eiusmodi situs oppidorum, ut neque pedibus aditum haberent neque
navibus, quod minuente aestu naves in vadis adflictarentur, 3, 32, I,
the towns were so situated that there was no access to them by la/id, nor by boat
Al 1 j 7_ 7 - ' _7 _ _ - 7- __ - . 7 _7 / 7 . J 7 7 / _ ^ . \
vix erat
was the
either, because at ebb tide vessels would pound on the shoals (1559).
hoc imperatum, cum ilium spoliatum videres, V. 4, 86, hardly
order from his lips, when you might have seen the man stript (1559). quo me
vertam nescio, Clu. 4, / don't know which way to turn (1563).
TENSE OF THE SUBORDINATE SENTENCE.
THE TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.
1732. I. The tense of a subordinate indicative often indicates
a close relation of time with the tense of the leading verb, par-
ticularly in cases of repeated contemporaneous or antecedent
action. The subordinate sentence in such combinations is said
to have Relative time.
I 733- (*) The subordinate indicative tense may express ac-
tion concurrent with the main action. Two concurrent sentences
are usually put in the same tense.
Concurrent action is said to be (a.) congruent, when two actions merely
cover the same time: as, dum lego, adsentior, TD. i, 24, as long as I am
reading, I assent, dum necesse erat, unus omnia poterat, RA. 139, so
long as it had to be, one man controlled the world, dum Latmae loquentur
litterae, quercus huic Ioc5 non deerit, Leg. i, 2, as long as Latin literature
has the gift of speech, this spot will not lack its oak. vixit, dum vixit, bene,
T. Hec. 461, he lived well all the time he lived, quoad potuit, fortissime
restitit, 4, 12, 5, as long as he could, he made a manful stand. Or (b.) coinci-
dent, when one action is virtually the same as the other: as, cum tacent,
clamant, C. \, 21, while they are dumb, they cry oiit, i. e. their silence is as
telling as a shout, fecisti mihl pergratum, quod Serapionis librum
misisti, Att. 2, 4, i, you have obliged me very much by sending Serapio's book.
1734. (2.) The subordinate indicative tense may express
action contemporaneous, antecedent, or subsequent, in relation
to the main action.
1735. {a.} Action contemporaneous with a main present is ex-
pressed by a present, with a main future or virtual future, by a future,
with a main secondary tense by an imperfect: as,
293
17361739-] Sentences : The Su bordinate Sen tence.
quod est, e5 decet uti, CM. 27, what you have, that you should avail
yourself of. horologium mittam, si erit sudum, Fam. 16, 18, 3, I will
send the clock, if it is pleasant (1625). paulatim dabis, si sapies, T. Hau.
870, you 'II give in driblets, if you are wise, cum relaxare animSs volent,
caveant intemperantiam, Off. i, 122, when they want to unbend, let them
beware of excess (1625 ; 1718). omnia deerant, quae ad reficiendas naves
erant usui, 4, 29, 4, they were out of everything that was serviceable for re-
pairing their vessels.
1736. (.) Action antecedent to a main present is expressed by a
perfect, to a main future or virtual future by a future perfect, to a main
secondary tense by a pluperfect: as,
quocumque aspexisti tuae tib! occurrunt iniuriae, Par. 18, wherever
you turn your gaze, you are confronted by your own abominable acts, cum
posui librum, adsensio omnis elabitur, TD. i, 24, when I drop the book,
all assent melts away (1860). quicquid feceris, adprobabo, Fam. 3, 3, 2,
no matter what you do, I shall think it well (1626). ut quisque istius anir
mum offenderat, in lautumias statim coniciebatur, V. 5, 143, any man that
wounded his sensibilities was always flung into the quarries without any ado.
1737. (c.) Action subsequent to a main present is expressed by
the future participle with a present form of sum, to a main future or
virtual future by the future participle with a future form of sum, and
to a main secondary tense by the future participle with an imperfect
form of sum : as,
decem dies sunt ante ludos, quos Cn. Pompeius facturus est, V.
a. pr. 31, there are ten days before the shows which Pompey is to manage.
attentos faciemus, si demonstrabimus ea, quae dicturi erimus, magna
esse, Inv. I, 23, we shall make people attentive if we show that what we are
going to say is important, rex, quia non interfuturus navali certamini
erat, Magnesiam concessit, L. 36, 43, 9, as the king was not to have a hand
in the action at sea, he moved off to Magnesia.
1738. II. A subordinate indicative tense is said to be Inde-
pendent when it simply expresses time of its own, without any
close relation to the time of the main action.
Such independent tenses may denote general present action : as, ibam
forte via sacra, sicut meus est mos, H. S. 1,9, i, in Sacred Street, as is
my wont, / happened to be promenading (relatively, erat mos, 1735)- non
me appellabis, si sapis, PI. Most. 515, you won't address me, if you have
sense (relatively, si sapies, 1735)- Or past action, either continuous, com-
pleted, or indefinite : as, ut mos fuit Bfthyniae regibus, lectica fereba-
tur, V. 5, 27, he regularly rode in a litter, as was the practice of the despots of
Bithynia ; here fuit denotes action simply as past, without further definition
of time (1603), whereas erat, relative to the time of ferebatur, would imply
which was then the practice (1595).
1739. With dum, in the time while, an independent present is used: see
1995. With postquam, &c., after, an independent perfect is used of a single
action ; see 1925.
294
Tense of the Subordinate Sentence, [i 740-1 746.
THE TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
1740. Subordinate subjunctive sentences were originally independent
coordinate sentences, in the tense required to express the thought. By
degrees the subordinate sentence blended closely with the main sentence,
and the combination of the two was regarded as one whole.
1741. I. The time of the subordinate subjunctive is usually
Relative, that is either contemporaneous, antecedent, or subse-
quent, in relation to that of the main action.
1742. Action contemporaneous with the main action is expressed
by a present or imperfect subjunctive. Action antecedent is expressed
by a perfect or a pluperfect subjunctive. Action subsequent is ex-
pressed by the future participle with a form of sim or of essem.
1743. Subordinate sentences with verbs of will or aim, with verbs of fear, also final
sentences and many consecutive sentences are expressed in Latin as contemporaneous
with the main action, not as subsequent to it.
1744. II. The main and subordinate sentences may express
wholly different spheres of time by tenses not commonly used to-
gether, when the thought requires it. In such cases the tense of the
subordinate member is called Independent, like the analogous tenses
of the indicative (1738).
1745. The use of subordinate subjunctive tenses relatively to the main
tense, or what is commonly called the Sequence of Tenses, is as follows :
TENSE SUBORDINATE TO AN INDICATIVE.
1746. (i.) The present, or perfect subjunctive, or
the future participle with a form of sim, is used in
sentences subordinate to a primary tense (1717): as,
(a.) te hortor, ut Romam pergas, QFr. i, 3, 4, / urge you to repair to
Rome, cura, ut quam primum venias, Fam. 4, 10, i, mind that you come
as soon as you can. ego quid acceperim scio, RA. 58, I know what I have
received, quam sum sollicitus quidnam futurum sit, Att. 8, 6, 3, hcnv
anxious I am to know what in the world is to come, (b.} in eum locum res
deducta est ut salvi esse nequeamus, Fam. 16, 12, i, to such a pass has it
come that we cannot be saved, an oblitus es quid initio dixerim ? DN.
2, 2, have you possibly forgotten what I said at the start ? quoniam in earn
rationem vitae nos fortuna deduxit, ut sempiternus sermo de nobis
futurus sit, caveamus, QFr. i, i, 38, since fortune has set us in such a
walk of life that we are to be eternally talked about, let us be on our guard,
(c.) efficiam, ut intellegatis, Clu. 7, I will see that you understand, dicent
quid statue tint, V. 2, 175, they will tell what they decided on. quae fuerit
causa, mox videro, Fin. i, 35, what the reason was I won't consider till by
and by (1630). te disertum putabo, si ostenderis quo modo sis eos inter
sicarios defensurus, Ph. 2, 8, I shall think you a most effective speaker, if you
show how you are going to defend them on the charge of murder.
295
1 747-1 75 i .] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
1747. ( 2 The imperfect, or pluperfect subjunctive,
or the future participle with a form of essem, is used
in sentences subordinate to a secondary tense (1717) :
as,
(a.) his rebus fiebat, ut minus late vagarentur, i, 2, 4, so it came to pass
that they did not roam round much, docebat, ut tdtius Galliae principa-
tum Aedui tenuissent, i, 43, 6, he showed how the Aeduans had had the
mastery over all Gaul. Flaccus quid alii postea facturi essent scire non
poterat, Fl. 33, Flaccus could not tell what other people would do in the future,
(b.) is civitati persuasit, ut de finibus suis cum omnibus copiis exirent,
I, 2, I, this man prevailed on his community to emigrate from their place of
abode, bag and baggage, quas res in Hispania gessisset, disseruit, L. 28,
38, 2, he discoursed on his military career in Spain, an Lacedaemonil
quaesiverunt num se esset mori prohibiturus ? TD. 5, 42, did the Spar-
tans ask whether he was going to prevent them from dying? (c.) Ariovistus
tantos sib! spiritus sumpserat, ut ferendus non videretur, i, 33, t;, Ario-
vistus had put on such high and mighty airs that he seemed intolerable, hie
pagus, cum domo exisset patrum nostrorum memoria, L. Cassium
consulem interfecerat, i, 12, ^,this canton, sallying out from home in our
fathers' recollection, had put Cassius, the consul, to death, illud quod mihf
extremum proposueram, cum essem de belli genere dicturus, IP. 17, the
point I had reserved till the end, ^vhen I was going to discourse on the character
of the war.
1748. With any kind of a secondary main sentence, a subordinate general
truth usually stands in the past, contrary to the English idiom: as,
hie cognosci licuit, quantum esset hominibus praesidi in animi
firmitudine, Caes. C. 3, 28, 4, here there was a chance to learn what a bulwark
man has in courage. In the direct form est (1588).
1749. A subsequent relation is sometimes loosely suggested by a simple subjunc-
tive; necessarily so with verbs which lack the future participle, or which are in the
passive: as, sum sollicitus quidnam de provinciis decernatur, Fam. 2, n,
i, / am anxious to see -what in the -world may be decided on about the provinces.
1750. In a single example, a future perfect of resulting state is represented in
subordination as follows : nee dubito qum confecta iam res futura sit, Fam.
6, 12, ^, and [have no doubt the job -will soon be completely finished up, directly,
sine dubio cSnfecta iam res erit.
1751. (i.) An imperfect subjunctive expressing a particular past result,
cause, reason, &c., is sometimes connected with a main general present tense
(1744) : as,
cuius praecepti tanta vis est, ut ea Delphico deo tribueretur, Leg.
1, 58, the power of this riile is so mighty that it was ascribed to the Delphic god.
cuius rli tanta est vis, ut Ithacam illam sapientissimus vir immortali-
tati anteponeret, DO. i, 196, so irresistible is the power of this sentiment that
the shrewdest of men loved his little Ithaca better than life eternal; of Ulixes.
laudantur oratores veteres quod crimina diluere dilucide solerent, V.
2, 191, the orators of old are admired ' because they were always clear in ex-
plaining accusations away' The secondary sequence is also sometimes ex-
ceptionally used with ordinary presents.
296
Tense of the Subordinate Sentence. [1752-1756.
1752. (2.) The present of vivid narration is commonly regarded
as a secondary tense, especially when the subordinate sentence pre-
cedes, and regularly with narrative cum. Sometimes however as a
primary tense : as,
(a.) servis suls Rubrius, ut ianuam clauderent, imperat, V. i, 66,
Rubrius orders his slaves to shut the front door. Aedui, cum se defendere
non possent, legates ad Caesarem mittunt, i, u, 2, the Aeduans, finding
they could not defend themselves, send some envoys to Caesar, (b.) hortatur,
ut arma capiant, 7, 4, 4, he urges them to fly to arms. Sometimes the two
sequences stand side by side, or a subjunctive of primary sequence has itself
a second subordinate subjunctive of secondary sequence. Either sequence
is used with the present of quotation also (1592).
I 753- (3 ) Subordinate sentences of past action conceivable, of action
non-occurrent, or dubitative questions of the past, retain their past unchanged
with a main primary tense : as,
(a.) veri simile non est, ut ille monumentis maiorum pecuniam
anteponeret, V. 4, II, it is not conceivable that the man would have thought
more of money than of his heirlooms, i. e. non anteponeret (1559). (b.) om-
nia sic erunt inlustria, ut ad ea probanda totam Siciliam testem ad-
hibere possem, F". 5, 139, everything will be so self-evident, that I could use
all Sicily as a witness to prove it (1560). taced, ne haec quidem conligo,
quae fortasse valerent apud iudicem, Lig. 30, I'll hold my tongue, I won't
even gather together the following arguments, which might perhaps be telling
with a juryman (1560). (c.) quaero a te cur C. Cornelium non defen-
derem, Vat. 5, I put the question to you, why I was not to defend Cornelius
1754. A final subjunctive subordinate to a perfect definite some-
times has the primary sequence, but more commonly the secondary :
as,
(a.) etiamne ad subsellia cum ferr5 venistis, ut hie iuguletis Sex.
RSscium ? KA. 32, have you actually come to the court-room knife in hand,
to cut Roscius 's throat on the spot ? (b.) ne ignoraretis esse aliquas pads
v5bis condiciones, ad vos veni, L. 21, 13, 2, / have ccme to you to let you
know that yoti have some chances of peace, adduxl hominem in quo satis
facere exteris nationibus possetis, F. a. pr. 2, I have brought up a man in
whose person you can give satisfaction to foreign nations.
1755* An independent present or perfect subjunctive may be put
with a main secondary tense (1744) :
1756. (i.) In relative, causal, or concessive sentences : as,
cum in ceteris coloniis duumviri appellentur, hi se praetores appel-
lari volebant, Agr. 2, 93, though they are styled in all other colonies The Two,
these men wanted to be styled praetors, qui adulescens nihil umquam nisi
severissime et gravissime fecerit, is ea aetate saltavit ? D. 27, did the
man who in his growing years invariably behaved with austere propriety, dance
and caper round in his old age ? hoc toto proelio cum ab hora septima ad
vesperum pugnatum sit, aversum hostem videre nem5 potuit, i, 26, 2,
during the whole of this engagement, though the fighting went on from an houf
Past noon till evening, nobody could catch a glimpse of an enemy's back.
297
1 75 7~ 1 762.] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
1757. (2.) Often in consecutive sentences : as,
(a.) in provincia Sicilia, quam iste per triennium ita vexavit, ut ea
restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit, V. a. pr. 12, in the prov-
ince of Sicily, which the defendant so effectually tormented three years running
that it cannot be restored at all to its original estate, priores ita regnarunt,
ut omnes conditores partium certe urbis numerentur, L. 2, i, 2, such
was the administration of the monarchs preceding, that they are all accounted
founders of parts at least of Rome, (b.) The perfect subjunctive sometimes
represents the time of the perfect definite : as, tantum in aerarium pecu-
niae invexit, ut unius imperatoris praeda finem attulerit tributorum,
Ojf. 2, 76, he conveyed such quantities of money into the treasury, that the plun-
der turned in by a single commander has put an end to tribute for good and all.
eo usque se praebebat patientem atque impigrum, ut eum nemo um-
quam in equo sedentem viderit, V. 5, 27, he showed himself so indefatigably
active that no human being has ever seen him astride a horse. Sometimes the
time of the historical perfect : as, temporis tanta fuit exiguitas, ut ad
faleas induendas tempus defuerit, 2, 21, 5, so scant was the time that they
ad not time to put their helmets on. hie ita quievit, ut eo tempore omni
Neapoli fuerit, Sull. 17, this man held so quiet that he staid all that time
at Neapolis. In Cicero a negative subordinate perfect is not uncommon; an
affirmative one is very rare. This construction is more common in Nepos,
Livy, and Tacitus, and is the prevalent one in Suetonius.
1758. The imperfect only is used in complementary sentences with past verbs of
happening, such as accidit, contigit, &c. (1966).
I 759- When two consecutive subjunctives are coordinated, they usually have the
same tense. Sometimes however the first is perfect and the second imperfect, or the
reverse.
1760. (3.) An indirect question in the present or perfect sometimes
retains its original tense with a main secondary tense (1744) : as,
hie quantum in bello fortuna possit, cognosci potuit, 6, 35, 2, here
there was a chance to see how potent dame Fortune is in war. Here possit
represents potest of a general truth (1588) ; but usually general truths have
the regular sequence (1748). cur abstinuerit spectaculo ipse, varie trahe-
bant, Ta. I, 76, why the emperor did not go to the sho^v, they accounted for in
this way and that , representing cur abstinuit ? quo consilio redierim
initio audistis, post estis expert!, Ph. 10, 8, what my idea was in coming
back, you learned first by hearsay, afterwards by personal observation, repre-
senting quo consilio redii?
1761. The subordinate subjunctive has sometimes the sequence of the nearest
verb, instead of that of its proper verb: as, curavit, quod semper in re publica
tenendum est, ne plurimum valeant plurimi, RP. 2, 39, he arranged it so.
a point -which is always to be held fast in government, that the greatest number may
not have the greatest power.
TENSE SUBORDINATE TO A SUBJUNCTIVE.
1762. When the leading verb is a subjunctive, the present is re-
garded as primary, and the imperfect and pluperfect as secondary :
as,
298
Tense of the Subordinate Sentence. [1763-1 766.
(a.) exspecto eius modi litteras ex quibus non quid fiat, sed quid
futurum sit sciam, Att. 5, 12, 2, / am expecting a letter of a kind to let me
knew not what is going on, but what will be going on. quid profecerim facias
me velim certiorem, Fam. 7, 10, 3, how far I have succeeded I wish you
would let me know, (b.) qualis esset natura mentis qui cognoscerent
misit, I, 21, I, he sent some scouts to find cut what the character of the moun-
tain was. quid me prohiberet Epicureum esse, si probarem quae dice-
ret, Fin. i, 27, what would prevent me from being an Epicurean, if I accepted
what he said? quae si bis bina quot essent didicisset Epicurus, certe
non diceret, DN. 2, 49, Epicurus would certainly not say this, if he had ever
been taught how much twice two is (1748).
1763. An imperfect subjunctive of action non-occurrent at the present time has
occasionally the present sequence : as, mirareris, si interesses, qua patientia
valetudinem toleret, Flin. Ep. i, 22, 7, you -would be amazed to find, if you
were with him, -with -what dogged endurance he bears up under his illness. But the
secondary sequence is far more common. >
1764. (i.) The perfect subjunctive in independent main sentences of pro-
hibition (1551) or of action conceivable (1558) is regarded as a primary
tense : as,
ne dubitaris quin id mihf futurum sit antiquius, Att. 7, 3, 2, don't
entertain any doubt that this course will be preferable in my eyes, quid non
sit citius quam quid sit dixerim, DN. i, 60, 1 could sooner tell what is not,
than what is.
1765. (2.) In subordinate sentences, the perfect subjunctive has the main
sequence when it represents the indicative perfect definite, and the secondary
when it represents the indicative historical perfect or the imperfect : as,
(a.) nemo fere vestrum est, quin, quern ad modum captae sint Sy-
racusae saepe audierit, V. 4, 115, there is hardly a man of your number but
has heard over and over again how Syracuse was taken, (b.) qua re acciderit
ut id suspicarere quod scribis nescio, Fam. 2, 16, i, how it came to pass
that you suspected what you write, I can't imagine.
TENSE SUBORDINATE TO A NOUN OF THE VERB.
1766. (i.) A subjunctive subordinate to one of the nouns of the
verb, except the perfect infinitive or the perfect participle, follows the
sequence of the verb : as,
desino quaerere cur emeris, V. 4, 10, / cease to ask why you bought.
neminem tam amentem fore putaverunt, ut emeret argentum, V. 4, 9,
they did not dream anybody would be crazy enough to buy plate, securi per-
cussi, adeo torpentibus metu qui aderant, ut ne gemitus quidem exau-
diretur, L. 28, 29, 1 1 , they were beheaded, everybody there being so completely
paralyzed with fear that not even a groan could be heard. Q. Fabius Pictor
Delphos missus est sciscitatum, quibus precibus deos possent placare,
L. 22, 57, 5, Fabius Pictor was sent to Delphi to find out by what sort of prayers
they could get the ear of the gods, cupido incessit animos iuvenum scisci-
tandi ad quem eorum regnum esset venturum, L. i, 56, 10, the youths
were possessed with a desire to find out to which one of their number the throne
was to fall.
299
I767-I77 2 -] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
1767. (2.) With a perfect infinitive or perfect participle, the subordinate
subjunctive may be in the imperfect or pluperfect, even with a primary
leading verb : as,
satis mihl multa verba fecisse videor, qua re esset hoc bellum
necessarium, IP. 27, I fancy I have said enough to* show "why this war
is unavoidable, hunc isti aiunt, cum taurum immolavisset, mortuum
concidisse, Br. 43, your gentlemen say that this man, after sacrificing a bull,
tumbled down dead, viator bene vestitus causa grassatori fuisse dicetur
cur ab eo spoliaretur, Fat. 34, a well-dressed traveller will be said to have been
a temptation for a footpad to rob him. versabor in re saepe quaesita, suffra-
gia clam an palam f erre melius esset, Leg. 3, 33, / shall be working on a
question that has often been put, whether it was better to vote secretly or openly.
1768. The sequence with a perfect infinitive is, however, often primary : as, hie
si finem faciam dicendi, satis iudici fecisse videar cur secundum
Roscium iudicari debeat, RC. 14, if I should stop speaking here, I should feel
I had made it plain enough to the court -why a judgement should be rendered for
Roscius.
1769. The secondary sequence is used with memini, remember, even when it
has the present infinitive (2220): as, L. Metellum memini ita boms esse
viribus extreme tern pore aetatis, ut adulescentiam non requireret,
CM. 30, / can remember Metellus's being so good and strong in the very last part of
his life that he did not feel the -want of youth.
1770. Sentences with a subjunctive due to another subjunc-
tive or to an infinitive are put as follows :
1771. (i.) Sentences of relative time express contemporaneous,
antecedent, and subsequent action like corresponding indicative sen-
tences, with the appropriate sequence : as,
vereor, ne, dum minuere velim laborem, augeam, Leg. i, 12, I am
afraid that while I wish to make the work less, I may make it more, crocodi-
15s dicunt, cum in terra partum ediderint, obruere ova, DN. 2, 129, they
say that the crocodile, after laying on land, buries her eggs, dicebam quoad
metueres, omnia te promissurum : simul ac timere desisses, similem
te futurum tui, Ph. 2, 89, / said that as long as you were afraid, you would
promise everything ; the moment you ceased to fear, you would be just like your-
self, constituerunt ea, quae ad proficiscendum pertinerent, comparare,
I, 3, i, they resolved to get such things ready as were necessary for the march.
erat scriptum : nisi domum reverteretur, se capitis eum damnaturos,
N. 4, 3, 4, it stood written that, if he did not come back home, they would con-
demn 'him to death (direct form nisi reverteris, damnabimus). legati vene-
runt, qui se ea, quae imperasset, facturos pollicerentur, 4, 22, i, some
envoys came, to engage to do what he ordered (direct form quae imperaris,
faciemus). Veneti confidebant Romanes neque ullam facultatem
habere navium, neque eorum Ioc5rum ubl bellum gesturi essent por-
tus novisse, 3, 19, 6, the Venetans felt assured that the Romans had not any
proper supply of ships, and were not acquainted with the ports in the places
where they were to fight.
1772. (2.) Sentences with independent time retain the independent time
in the subjunctive in primary sequence (1744); in secondary sequence the
present becomes imperfect, and the perfect becomes pluperfect : as,
300
The Indirect Question. [1773-1777.
(a.) quamquam opinio est, eum qui multis annis ante hos fuerit,
Pisistratum, multum valuisse dicendo, Br. 27, though there is an impres-
sion that the man who lived years and years before these people, Pisistratus, was
a very telling orator (direct form, qui fuit, 1738). dicitur, postea quam
venerit, paucls diebus esse mortuus, Clu. 175, he is said to have died a
few days after he came (1739). (b.) cognovit Suebos, postea quam pon-
tem fieri comperissent, nuntios in omnes partes dimisisse, 4, 19, 2, he
ascertained that after the Suebani had learned of the building of the bridge, they
had sent 02tt messengers in every direction.
THE INDIRECT QUESTION.
1773. The subjunctive is used in indirect questions
or exclamations.
Thus, when the direct question, qui scis, how do you know ? is subor-
dinated to a main sentence, such as quaero, I ask, the scis becomes scias :
quaero qui scias, RA. 59, I ask how you know. Questions or exclamations
thus subordinated are called Indirect (1723). In English, indirect questions
are usually characterized simply by the position of the words, the subject
standing before the verb.
1774. The indirect question is one of the commonest of constructions.
It depends on verbs or expressions meaning not only ask, but also tell, inform,
ascertain, see, hear, know, consider, deliberate, doubt, wonder, fear, &c., &c.
YES OR No QUESTIONS.
1775. Indirect Yes or No questions are introduced by the same
interrogative particles that are used in direct questions (1503). But
in indirect questions, num and -lie are used without any essential
difference, in the sense of whether, if. nonne is used thus only by
Cicero, and by him only with quaero : as,
quaeris num disertus sit ? Plane. 62, do you ask whether he is a good
speaker ? quaesivi cogn5sc_eretne signum, C. 3, 10, I asked if he recognized
the seal, quaero nonne tibf faciendum idem sit, Fin. 3, 13, I ask whether
you ought not to do the same, videte num dubitandum vobis sit, IP. 19,
consider whether you ought to have any hesitation.
1776. The combinations -ne . . . -ne, and an ... an, introducing two sepa-
rate questions, are rare; -ne . . . -ne is mostly confined to poetry. In a few
instances such questions can hardly be distinguished from alternatives.
1777. A conditional protasis with Si, */, to see if, or si forte, if perchance, some-
times takes the place of an indirect question in expressions or implications of trial,
hope, or expectation: as, ibo, visam si domist, T. Han. 170, I ' II go and see ij
he 'j at home. Usually with the subjunctive: as, exspectabam. si quid scribe-
res, Aft. 16, 2. 4, I was waiting to see whether you -would -write anything, cir-
cumfunduntur hostes, si quern aditum reperire possent, 6, 37, 4, the
enemy came streaming round, to see if they could find any -way of getting in,
301
1 7 78- 1 785*] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS.
1778. Indirect alternative questions are introduced like direct
questions (1519). But when the second member is negative, it has
oftener necne than an non : as,
hoc quaeramus, verum sit an falsum, Clu. 124, let us ask this question^
whether it is true or false, quaesivi a Catilma in conventu fuisset, necne,
C. 2, 13, I asked Catiline -whether he had been at the meeting or not. permul-
tum interest utrum perturbatione animi, an consults fiat iniuria, Off. i,
27, it makes a vast difference whether wrong be done in heat of passion, or
with deliberate intent, quaero, eum Brutine similem malls an Antonii,
Ph. 10, 5, / ask whether you would rather have him like Brutus or like
Antony.
1779. An introductory utrum preceding an alternative question with -ne and
an occurs a few times in Plautus and Cicero ; utrumne . . . an occurs once in
Cicero, and twice in Horace and Tacitus each ; compare 1522. After utrum, a sec-
ond alternative is sometimes suppressed, as in the direct question (1523).
1780. -ne in the second member only of an alternative question is rare, and not
used by Caesar or Sallust : as, sine sciam captiva materne sim, L. 2, 40, 5,
let me know -whether I am a captive or a mother.
1781. (i.) A few times in Plautus and Terence, the second member only of an
alternative question is expressed with qui scio an ? or qui scis an ? equivalent to
perhaps: as, qui scis an quae iubeam faciat ? T. Eu. 790, perhaps she '// do
as I direct. Horace has once qui SCIS an, AP. 462, in the sense of perhaps, and
once quis scit an, 4, 7, 17, in the sense of perhaps not.
1782. (2.) The second member only of an alternative question is often
expressed after haud scio an, I don't know but, possibly, perhaps, with non,
nemo, nullus, &c., if the sentence is negative : as,
haud scio an fieri possit, V. 3, 162, / don't know but it is possible. Simi-
larly, though not often, with nescio an, haud sciam an, dubito an, du-
bitarim an, dubium an, incertum an, &c. : as, eloquentia nescio an
habuisset parem neminem, Br. 126, in oratory I fancy he would have had
no peer. This use, in which haud scio an becomes adverbial, and the
subjunctive approaches closely that of modest assertion, is principally con-
fined to Cicero. In later Latin, haud scio an, &c., sometimes has a negative
sense, / don't know whether, with ullus, &c.
1783. From Curtius on, an is used quite like num or -ne, in a single indirect
question, without implication of alternatives.
1784. Two alternatives are rarely used without any interrogative particles at all :
as, velit nolit scire difficile est, QFr. 3, 8, 4, -will he nill he, it is hard to kno-w,
i. e. whether he will or not. Compare 1518.
PRONOUN QUESTIONS.
1785. Indirect pronoun questions are introduced by the same pro-
nominal words that are used in direct pronoun questions (1526) : as,
cognoscit, quae gerantur, 5, 48, 2, he ascertains what is going on. vide-
tis ut omnes despiciat, KA. 135, you can see hcnv he looks down on everybody.
quid agas et ut te oblectes scire cupio, QFr, Z, 3, 7, I am eager to knw
how you do a.nd how you we amusing yourself.
302
The Indirect Question. [1786-1791.
ORIGINAL SUBJUNCTIVES.
1786. Questions already in the subjunctive may also become indi-
rect.
Thus, qu5 me vertam? V, 5, 2, which way shall I turn? (1563) be-
comes indirect in quo me vertam nescio, Clu. 4, / don't know which way 1
am to turn, quid faciam ? H. S. 2, i, 24, what shall I do? (1563) becomes
indirect in quid faciam, praescribe, H. S. 2, i, 5, lay down the law, what
I'm to do. neque satis constabat quid agerent, 3, 14, 3, and it was not at
all clear what they had best do. dubitavi hosce homines emerem an non
emerem, PI. Cap. 455, / had my doubts, whether to buy these men or not to
buy (1564).
INDICATIVE QUESTIONS APPARENTLY INDIRECT.
1787. In old Latin, the indicative occurs often in connections
where the subjunctive would be used in classical Latin : as,
die, quis est, PI. B. 558, say, who is it? whereas die quis sit would
mean say who it is. In such cases the question is not subordinate, but co-
ordinate, usually with an imperative (1697), or with some such expression
as te rog5, volo scire, scfn, or the like. Such coordination occurs excep-
tionally in the classical period : as, et vide, quam conversa res est, Att.
8, 13, 2, and observe, how everything is changed, adspice, ut ingreditur, V.
6, 856, see, how he marches off.
1788. The indicative is used with nescio followed by a pronominal
interrogative, when this combination is equivalent to an indefinite
pronoun or adverb : as,
pr5dit nescio quis, T. Ad. 635, there's some one coming out. This is
a condensed form for prodit nescio quis sit, there's coming out I don't know
who it is, the real question, sit, being suppressed, and nescio quis acquiring
the meaning of aliquis, somebody. Similarly nesci5 with unde, ub!, quando,
quot, &c., in writers of all ages. Plautus uses scio quid, scio ut, &c.,
somewhat in this way once or twice with the indicative : as, scio quid ago,
B. 78, I'm doing I know what.
1789. This combination often expresses admiration, contempt, or regret : as, con-
tendo turn illud nescio quid praeclarum solere existere, Arch. 15, 1
maintain that in such a combination the beau ideal of perfection always bursts into
being, paulum nescio quid, RA. 115, an unconsidered trifle, divlsa est
sententia, postulante nesciS quo, Mil. 14, the question -was divided, on mo-
tion of what 's his name, nescio quo pacto, C. 31, unfortunately.
1790. The indicative is used in like manner with many expressions, originally
exclamatory, which have become adverbs : such are immane quantum, prodi-
giously, mirum quantum, wonderfully, sane quam, immensely, &c., &c. See
712 and the dictionary.
1791. Relative constructions often have the appearance of indirect questions, and
care must be taken not to confound the two. Thus, Ut is a relative in hanc rem,
Ut factast, eloquar, PI. Am. 1129, / '// tell this thing as it occurred, i. e. not how
it occurred, nosti quae sequontur, TD. 4, 77, you know the things that follow,
i. e. not what follows.
33
I79 2 ~ I 79^-] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
THE RELATIVE SENTENCE.
1792. Relative sentences are introduced by relative words, the
most important of which is the pronoun qui, who, which, or that. The
relative pronoun may be in any case required by the context, and may
represent any of the three persons.
1793. The relative adverbs, ubf, quo, unde, often take the place of a relative
pronoun with a preposition, chiefly in designations of place, and regularly with town
and island names. Less frequently of persons, though unde is not uncommonly thus
used.
1794. In a wider sense, sentences introduced by any relative conjunctive particle,
such as ubf, -when, are sometimes called relative sentences. Such sentences, however,
are more conveniently treated separately, under the head of the several conjunctive
particles.
J 795- (!) The relative pronoun, like the English relative who, which,
was developed from the interrogative. Originally, the relative sentence pre-
cedes, and the main sentence follows, just as in question and answer.
Thus, quae mutat, ea corrumpit, Fin. i, 21, what he changes, that he
spoils, is a modification of the older question and answer: quae mutat ? ea
corrumpit, what does he change? that he spoils. With adjective relatives, the
substantive is expressed in both members, in old or formal Latin : as, quae
res apud nostrSs n5n erant, earum rerum nomina non poterant esse
usitata, Cornif. 4, 10, what things did not exist among our countrymen, of
those things the names could not have been in common use.
1796. (2.) The relative sentence may also come last. As early as Plau-
tus, this had become the prevalent arrangement, and the substantive of the
main sentence is called the Antecedent: as,
ultra eum locum, qu5 in loco German! cSnsederant, castris ido-
neum locum delegit, I, 49, I, beyond the place in which place the Germans had
established themselves, he selected a suitable spot for his camp. The three words
dies, locus, and res, are very commonly expressed thus both in the antece-
dent and the relative sentence. This repetition is rare in Livy, and disap-
pears after his time.
1797. In old Latin, rarely in classical poetry, a sentence sometimes begins with an
emphasized antecedent put bsfore the relative, and in the case of the relative: as,
urbem quam statuo vostra est, V. i, 573, the city -which I found is yours ; for
quam urbem statuo, ea vostra est. In the main sentence, is, hie, iste, or
ille, is often used ; less frequently, as in this example, an appellative.
1798. The main sentence often has the determinative or demonstrative,
or the substantive, or both omitted : as,
(a.) ub! intellexit diem instare, quo die frumentum militibus metiri
oporteret, r, 16, 5, when he saw the day was drawing nigh, on which day the
grain was to be measured out to his men. (b.} quos amisimus civis, eos
Martis vis perculit, Marc. 17, what fellow-citizens we have lost, those the fury
of the War-god smole down, (c.) Sabinus quos tribunes militum circum
se habebat, se sequi iubet, 5, 37, i, Sabinus ordered what tribunes of the
soldiers he had about him, to follow him.
34
The Relative Sentence. [i 799-1 804.
1799. The antecedent is often omitted when it is indefinite, or is obvious
from the context : as,
sunt qui mirentur, V. i, 6, there be who -wonder, delegisti qu5s
RSmae relinqueres, C. i, 9, you picked out people to leave in Rome, quod
periit, periit, PI. Cist. 703, gone is gone. Caesar cognovit Considium,
quod non vidisset, pr5 viso sib! renuntiavisse, i, 22, 4, Caesar ascertained
that Considius had reported to him as seen what he had not seen.
1800. An ablative or nominative abstract in the relative sentence sometimes repre-
sents an ablative of manner or quality omitted from the main sentence : as, qua pru-
dentia es, nihil te fugiet, Fam. n, 13, i, -with -what sense you have, nothing
will elude you, i. e. ea qua es prudentia, nihil te fugiet. spero, quae tua
prudentia est, te valere, Att. 6, 9, i, I hope that < with your characteristic caution,
you are -well, at Aiax, qu5 animS traditur, millies oppetere mortem
quam ilia perpeti maluisset, Off. i. 113, Ajax, on the contrary, -with his
traditional vehemence, -would have chosen rather to die a thousand deaths than to
submit to such indignities. This ellipsis begins with Cicero, and is found a few times
only in later writers.
AGREEMENT OF THE RELATIVE.
1801. The agreement of the relative has already been spoken of in a
general way (1082-1098). For convenience, however, it may be set forth
here more explicitly.
1802. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent
in gender and number, but its case depends on the con-
struction of the sentence in which it stands : as,
Hippias gloriatus est anulum quern haberet, pallium quo amictus,
soccos quibus indutus esset, se sua manu confecisse, DO. 3, 127,
Hippias prided himself that he had made with his own hand the ring that he
wore, the cloak in which he was wrapped, and the slippers that he had on.
This holds of all relatives with inflected form, such as quicumque, qualis,
quantus, &c., &c.
1803. When the relative refers to two or more antecedents of different
gender, its gender is determined like that of a predicate adjective (1087) : as,
mattes et liberi, quorum aetas misericordiam vestram requirebat,
V. ;, 129, mothers and babies, whose years would appeal to your sympathy (1088).
otium atque divitiae, quae prlma mortales putant, S. C. 36, 4, peace and
prosperity* which the sons of men cotmt chiefest of blessings (1089). fortuna,
quam nemo ab inconstantia et temeritate seiunget, quae digna non
sunt deo, DM 3, 61, fortune, which nobody will distinguish from caprice and
hazard, qualities which are not befitting god (1089). Sometimes the relative
agrees with the nearest substantive: as, eas fruges atque fructus, quos
terra gignit, DN. 2, 37, the crops, and the fruits of the trees that earth
prodrices.
1804. The relative is sometimes regulated by the sense, and not by the
form of the antecedent : as,
20 305
1805-1811] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
equitatum praemittit qui videant, i, 15, i, he sends the cavalry ahead,
for them to see (1095). unus ex eo numero, qui ad caedem parati
erant, S. /. 35, 6, one of the number that were ready to do murder ( 1095). duo
prSdigia, quos improbitas tribune constrictos addixerat, Sest. 38, a pair
of monstrosities, whom their depravity had delivered over in irons to the tribune,
scriba pontificis, quos nunc minores pontifices appellant, L. 22, 57, 3, a
clerk of the pontiff, which clerks they call nowadays lesser pontiffs, i. e. quos
scribas. Veiens bellum exortum, quibus Sabini arma coniunxerant,
L. 2, 53, i, a Vejan war broke out, with whom the Sabines had allied them-
selves, i. e. bellum cum Veientibus.
1805. A relative referring to a proper name and explanatory appellative com-
bined, may take the gender of either: as, flumine Rheno, qui agrum Helve-
tium a GermaniS dividit, i, 2, 3, by the river Rhine, -which is the boundary
between Helvetians and Germans*. ad flumen Scaldem quod Influit in
Mosam, 6, 33, 3, to the river Scheldt, that empties itself into the Maas.
1806. With verbs of indeterminate meaning (1035), the relative pronoun some-
times agrees with the predicate substantive: as, Thebae ipsae, quod Boeotiae
caput est, L. 42, 44, 3, Thebes itself, -which is the capital of Boeotia. Often, how-
ever, with the antecedent: as, flumen quod appellatur Tamesis, 5, u, 8, the
river -which is called the Thames.
1807. When the relative is subject, its verb agrees with the person of
the antecedent : as,
haec omnia is feel, qui sodalis Dolabellae eram, Fam. 12, 14, 7, all
this I did, I that was Dolabella's bosom friend, iniquos es, qui me tacere
postules, T. Hau. ion, thou art unfair, expecting me to hold my tongue.
So also when the antecedent is implied in a possessive : as, cum tu nostra,
qui remansissemus, caede te contentum esse dicebas, C. i, 7, when you
said you were satisfied with murdering us, who had staid behind.
1808. For an accusative of the relative with an ablative antecedent the ablative is
rarely used : as, notante iudice quo nosti popul5, H. S. i, 6, 15, the judge
condemning thou know 1 ' st -who the world. This represents the older interroga-
tive conception : notante iudice quo ? nSsti, populo (1795).
1809. A new substantive added in explanation of an antecedent is put after the
relative, and in the same case : as, ad Amanum contend!, qui mons erat
hostium plenus, Aft. 5, 20, 3, / pushed on to Amanus, a mountain that was
packed -with the^ enemy. This use begins with Cicero ; but from Livy on, the ex-
planatory word is also put as an appositive, with the relative following : as, Decius
Magius, vir cui nihil defuit, L. 23, 7, 4, Magius, a man that lacked nothing.
1810. An adjective, especially a comparative, superlative, or numeral,
explanatory of a substantive in the main sentence, is often put in the relative
sentence: as,
palus quae perpetua intercedebat Romanes ad fnsequendum tar-
dabat, 7, 26, 2, a morass, that lay tinbroken between, hindered the Romans from
pursuit.
1811. When reference is made to the substance of a sentence, the
neuter quod is used, or more commonly id quod, either usually in
parenthesis : as,
306
The Relative Sentence. [1812-1816.
intellegitur, id quod iam ante dixi, imprudente L. Sulla scelera
haec fieri, RA. 25, /'/ is plain, as I have said once before, that these crimes are
committed without the cognizance of Sulla. In continuations, quae res : as,
naves remover! iussit, quae res magno usui nostrls fuit, 4, 25, i, he
ordered the vessels to be withdrawn, a course which proved very advantageous
for our people.
MOODS IN THE RELATIVE SENTENCE.
1812. The relative is sometimes equivalent to a conditional protasis.
When thus used, it may have either the indicative or the subjunctive, as the
sense requires : as,
(a.) quod beatum est, nee habet nee exhibet cuiquam negotium,
DN. i, 85, whatsoever is blessed, has no trouble and makes none to anybody.
quisquis hue venerit, pugnos edet, PI. Am. 309, whoever comes this way,
shall have a taste of fists (1796). omnia mala ingerebat quemquem ad-
spexerat, PI. Men. 717, she showered all possible bad names on every man she
saw (1795). (^-) haec qui videat, nonne cogatur confiteri decs esse,
DN. 2, 12, whoso should see this would be forced, wouldn't he? to admit the
existence of gods, qui videret, equom Troianum introductum diceret,
V. 4, 52, whoever saw it would have sworn it was the Trojan horse brought in
(1559).
THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
1813. The indicative is used in simple declarations
or descriptions introduced by a relative : as,
quern di diligunt, adulescens moritur, PI. B. 816, whom the gods love,
dies young, reliqui, qui dorm manserunt, se alunt, 4, i, 5, the others, that
stay at home, support themselves (1736). quos Iab5rantes conspexerat, his
subsidia submittebat, 4, 26, 4, to such as he saw in stress, he kept sending
reinforcements (1736). tu quod voles facies, QFr. 3, 4, 5, do what you like
(1735)-
1814. The indicative is also used with indefinite relative pronouns and adverbs :
as, quidquid volt, valde volt, Att. 14, i, 2, -whatever he -wants, he^ -wants might-
ily, quisquis est, TD. 4. 37, -whoever he may be. quacumque iter fecit, V.
i, 44, wherever he made his way. In later writers the imperfect or pluperfect is
often in the subjunctive : see 1730.
1815. An original indicative often becomes subjunctive, partic-
ularly in indirect discourse (1722) ; or by attraction (1728) ; or to
indicate repeated action (1730). See also 1727 and 1731.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
1816. Relative pronoun sentences take the subjunc-
tive to denote (i.) a purpose, (2.) a characteristic or
result, (3.) a cause, reason, proof, or a concession.
37
1817-1823.] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
SENTENCES OF PURPOSE.
1817. (i.) Relative sentences of purpose are equivalent to sub-
junctive sentences introduced by ut, in order that, to (194?) : as .
ea qui conficeret, C. Trebonium relinquit, 7, n, 3, he left Trebonius to
manage this, qualis esset natura mentis, qui cognoscerent, misit, I, 21, i,
he sent some scouts to ascertain what the character of the mountain was. haec
habui de amicitia quae dicerem, L. 104, this was what I had to say of
friendship. Sentences of purpose are an extension of the subjunctive of
desire (1540).
SENTENCES OF CHARACTERISTIC OR RESULT.
1818. (2.) Relative sentences of characteristic or result are equiva-
lent to subjunctive sentences introduced by ut, so as to, so that (1947).
The main sentence sometimes has a word denoting character, such as is,
eius modi, rarely talis : as, neque is sum, qui mortis periculS terrear, 5,
30, 2, but I am not the man to be scared by danger of death, no not I. Often,
however, character is intimated by the mood alone : as, secutae sunt tem-
pestates quae nostros in castris continerent, 4, 34, 4, there followed a
succession of storms to keep our people in camp, quod miserandum sit labo-
ratis, DN. 3, 62, you struggle away to a pitiable degree. Sentences of result
are an extension of the subjunctive of action conceivable (1554).
1819. The subjunctive with qui is often used with dignus, indignus, or
idoneus, usually with a form of sum: as, Livianae fabulae n5n satis dignae
quae iterum legantur, Br. 71, Livy' s plays are not worth reading twice, non
erit idoneus qui ad bellum mittatur, IP. 66, he will not be a fit person to be
sent to the war. Twice thus, aptus, once in Cicero, once in Ovid. In poetry and
late prose these adjectives sometimes have the infinitive, dignus and indignus
have also ut in Plautus, Livy, and Quintilian.
1820. Relative subjunctive sentences are sometimes coordinated by et or sed,
with a substantive, adjective, or participle : as, audax et coetus possit quae ferre
virSrum, J. 6, 399, a brazen minx, and one quite capable of facing crowds of men.
1821. Relative sentences after assertions or questions of existence
or non-existence, usually take the subjunctive : as,
sunt qui putent, TD. i, 18, there be people to think, there be who think, or
some people think, nemo est qui nesciat, Fam. I, 4, 2. there is nobody that
doesn't know, sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat ex animis, Fin.
I, 43, wisdom is the only thing to drive sadness from the soul.
1822. Such expressions are: est (exsistit, exortus est), qui; sunt
(reperiuntur, non desunt), qui ; nemo est, qui ; quis est, qui ; solus or
unus est, qui; est, nihil est, quod ; quid est, quod ? habeo, non habeo,
nihil habeo, quod, &c., &c. Indefinite subjects are sometimes used with
these verbs: as, multi, quidam, nonnulli, alii, pauci; sometimes appella-
tives : as, homines, philosophi.
1823. The indicative, however, is not infrequently found in affirmative sentences,
particularly in old Latin and in poetry: as, sunt qups scio esse amicos. PI.
Tri. 91, some men there are I know to be my friends, interdum volgUS rectum
videt, est ubi peccat, H. E. 2, i, 63, sometimes the world sees right, there be
times when it errs, sunt item, quae appellantur alces, 6, 27, i, then again
there are what they call elks.
The Relative Sentence. [1824-1829.
SENTENCES OF CAUSE OR CONCESSION.
1824. (3.) Relative sentences of cause, reason, proof, or of con-
cession, are equivalent to subjunctive sentences introduced by cum,
since, though (1877): as,
(a.) hospes, qui nihil suspicaretur, hominem retinere coepit, V. i, 64,
the friend, suspecting nothing, undertook to hold on to the man. Often justify-
ing the use of a single word : as, 6 fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis
Homerum praeconem inveneris, Arch. 24, oh youth thrice-blest, with Homer
trumpeter of thy prowess, ad me venit Heraclius, homo nobilis, qui sacer-
dos lovis fuisset, V. 4, 137, I had a call from Heraclius, a man of high stand-
ing, as is proved by his having been a priest of Jupiter, (b.) Cicero, qui mlli-
tes in castris continuisset, quinque cohortes frumentatum mittit, 6,36, 1,
though Cicero had kept his men in camp, he sends Jive cohorts foraging.
1825. With qui tamen, however, the indicative is usual : as, alter, qui tamen
se continuerat, non tenuit eum locum, Sest. 114, the other, though he had
observed a quiet policy, did not hold the place.
1826. Oftentimes, where a causal relation might be expected, a simple
declaratory indicative is used : as,
habeo senectutl magnam gratiam, quae mih! sermSnis aviditatem
auxit, CM. 46, I feel greatly indebted to age, which has increased my eagerness
for conversation. Particularly thus in old Latin : as, sed sumne ego stultus,
qui rem cur5 publicam ? PI. Per. 75, but am I not a fool, who bother with the
common weal? Compared with: sed ego sum insipientior, qui rebus
curem puplicis, PI. Tri. 1057, but I^rn a very fool, to bother with the common
weal. Often of coincident action (1733): as, stulte fed, qui hunc amlsl,
PI. MG. 1376, I've acted like a fool, in letting this man off.
1827. The causal relative is often introduced by quippe, less frequently
by ut, or ut pote, naturally : as,
' convivia cum patre non inibat ; ' quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem
nisi perrarS veniret, RA. 52, ' he never went to dinner-parties with his fa-
ther ; ' why, of course not, since he never went to a simple country town even,
except very rarely, dictator tamen, ut qui magis animis quam viribus
fretus ad certSmen descenderet, omnia circumspicere coepit, L. 7, 14,
6, but the dictator, naturally, since he ivent into the struggle trusting to mind
rather than muscle, now began to be all on the alert. With quippe qui, the
indicative only is used by Sallust, and is preferred by Plautus and Terence.
Cicero has, with one exception, the subjunctive, Tacitus and Nepos have it
always. Livy has either mood. Not in Caesar, ut qui has the subjunctive.
It occurs a* few times in Plautus, Cicero, once in Caesar, oftenest in Livy.
With the indicative once in Cicero, and once in Tacitus, ut pote qui has
the subjunctive. It is used by Plautus, by Cicero, once with the indicative,
by Sallust, and Catullus.
1828. The indefinite ablative qui, somehow, surely, sometimes follows quippe
or ut in old Latin, in which case it must not be confounded with the relative : as,
quippe qui ex te audlvl, PI. Am. 745, -why, sure r-ve heard from you; it
cannot be the relative here, as the speaker is a woman.
1829. The subjunctive is used in parenthetical sentences of restric-
tion: as,
309
1 8 30- 1834.] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
quod sciam, PI. Men. 500 ; T. Ad. 641 ; RA. 17, to the best of my knowl-
edge and belief, quod sine molestia tua fiat, Fam. 13, 23, 2, as far as may
be without trouble to yourself . qui is often followed by quidem : as, omnium
oratorum, qu5s quidem ego cognoverim, acutissimum iudico Q. Serto-
rium, Br. 180, of all orators, at least of all that I have made the acquaintance
of myself, I count Sertorius the sharpest.
1830. The indicative, however, is used in quod attinet ad, as to, and usually
with quantum, and with forms of sum and possum: as, quod sine molestia
tua facere poteris, Att. i, 5, 7, as far as you can -without troubling yourself .
CORRELATIVE SENTENCES.
1831. Sentences are said to be correlative, when a relative pro-
noun or adverb has a corresponding determinative or demonstrative
pronoun or adverb in the main sentence.
Thus, the ordinary correlative of qui is is, less frequently hie, ille, idem.
Similarly tot . . . quot are used as correlatives; also quo . . . e5, quanto
. . . tanto ; quantum . . . tantum ; tam . . . quam ; totiens . . . quo-
tiens ; talis . . . qualis ; ub! . . . ib! ; ut . . . ita, sic, or item ; cum . . .
turn.
RELATIVE SENTENCES COMBINED.
(A.) COORDINATION OF A RELATIVE.
1832. (i.) When two coordinate relative sentences would have the
second relative in the same case as the first, the second relative is usually
omitted : as,
Dumnorigi qui principatum optinebat, ac maxime plebi acceptus
erat, persuadet, i, 3, 5, he prevails with Dumnorix, who held the headship, and
was popular with the commons.
!833. (2.) When two coordinate relative sentences require two different
cases of the relative, the relative is usually expressed with both, or else the
second relative, which is usually nominative or accusative, is omitted, or is,
hie, ille, or idem, is substituted for it: as,
(a.) cur loquimur de eo hoste, qui iam fatetur se esse hostem, et
quern n5n timeo ? C. 2, 17, why am I talking about an enemy who admits
himself he is an enemy, and whom I do not fear? (b.} Bocchus cum pedi-
tibus, quos Volux adduxerat, neque in priore pugna adfuerant, S. /.
101, 5, Bocchus with the infantry whom Volux had brought up, and who had
not been engaged in the first skirmish, (c.) Viriathus, quem C. Laelius
fregit, ferocitatemque eius repressit, Off. 2, 40, Viriathus, whom Laelius
crushed, and curbed his fiery soul. This last use is chiefly limited to old
Latin, Cicero, and Lucretius.
(B.) SUBORDINATION OF A RELATIVE.
1834. A sentence consisting of a main and a relative member, may be
further modified by a more specific relative sentence : as,
310
Conju nctional Sen tences. [1835-1839.
proximl sunt Germams qui trans Rhenum incolunt (general), qui-
buscum continenter bellum gerunt (specific), i, 1,3, they are nearest to
the Germans that live beyond the Rhine, with whom they carry on uninterrupted
hostilities, idem artifex Cupidinem fecit ilium qui est Thespiis (gen-
eral), propter quern Thespiae visuntur (specific), V. 4, 4, the selfsame
artist made the world-renowned Cupid at Thespiae, which is the attraction fo?
tourists in Thespiae.
THE RELATIVE INTRODUCING A MAIN SENTENCE.
1835. Besides the ordinary use of the relative, to introduce a
subordinate sentence, it is often used like hie, or is, or like et
is, is autem, is enim, or is igitur, to append a fresh main
sentence or period to the foregoing : as,
consilio convocatS sententias exquirere coepit, quo in consilio non-
nullae huius modi sententiae dicebantur, 3, 3, i, calling a council of war,
he proceeded to ask their opinion, and in this council some opinions of the foil wu-
ing import were set forth, centuriones hostes vocare coeperunt ; quorum
progredl ausus est nemo, 5, 43, 6, the officers proceeded to call the enemy^ ;
but not a man of them -ventured to step forward, perutiles Xenophontis
libri sunt ; quos legite studiose, CM. 59. Xenophon's works are extremely
profitable reading ; so do read them attentively. In Plautus this use is rare;
but it becomes more and more prevalent, and in the time of Cicero the rel-
ative is one of the commonest connectives.
1836. From this use of the relative come many introductory formulas, such as
quo facto, qua re cognita, quae cum ita sint, &c., &c.
1837. A connective quod is often used before si, nisi, or etsi,
less frequently before quia, quoniam, utinam, qui, &c.
This quod may be translated so, but, now, whereas, as to that, &c., or it is
often best omitted in translation. See 2132.
THE CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLE SENTENCE.
quod.
1838. The conjunctive particle quod, originally the neuter of the
relative pronoun, has both a declarative sense, that, and a causal sense,
because. In both senses it regularly introduces the indicative (1721)-
For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is often used, and par-
ticularly in indirect discourse (i? 22 )-
1839. In some of its applications, particularly in old Latin, the conjunc-
tive particle quod can hardly be distinguished from the pronoun quod, as
follows :
3 11
1840-1845-] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
1840. (i.) In old Latin, quod, -why, for -what, is sometimes used with venip
and mitto. Thus, as in id venimus, HI. MG. 1158, that 's why we 've come, id is
used to define the purpose of the motion (1144), so ^ so quod, in quod veni, elo-
quar, T. Hau. prol. 3, -what I've come for, I'll set forth. Instead of quod, more
explicitly quam ob rem : as, quam ob rem hue sum missa, PL R. 430, -what
I am sent here for.
1841. (2.) quod, why, for what, is used in sucK. expansions as quid est
quod ? quid babes quod ? or nihil est quod : as,
quid est quod me excivisti? PI. E. 570, -why is it that you've called me
out? (1144). Usually with the subjunctive (1563) : as, quid est quod pliira
dicamus ? Clu. 59, what reason is there for saying more ? For quod, some-
times qua re, quam ob rem, cur, &c. _The question itself is also sometimes
varied : as, quid fuit causae, cur in Africam Caesarem non sequerere ?
Ph. 2, 71, what earthly reason was there, why you should not have followed
Caesar to Africa ?
1842. (3.) quod, as to what, or that, is used, especially at the beginning
of a sentence, to introduce a fact on which something is to be said, often by
way of protest or refutation : as,
verum quod tu dicis, non te mi irasci decet, PI. Am. 522, but as to
what you say, it is n't right that you should get provoked with me. quod mul-
titudinem Germanorum in Galliam traducat, id se sui muniendi causa
facere, i, 44, 6, as to his moving a great many Germans over to Gaul, that he
did for self-protection (1722). This construction is particularly common in
Caesar, and in Cicero's letters.
1843. When quod, in case, suppose, although, introduces a mere conjecture or a
concession, the subjunctive is used (1554) : as, quod quispiam ignem quaerat,
extingui volo, PI. AuL 91, in case a man may come for fire, I want the fire put
out. This use is principally found in old Latin, but once or twice also in Cicero.
1844. quod, that, the fact that, is often used in
subordinate sentences which serve to complete the sense
of the main sentence.
1845. The sentence with quod may represent a subject, as with accedit ;
an object, as with praetere5, &c. ; or any case of a substantive ; frequently
it is in apposition with a demonstrative or an appellative : as,
(a.) accedebat, quod suos ab se Hberos abstractos dolebant, 3, 2, 5,
there was added this fact, that they lamented that their own children were torn
from them ; or less clumsily, then too they lamented, praetereo, quod earn
sib! domum sedemque delegit, in qua cotidie viri mortis indicia videret,
Clu. 1 88, I pass over the fact that she picked out a house to live in, in which
she would see, day in day out, things to remind her of her husband's death.
illud minus euro, quod congessisti operarios omnes, Br. 297, I am not
particularly interested in the fact that you have lumped together all sorts of cob-
blers and tinkers, (b.) Caesar senatus in eum beneficia commemoravit,
quod rex appellatus esset a senatu, i, 43, 4, Caesar told off the kindnesses
of the senate to the man, the fact that ' he had been styled king by the senate '
(1722). quo facto duas res consecutus est, quod animos centurionum
3 I2
Conjunctional Sentences : quod. [ 1 846- 1852.
devinxit et militum voluntates redemit, Caes. C. i, 39, 4, thus he killed
two birds with one stone : he won the hearts of the officers, and he bought golden
opinions of the rank and file, hoc uno praestamus vel maxime feris, quod
conloquimur inter nos, DO. I, 32, in this one circumstance do we perhaps
most of all surpass brutes, that we can talk with each other, labore et indu-
stria et quod adhibebat gratiam, in principibus patroms fuit, Br. 233,
thanks to his untiring industry, and to his bringing his whining manners to
bear, he figured among the leaders of the bar.
1846. accedit, as the passive of addd, often has the subjunctive with ut : see
1965. addo quod, especially in the imperative form adde quod, occurs in Accius,
Terence, Lucretius, Horace, and Ovid, adicio quod begins with Livy.
1847. The sentence with quod is often introduced by a prepositional expression,
such as eo with de, ex, in, pr5, rarely with cum ; or id with ad in Livy, super
in Tacitus.
1848. nisi quod, or in Plautus and Terence nisi quia, but for the fact that,
except, only that,^ and praeter quam quod, besides the fact that, are used in limi-
tations : as, nihil peccat, nisi quod nihil peccat, Plin. Ep. 9, 26, i, he erreth
naught, save that lie naught doth err. Livy has also super quam quod, tan-
tum quod in the sense of nisi quod is rare ; more commonly of time,/.tf, hardly.
1849. quid quod ? for quid de ep dicam quod ? -what of the fact that,
or nay more, marks an important transition : as, quid quod salus sociorum
in periculum vocatur ? IP. 12, nay more, the very existence of our allies is
endangered. ,
1850. With verbs of doing or happening, accompanied by some word of
manner, quod introduces a verb of coincident action (1733) : as,
bene facis quod me adiuvas, Fin. 3, 16, you are very kind in helping me.
videor mih! gratum fecisse Siculis, quod eSrum iniurias sum persecu-
tus, V. 2, 1 6, /flatter myself that I have won the gratitude of the Sicilians in
acting as avenger of their wrongs. In this sense qui (1826) or cum (1874)
is often used, or in Plautus and once in Horace quia.
1851. quod, that, because, is used to denote cause with verbs of emotion.
Thus, as with id in id gaudeo, T. Andr. 362, I'm glndofthat (1144), so
with an object sentence, as gaudeo quod te interpellavi, Leg. 3, i, I'm glad
that I interrupted you. Such verbs are : gaudeo, laetor ; miror ; doleo,
maereo, angor, indignor, suscenseo, irascor, &c. Tn old Latin, Cicero's
letters, Livy, and rarely in Tacitus such verbs may have quia, sometimes
quom (1875). Fr the accusative with the infinitive, see 2187.
1852. Verbs of praising, blaming, accusing, and condemning, often take
quod : as,
quod bene cogitasti aliquando, laudo, Ph. 2, 34, that you have ever had
good intentions, I commend, laudat Africanum Panaetius, quod fuerit
abstinens, Off. 2, 76, Panaetius eulogizes Africanus, 'for being so abstinent*
(1725). ut cum Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet iuventutem,
Quintil. 4, 4, 5, as when Socrates was charged with ' demoralizing the rising
generation' (1725). gratulor, congratulate, and gratias ago, thank, have
regularly quod or cum (1875). Verbs of accusing sometimes have cur.
313
1 8 5 3- 1 8 5 8 .] Sen fences : The Su bordinate Sentence.
1853. Causal quod, owing to the fact that^ because,
introduces an efficient cause, or a reason or motive : as,
(a.) in his locis, quod omnis Gallia ad septentriones vergit, maturae
sunt hiemes, 4, 20, I, in these parts the winter sets in early, owing to the fact
that Gaul in general lies to the north. Helvetil reliquos Gallos virtute
praecedunt, quod fere cotidianls proeliis cum Germanis contendunt,
I, I, 4, the Helvetians outshine the rest of the Gauls in bravery, because they do
battle with the Germans almost every day. horum fortissimi sunt Belgae,
propterea quod a cultu provinciae longissime absunt, i, i, 3, of these the
stoutest fighting-men are the Belgians, for the reason that they live furthest away
from the comforts of the province, (b.) T. Manlius Torquatus filium suum,
quod is contra imperium in hostem pugnaverat, necari iussit, S. C. 52,
30, Torquatus ordered his own son to be put to death, because the young man had
fought with the enemy contrary to orders, exoravit tyrannum ut abire lice-
ret, quod iam beatus n5llet esse, TD. 5, 62, he induced the monqrch to let
him go, ' because he didn't care to be Fortune's pet any longer ' (1725). Bello-
vaci suum numerum non contulerunt, quod se suo arbitrio bellum esse
gesturSs dicerent, 7, 75, 5, the Bellovacans would not put in their proper
quota, saying they meant to make war on their own responsibility (1727).
1854. quod often has a correlative in the main sentence, such as e5,
ideo, idcirco, propterea. In Sallust, ea gratia. In Plautus, causal quod
is very rare compared to causal quia.
1855. An untenable reason is introduced in Plautus by non eo quia, in
Terence by non eo quo; in Cicero very rarely by neque or non eo quo,
usually by non quod or non quo; by non quia rarely in classical Latin,
but commonly from Livy on. The valid reason follows, with sed quod,
sed quia, or with sed and a fresh main sentence.
The mood is usually subjunctive (1725) : as, pugiles ingemiscunt, non
quod doleant, sed quia profundenda voce omne corpus intenditur,
TD. 2, 56, boxers grunt and groan, not because they feel pain, but because by
explosion of voice the whole system gets braced up. Sometimes, but very rarely
in classical prose, the indicative. Correlatives, such as idcirco, ideo, &c.,
are not uncommon. Reversed constructions occur, with magis followed by
quam, as : magis quod, quo, or quia, followed by quam quo, quod, or
quia. The negative not that . . . not, is expressed by non quod non, non
quo non, or n5n quin.
quia.
1856. quia, a neuter accusative plural of the relative stem (701)
is used in both a declarative and a causal sense, like quod (1838). It
is, however, more prevalent in Plautus, less so from Terence on.
1857. For the uses of declarative quia, see under 1848, 1850, 1851.
1858. Causal quia, with or without a correlative, such as ideo, eo,
propterea, &c., is common in old Latin (1854) and poetry, unusual in prose
(once in Caesar) before Tacitus. For non quia, &c., see 1855.
Conjunctional Sentences : cum. [1859-1862.
quom or cum.
1859. quom or cum (157, 711), used as a relative conjunctive
particle (1794), has a temporal meaning, when, which readily passes
over to an explanatory or causal meaning, in that, since or although.
In both meanings it introduces the indicative in old Latin. In classi-
cal Latin, temporal cum in certain connections, and causal cum regu-
larly, introduces the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also used with
cum for special reasons, as in the indefinite second person (1731),
by attraction (1728), and commonly by late writers to express repeated
past action (1730). cum, when, is often used as a synonym of si,
if, and may then introduce any form of a conditional protasis (2016,
2110).
(A.) TEMPORAL cum.
WITH THE INDICATIVE.
1860. cum, when, whenever, if, of indefinite time, may introduce
any tense of the indicative required by the context : as,
facile omnes, quom valemus, recta consilia aegrotis damus, T.
Andr. 309, we all, when well, give good advice to sick folk easily. Romae
videor esse, cum tuas litteras lego, Att. 2, 15, I, I always fancy myself in
Rome, when I am reading a letter from you. cum posui librum, adsensio
omnis elabitur, TD. I, 24, when I drop the book, all assent melts away (1613).
incenderis cupiditate libertatis, cum potestatem gustandi feceris, RP.
2 > 5O yu will inspire them with a passion for freedom, when yon give them a
chance to taste it (1627). his cum funes comprehensi adductique erant,
praerumpebantur, 3, 14, 6, every time the lines were caught by these and
hauled taut, they would part (1618). The subjunctive is used, chiefly by
late writers, rarely by Cicero and Caesar, to express repeated past action
(1730): as, cum in convivium venisset, si quicquam caelati adspexe-
rat, manus abstinere n5n poterat, V. 4, 48, when he went to a dinner
party, if he ever caught sight of a bit of chased work, he never could keep his
hands 0^(2050).
1861. cum, when, of definite time, regularly introduces the indicative in
old Latin, even where the subjunctive is required in classical Latin
(1872): as,
nam ilia, quom te ad se vocabat, memet esse credidit, PI. Men. 1145,
for when that lady asked you in, she thought 'twas I. posticulum hoc
recepit, quom aedis vendidit, PI. Tri. 194, this back part he excepted, when
he sold the house.
1862. cum, when, of definite time, regularly introduces the indica-
tive of any action, not of past time : as,
sed de his etiam rebus, otiosi cum erimus, loquemur, Fam. 9, 4, but
we will talk of this when we have time, cum ego P. Granium testem
produxero, refellito, si poteris, V. 5, 154, when I put Granius on tht
witness stand, refute him if you can.
1863-1868.] Sentences: 7 he Subordinate Sentence.
1863. With cum, when, the indicative is used of
definite past time to date the action of the main clause,
as follows :
1864. (i.) The indicative imperfect is regularly used with cum,
when, to denote a continued action parallel and coincident in duration
with another continued action, also in the imperfect: as,
quom pugnabant maxume, ego turn fugiebam maxume, PI. Am.
199, while they were fighting hardest, then I was running haraest. turn cum
rem habebas, quaesticulus te faciebat attentiorem, Fam. 9, 16, 7, as
long as you were a man of substance, t/ie fun of making money made you a
little close.
1865. (2.) The indicative imperfect is often used with cum, when, denot-
ing a continued action, to date an apodosis in the perfect : as,
legiones quom pugnabant maxume, quid in tabernaclo fecisti ?
PI. Am. 427, what did'st tliou tn the tent what time the legions fought their
mightiest? his libris adnumerandi sunt sex de re piiblica, quos turn
scripsimus cum gubernacula rli publicae tenebamus, Div. 2, 3, to these
books are to be added the six On the State, which I wrote at the time I was
holding the helm of state. But when the object of the clause is not distinctly
to date the apodosis, its verb is in the subjunctive (1872).
1866. (3.) The indicative perfect or present of vivid narration is
used with cum, when, to date an apodosis in the perfect or present of
vivid narration : as,
'per tuas statuas ' vero cum dixit, vehementius risimus, DO. 2,
242, but when he uttered the words ' by your statues' we burst into a louder laugh.
cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt, RA. 120, when Koscius was
murdered, they were on the spot, cum dies venit, causa ipse pro se dicta,
damnatur, L. 4, 44, 10, when the day of the trial came, he spoke in his own
defence and was condemned. The present is particularly common in old col-
loquial Latin : as, vivom, quom abimus, liquimus, PI. Cap. 282, we left
him alive when we came away. For cum primum in narration, see 1925 ; for
cum extemplo, 1926.
1867. (4.) The indicative perfect or present of vivid narration
is regularly used with cum, when, to denote a momentary action
when the apodosis denotes continued action : as,
cum Caesar in Galliam venit, alterius factionis principes erant
Aedui, alterius Sequani, 6, 12, i, when Caesar came to Gaul, the leaders of
one party were the Aeduans, of the other the Sequanians. eo cum venio,
praetor quiescebat, V. 4, 32, when I got there, the praetor was taking a nap.
1868. An emphatic indicative clause with cum, while, often
follows the main action.
The clause with cum is usually inconsistent with the main action, and
cum is often attended by interea, interim, all the time, etiam turn, still,
nondum, hauddum, not yet, no longer, quidem, by the way, or tamen, nihi-
lominus, nevertheless: as,
316
Conju nctional Sen tences : cum. [18691871
caedebatur virgis in med|5 foro Messanae civis Romanus, cum
interea nullus gemitus audiebatur, V. 5, 162, there was flogged with rods in
open market place at Ahssana a citizen of Rome, while all the time not a groan
was to be heard, evolarat iam e conspectu quadriremis, cum etiam
turn ceterae naves uno in loco moliebantur, V. 5, 88, she had already sped
out of sight, the four-banker, white the rest of the vessels were still struggling
round in one and the same spot. This use is very rare in old Latin. Not
in Caesar. With the infinitive of intimation, see 1539.
1869. An indicative clause with cum, usually expressing sudden
or unexpected action, sometimes contains the main idea, and is put
last.
In this case cum is often attended by subito or repente, suddenly, and
the first clause contains iam, already, by this time, vix, aegre, hardly, vix-
dum, hardly yet, or nondum, not yet. The first verb is commonly in the
imperfect or pluperfect, and the second in the perfect or present of vivid
narration : as,
dixerat hoc ille, cum puer nuntiavit venire Laelium, RP. I, 18,
scarcely had he said this, when a slave announced that Laelius was com-
ing, vix ea fatus eram, gemitu cum talia reddit, V. 2, 323, scarce had
/ spoke the words, when with a groan he ansT.vers thus. Hannibal iam
subibat muros, cum repente in eum patfifacta porta erumpunt R5mani,
L. 29, 7, 8, Hannibal was already moving lip to the walls, when all of a sud-
den the gate flies open and the Romans come pouring out upon him. iamque
hoc facere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente procurrerunt, 7,
26, 3, they were already preparing to do it, when suddenly the married women
rushed forward. This use is very rare in old Latin. From Sallust on,
it is found occasionally with the infinitive of intimation (1539).
1870. A clause with cum is often used attributively with words denoting
time, or with est, fuit, or erit.
The mood is the same as with a relative pronoun, sometimes the indica-
tive, and regularly in old Latin, but usually the subjunctive: as, fuit quod-
dam tempus cum in agris homines vagabantur, Inv. I, 2, there was an
age of the world when men roved roitnd in the fields (1813, 1823). fuit
tempus cum rura colerent homines, Varro, RR. 3, i, i, there was a time
when men dwelt in the flelds (1818, 1821). est cum exornatio praetermit-
tenda est, Cornif. 2, 30, sometimes ornamentation should be avoided, fuit
antea tempus, cum Germanos Galli virtute superarent, 6, 24, i, there
was a time when the Gauls outdid the Germans in valour. The subjunctive
is also used with audio cum (1722), but with memini cum the indicative :
as, saepe ex socero meo audivi, cum is diceret, DO. 2, 22, 1 have often
heard my father-in-law saying, memini cum mini desipere videbare,
Fain. 7, 28, I, I remember when I thought you showed bad taste.
1871. The indicative present or perfect with cum is used in expressions equiva-
lent to an emphasized accusative or ablative of time, the main verb being est or sunt :
as, anni prope quadringenti sunt, cum hoc probatur, O. 171, it is nearly
four hundred years that this has been liked, nondum centum et decem anni
sunt, cum lata lex est, Off. 2, 75, it is not a hundred and ten years yet since
the law was passed. In old" Latin, the clause with cum is made the subject of est,
and the substantive of time is put in the accusative : as, hanc domum iam multos
annos est quom possideo, PI. Aul. 3, V is many years now I have occupied thil
house.
3*7
18721873-] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
1872. With cum, when, the imperfect or pluper-
fect subjunctive is used to describe the circumstances
under which the action of the main clause took
place : as,
cum rex Pyrrhus populo R5mano bellum intulisset cumque de
imperi5 certamen esset cum rege potent!, perfuga ab eo venit in
castra Fabricif, Off. 3, 86, king Pyrrhus having made war on the Roman /
nation, and there being a struggle for sovereignty with a powerful king, a de-
serter from him came into Fabr ictus's camp, eodem tempore Attalus rex
moritur altero et septuagesimo anno, cum quattuor et quadraginta an-
nos regnasset, L. 33, 21, I, the same year Attalus the king dies, in his seventy-
second year, having reigned forty-four years, hie pagus, cum domo exisset
patrum nostrorumnnemoria, L. Cassium consulem interfecerat, i, 12,
5, this canton, sallying out from home in our fathers' recollection, had put
Cassius, the consul, to death, nam cum inambularem in xysto, M. ad me
Brutus venerat, Br. io,for as I was pacing up and down my portico, Brutus
had come to see me. Antigonus in proelio, cum adversus Seleucum et
Lysimachum dimicaret, occisus est, N. 21, 3, 2, Atitigonus was killed in
battle fighting against Seleucus and Lysimachus. haec cum Crassus dixisset,
silentium est consecutum, DO. i, 160, a deep silence ensued after Crassus
had finished speaking, cum annos iam compluris societas esset, moritur
in Gallia Quinctius, cum adesset Naevius, Quinct. 14, the partnership
having lasted several years, Quinctius died in Gaul, Naevius being there at the
time.
In this use, as the examples show, cum with the subjunctive is often
equivalent to a participle or an ablative absolute. The use is not found in
Plautus (1861). Ennius and Terence have possibly each an instance (dis-
puted) of it, but it was certainly rare until the classical period, when it
became one of the commonest of constructions. It must not be confounded
with the special uses of the subjunctive mentioned in 1859.
1873. The difference in meaning between cum with the indicative and
cum with the subjunctive may be illustrated by the following examples :
Gallo narravi, cum proxime Romae fui, quid audlssem, Aft. 13, 49, 2, 7
told Callus, when I was last in Rome, what J had heard (1866). a. d! Ill kal.
Maias cum essem in Cuman5, accepl tuas litteras, Fam. 4, 2, i, 7 re-
ceived your letter on the twenty-eighth of April, being in my villa at Cumae
(1872). cum varices secabantur C. Mario, dolebat, TD. 2, Awhile
Marius was having his varicose veins lanced, he -was in pain (1864). C.
Marius, cum secaretur, ut supra dixi, vetuit se adligari, TD. 2, 53,
Marius being under the surgeon's knife, as above mentioned, refused to be bound
(1872). num P. Decius, cum se devoveret et in mediam aciem inrue-
bat, aliquid de voluptatibus suis cogitabat ? Fin. 2, 61, did Decius, offering
himself tip, and while he was dashing straight into the host, have any thought
of pleasures of his own ? (1872, 1864).
Conjunctional Sentences : cum. [ 1 8 74- 1877.
(B.) EXPLANATORY AND CAUSAL cum.
1874. The indicative is often used with explanatory cum when
the action of the protasis is coincident with that of the apodosis
(1733).
In this use cum passes from the meaning of when to that, in that, or in
or by with a verbal in -ing: as, hoc verbum quom illl quoidam dico, prae-
mostro tibi, PI. Tri. 342, in laying down this lesson for your unknown friend
I'm warning you. cum quiescunt, probant, C. I, 21, their inaction is
approval. Denoting the means : as, tute tibi prodes plurumum, quom
servitutem ita fers ut ferri decet, PI. Cap. 371, you do yourself most good
by bearing slavery as it should be borne. For similar uses of quod, quia, and
qui, see 1850.
1875. Explanatory cum is also used with verbs of emotion ; likewise
with gratulor and gratias ago : as, quom tu 's liber, gaudeo, PL Men.
1148, that you are free, I'm glad, gratulor tibi, cum tantum vales apud
Dolabellam, Fam. 9, 14, 3, I give you joy that you stanc j so -well with Dola-
bella. tibi maximas gratias ago, cum tantum litterae meae potuerunt,
Fam. 13, 24, 2, I thank you most heartily in that my letter had such influence.
For similar uses of quod and quia, see 1851, 1852.
1876. Explanatory cum is also used in the sense of since, although,
or even though. In these meanings it introduces the indicative in old
Latin (1878): as,
Denoting cause : isto tu pauper es, quom nimis sancte piu 's, PL
R. 1234, that's why you are poor yourself , since you are aver-scrupulously good.
quom hoc n5n possum, illud minus possem, T. Ph. 208, since this I
can't, that even less could I. Adversative cause : insanire me aiunt,
quom ipsi insaniunt, PL Men. 831, they say I'm mad, whereas they are mad
themselves. Concession : sat sic suspectus sum, quom careo noxia, PI.
B. 1005, / am enough distrusted as it is, even though I'm void of wrong.
1877. cum, since, although, even though, usually
introduces the subjunctive : as,
Denoting cause : cum in communibus suggestis consistere non
auderet, contiSnari ex turn alta solebat, TD. 5, 59, since he did not dare
to stand tip on an ordinary platform, he always did his speaking from a lofty
tower, of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. Aedui cum se defendere non
possent, legates ad Caesarem mittunt, i, n, 2, since the Aeduans could
not defend themselves, they sent ambassadors to Caesar. Adversative cause :
fuit perpetuo pauper, cum divitissimus esse posset, N. 19, I, 2, he was
always poor, whereas he mi^ht have been very rich, of Phocion. Pylades
cum sis, dices te esse Oresten ? Fin. 2, 79, whereas you are Pylades, will
you declare yourself Orestes? Concession: ipse Cicero, cum tenuissima
valetudine esset, ne nocturnum quidem sib! tempus ad quietem relin-
quebat, 5, 40, 7, Cicero, himself, though he was in extremely delicate health,
did not allow himself even the night-time for rest, ille Cato, cum esset
Tusculi natus, in 'populi Romani civitatem susceptus est. Leg. 2, 5,
the great Cato, though born at Tusculum, was received into the citizenship of
the Roman nation.
3 J 9
1878-1882.] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
1878. This use of the subjunctive is not found in Plautus. It is thought
to have begun in the time of Terence, who may have a couple of instances
(disputed). Thereafter, it grew common and was the regular mood used
with explanatory and_causal cum in the classical period.
1879. Explanatory cum is sometimes introduced by quippe, rarely by Ut
pote, naturally: as,
turn vero gravior cura patribus incessit, quippe cum prodi
causam ab suis cernerent, L. 4, 57, 10, then the senators -were still more
seriously concerned, and naturally enough, since they beheld their cause betrayed
by their own people, valetudo, e qua iam emerseram, ut pote cum sine
febri laborassem, Att. 5, 8, i, an illness from -which I had already recovered,
naturally, since it ivas unaccompanied by fever, quippe cum occurs in Cicero,
Nepos, and Livy ; ut pote cum is used once in Cicero's letters, once by Pollio to
Cicero, and in late writers. For quippe and ut pote with a causal relative, see 1827.
1880. The adversative idea is often emphasized by the use of tamen in
the main clause: as, cum primi ordines hostium 'concidissent, tamen
acerrime reliqui resistebant, 7, 62, 4, though the front ranks of the enemy
had fallen , yet the rest made a most spirited resistance.
(C.) cum . . . turn.
1881. A protasis with cum is often followed by an emphatic apo-
dosis introduced by turn.
The protasis denotes what is general or common or old ; the apodosis
what is special or strange or new. In classical Latin turn is often empha-
sized by maxima, in primis, vero, &c.
In this use the mood is more commonly the indicative and the time of
the two verbs is apt to be identical : as, quom mihi paveo, turn Antipho
me excruciat animi, T. Ph. 187, -whilst for myself I tremble, Antipho puts me
in a perfect agony of soul. But cum antea distinebar maximis occupa-
tionibus, turn hoc tempore multo distineor vehementius, Fam. 12, 30,
2, / was distracted by most important engagements before, but now I am very
much more distracted. Less frequently the subjunctive, to denote cause or
concession (1877) : as, cum te a pueritia tua dilexerim, turn hoc multo
acrius diligo, Fam. 15, 9, r, whereas I have always loved you. from your boy-
hood, for this I love you with a far intenser love. By abridgement of the sen-
tence (1057), cum . . . turn come to be copulative conjunctions (1687) : as,
movit patres conscriptos cum causa turn auctor, L. 9, 10, i, both the
cause and its supporter touched the conscript fathers.
quomam.
1882. quoniam, compounded of quom and iam, when now, refers
primarily to time, but is seldom so used and only by early writers.
The temporal meaning passed early into an exclusively causal mean-
ing, since. In both meanings it regularly introduces the indicative
(1721). For special reasons, however, the subjunctive is used, as in
indirect discourse (1725), or by attraction (1728).
320
Conjunctional Sentences : quotiens. [ 1 883- 1 887.
1883. (i.) quoniam, when now, used of time in early Latin, has some-
times as a correlative continue, subito, or extemplo ; it usually introduces
the present indicative (1590): as,
is quoniam moritur, numquam indicate id fflio voluit suo, PI. Aul. 9,
when he was on his dying bed, he ne'er would point it out to his own son, of a
hidden treasure, quoniam sentio quae res gereretur, navem extemplo
statuimus, PI. B. 290, when now I saw what was doing, we stopped the ship
at once.
1884. (2.) quoniam, since, seeing that, now that, with the indica-
tive, introduces a reason, usually one known to the person addressed,
or one generally known : as,
vera dico, sed nequiquam, quoniam non vis credere, PL Am. 835,
the truth I speak, but all in vain, since thou wilt not believe. v5s, Quirites,
quoniam iam nox est, in vestra tecta discedite, C. 3, 29, do you, citizens,
since it is now grown dark, depart and go to your own several homes, quoniam
in earn rationem vitae nos fortuna deduxit, ut sempiternus sermS de
nobis futurus sit, caveamus, QFr. i, i, 38, since fortune has set us in such a
walk of life that we are to be eternally talked about, let us be on our guard.
Often in transition : as, quoniam de genere belli dixi, nunc de magnitu-
dine pauca dicam, IP. 20, since I have finished speaking about the character
of the war, I will now speak briefly about its extent. With the subjunctive in
indirect discourse (1725) : as, crebris Pompei litteris castlgabantur, quo-
niam primo venientem Caesarem non prohibuissent, Caes. C. 3, 25, 3,
they were rebuked in numerous letters of Pompey, ' because they had not kept
Caesar off as soon as he came?
quotiens, quotienscumque.
1885. The relative particle quotiens (711), or quotienscumque,
every time that, whenever, introduces the indicative : as,
quotiens quaeque cohors procurrerat, magnus numerus hostium
cadebat, 5, 34, 2, as the cohorts successively charged, a great number of the
enemy fell every time. quoius quotiens sepulcrum vides, sacruficas,
PL E. 175, every time you see her tomb, you offer sacrifice, nee quotiens-
cumque me viderit, ingemiscet, Sest. 146, neither shall he fall a-groaning
whenever he sees me (1736). quotiensque is late and rare.
1886. quotiens has sometimes as a correlative totiens, or a combination
with tot which is equivalent to totiens : as, quotiens dicimus, totiens de
nobis iudicatur, DO. i, 125, every time we make a speech, the world sits in
Judgement on us. si tot consulibus meruisset, quotiens ipse consul fuit,
Balb. 47, if he had been in the army as many years as he was consul.
1887. The subjunctive imperfect and pluperfect are common in the later writers
to indicate repeated action (1730): as, quotiens super tall negotio c5nsul-
taret, edita domus parte ac Hberti unius conscientia utebatur, Ta.
6, 27, -whenever he had recourse to astrologers, it was in the upper fart of his house
and -with the cognizance of only a single freedman.
21 321
18881892.] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
quam.
1888. quam, as or than, introduces an indicative protasis in
periods of comparison. For special reasons, however, the subjunctive
is used, as by attraction (1728), or of action conceivable (1731) ; see
also 1896, 1897.
But usually periods of comparison are abridged (1057) by the omission
of the verb or of other parts in the protasis (1325).
WITH THE INDICATIVE.
1889. (i.) quam, as, is used in the protasis of a comparative
period of equality, generally with tarn as correlative in tne apo-
dosis : as,
tarn facile vinces quam pirum volpes comest, PI. Most. 559, you'll
beat as easily as Reynard eats a pear, tarn excoctam reddam atque atram
quam carbSst, T. Ad. 849, /'// have her stewed all out and black as is a coal.
From Cicero on, the apodosis is in general negative or interrogative : as,
quorum neutrum tarn facile quam tu arbitraris conceditur, Div. i, 10,
neither of these points is as readily granted as you suppose, quid est orator!
tarn necessarium quam vox ? DO. i, 251, what is so indispensable to the
speaker as voice ? Otherwise non minus . . ; quam, no less than, just as
much, or non magis . . . quam, just as little or just as much, is often pre-
ferred to tarn . . . quam : as, accepi non minus interdum oratorium
esse tacere quam dicere, Plin. Ep. 7, 6, 7, 1 have observed that silence is some-
times quite as eloquent as speech. n5n magis mih! deerit inimicus quam
Verri defuit, V. 3, 162, / shall lack an enemy as little as Verres did. domus
erat non domino magis 5rnamento quam civitati, V. 4, 5, the house was
as much a pride to the state as to its owner.
1890. Instead of tarn, another correlative is sometimes used in the apodosis.
Thus, aeque . . . quam occurs in Plautus and in Livy and later writers, generally
after a negative expression ; perinde . . . quam in Tacitus and Suetonius ; iuxta
. . . quam once in Livy. Sometimes the apodosis contains no correlative.
1891. tarn . . . quam become by abridgement coordinating words : as,
tam vera quam falsa cernimus, Ac. 2, \\\,we make out things both true
and false.
1892. The highest possible degree is expressed by tam . . . quam qui
and a superlative without a verb; or by quam and a superlative with or
without a form of possum (1466) ; sometimes by quantus or ut : as,
(a.) tam sum misericors quam vos ; tam mitis quam qui lenissi-
mus, Sull. 87, / am as tender-hearted as you ; as mild as the gentlest man
living, tam sum amlcus r6i publicae quam qui maxime, Fam. 5. 2, 6, /
am as devoted a patriot cts anybody can be. (b.} quam maximis potest itine-
ribus in GallUm contendit, i, 7,' i, he pushes into Gaul bv as rapid marches
as he can. constituerunt iumentorum quam maximum numerum coe-
mere, I, 3, i, thev determined to buy up the greatest possible number of beasts
of burden, (c.) tanta est inter eos, quanta maxima potest esse, morum
distantia, L. 74, there is the greatest possible difference of character between them.
Or without any superlative : fuge domum quantum potest, PI. Men. 850,
run home as quick as e'er you can. ut potui accuratissime te tutatus sum,
Fam. 5, 17, 2, I defended you as carefully as I could.
3 22
Conjunctional Sentences : quarn. [18931 896.
1893. quam . . . tarn, with two comparatives or superlatives, is equiva-
lent to the more common quo . . . e5 with two comparatives (1973) : as,
(a.) magis quam id repute, tam magis uror, Pi. B. 1091, the more 1 think
it over, the sorer do I feel. This use is found in Plautus, Lucretius, and
Vergil, (b.) quam quisque pessume fecit, tam maxume tutus est, S. /. 31,
14, the worse a man has acted, the safer he always is. This use is found in
Plautus, Terence, Cato, Varro, and Sallust.
1894. (2.) quam, than, is used in the protasis of a com-
parative period of inequality, with a comparative in the apodo-
sis : as,
meliorem quam ego sum suppono tibf, PI. Cu. 256, I give you in my
place a better man than I am. plura dixi quam volui, V. 5, 79, / have said
more than I intended. Antonio quam est, volo peius esse, Att. 15, 3, 2,
/ hope Antony may be worse off' than he is. doctrina paulo durior quam
natura patitur, Mur. 60, principles somewhat sterner than nature doth
support, potius sero quam numquam, L. 4, 2, n, better late than never.
corpus patiens algoris supra quam cuiquam credibile est, S. C. 5, 3, a
constitution capable of enduring cold beyond what anybody could believe, su-
pra quam is found in Cicero, Sallust, and often in late writers; infra and
ultra quam in Cicero, Livy, and late writers (infra quam also in Vano) ;
extra quam in Ennius, Cato, and in legal and official language in Cicero
and Livy.
1895. quam is also used with some virtual comparatives: thus, nihil
aliud, non aliud quam, no other than, often as adverb, only ; secus quam
with a negative, not otherwise than; bis tanto quam, twice as much as;
and prae quam in old Latin, in comparison with how ; and similar phrases :
as,
(*.) per biduum nibil aliud quam steterunt parati ad pugnandum,
L. 34, 46, 7, for two days they merely stood in battle array. This use occurs
first in Sallnst, then in Nepos, Livy, and later writers, (b.} mihl erit curae
ne quid fiat secus quam volumus, Att. 6, 2, 2, I will see to it that nothing
be done save as we wish. This use occurs in Plautus, Terence, Sallust, Cicero,
Livy, and later writers. With both aliud and secus the clause is rarely pos-
itive, with aliud not before Livy. For atque (acj instead of quam when
the first clause is negative, see 1654. (c.) bis tanto valeo quam valui
prius, PI. Merc. 2QJ, I am twice as capable as I was before, (d } nil hoc
quidem est triginta minae, prae quam alios sumptus facit, PI. Most. 981,
oh, this it nothing, thirtv minae, when you think what other sums he spends
prae quam is found only in Plautus rarely. Similar phrases are : contra
quam, in Cicero, Livy, and later writers ; praeter quam, in Plautus, Nae-
vius, and frequently in other writers when followed by quod (1848); super
quam quod (1848) and msuper quam -in Livy; pro quam in Lucietius;
advorsum quam, once in Plautus. prae quam is sometimes followed by
a relative clause: as, prae quam quod molestumst, PI. Am. 634, compared
with what is painful. For ante (or prius) and post quam, see 1911, 1923.
WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
1896. The subjunctive is used with quam or quam ut after compara-
tives denoting disproportion (1461) : as,
323
i897- I 9-] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
quicquid erat oneris Segestanis imponebat, aliquanto amplius quam
ferre possent, V. 4, 76, he would impose every possible burden on the Segestans,
far too much for them to- bear, quis non intellegit Canachi signa rigidi-
ora esse, quam ut imitentur veritatem ? Br. 70, -who does not feel that the
statues of Canachus are too stiff to be true to nature ? clarior res erat quam
ut dissimulari posset, L. 26, 51, n, the thing was too notorious to be hushed
up. Instead of ut, qui is also used by Livy and later writers : as, maior sum
quam cui possit Fortuna nocere, O. 6, 195, too strong am I for Fortune to
break down, says infatuated Niobe. All these sentences are extensions of
the subjunctive of action conceivable (1554, 1818).
1897. The subjunctive is used in clauses introduced by potius quam,
rather than, to denote action merely assumed, citius, ante, or prius, sooner,
is sometimes used in the sense of potius : as,
potius quam te inimicum habeam, faciam ut iusseris, T. Eu. 174,
rather than make you my enemy y I will do as you tell me. depugna potius
quam servias, Att. 7, 7, 7, fight it out rather than be a slave, potius vitu-
perationem inconstantiae suscipiam, quam in te sim crudelis, V. 5, 105,
I will submit to the charge of inconsistency rather than be cruel towards you.
animam omittunt prius quam Ioc5 demigrent, PI. Am. 240, they lose their
lives sooner than yield their ground. Livy has also potius quam ut. All
these sentences a~e extensions of the subjunctive of desire (1540, 1817).
WITH THE INFINITIVE.
1898. When the main clause is an infinitive, quam is often followed by
an infinitive : as,
malim moriri meos quam mendlcarier, PL Vid. 96, better my bairns
be dead than begging bread, voces audiebantur prius se cortice ex arbo-
ribus victuros, quam Pompeium e manibus dimissur5s, Caes. C. 3, 49,
i, shouts were heard that they would live on the bark of trees sooner than let
Pompey slip through their fingers.
quamquam.
1899. ( i ) quamquam is used in old Latin as an indefinite adverb, ever
so much, however much : as,
quamquam negotiumst, si quid veis, Demipho, non sum occupatus
umquam amico operam dare, PL Mer. 287, however busy I may be (1814),
if anything you wish, dear Demipho, I'm not too busy ever to a friend mine
aid to lend, id quoque possum ferre, quamquam iniuriumst, T. Ad.
205, that also I can bear, however so unfair. From an adverb, quamquam
became a conjunction, although.
IQOO. (2.) quamquam, although, introduces the indicative in the
concession of a definite fact. In the later writers it is also sometimes
used with the subjunctive, sometimes with a participle or an adjec-
tive.
Conjunctional Sentences : quarn vis. [ 1 90 1 1 904.
(a.) quamquam premuntur acre alieno, dominationem tamen ex-
spectant, C. 2, 19, though they are staggering under debt, they yet look forward
to being lords and masters, quamquam non venit ad finem tarn audax
inceptum, tamen baud omninS vanum fuit, L. 10, 32, 5, though the bold
attempt did not attain its purpose, yet it was not altogether fruitless. This is
the classical use ; but see 1901. (l>.) nam et tribunis plebis senatus
habendl ius erat, quamquam senatores non essent, Varro in Cell. 14, 8,
2, for even the tribunes of the people, though they were not senators, had the right
to hold a meeting of the senate, baud cunctatus est Germanicus, quam-
quam fingi ea intellegeret, Ta. 2, 26, Germanicus did not delay, though he
was aware this was all made up. This use is found first in Varro, often in
the Augustan poets, sometimes in Livy, always in Juvenal. It does not be-
come common before Tacitus and the younger Pliny, (c.) sequente, quam-
quam non probante, Amynandro, L. 31, 41, 7, Amynander accompanying
though not approving (1374). ne Aquitania quidem, quamquam in verba
Othonis obstricta, diii mansit,Ta. H. i, 76, Aquitania, though bound by the
oath of allegiance to Otho, did not hold out long either. This use is found
once each in Cicero and Sallust, half a dozen times in Livy, oftener in
Tacitus.
1901. The subjunctive is also used often with quamquam for special
reasons, as by attraction (1728), in indirect discourse (1725), and of action
conceivable (1731).
1902. For quamquam appending a fresh main sentence, see 2153; for
its use with the infinitive, 2317.
quam vis or quamvis.
1903. quam vis or quamvis is used as an indefinite adverb (712), as
much as you please, and is often joined with an adjective or other adverb to
take the place of a superlative: as,
quam vis ridiculus est, ub! uxor non adest, PI. Men. 318, he's as droll
as you please when his wife isn't by. quamveis insipiens poterat persen-
tiscere, PI. Merc. 687, the veriest dullard could detect, quamvis pauci adire
audent, 4, 2, 5, the merest handful dares attack, quamvis callide, V. 2, 134,
ever so craftily, quamvis is also sometimes used to strengthen a superlative
(1466), though not in classical prose.
1904. (i.) The indefinite adverb quam vis, as much as you please.
is often used in subjunctive clauses of concession or permission ; such
subjunctives are sometimes coordinated with licet : as,
quod turpe est, id quam vis occultetur, tamen honestum fieri nulls
modo potest, Off. 3, 78, if a thing is base, let it be hidden as much as you will,
yet it cannot be made respectable (1553). locus hie apud nos, quam vis
subitS venias, semper liber est, PI. B. 82, our house is always open, come
as sudden as you may (1553). praeter eos quam vis enumeres multos
licet, nonnullos reperies perniciosos tribunes, Leg. 3, 24, besides these you
may tell off as many as you please, you will still find some dangerous tribunes
(1710). The combination with licet occurs first in Lucretius, then in Cicero.
325
1905-19^-] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
Instead of vis, other forms are sometimes used : as, volumus, volent,
velit, &c. : thus, quam volent facet! sint, Gael. 67, they may be as witty as
they please (1735). quam volet Epicurus iocetur et dicat se non posse
intellegere, numquam me movebit, DN. 2, 46, Epicurus may joke and say
he can 't understand it as much as he likes, he will never shake me. From an
adverb, quam vis became a conjunction, however much, even if.
1905. (2.) The subjunctive with the conjunction quamvis, how-
ever much, even if, though, denotes action merely assumed ; when the
action is to be denoted as real, ut or sicut or the like, with the
indicative, usually follows in the best prose (1943) : as,
(a.) quamvis sint homines qui Cn. Carbonem oderint, tamen hi
debent quid metuendum sit cogitare, V. i, 39, though there may be men
who hate Carbo, still these men oitght to consider what they have to fear, non
enim possis, quamvis excellas, L. T$,you may not have the power, however
eminent you may be. This use begins with Cicero and Varro, and gets com-
mon in late writers. Not in Livy. (b.) ilia quamvis ridicula essent,
sicut erant, mini tamen risum non moverunt, Fam. 7, 32, 3, droll as this
really was, it nevertheless did not make me laugh, quamvis enim multis locis
dicat Epicurus, sicuti dicit, satis fortiter de dolore, tamen non id spec-
tandum est quid dicat, Off. 3, 117, even though Epicurus really does speak in
many places pretty heroically about pain, still we must not have an eye to what
he says. In the Augustan poets rarely, and often in Tacitus, the younger
Pliny, and late writers, the subjunctive, without a parenthetical phrase intro-
duced by ut or the like, is used of an action denoted as real : as, expalluit
notabiliter, quamvis palleat semper, Plin. Ep. I, 5, 13, he grew pale per-
ceptibly, though he is always a pale man. maestus erat, quamvis laetitiam
simularet, Ta. 15, 54, sad he was,, though he pretended to be gay.
1906. quamvis, even if, though, is also sometimes used with the indica-
tive (1900) : as,
erat dignitate regia, quamvis carebat nomine, N. i, 2, 3, he had the
authority of a king, though not the title, quamvis tacet Hermogenes, can-
tor est, H. S. i, 3, 129, though he open not his mouth, Hermogenes remains a
singer still. This use occurs twice in Lucretius, once in Cicero, Nepos, and
Livy each, in Varro, in the Augustan poets, and sometimes in late writers.
Not in Tacitus, Pliny the younger, Juvenal, Martial, or Suetonius.
1907. It may be mentioned here that the indefinite adverb quamlibet, how-
ever you please, is used in subjunctive clauses of concession or permission (1904) once
or twice by Lucretius, Ovid, and Onintilian. Velleius has it with the participle, a
construction sometimes found with quamvis in late writers.
tamquam.
1908. tamquam, just as, introduces an indicative protasis in
periods of comparison.
The tarn properly belongs to the apodosis and is attracted to the prota-
sis, tamquam has sometimes as correlative sic or ita.
326
Conjunctional Sentences ; antequam. [ 1 9091 912.
te hortor ut tamquam poetae bom solent, sic tu in extrema parte
muneris tui diligentissimus sis, QFr. i, I, 46, 1 urge you to be very particu-
lar at the end of your task, just as good poets always are. tamquam philoso-
phorum habent disciplmae ex ipsis vocabula, parasiti ita ut Gnathonici
vocentur, T. Eu. 263, that so parasites may be called Gnathomtes even as schools
of philosophy are named from the masters. Usually, however, ut (1944) or
quemadmodum is used in this sense ; and tamquam occurs oftenest in
abridged sentences (1057), particularly to show that an illustration is untrue
or figurative : as, Odyssia Latina est sic tamquam opus aliquod Daedali,
Br. 71, the Odyssey in Latin is, you may say, a regular work of Daedalus.
oculi tamquam speculators altissimum locum obtinent, DN. 2, 140,
the eyes occupy the highest part, as a sort of watchmen.
1909. In late writers, especially in Tacitus, tamquam is often used to
introduce a reason or motive, or a thought indirectly expressed : as,
invisus tamquam plus quam civilia agitaret, Ta. I, 12, hated on the
ground that his designs were too lofty for a private citizen (1725). legatos
increpuit, tamquam non omnes reos peregissent, Plin. Ep. 3, 9, 36, he
reproved the embassy 'for not having completed the prosecution of all the defend-
ants' (1852, 1725). suspectus tamquam ipse suas incenderit aedis, J. 3,
222, suspected of having set his own house afire.
1910. For tamquam instead of tamquam si, see 2118; with a participle,
antequam, priusquam.
IQI I. antequam and priusquam accompany both the indicative
and the subjunctive.
ante and prius properly belong to the apodosis, and regularly stand
with it if it is negative ; but otherwise they are usually attracted to the
protasis.
antequam is very seldom found in old Latin, and it is in general much
rarer than priusquam, except in Tacitus.
IN GENERAL STATEMENTS.
1912. In general present statements, antequam and prius-
quam regularly introduce the perfect indicative or the present
subjunctive : as,
membris utimur priusquam didicimus cuius ea causa utilitatis ha-
beamus, Fin. 3, 66, we always use our limbs before we learn fur what purposes
of utility we have them (1613). priusquam lucet, adsunt, PI. MG. 709,
before 'tis light they're always here ; here lucet is equivalent to inluxit.
ante videmus fulgorem quam sonum audiamus, Sen. QN. 2, 12, 6, we
always see the flash before we hear the sound, priusquam semen maturum
siet, secato, Cato, RR. 53, always cut before the seed is ripe (1575). With
the perfect subjunctive in the indefinite second person (1030) : as, hoc ma-
lum opprimit antequam prospicere potueris, V. I, 39, this calamity
always overwhelms yott before you can anticipate it (1731, 1558). For prius
quam, sooner than, see 1897.
3 2 7
1 9 1 3-1 9 1 7.] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
1913. The future indicative is used a few times in general statements by old and
late writers, and the perfect subjunctive after a negative clause rarely by Tacitus : as,
boves priusquam in viam ages, pice cornua mfima unguito, Cato, RR.
72, always smear the hoofs vf your oxen -with pitch before you drive them on the road
(1625,1577). defim honor principi n5n ante habetur quam agere inter
homines desierit, Ta. 15, 74, divine honours are not paid to an emperor before he
has ceased to live among men. Cicero has the perfect subjunctive in a definition:
thus, providentia, per quam futurum aliquid videtur antequam factum
sit, Inv. 2, 160, foresight is the faculty through -which a future event is seen before
it has taken place. He also has the present indicative once : Div. i, 120.
1914. In general past statements antequam and priusquam introduce the
subjunctive imperfect or pluperfect ; but this use is very rare: as, dormire prius-
quam somni cupldp esset, S. C. 13, 3, a-sleeping always before tliey felt sleepy .
ita saepe magna indoles virtutls, priusquam ref publicae prodesse
potuisset, extincta est, Ph. 5, 47, thus character of unusual promise -was
oftentimes cut off, before it could do the government any good.
IN PARTICULAR STATEMENTS.
1915. In particular present or future statements, antequam
and priusquam introduce a present, either indicative or sub-
junctive ; in future statements the future perfect is also used,
and regularly when the main verb is future perfect : as,
antequam ad sententiam redeo, de me pauca dicam, C. 4, 20, before I
come back to the motion, I will say a little about myself (1593). est etiam
prius quam abis quod volo loqui, PI. As. 232, there's something else I -want
to say before you go. antequam veniat in Pontum, litteras ad Cn. Pom-
peium mittet, Agr. 2, 53, before he reaches Pontns, he will send a letter to
Pompey. prius quam ad portam venias, est pistrilla, T. Ad, 583, there 's
a little bakery Just before you get to the gate, nihil contra disputabo prius-
quam dixerit, Fl. 51, / will not argue to the contrary before he has spoken
(1626). neque prius, quam debellavero, absistam, L. 49, 39, 9, and I will
not leave off before I have brought the war to an end. si quid mihl acciderit
priusquam hoc tantum mall videro, Mil. 99, if anything shall befall me be-
fore I see this great calamity, neque promitto quicquam neque re-
sponde5 prius quam gnatum videro, T. Ph. 1044, I'm not promising
anything nor making any answer before I see my son (1593). Tacitus uses
neither the present indicative nor the future perfect.
1916. In old Latin the future and the perfect subjunctive also occur : as,
prius quam quoiquam convivae dabis, gustat5 tute prius, PI. Ps. 885,
before you help a single guest, taste first yourself ; but Terence does not use
the future, and it is found only once or twice later, nulls pacto potest
prius haec in aedis recipi, quam illam amiserim, PI. MG. 1095. on no
terms can I take my new love to the house, before I've let the old love drop ; but
usually the perfect subjunctive is due to indirect discourse.
1917. In particular past statements antequam and prius-
quam introduce the perfect indicative, especially when the
apodosis is negative. The imperfect subjunctive rarely occurs,
chiefly in late writers.
328
Conjunctional Sentences ; antequam. [1918-1922.
(a.) omnia ista ante facta sunt quam iste Italiam attigit, V. 2, 161,
all these incidents occurred before the defendant set foot in Italy, neque prius
fugere destiterunt quam ad Rhenum pervenerunt, i, 53, i, and they did
not stay their flight before they fairly arrived at the Rhine, prius quam hinc
abiit quindecim miles minas dederat, PI. Ps. 53, the captain had paid
d(nvn fifteen minae before he left here, (b.} nee prius sunt visi quam
castris adpropinquarent, 6, 37, 2, they -were not seen before they drew near
to the camp. This use of the imperfect subjunctive, not to be confounded
with that mentioned in 1919, is not found in old Latin or in Cicero. It is
found in Nepos and Livy.
1918. The present indicative also occurs in particular past statements in old
Latin: as, is priusquam moritur mihi dedit, PI. Cu. 637, before he died he
gave it me. The indicative imperfect occurs four times in Livy and once in late
Latin, the pluperfect once in old Latin and once in Cicero.
1919. When the action of the protasis was forestalled, or when action
conceivable or purpose is expressed, antequam and priusquam regularly
introduce the imperfect subjunctive in particular past statements: as,
plerique interfecti sunt, priusquam occultum hostem viderent, L. 35,
29, 3, most of them were slain before they could see the hidden enemy, ante-
quam verbum facerem, de sella surrexit, V. 4, 147, before I could titter a
ivord he arose from his seat, pervenit priusquam Pompeius sentire pos-
set, Caes. C. 3, 67, 4, he arrived before Pompev should be able to learn of his
coming. (1725). The present and perfect subjunctive occur rarely, generally
when the main clause contains a present of vivid narration (1590). The
imperfect is not found in old Latin.
1920. The perfect indicative or imperfect subjunctive with antequam is
often used attributively with nouns denoting time : as,
fabulam docuit, anno ips5 ante quam natus est Ennius, Br. 72, he
exhibited a play jtist a year before Ennius was born, ducentis annis ante
quam Romam caperent, in Italiam Galli transcenderunt, L. 5, 33, 5, two
hundred years before they took Rome, the Gauls crossed over to Italy. The plu-
perfect also occurs, when the main verb is pluperfect : as, Staienus bienniS
antequam causam recepisset, sescentis millibus nummum se iudicium
conrupturum dixerat, Clu. 68, Stajenus had said two years before he under-
took the case, that he would bribe the court for six hundred thousand sesterces.
1921. The pluperfect subjunctive is rarely introduced by antequam or
priusquam except in indirect discourse : as,
antequam de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedonian! per-
rexi, PL 98, before they should be able to hear of my arrival ', I proceeded to
Macedonia (1725). avertit equos in castra priusquam pabula gustassent
Troiae Xanthumque bibissent, V. i, 472, he drave the horses off to camp, or
ever they should taste of Troja's grass and Xanthus drink (1725).
1922. It may be mentioned here that postridie quam and pridie quam
occur a few times in Plautus and Cicero with the indicative ; postridie quam with
the indicative in Suetonius ; and pridie quam with the subjunctive in Livy, Valerius
Maximus, and Suetonius.
3 2 9
1 92 3- 1 92 6.] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
postea quam or postquam.
ubi, ut, cum primum, simul atque.
1923. With postea quam, postquam (posquam),_after, the following
words may conveniently be treated : ubi, ut, when ; ubi primum, ut pri-
mum, cum primum, when first, and in Plautus quom extemplo ; simul
atque (or ac, less frequently et or ut, or simul alone j, at the same time with,
as soon as.
postquam, ubi, ut, cum primum, simul atque, accom-
pany the indicative.
For examples of the use of tenses, see 1924-1934.
1924. In clauses introduced by postea quam or postquam, the imperfect or
pluperfect subjunctive, found a dozen times in the manuscripts of Cicero's works and
elsewhere, is generally corrected in modern editions or usually the conjunctive particle
is emended to postea quom (cum). But the subjunctive may of course be used
with this and the other particles mentioned in 1923 for special reasons, as with the
indefinite second person (1731), by attraction (1728), and in indirect discourse (1725).
For the subjunctive of repeated past action with ubi and ut, see 1932. The infini-
tive of intimation occurs in Tacitus (1539): as, postquam exui aequalitas, pro-
venere dominationes, Ta. 3, 26, after equality bet-ween man and man -was
dropped, there came a crop of tyrants.
1925. In narration the perfect indicative is regularly used
in clauses introduced by postquam, ubi, ut, cum primum,
simul atque (1739) : as,
postquam tuas litteras legi, Postumia tua me convenit, Fam. 4, 2, i,
after I read your letter, your Postumia called on me. postquam aurum
abstulimus, in navem conscendimus, PI. B. 277, after we got away the
money, we took ship, ubi ad ipsum veni devorticulum, constiti, T. Eu.
635, when I came exactly to the side street, I pulled tip. ubi se diutius duel
intellexit, graviter eos accusat, I, 16, 5, when he came to see that he was put
off a good while, he takes them roundly to task, qui ut peroravit, surrexit
Clodius, QFr. 2, 3, 2, when he had finished speaking, up jumped Clodius. ut
abii abs te, fit forte obviam mihi Phormio, T. Ph. 617, when I left you,
Phormio happened to fall in my way. crimen eius modi est, ut, cum pri-
mum ad me delatum est, usurum me illo non putarem, V. 5, 158, the
charge is of such a sort that, when first it was reported to me, I thought I should
not use it. cum primum Cretae litus attigit, nuntios misit, L. 37, 60, 4.
as soon as he touched the shore of Crete, he sent messengers, ut primum loqui
posse coepi, inquam, RP. 6, 15, as soon as I began to be able to speak, I said.
quern simul atque oppidan! conspexerunt, murum complere coeperunt,
7, 12, 5, as soon as the garrison espied him, they began to man the wall, at
hostes, ubi primum nostros equites conspexerunt, impetu fact5 cele-
riter nostros perturbaverunt, 4, 12, I, but as soon as the enemy caught sight
of our cavalry, they attacked and threw our men into disorder. The conjunc-
tion simul atque is very rarely found in old Latin.
1926. The present indicative of vivid narration (1590) sometimes
occurs : as,
33
COHJM nctional Sentences : p o stq uam . [1927-1930.
postquam iam pueri septuennes sunt, pater oneravit navim mag-
nam, PI. Men. prol. 24, after the boys were seven year olds, their father freighted
a big ship, quid ait, ubi me nominas, T. Hau. 303, what sayeth she when
you name me '/ ubi neutri transeundi initium faciunt, Caesar suos in
castra reduxit, 2, 9, 2, neither party taking the initiative in crossing, Caesar
marched his men back to camp. Verbs of perceiving, especially videS, occur
oftenest in this use, which is common in Plautus and Terence: as, postquam
videt nuptias adparari, missast ancilla ilicd, T. Andr. 513, afUr she sees
a marriage on foot, her maid is sent forthwith, abeo ab illis, postquam
video me ludificarier, PI. Cap. 487, seeing myself made game of, / leave them.
quern postea quam videt non adesse, ardere atque furere coepit, V. 2,
92, seeing that t/ie man does not appear, he began to rage and fume, ubi hoc
videt, init consilium importuni tyranni, V. 5, 103, seeing this, he adopted
the policy of a savage tyrant. Plautus uses also quom extemplo. Such
protases often take on a causal sense (see also 1930).
1927. The present or perfect with postquam or ut is sometimes used in ex-
pressions equivalent to an emphasized accusative or ablative of time, the main verb
being est or sunt : as, septingenti sunt anm postquam inclita condita
Roma est, E. in Varro, RR. 3, 1,2, 'tis seven hundred years since glorious Rome
was founded, domo ut abierunt hie tertius annus, PI. 67. 29, this is the
third year since they left home, annus est octavus ut imperium pbtines,
Ta. 14, 53, it is the eighth year since you acquired empire. For a similar use of
cum, see 1871.
1928. The pluperfect with postquam, denoting resulting state (1615),
occurs less frequently : as,
turn cum P. Africanus, postea quam bis consul fuerat, L. Cottam in
iudicium vocabat, Caecil. 69, at the time when Africanus, after he had twice
been consul, was bringing Cotta to judgement, postquam omnium oculos
occupaverat certamen, turn aversam adoriuntur Romanam aciem, L.
22, 48, 4, when every eye was fairly riveted on the engagement, that instant they
fell upon the Romans in the rear. Not in Plautus, once in Terence, and
rare in classical writers.
1929. The pluperfect, less frequently the perfect, with postquam is used
attributively with nouns denoting time.
In this use post is often separated from quam, and two constructions
are possible: (a.) Ablative: anno post quam vota erat aedes Monetae
dedicatur, L. 7, 28, 6, the temple of Moneta is dedicated a year after it was
vowed. Without post : quadringentesimo anno quam urbs Romana con-
dita erat, patricil consules magistratum iniere, L. 7, 18, i, four hundred
years after Rome town was founded, patrician consuls entered into office,
(b.) Accusative, with an ordinal, and post as a preposition, or, sometimes,
intra : post diem tertium gesta res est quam dixerat, Mil. 44, the deed
was done the next day but one after he said it. See 2419.
1930. The imperfect with postquam expresses action continuing
into the time of the main action. Such a protasis, especially when
negative, usually denotes the cause of the main action : as,
Appius, postquam nemo adibat, domum se recepit, L. 3, 46, 9,
Appius, finding that nobody presented himself, went back home, postea quam
e scaena explodebatur, confugit in huius domum, RC. 30, after being
repeatedly hissed off the stage, he took refuge in my clients house.
33 1
I93 I1 933-] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
In old Latin this use is found only once, in Plautus ; it is most common
in Livy, but occurs frequently in Tacitus. So occasionally the present,
generally when the main action is present (see also 1926) : as, postquam
nee ab Romania vobls ulla est spes, nee vos moenia defendunt, pacem
adfero ad v5s, L. 21, 13, 4, now that it has become plain that you have no hope
from the Romans, and that your -walls are no protection to you, I bring peace
unto you. postquam liberast, ubi habitet dicere admodum incerte scio,
PI. . 505, now that she's free, I'm quite too ill informed to say where she
lives, quae omnia intellegit nihil prodesse, postea quam testibus con-
vincitur, V. 5, 103, he knows that all this is fruitless, now that he is being re-
futed by witnesses. The perfect with postquam or ut occurs occasionally
in this use with the present in the main clause : as, animus in tuto Ioc5st,
postquam iste hinc abiit, PL Ps. 1052, my mind is easy, now that fellow's
gone, nam ut in navl vecta's, credo timida's, PL B. 106, for after your
voyage, of course you 're nervous.
1931. postquam and ut have sometimes the meaning of ever since or as
long as : as,
postquam natus sum, satur numquam fui, PL ^.156, since 7 was born
I've nevir had enough to eat. tibl umquam quicquam, postquam tuos
sum, verborum dedi ? PL Most. 925, have I once ever cheated you as long as
I have been your slave ? neque meum pedem intuli in aedis, ut cum exer-
citu hinc profectus sum, PL Am. 733, 1 have n't set foot in the house ever since
I marched out with the army, ut illSs de re publica libros edidisti, nihil
a te postea accepimus, Br. 19, we have had nothing from you since you pub-
lished the worKOn the Slate.
ubi, ut, simul atque.
1932. ubi, ut, or simul atque (ac) often introduces a clause de-
noting indefinite or repeated action : as,
adeo obcaecat animos fortuna, ub! vim suam refringi non vult, L.
S 37> ! so completely does fortune blind the mind when she will not have her
power thwarted, ub! saliitatio defliixit, litteris me involve, Fam. 9, 20, 3,
when my callers go, I always plunge into my book (1613). omnes profect5
mulieres te amant, ut quaeque aspexit, PL MG. 1264, all the ladies love
you, every time one spies you. simul atque se mflexit hie rex in domina-
tum iniustiorem, fit continuo tyrannus, RP. 2, 48, for the moment our
king turns to a severer kind of mastery, he becomes a tyrant on the spot. Mes-
sanam ut quisque nostrum venerat, haec vis ere solebat, V. 4, 5, any
Roman, who visited Messana, invariably went to see these statues (1618).
hostes, ub! aliquos singulares conspexerant, adoriebantur, 4, 26, 2,
every time the enemy saw some detached parties, they would charge. The im-
perfect in this use is not common in classical writers, and occurs but once,
with ub!, in old Latin ; the pluperfect is rare before the silver age. Clauses
with ut generally contain some form of quisque (2396). Plautus uses quom
extemplS with the present and perfect. The subjunctive is found with
ub! and ut quisque in cases of repeated past action (1730).
1933. ub!, ut, or simul atque rarely introduces an imperfect or pluper-
fect of definite time : as,
332
Conjunctional Sentences: ut. [1934-1937=
quid ubi reddebas aururn, dixisti patri, P1..5. Q&^what did you tell your
father -when you -were returning the money? ub! lux adventabat, tubicines
signa canere, S. /. 99, i, when daylight was drawing on, the trumpeters
sounded the call, ub! nemo obvius ibat, pleno gradu ad hostium ca-
stra tendunt, L. 9, 45, 14, finding nobody came to meet them, they advanced
double quick upon the enemy's camp (1930). The use of these tenses referring
to definite time is very rare in old Latin, and found only with ut in Cicero.
1934. ub! or simul atque, referring to definite time, introduces the future
or future perfect, when the apodosis is also future : as,
simul et quid erit certl, scribam ad te, Att. 2, 20, 2, as soon as there is
anything positive, I will write to you. ego ad te statim habebo quod scri-
bam, simul ut videro Curionem, Att. 10, 4, 12, / shall have something to
write you, as soon as ever I see Curio, nam ub! me aspiciet, ad carnuficem
rapiet continue senex, PI. B. 688, when the old man sees me, he 'II hurry me
off to Jack Ketch without any ado. ubi primum poterit, se illinc sub-
ducet, T. Eu. 628, she 'II steal away as soon as she can. Plautus has also
quom extemplo in this use, and Pliny the Younger ut primum.
uti or ut. *
1935. The relative adverb uti or ut (711) is found in the oldest
Latin in the form utei, but ut was the prevalent form even in the time
of Plautus. As a conjunctive particle, it accompanies both the indica-
tive and the subjunctive. For ut in wishes, see 1 540 ; in questions, 1 568.
WITH THE INDICATIVE.
(A.) ut, where.
1936. uti or ut in the rare signification of where, accompanies the indicative: as,
atque in eopse adstas lapide, ut praeco praedicat, PL B. 815, and there
you stand right on the auction block, just -where the crier always cries, sive in ex-
tremes penetrabit Indos, litus ut longe resonante Eoa tunditur unda,
Cat. n, 2, or shall he pierce to farthest hid, where by the long-resounding eastern
wave the strand is lashed. In classical Latin, ut in this sense is used only by the
poets, as here and there in Lucilius, Catullus, Cicero's Aratea, and Vergil, ubf is
the word regularly used. For ut, -when, see 1923.
(B.) ut, as.
J 937' The indicative is used in the protasis of a comparative
period introduced by uti or ut, as.
ut often has as a correlative ita, item, itidem, sic, perinde, or simili-
ter, and sometimes in old Latin and poetry aeque, adaeque, pariter, n5n
aliter, non secus, idem, sic is sometimes drawn to the protasis, making
sicuti, sicut ; uti is sometimes strengthened by vel, making veluti, velut,
even as, just as. quemadmodum often, and quomodo sometimes, stands
for ut. For the use of ut in old Latin in sentences in which classical Latin
would employ the indirect question, see 1791 r For coordinated comparative
sentences without ut, see 1704.
333
I938-J94 1 -] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
perge ut instituisti, RP. 2, 22, go on as you have begun, ut voles med
esse, ita ero, PI. Ps. 240, as you -will have me be, so will I be (1625). ut
sementem feceris, ita metes, DO. 2, 261, as you sow, y'are like to reap
(1626). ut non omnem frugem in omni agro reperire possis, sic n5n
omne facinus in omni vita nascitur, RA. 75, every crime does not start into
being in every life, any more than you can find every fruit in every field (1731).
Also in asseverations : ita me di amabunt, ut ego hunc ausculto lubens,
PI. Aul. 496, so help me heaven, as I am glad to hear this man ( 1622).
1938. ut . . . ita or sic, as . . . so, often stand where concessive and
adversative conjunctions might be used; "while . . . nevertheless, although . . .
yet, certainly . . . but : as,
ut nihil bom est in morte, sic certe nihil mall, L. 14, while there is
nothing good after death, yet certainly there is nothing bad. quo facto sicut
gloriam auxit, ita gratiam minuit, Suet. Oth. I, by this action he increased
his reputation, but lessened his popularity, nee ut iniustus in pace rex, ita
dux belli pravus fuit, L. I, 53, i, but while he was an unjust king in peace, he
was not a bad leader in war. This adversative correlation is found some-
times in Cicero, but is far more common in late writers.
1939. ut quisque, commonly with a superlative expression, is used in
the protasis of a comparative period of equality, with ita or sic and commonly
another superlative expression in the apodosis : as,
ut quaeque res est turpissima, sic maxime vindicanda est, Caec. 7,
the more disgraceful a thing is, the more emphatically does it call for punishment.
ut quisque optime Graece sciret, ita esse nequissimum, DO. 2, 265,
that the better Greek scholar a man was, the greater rascal he always zvas ( 1722) .-
This construction is often abridged : as, sapientissimus quisque aequis-
simo animo moritur, CM. 83, the sage always dies with perfect resignation.
optimus quisque praeceptor frequentia gaudet, Quint, i, 2, 9, the best
teachers always revel in large classes. See 2397.
1940. ut often introduces a parenthetical idea, particularly a gen-
eral truth or a habit which accounts for the special fact expressed in
the main sentence: as,
n^mo, ut opinor, in culpa est, Clu. 143, nobody, as I fancy, is to blame.
excitabat fluctus in simpulo, ut dicitur, Gratidius, Leg. 3, 36, Gratidius
was raising a tempest in a teapot, as the saying is. paulisper, dum se uxor, ut
fit, comparat, commoratus est, Mil. 28, he had to wait a bit, at is always the
case, while his wife was putting on her things, horum auctoritate adducti,
ut sunt Gall5rum subita consilia, Trebium retinent, 3, 8, 3. influenced
by these people they detain Trebiits, as might have been expected, siidden resolu-
tions being always characteristic of the Gauls, seditione nuntiata, ut erat
laena amictus, ita venit in contionem, Br. 56, an outbreak was reported,
and he came to the meeting all accoutred as he was, with his sacrificial robe on.
Often elliptically : as, acuti hominis, ut Siculi, TD. i, 15, a bright man, of
course, being a Sicilian. Aequorum exercitus, ut qui permultos annos
imbelles cgissent, trepidare, L. 9, 45, 10, the army of the Aequians alarmed
and irresolute, and naturally, since they had passed a great many years without
fighting (1824, 1827).
1941. ut, as for example, is used in illustrations, particularly in
abridged sentences (1057): as,
334
Conjunctional Sentences : ut. [1942 \ 946.
genus est quod plures partes amplectitur, ut ' animal.' pars est,
quae subest generi, ut ' equos,' Inv. i, 32, a class is what embraces a num-
ber of parts, as ' living thing ' ; a part is what is included in a class, as ' horse.'
sunt bestiae in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis, ut in leonibus, ut in
canibus, Fin. 5, 38, there are brutes in which there is a something like the moral
quality of man, as for instance the lion and the dog.
1942. The parenthetical clause with ut or prout sometimes makes an
allowance for the meaning of a word, usually an adjective, in the main sen-
tence : as,
civitas ampla atque fl5rens, ut est captus Germanorum, 4, 3, 3,
a grand and prosperous community, that is according to German conceptions.
ut captus est servorum, non malus, T. Ad. 480, not a bad fellow, as slaves
go. Sthenius ab adulescentia haec compararat, supellectilem ex acre
elegantiorem, tabulas pictas, etiam argent! bene fact! prout Thermi-
tam hominis facultates ferebant, satis, V. 2, 83, Sthenius had been a collec-
tor from early years of such things as artistic bronzes, pictures ; also of curiously
wrought silver a goodly amount, that is as the means of a Thermae man went.
Often in abridged sentences : as, scriptor fuit, ut temporibus illis, lucu-
lentus, Br. 102, he was a brilliant historian for the times, multae etiam, ut
in homine Romano, litterae, CM. 12, furthermore, extensive reading, that is
for a Roman, ut illis temporibus, praedives, L. 4, 13, I, a millionaire, for
those times.
1943. ut, as indeed, as in fact, with the indicative, is used to represent
that an action supposed, conceded, or commanded, really occurs : as,
sit Ennius sane, ut est certe, perfectior, Br. 76, grant, for aught 1
care, that Ennius is a more finished poet, as indeed he is. uti erat res, Me-
tellum esse rati, S. /. 69, I, supposing that it was Metellus, as in fact it was.
This use begins in the classical period. It is found particularly with
quamvis, 1905; with si, see 2017.
1944. ut, as, like, sometimes shows that a noun used predicatively is not
literally applicable, but expresses an imputed quality or character : as,
Cicero ea quae nunc usu veniunt cecinit ut vates, N. 25, 16, 4, Cicero
foretold what is now actually occurring, tike a bard inspired, canem et
faelem ut decs colunt. Leg. I, 32, they bow the knee to dog and cat as gods.
quod me sicut alterum parentem diligit, Fam. 5, 8, 4, because he loves me
like a second father, regiae virgines, ut tonstriculae, tondebant barbam
patris, TD. 5, 58, the princesses used to shave their father, just like common
barber-girls. In an untrue or a merely figurative comparison tamquam
(1908) or quasi is used.
1945. I. n old Latin, prae is combined with ut: praeut, compared -with how: as,
parum etiam, praeut futurumst, praedicas, PI. Am. 374, you say too little
still compared with how "'twill be. praeut is sometimes followed by a relative
clause: as, ludum iocumque dicet fuisse ilium alterum, praeut huius
rabies quae dabit, T. Eu. ^oo, he'll say the other was but sport and play, com-
pared with what this youth will in his frenzy do.
1946. In Plantns sicut, with the indicative, has once or twice the meaning of
since: as, qum tu illam iube abs te abire quo lubet : sicut soror eius
hue gemina venit Ephesum, MG. 974, why, bid her go away from you wher-
ever she may choose, since her twin sister here to Efhesus is come.
335
1 94 7- 1 9 5 1 .] Sen tences : The Subordinate Sentence.
WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE,
uti or ut.
NEGATIVE Ut 116, HC, Or Ut nOH.
1947. The subjunctive with ut is: (A.) That of action desired (1540), in
clauses of purpose; in these the negative is ne, or sometimes ut ne, and and
that not, neve or neu, rarely neque or nee. ut ne, though used at all
periods (not by Caesar, Sallust, or Livy), is chiefly found in older Latin;
afterwards ne alone took its place (1706). ut non is used when the nega-
tive belongs to a single word. (B.) That of action conceivable (1554), in
clauses of result; in these the negative is ut non, ut nemo, ut nullus, &c. ;
or with emphasis on the negative, nemo ut, nullus ut, nihil ut ; also vix ut,
paene ut, prope ut.
1948. Final and consecutive clauses with ut are of two classes : I. Com-
plementary clauses, that is, such as are an essential complement of certain
specific verbs or expressions ; such clauses have the value of a substantive,
and may represent a subject, an object, or any oblique case. II. Pure final
or consecutive clauses, in which the purpose or result of any action may be
expressed, and which are not essential to complete the sense of a verb.
(A.) PURPOSE.
I. COMPLEMENTARY FINAL CLAUSES.
1949. (i.) The subjunctive with ut or ne is used
in clauses which serve to complete the sense of verbs
of will or aim.
1950. (a.) Verbs of will include those of desire, request,
advice, resolution, stipulation, command, or permission.
Will may be suggested by a general verb or expression : as, dico, responded,
nuntio, &c. ; or denoted by specific ones, of which some of the commonest are : de-
sire : volo (malo), concuplsco, opto. request : peto, postulo, flagito, 6r5,
rogo, _precor, obsecro, imploro, mst5, urge, invitS. advice : suadeo,
persuaded, persuade, moneo, bid, admoneo, hortor, censeo, propos?, vofe.
resolution, stipulation : decerno, statuo, decree, constituo, placet, sancio,
paciscor, pepigi. command: impero, praecipio, praescribo, mando,
negotium do, edico, fer5, caveo, interdico. permission : concede, allow,
permittS, committo, potestatem facio, veniam do, sino, non patior.
1951. (b.) Verbs of aim include those of striving, accom-
plishing, or inducing ; such are :
striving : ag5 or id ago, animum induce, tempto, operam do, laboro,
mtor, enitor, molior, video, prospicio, euro, nihil_ antiquius habeo
quam, contends, studeo, pugno. accomplishing : facio (efficio, perficio),
praesto ; mereo; impetro, adsequor, consequor, adiplscor. inducing:
moveo, excit5, incite, impello, perpello, cogo.
336
Conjunctional Sentences : ut. [ 1 95 21 956.
(a.) optavit ut in currum patris tolleretur, Off. 3, 94, he asked to be
lifted into his father's chariot. opt5 ne se ilia gens moveat, Fam. 12, 19, 2,
I hope and pray that that nation may not stir. Ubil orabant, ut sibl auxi-
lium ferret, 4, 16, 5, the Ubians begged that he would help them. Pausanias
orare coepit ne enuntiaret, N. 4, 4, 6, Pausanias began to beg that he would
not tell, hortatus est uti in offici5 maneret, 5, 4, 2, he urged him to remain
steadfast in duty, hortatur eos ne animo deficiant, Caes. C. i, 19, 1, he urges
them not to get disheartened (1752). suis, ut idem faciant, imperat, 5, 37, i,
he orders his men to do the same, suis imperavit ne quod omnino telum
reicerent, I, 46, 2, he ordered his men not to throw any weapon at all back.
huic permisit, uti in his locis legionem conlocaret, 3, i, 3, he allowed this
man to quarter his legion in these parts, neque suam neque populi Ro-
man! consuetudinem pati, uti soci5s desereret, 1,45, i, that his practice
and that of the Roman nation would not allow him to desert his allies.
(b.) neque id agere ut exercitum teneat ipse, sed ne illi habeant
quo contra se uti.possint, Caes. C. i, 85, n, and that his object was not to
hold the army himself, but to prevent the other side from having an army which
they could use against him. xn navibus amissis, reliquis ut navigari
commode posset ef fecit, 4, 31, 3, a dozen vessels were lost, but he managed
to sail comfortably with the rest, eius belli fama effecit ne se pugnae
committerent Sappmates, L. 5, 32, 4, the story of this war prevented the
Sappinatians from hazarding an engagement, si a Chrysogono non impe-
tramus ut pecunia nostra contentus sit, vitam ne petat, A' A. 150, if we
do not succeed in making Chrysogonus satisfied with our money without his
aiming at our life. Aulum spe pactionis perpulit, uti in abditas regiones
sese insequeretur, S. /. 38, 2, Aulus he induced by the hope of a pecuniary
settlement to follow him to distant regions. Antonium pactione provinciae
perpulerat, ne contra rem publicam sentiret, S. C. 26, 4, by agreeing to
let Antony have a province, he had induced him not to be disaffected toward the
government.
1952. Many of these verbs often have a coordinated subjunctive (1705-
1713), or, according to the meaning, admit other constructions, which must
in g3neral be learned by reading, or from the dictionary. The following
points may be noticed :
1953. (a.) The verbs of resolving, statuo, constituo, and decerno, and of
striving, mtor, and tempto, have usually the complementary infinitive (2169), un-
less a new subject is introduced. For void (malo), and cupio, see also 2189; for
iubeo, veto, sino, and patior, 2198. postu!5, expect, often has the same con-
struction as volo, especially in old Latin (2194). For impero, see 2202.
1954. (.) Some of the above verbs, with the meaning think or say, have the
accusative with the infinitive (2175, 2I 95) : as > vo!5, contends, maintain, con-
cede, admit, statuo, assume, decerno, judge, moneS, remind, persuadeo,
convince.
1955- (^-) Verbs of accomplishing sometimes express result rather than purpose,
and when the result is negative, are completed by a clause with ut non (1965). For
the infinitive with such verbs, see 2196.
1956. est with a predicate noun is sometimes equivalent to a verb of
will or aim, and has the same construction.
22 337
I 957~ I 959-] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
So with words like ius, lex, munus, &c. : as, ius esse belli ut qui
vicissent his quos vicissent imperarent, i, 36, I, that rules of war entitled
conquerors to lord it over conquered, quis nescit primam esse historiae
legem, ne quid falsi dicere audeat ? DO. 2, 62, -who does not know that the
first rule of history is that it shall not -venture to say anything false? iusti-
tiae primum munus est ut ne cui quis noceat, Off. i, 20, the first duty of
Justice is that a man harm nobody, nam id arbitror adprime in vita esse
utile, ' ut ne quid nimis,' T. Andr. 60, for this I hold to be a rule in life that 's
passing useful, ' naught in overplus*
1957. (2.) The subjunctive with ut or ne is used in clauses
which complete expressions of fear, anxiety, or danger.
Ut, that not, may not, and ne, lest, may, were originally signs of a wish (1540) :
thus, vereor, ut fiat, I am afraid; may it come to pass, acquires the meaning of
I am afraid it may not come to pass (1706); and vereor, ne fiat, / am afraid ;
may it not come to pass, of / am afraid it may come to pass, metuo Ut is common
in old Latin, and is used by Horace, but not by Caesar or Sallust, once by Cicero in the
orations, timeo ut is rare, and first used by Cicero, vereor ut is not uncommon.
at vereor ut placari possit, T. Ph. 965, but Pm afraid she can Y be recon-
ciled, ne uxor resciscat metuit, PI. As. 743, he is afraid his wife may find
it out. 5 puer, ut sis vitalis metuo, et maiorum ne quis armcus frigore
te feriat, H. S. 2, I, 60, my boy, you '// not see length of days I fear, and that
some grander friend may with his coldness cut you dead, nequid summa
deperdat metuens aut ampliet ut rem, H. S. i, 4, 31, in dread lest from
his store he something lose or may not add to his estate, metuo ne nos nos-
met perdiderimus uspiam, PI. MG. 428, / 'm afraid we 've lost ourselves
somewhere, sollicitus ne turba peregerit orbem, J. 5, 20, apprehensive that
the throng may have finished its round, ne non is often, though rarely in old
Latin, used for ut, and regularly when the expression of fear is negative :
as, n5n vereor ne hoc officium meum P. Servilio non probem, V. 4, 82,
/ have no fear but I may make my services acceptable in the eyes of Servilius.
For non metuo qum, see 1986.
1958. vereor ne is often equivalent to I rather think, and vereor ut to
hardly, vide (videamus, videndum est) ne, and similar expressions, are
sometimes used for vereor ne, to introduce something conjectured rather
than proved: as,
vereor ne barbarorum rex fuerit, RP. i, 58, / rather think he was king
over savages, vide ne mea coniectura multo sit verier. Clu. 97, / rather
think my conjecture is in better keeping with the facts.
1959. Other constructions with expressions of fear are : (a.) Indirect
question. (t>.) Accusative with infinitive, (c.) Complementary infinitive :
as,
(a.) eri semper lenitas verebar quorsum evaderet, T. Andr. 175, 1 was
afraid how master's always gentleness would end. timeo quid sit, T. Hau.
620, I have my fears what it may be. timeo quid rerum gesserim, PI. MG.
397, 1 am concerned to think what capers I have cut. metuo quid agam, T.
Hau. 720, I'm scared and know not what to do (1731). (b.} ego me cupidi-
tatis regm crimen subiturum timerem ? L. 2, 7, 9, was I to fear being
charged with aspiring to a throne? (c.) vereor coram in os te laudare, T.
Ad. 269, I am afraid to disgrace you with praise to the face (2168).
338
Conjunctional Sentences : lit. [ 1 960 1961.
1960. (3.) The subjunctive with ne is used in clauses which
i serve to complete the sense of verbs of avoiding, hindering, and
resisting.
Such are: avoiding: caveo, me eripi5, vito. hindering: intercede, inter-
dic5, recuso, repugno, tempero ; also the following which often have quo-
minus (1977) : deterred, impedio, obsisto, obsto, officio, prphibeo, teneo.
resisting : resists, repugnS, recuso ; with these last often quominus. Some of
the above verbs when preceded by a negative also take qum (1986) ; prohibeo and
impedio have also the accusative with the infinitive (2203). For the subjunctive co-
ordinated with cav, see 1711.
ne quid eis noceatur neu quis invitus sacramentum dicere cogatur
a Caesare cavetur, Caes. C. I, 86, 4, all precaution is taken by Caesar that no
harm be done them, and that nobody be compelled to take the oath against his
will, per eos, ne causam diceret, se eripuit, i, 4, 2, thanks to this display
of retainers he succeeded in avoiding trial, plura ne scribam, dol5re im-
pedior, Att. u, 13, 5, grief prevents me from writing more, ne qua sibl
statua poneretur restitit, N. 25, 3, 2, he objected to having a statue erected
in his honour,
II. PURE FINAL CLAUSES.
1961. The subjunctive with ut or ne is used to de-
jiote the purpose of the main action.
The purpose is often indicated in the main sentence by an expression
like ideo, idcirco, propterea, ea mente, &c.
vigilas de nocte, ut tuis consultoribus respondeas, Mur. 22, you have
to get tip early in the morning to give advice to your clients, maiores nostri
ab aratro adduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset, Fin. 2, 12, our
fathers brought Cincinnatus from his plough, to be dictator, dicam auctionis
causam, ut damno gaudeant, PI. St. 207, / '// tell the reason for the sale,
that o'er my losses they may gloat, qum etiam ne tonsSri collum commit-
teret, tondere filias suas docuit, TD. 5, 58, why, he actually taught his man
daughters to shave, so as not to trust his throat to a barber. Caesar, ne gra-
viori bello occurreret, ad exercitum proficiscitur, 4, 6, i, to avoid facing
war on a more formidable scale, Caesar goes to the army, te ulciscar, ut ne
inpune in n5s inluseris, T. Eu. 941, /'// be revenged on you, so that you
shan't play tricks on me for nothing (1947). nS ignoraretis esse aliquas pScis
vobis condiciones, ad vos veni, L. 21, 13, 2, / have come to you to let von
knoiv that you have some chances of peace (1754). ita me gessi ne tibl
pudori essem, L. 40, 15, 6, T comported myself in such a way that I might not
be a mortification to you. Mari5nem ad t'e eo misi, ut tecum ad me veni-
ret, Fam. 16, I, I, I sent Mario to yott with the intention of having him come
with you to me. idcirco nemo superiorum attigit, ut hie tolleret ? ide5
C. Claudius rettulit, ut C. Verres posset auferre ? V. 4, 7, was that the
reason why no former officials laid a finger on it, that this man might swoop it
away ? was that why Claudius returned it, that a Verres might carry it off?
danda opera est, ut etiam singulis consulatur, sed ita, ut ea res aut
prosit aut certe ne obsit ri publicae, Off. 2, 72, we must be particular in
regarding the interests of individuals as well, but with this restriction, that out
action may benefit, or at any rate may not damage the country,
339
19621965.] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
1962. The subjunctive with ut or ne is often used not to express the
purpose of the main action, but in a parenthetical clause, as though depend-
ant upon some verb unexpressed : as,
ut in pauca conferam, testamento facto mulier moritur, Caec. 17, to
cut a long story short, the woman makes her will and dies, sed ut hie ne
ignoret, quae res agatur: de natiira agebamus deorum, DN.\,\"j,but
that our friend here may know what is up : we were just on the nature of the
gods. The tense is present, in late writers the perfect, as ut sic dixerim,
Quint, i, 6, i. Here may also be mentioned the use of nedum (rarely ne
or, from Livy on, nedum ut) with the present subjunctive (rarely the im-
perfect) : as, satrapa numquam sufferre eius sumptus queat : nedum
tu possis, T. Hau. 452, a prince couldn't stand her extravagance, much less
could you. This is found in Terence and Lucretius once each, in Cicero, and
later; not in Caesar. The preceding clause is negative or involves a nega-
tive idea. From Livy on, the verb may be omitted : as, vix clamorem
eorum, nedum impetum tulere, L. 34, 20, 7, they hardly stood their war
cry, much less their charge.
1963. The subjunctive is used in an assumption or concession with ut
or ne, or if the negation belongs to a single word, with ut non, nemo, &c. :
as,
ut taceam, quoivis facile scitu est quam fuerim miser, T. Hec. 296,
even supposing I say nothing, anybody can understand how unhappy I was.
sed ut haec concedantur, reliqua qui concedi possunt ? DN. 3, 41, but
even supposing this be admitted, how can the rest be admitted? ne sit sum-
mum malum dolor, malum certe est, TD. 2, 14, grant that suffering is
not the chiefest evil, an evil it assuredly is (1553). verum ut hoc non sit,
tamen praeclarum spectaculum mih! prop5no, Aft. 2, 15, 2, but suppose
this be not the case, still I anticipate a gorgeous sho%v. ac iam ut omnia con-
tra opinionem acciderent, tamen sepiurimum navibus posse perspicie-
bant, 3, 9, 6, and even supposing everything turned out contrary to expectation,
still they saw clearly that they had the advantage by sea. ut enim neminem
alium nisi T. Patinam rogasset, scire potuit prodi flaminem necesse
esse, Mil. 46, for even supposing he had asked nobody^ but Patina, he might
have known that a priest must be appointed. This use is common in Cicero ;
not found in Plautus or Sallust.
1964. The subjunctive with ut or ne, generally with ita as a correla-
tive, sometimes has the force of a proviso : as,
ita probanda est dementia, ut adhibeatur severitas. Off. i, 88,
mercy is to be commended, provided that strictness is employed, satis memoriae
meae tribuent, ut maioribus meis dignum credant, Ta. 4, 38, they will
pay respect enough to my memory, provided they consider me worthy of my
ancestors.
(B.) RESULT.
I. COMPLEMENTARY CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.
1965. The subjunctive with ut or ut non is used in clauses
which serve to complete the sense of certain verbs and expres-
sions, chiefly of bringing to pass, happening, and following,
34
Conjunctional Sentences : ut. [ 1 966- 1 968-
Such are: (a.) facio, efficio (unless they imply purpose, 1951); fit, accidit,
contingit, evenit, est, it is the case; similarly mos est, consuetude est, &c.
(b.} proximum est, reliquum est, extremum est, relinquitur, restat,
accedit. Or, of logical sequence, sequitur, efficitur.
(a.) fe"cerunt ut consimilis fugae profectio videretur, 2, n, i, they
made their march look exactly like a stampede, splendor vester facit ut pec-
care sine summo periculo non possitis, V. i, 22, your conspicuous position
makes it impossible for yoit to do wrong without great peril, his rebus fiebat,
ut minus late vagarentur, i,-2, 4, so it came to pass that they did not rove
round much, fit ut natura ipsa ad ornatius dicendi genus excitemur,
DO. 2, 338, it is sometimes the case that we are roused to a loftier style in ora-
tory by sheer circumstance, potest fieri ut fallar, Fam. 13, 73, 2, it is possible
that I am mistaken, fieri non potest ut eum tu non cogn5veris, V. 2, 190,
// must be the case that you Jiave made his acquaintance yourself, eadem
nocte accidit, ut esset luna plena, 4, 29, i, it came to pass on the same night
that there was a full moon (1758). negavit moris esse Graecorum ut in
convivio virorum accumberent mulieres, V. i, 66, he said it was not
etiqtieite among the Greeks for women to go to men's dinner parties, est hoc
commune vitium in liberis civitatibus, ut invidia gloriae comes sit, N.
12, 3, 3, this is a common trouble in free communities, that envy is the attendant
of a great name.
(b.} proximum est, ut doceam, DN. 2, 73, my next task is to prove.
relinquebatur ut neque longius ab agmine legionum discedl Caesar pa-
teretur, 5, 19, 3, the consequence was that Caesar coidd not allow anv very dis-
tant excursion from the main line of march, restat ut doceam omnia homi-
num causa facta esse, DN. 2, 154, lastly, I must prove that everything is
made for man. accedebat ut tempestatem ferrent, 3, 13, 9, then, too, they
could stand the gale, accedit ut is not found in old Latin ; for accedit quod,
see 1845. * ta efficitur ut omne corpus mortale sit, DN. 3, 30, thus it
follows that every bodily substance is mortal, sequitur and efficitur, it follows,
often have the accusative with the infinitive (2207). For the subjunctive
with quam ut after a comparative of disproportion, see 1896. For fore and
futurum esse ut as the periphrasis for the future infinitive, see 2233.
1966. Verbs of happening may often be rendered best by compacter ex-
pressions : thus, his rebus fiebat ut, consequently ; fit ut, once in a while,
sometimes, often ; fieri potest ut, possibly ; accidit ut, accidentally, unfortu-
nately.
1967. faci5 ut, or with a negative, commonly committ5 ut, is used in
circumlocutions for emphasis : as,
faciundum mih! putavi, ut tuis litteris brevi responderem,^w. 3, 8,
i, I thought I ought to take hold and write a few lines in answer to your letter.
ego vero non committam, ut tib! causam recusandi dem, DO. 2, 233, no,
no, sir, I will not be guiltv, not I, of giving you an excuse to back out. So par-
ticularly with invitus, libenter, prope : as, invitus feci ut L. Flamininum
e senatu eicerem, CM. 42, it was with great reluctance that I expelled Flami-
ninus from the senate.
1968. A subjunctive clause with ut is often used to define a pre-
ceding idea indicated in a general way by a neuter pronoun : as,
1969 IQ 7-] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence,
post eius mortem nihilS minus Helvetii id, quod constituerant,
facere conantur, ut e finibus suis exeant, i, 5, i, after his death the Hel-
vetians attempted just the same to carry out their resolution of moving out of their
abodes ( 1752). omnibus Gallis idem esse faciendum, quod Helvetii fece-
rint, ut dom5 emigrent, i, 31, 14, that all the Gauls must do just as the Hel-
vetians had done and move away from home. Helvetii, cum id, quod ipsi
diebus xx aegerrime confecerant, ut flumen transirent, ilium uno die
fecisse intellegerent, legates mittunt, i, 13,2, when the Helvetians learned
that the Roman commander had done in a single day what they had found it
hard themselves to do in twenty, namely cross the river, they sent deputies (1752).
id aliquot de causis acciderat, ut subito Galli belli renovandi consilium
caperent, 3, 2, 2, it was due to a variety of reasons that the Gauls suddenly
conceived the idea of making war again (1758). hocine boni esse officium
servi existumas, ut eri sui corrumpat et rem et filium ? PL Most. 27, is
this what you think the duly of a good slave, to waste his own master's property
and corrupt hts son ?
1969. tantum abest, so far from, is sometimes followed by a double ut,
the first introducing an unreal, and the second a real action : as,
tantum abest ut haec bestiarum causa parata sint, ut ipsas bestias
hominum gratia generates esse videamus, DN. 2, 158, so far from these
things being made for brutes, we see that brutes themselves were created for man.
This use, very rarely personal, begins with Cicero, and is common in his
writings and in Livy. Not in Caesar, Sallust, or Tacitus. Sometimes in-
stead of ut the second sentence is coordinated (1700) : tantum abfuit ut
inflammares nostros animos, somnum vix tenebamus, Br. 278, so far
from your firing our heart, we could hardly keep awake. Or, the idea is
expressed by ita n5n . . . ut : as, erat ita non timidus ad mortem, ut
in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus, Fin. 2, 63, so far from being afraid
of death, he fell in battle for his country.
II. PURE CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES.
1970. The subjunctive is used with ut or ut non to
denote result.
The result may be the result of an action or of a thing named in the
main sentence. The main sentence often has a correlative to ut, expressing
(a.) degree: as, tantus, so great, tarn, so (with adjectives or adverbs).
adeo, tantopere. (o.) quality: as, is (hie, ille, iste), such, talis, ita, sic.
mons altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere possent,
I, 6, 1, an exceeding high mountain hung over, so that a very few could block the
way. dictitabant se domo expulsos, omnibus necessarils egere rebus,
ut honesta praescriptione rem turpissimam tegerent, Caes. C. 3, 32, 4,
they stoutly declared that they were driven out of house and home, and lacked
the necessaries of life, thus veiling dishonour under the name of respectability-
(a.) Ariovistus tantos sib! spiritus sumpserat, ut ferendus non
videretur, I, 33, 5, Ariovistus had put on such high and mighty airs as to seem
intolerable. ade5 angusto man conflixit, ut eius multitude navium ex-
plicari n5n potuerit, N. 2, 4, 5, he went into action in such cramped sea-room,
that his armada could not deploy, of Xerxes (1757).
342
Conjunctional Sentences : quo. [1971
(6.) eos deduxi testes ut de istius facto dubium esse nemini possit,
V. 4, 91, I have Or ought such witnesses that noboay can entertain a doubt of the
defendant's guilt, ita se recipiebat ut nihil nisi de pernicie populi Ro-
man! cogitaret, Ph. 4, 4, he retreated, it is true, but retreated with his mind
running on nothing but how to ruin the country, ilia, ex turibulis quae
evellerat, ita scite in aureis p5culis inligabat, ut ea ad illam rem nata
esse diceres, V. 4, 54, what he had torn from the censers he attached to golden
cups so cunningly that you would have said it was just made for that very pur-
pose (1731, 1559).
For the imperfect subjunctive connected with a main general present, see
1751; for the independent present or perfect subjunctive with a main secon-
dary tense, see 1757.
ubl.
1971. ubl, in the sense of where (709^), has the ordinary construc-
tion of a relative (1812-1831). For ubi, when, see 1923-1926 and
1932-1934; as a synonym of si, tf, see 21 10.
quo or qul.
1972. quo, whereby ', wherewith, or in old Latin sometimes qul
(689), is the instrumental ablative from the relative and interrogative
stem qui-. Combined with minus, the /ess, not, quo gives quominus.
WITH THE INDICATIVE.
1973. The indicative is used with quo and a comparative in the protasis
of a comparative period, with eo or h5c and a comparative as correlative
(1393): as,
quo delictum maius est, eo poena est tardior, Caec.^ 7, the greater the
sin is, the slower is the punishment. The eo or hoc is sometimes omitted : as,
quo plures sumus, pluribus rebus egebimus, L. 34, 34, 6, the more numer-
ous we are, the more things we shall need. In late writers, the comparative is
sometimes omitted in the main clause, very rarely in the subordinate clause.
quanto . . . tanto are also used like quo . . . eo : as, quanto diutius
considers, tanto mihl res videtur obscurior, DN. i, 60, the longer I puzzle
over it, the more incomprehensible the question seems to me. quanto magis
exterge5, tenuius fit, PI. R. \Tp\,the more I polish, the slimmer it gets. This
form is sometimes used with quisque or quis of indefinite persons, instead
of the commoner ut . . . ita or sic (1939) : as, qu5 quisque est sollertior,
hoc docet labSriosius, RC. 31, the brighter a man is, the more wearisome he
finds teaching, quo quisque est maior, magis est placabilis irae, O. Tr.
3, 5, 31, the greater be the man, the easier 'tis his anger to appease.
343
I974~ I 977.-] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
1974. The subjunctive is used with quo to express purpose.
quo differs but little in meaning from ut of purpose. It is used (a.) par-
ticularly in clauses containing a comparative expression, or (b ) in solemn
law language.
(a.) equites omnibus in locis pugnant, quo se legionariis mllitibus
praeferrent, 2, 27, 2, the troopers fought on everv kind of ground, hoping to oiit-
shme the regular infantry thereby, medico puto aliquid dandum esse, qu5
sit studi5sior, Fam. 16, 4, 2, I think it would be well to fee your medical man, to
make him more attentive, id amabo adiuta me quo id fiat facilius, T. Eu.
1 50, help me in that, I pray, that it may be the easier done, sublata erat cele-
britas virorum ac mulierum, quo lamentatio minueretur, Leg. 2, 65, the
large attendance of both sexes was done away with, to make the weeping and
wailing less harrowing, (b.} hornini mortuo ne ossa legito, quo pos funus
faciat, Twelve Tables in Leg. 2, 60, he shall not gather up the bones of a dead
man, with intent to celebrate the funeral a second time ( 1 586). qui eorum coiit,
coierit, quo quis iudicio publico condemnaretur, law in Clu. 148, whosoever
of that number conspired or shall have conspired to have anybody condemned in a
criminal court. Otherwise rarely used without a comparative expression,
yet occasionally found thus in Plautus, Terence, Sallust, and Ovid : as, hanc
simulant parere quo Chremetem absterreant, T. Andr. 472, they're pre-
tending that she 's lying in, to frighten Chremes off. So often in Tacitus.
1975. quo ne, in a negative clause of purpose, is found in a disputed passage
in Horace, but not again until late Latin. For non quo, non eo quo, introducing
an untenable reason, see 1855.
1976. In old Latin qui, -whereby, wherewith, withal, is partly felt as a live rela-
tive pronoun in the ablative, and partly as a mere conjunction of purpose ; as a pro-
noun it may even take a preposition ; as a conjunction, it may refer to a plural ante-
cedent (689) : as, quasi patriciis pueris aut monerulae aut anites aut
coturmces dantur, quicumlusitent: itidem mi haec upupa, qui me de-
lectem datast, PI. Cap. 1002, as to the sons of gentlemen or daws or ducks or quails
are given, wherewith to play ; just so to me this crow^ is given, to entertain myself
withal, enim mihi quidem aequomst dari vehicla qui vehar, PI. Aul. 500,
in sooth V were fair that carriages be given me, to ride withal. The indicative occurs
where the subjunctive would be used in classical Latin : as, multa concurrunt
simul, qui coniecturam hanc facio, T. Andr. 511, a thousand things combine
whereby I come to this conjecture.
quominus.
1977. The subjunctive with quominus (1972) is used to complete
the sense of verbs of hindering or resisting.
Such verbs are: impedio, teneo, hinder, intercludo, deterreo, obsto,
obsisto, resists, repugno, non recuso ; these verbs often have a subjunctive
with ne (1960). Cicero rarely and Caesar never uses quominus with impedio or
prohibe5. For the accusative and infinitive with these verbs, see 2203. quominus
is also used with moveor, am influenced, fit, it is owing to, stat per aliquem,
somebody is responsible, or indeed any expression implying hindrance. When the
verb of hindering has a negative with it, quin is often used ; see 1986.
344
Conjunctional Sentences: quin. [1978-1983.
non deterret sapientem mors, quominus ri publicae suisque con-
sulat, TD. I, 91, death does not hinder the wise man from working for country
and friends, quid obstat, quominus sit beatus ? DN. i, 95, what is to hin-
der his being happy ? neque recusavit quominus legis poenam subiret,
N. 15, 8, 2, and hejfid not decline to submit to the penalty of the law. Caesar,
ubi cognovit per Afranium stare quominus proelio dimicaretur, castra
facere cdnstituit, Caes. C. I, 41, 3, when Caesar learned tliat owing to Ajra-
ft.us there was no battle, he resolved to build a camp, si te dolor corporis
tenuit, quSminus ad ludos venires, fortunae magis tribuS quam
sapientiae tuae, Fam. 7, I, I, if it was bodily siiffering that kept you from
coming to the performances, I think more highly of your luck than of your sense.
Terence first uses quominus thus, but only rarely. He also sometimes uses
the parts separately so that the true relative and negative forces appear: as,
si senserS quicquam in his te nuptiis fallaciae conarl, quo fiant minus,
T. Andr. 196, if I catch you trying on any trick in the matter of this marriage
through which it may not come 0^(1451).
1978. In Tacitus, quominus is sometimes found where quin would be used in
classical Latin (1986): as, nee dubitatum quominus pacem concederent,
Ta. H. 2, 45, there was no hesitation in granting peace.
1979. It may be mentioned here that quo setius with the subjunctive, instead
of quSminus, is found twice in Cicero's earliest extant prose, and twice in older
Latin.
quin.
1980. quin is composed of qui, the ablative or locative of the in-
terrogative and relative stem qui- (689), and-ne, not. It is used in
simple sentences and as a conjunctive particle.
1981. For the use of quin, why not, in questions with the indicative, see
1526. Such questions have the sense of an affirmative command or exhor-
tation (1531) : as, quin abis, PI. MG. 1087, why won't you begone? or get you
gone, quin conscendimus equos, L. I, 57, 7, why not mount, or to horse, to
horse. For the use of quin without interrogative force, see 1527.
1982. quin is found occasionally with the subjunctive in a direct ques-
tion in Plautus, Terence, Lucilius, Lucretius, Cicero, and Tacitus : thus,
quin ego hoc rogem ? PI. MG. 426, why shouldn't I ask this ? (1563).
1983. The subjunctive with the conjunctive particle quin is used, particu-
larly in old Latin, in connection with the common formula nulla causa est
or its equivalents.
Such a subjunctive may be regarded as original (1786) or as due to the
indirect form of question (1773).
nulla causast quin me condSnes cruci, PI. R. 1070, there's no reason
why you should n t deliver me up to execution, quin decedam, nulla causa
est, Fam. 2, 17, I, there is no reason why I should not retire, quid causaest
quin in pistrinum recta proficiscar via? T. Andr. 600, what's the reason
I don't march straight into the mill ? haud causificor quin earn habeam,
PI. Aul. 755, I don't quibble against keeping her.
345
1 984- 1 988.] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
1984. mirum quin with the subjunctive is used by Plautus in sarcastic expres-
sions where mirum is ironical : as, mirum quin tu illo tecum divitias feras,
PI. Tri. 495, strange enough, how you can't take your money there -with you, that is
to Hades.
1985. The subjunctive with quin (or ut non) is used after non possum,
or n5n possum with an infinitive, usually facere, and with fieri non potest :
as,
non enim possum quin exclamem, euge, euge, Lysiteles, ird\iv, PL
Tri. 705, upon my word I must cry bravo, bravo, Lysiteles ; encore ! facere
non potui quin tibl sententiani declararem, Pant. 6, 13, i, I could not help
giving you my views, fieri nullS modo poterat, quin Cleomeni parceretur,
V. 5, 104, it was impossible not to spare Cleomenes. eheu, neque 6 quin
fleam, quom abs te abeam, PI. MG. 1342, O well-a-day, I needs must -weep,
for that from thee I part, non potuisti ullo mod5 facere, ut mih! illam
epistulam non mitteres, Ait. n, 21, \,you could not get along at all without
writing me that letter ( 1965).
1986. The subjunctive with quin is used in clauses which com-
plete the sense of verbs of restraining, abstaining, delaying, or doubt-
ing, when such verbs have a negative, expressed or implied.
Such verbs are (a.) restraining: tempero mihl, teneo, restrain, retineo,
contineo, deterreo, reprimo. abstaining: praetermitto, intermitto. de-
laying: cunctor, differo, exspecto, recuso; non multum, nihil, paulum
abest. (b.) doubting : dubit5, dubium est ; a doubt may also be implied in other
words, or forms of words : as, non metu5, non abest suspicio, &c.
(a.) neque sib! homines barbaros temperatures existimabat, quin
in provinciam exirent, I, 33, 4, and he thought, as they were savages, they
would not restrain themselves, btit would sally out into the province, vix me
contineS quin involem monstrS in capillum, T. Eu. 859, 7 scarce can
keep from flying at the caitiff's hair, nihil praetermlsl, quin Pompeium a
Caesaris coniunctione avocarem, Ph. 2, 23, I left no stone unturned to pre-
vent Pompey from joining Caesar, abstinere quin attingas non queas, PL
B. 915, you can't keep from touching it. (b.} non dubitat, quin te ducturum
neges, T. Andr. 405, he does rft doubt that you V/ refuse to marry, quis du-
bitet, quin in virtute divitiae sint ? Par. 48, who can doubt that there is
money in virtue ? neque abest suspicio quin ipse sib! mortem consci-
verit, I, 4, 4, and ground is not wanting for the belief that he made away with
himself.
1987. non dubitS has other constructions : (a.) Indirect question.
(b.} Accusative with the infinitive (in some authors : chiefly Nepos and
Livy and later writers), (c.) Meaning not hesitate, the infinitive alone (2169).
quin seldom follows this meaning.
(a.} non dubito, quid nobis agendum putes, Att. 10, i, 2, / have no
doubt about what you think is our duty to do. (b.) neque enim dubitabant
hostem venturum, L. 22, 55, 2, for they firmly believed the enemy would come,
(c.} quid dubitamus pultare ? PL B. 1117, why do we hesitate to knock?
nolite dubitare quin huic credatis omnia, IP. 68, do not hesitate to trust all
to him.
1988. The subjunctive with quin is often used after general
negative assertions, or questions implying a negative : as,
346
Conjunctional Sentences : dum. [19891994.
nemo fuit omninS militum quin vulneraretur, Caes. C. 3, 53, 3, there
was absolutely not a single soldier but was -wounded, nullust Ephesi quin
sciat, PI. B. 336, there 's not a soul at Ephesus but knows, quis in circum
venit, quin is'unoquoque gradu de avaritia tua commoneretur ? V. i,
154, who came to the circus without being reminded of your avarice at each and
every step ? nulla fuit civitas quin partem senatus Cordubam mitteret,
non civis Romanus quin conveniret, Caes. C. 2, 19, 2, there was not a com-
munity but sent a part of its local senate to Corduba, not a Roman citizen, but
went to the meeting. For qui non after such expressions, see 1821. The
main sentence often has tam, ita, sic, or tantus : as, nemo est tam fortis,
quin re"i novitate perturbetur, 6, 39, 3, there was nobody so brave but was
demoralized by the strangeness of the situation, nil tam difficilest quin
quaerendo investigari possiet, T. Hau. 675, there 's naught so hard but may
by searching be tracked out. Instead of quin, ut n5n or qui non is often
used in such combinations (1821).
du
quin
Peers in virtue.
1990. quin is used very rarely instead of quominus to introduce clauses com-
pleting the sense of verbs which have no negative expressed or implied : as, once each
in the Bellum Alexandrinum, in Tacitus, and in Seneca's prose.
dum, donee, quoad, quamdiu.
1991. With the temporal particles dum, while, until, and donee, until (in
old Latin donicum and in Lucretius donique), may be conveniently treated
the relative quaad or quoad (that is qua or qu5 combined with ad), while,
until, and the comparative quamdiu, as long as.
1992. dum, -while, means originally a -while (11151) : as, circumspice dum, PL
Tri. 146, look round you a while, a minute, just look rou nd( 1573). dum servi mei
perplacet mihi c5nsilium, dum baud placet, PI. Merc. 348, one -while my
slave's plan suits me completely, another while it doesn't suit, dum . . . durri,
Accius in DN. 2, 89, one -while . . . another.
1993- As a pure conjunctive particle, dum, while, means either (A.) in
the time while, or (B.) all the time while ; in the latter sense quoad and
quamdiu are also used. From all the time while, dum comes t mean (C.)
as long as t provided ; and (D.) until ; in this sense quoad and donee are
also used.
1994. The indicative is used in a protasis intro-
duced by dum, quoad, or quamdiu, while; and the
subjunctive in a protasis introduced by dum, pro-
vided, or until.
The subjunctive is also used for special reasons, as in indirect discourse
(1725), by attraction (1728); of action conceivable (1731), or by late writers
to express repeated past action (1730). See also 1997 and 2009, end.
347
I 995~ I 99^-] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
(A.) dum, in the time while.
1995. The present indicative is regularly used with dum. in
the time while (1739)-
dum sometimes has as correlative subito, repente ; iam, interea, &c.
The main verb may be present, future, or past ; as, dum haec dicit,
abilt hora, T. Eu. 341, while he thus prated, sped an hour away, infici debet
iis artibus quas si, dum est tener, combiberit, ad maiora veniet para-
tior, Fin. 3, 9, he should be imbued with such arts as will, if absorbed while
he is young, render him the better equipped to deal with weightier business.
nunc rem ipsam, ut gesta sit, dum breviter vobis demonstro, attendite,
Tul. 1 3, now give your attention to the case itself, while I set forth to you briefly
how it occurred, dum in his locis Caesar moratur, ad eum legati vene-
runt, 4, 22, I, while Caesar tarried in these regions, some envoys came to him.
dum haec aguntur, voce clara exclamat, PL Am. 1120, while this was
going on, with clarion voice he cries aloud, haec dum aguntur, interea
Cleomenes iam ad Helori litus pervenerat, V. 5, 91, while this was
going on, Cleomenes meantime had already arrived at the shore of Helorum.
The phrase dum haec geruntur, meanwhile, is often used by the historians
to shift the scene : as, dum haec in Venetis geruntur, Q. Titurius Sabi-
nus in fines Venellorum pervenit, 3, 17, I, while this was going on among
the Veneti, Sabinus arrived in the territory of the Venelli. The present in-
dicative is sometimes retained in indirect discourse, chiefly in poetry or
late prose : as, die, hospes, Spartae n5s te hie vidisse iacentis, dum
sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur, TD. i, ioi,tell it at Sparta, friend,
that thou hast seen us lying here, obedient to our country's holy laws, dicit
sese ill! anulum, dum luctat, detraxisse, T. Hec. 829, he says that, in the
struggle, he pulled off her ring.
1996. The future is rare and chiefly confined to old Latin : as,
animum advortite, dum huius argumentum eloquar comoediae, PI.
prol. Am. 95, attention lend, while I set forth the subject of this comedy, dum
pauca dicam, breviter attendite, V. 3, 163, while I speak briefly, give me
your attention a few moments.
1997. The imperfect indicative is rare; the imperfect subjunctive is
sometimes used, chiefly by the poets and historians : as,
fa.) dum haec Veis agebantur, interim capitolium in ingentl peri-
culo fuit, L. 5, 47, I, while this was going on at Vet, the capital meanwhile was
in terrible peril. The pluperfect of resulting state is rarer : as, dum in unam
partem oculos hostium certamen averterat, pluribus locis capitur mu-
rus, L. 32, 24, 5, while the eyes of the enemy were turned away in one direc-
tion toward the fight, the wall is carried in several places (1615). (b.) dum se
rex averteret, alter elatam securim in caput deiecit, L. i, 40, 7, while the
king was looking another way, the second man raised his axe and brought it
down on his head.
1998. The clause with dum often denotes the cause of the main
action, particularly when the subjects of both verbs are the same and
the action of the' protasis is coincident with that of the apodosis
(1733).
348
Conjunctional Sentences : dum. [1999-2001.
dum decent, discunt, Sen. E. 7, 8, while they are teaching, they are learn-
ing, or, by teaching they learn, nimlrum didici etiam, dum in istum inquire,
artificum nomina, V". 4, 4, preposterous as it may seem, in hunting up evidence
against the defendant, I have actually learned artists' names. The main action
is often one not anticipated or desired: as, ita dum pauca mancipia reti-
nere volt, fortunas omms libertatemque suam perdidit, Caecil. 56, so in
her attempt to keep a few human chattels, she sacrificed all her possessions and
her own liberty, dum vitant stulti vitia, in contraria currunt, H. S. i, 2,
24, while fools essay a vice to shun, into its opposite they run. Sometimes with
the perfect : as, dum Alexandri similis esse voluit, L. Crassi inventus
est dissimillimus, Br. 2&2.,from his desire to be like Alexander, he came out
just the opposite of Crassus.
(B.) dum, quoad, quamdiu (donee), all the time while.
iggg. dum, quoad, or quamdiu, all the time while, often has as correlative
tamdiu, tantum, tantummodo, tantisper, usque, or ita. When tamdiu
is used, quam often stands for quamdiu.
2OOO (i.) When the main verb is present or future, the protasis
with dum, quoad, or quamdiu, all the time while, is usually in the
same tense as the main verb : as,
mane dum scribit, PI. B. 737, wait while he writes, aegroto dum
anima est, spes esse dicitur, Att. 9, 10, 3, as long as a sick man has breath he
is said to have hope, vidua vivito vel usque dum regnum optinebit
luppiter, PI. Men. 727, may'st widowed live e'en long as Jupiter shall reign.
ego te meum esse dici tantisper void, dum quod te dignumst facies,
T. Halt. 1 06, /'// have thee called my son but just so long as thou shall act
as doth become thee. dum Latinae loquentur litterae, quercus huic Ioc5
non deerit, Leg. I, 2, as long as Latin literature has the gift of speech, this
spot will not lack its oak (1733). quamdiu quisquam erit qui te defendere
audeat, vives, C. I, 6, as long as there shall be a soul who will venttire to de-
fend you, you shall live on. disces quamdiu voles, tamdiu autem velle
debebis quoad te quantum proficias non paenitebit, Off. i, 2, you shall
study as tong as you want to, and it will be proper for you to want to, as long as
you are satisfied with your progress, dandum hordeum et furfures usque
quaad erunt lactantes, Varro R.R. 2, 7, 12, give them barley and bran as
long as they are sucklings, quoad, as long as, is not found in Terence.
2OOI. (2.) With quamdiu the perfect is used when the main verb
is perfect ; with dum or quoad the perfect or imperfect is used when
the main verb is perfect or pluperfect, and the imperfect usually when
the main verb is imperfect : as,
(a.) quorum quamdiu mansit imitatio, tamdiu genus illud dicendi
vixit, DO. 2, 94, as long as the imitation of these men lasted, so long was that
style in vogue, tenuit locum tamdiu quam ferre potuit laborem, Br. 236,
he held the position as long as he could stand the work. In this use quamdiu
is found first in Cicero.
(b.} vixit, dum vixit, bene, T. Hec. 461, he lived well all the time he lived
( T 733)- avus noster quoad vixit, restitit M. Gratidi5, Leg. 3, 36, our
grandfather as long as he lived, opposed Gratidius*
349
2OO2-2OO4-] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
(c.) Massilienses quoad licebat, circumvemre nostros contendebant,
Caes. C. I, 58, I, as long as the Massilia people had a chance, they kept trying
to surround our men. dum necesse erat, resque ipsa cogebat, unus
omnia poterat, RA. 139, as long as it had to be, and circumstances demanded,
one man controlled the -world (1733). From Sallust on, the present of vivid
narration (1590) is occasionally found with dum in this sense.
2002. In poetry and in late prose writers, beginning with Lucretius and Livy,
donee is used in the sense of all the time while, usually with the indicative, but some-
times with the subjunctive of repeated past action : as, donee gratus eram tibi,
Persarum vigui rege beatior, H. 3, 9, i, as long as I was loved ofthee, I flour-
ished happier than the Persians' king, donee armatl cSnfertique ablbant,
peditum labor in persequendo f uit, L. 6, 13, 4, as long as they -were moving off
under arms and in close array, the task of pursuit fell to the infantry, vulgus
trucidatum est donee ira et dies permansit, Ta. i, 68, thejank and Jile
were butchered as long as -wrath and daylight held out. nihil trepidabant, donee
continent! velut ponte agerentur, L. 21, 28, 10, the elephants -were not a bit
skittish as long as they -were driven along what seemed a continuous bridge (1730).
The future is rare: as, natus enim debet quicumque est velle manere in
vita, donee retinebit blanda voluptas, Lucr. 5, 177, whoe'er is born_must wish
in life to abide, so long as him fond pleasure shall detain, ddnec eris felix, mul-
tos numerabis amicos, O. Tr. i, 9, 5, as long as fortune smiles, thou troops
shalt count of friends.
(C.) dum, as long as, provided, so.
2003. The present and imperfect subjunctive are used in provisos
introduced by dum, as long as, provided, so.
dum is sometimes accompanied by modo, only, or quidem, that is ; or
(from Terence on) modo is used without dum. The negative is ne (from
Ovid on, sometimes non) ; ne sometimes has as correlative ita.
pderint dum metuant, Poet, in Suet. Cal. 30, let them hate, so they fear.
absit, dum modo laude parta domum recipiat se, PI. Am. 644, let him go,
so only he come home with glory won. postulabant pro homine miserrim5,
qui vel ipse sese in cruciatum dan cuperet, dum de patris morte quae-
reretur, RA. 119, they made the request in behalf of a pitiable wretch, who would
be only too glad to be put to the rack himself, so his father's death might be inves-
tigated, itaque dum locus comminus pugnandi daretur, aequo anim5
singulas binis navibus obiciebant, Caes. C. i, 58, 4, therefore, so a chance
was given to fight hand to hand,_they did not mind pitting one of their vessels
against two of the enemy's, si 61 permissum esset, ita id sacrum faceret,
dum ne plus quinque sacrificiS interessent, L. 39, 18,9, if he were allowed,
he might perform the sacrifice far better, provided that not more than five people
should have a part in the ceremonial, dum quidem nequid perconteris
quod non lubeat proloqui, PI. Aul. 211, provided at least you ask nothing 1hat
I may not like to disclose, volet, civis modo haec sit, T. Eu. 889, he '// con-
sent, only let her be a free born maid. magn5 me metu liberabis, dum
modo inter me atque te murus intersit, C. i, 10, you will relieve me of
great fear, provided only there be a wall interposed between you and myself.
(D.) dum, quoad, donee, until.
2004. dum, quoad or donee, until, often has as correlative usque,
usque eo, usque ad eum finem or tamdiu.
35
Conjunctional Sentences: dum. [2005-2007.
dum, until.
2005. The subjunctive present is used in a protasis intro-
duced by dum, until y when the main verb denotes either indefi-
nite or present time, and the subjunctive imperfect when the
main verb is past.
The subjunctive is an extension of the subjunctive of desire (1540) ; the
clause denotes something expected or proposed.
is dum veniat sedens ibi opperibere, PI. B. 48, you shall sit there
watting till he comes, orandi sunt, ut si quam habent ulciscendi vim,
differant in tempus aliud, dum defervescat Ira, TD. 4, 78, we must
always ask such people, if they have any chance to take vengeance, to put it off'
to some other time, till their rage cool down, censeo latendum tantisper
ibidem, dum effervescit haec gratulati5 et simul dum audiamus,
quemadmodum negotium cSnfectum sit, Fam. 9, 2, 4, / advise lying low
where you are, while the present congratulation excitement is cooling off, and at
the same time till we may hear how the job was done, dum reliquae naves eo
convenirent, in ancoris exspectavit, 4, 23, 4, he waited at anchor till the rest
of the vessels should gather there (1725). Verginius dum collegam consu-
leret moratus, dictatorem dixit, L. 4, 21, 10, Verginius, after waiting till he
should consult his colleague, appointed a dictator, observavit dum dormita-
ret canes, PL Tri. 170, he watched till the dog should be napping.
2006. The present indicative with dum, while, is sometimes used where
the subjunctive might be expected with dum, until (1593). Other indicative
tenses are rarely thus used : as,
(a.) expectabS, dum venit, T. Eu. 206, I will wait while he comes, ego
hie tantisper, dum exis, te opperiar, PI. Most. 683, I'll wait for you here a
while till you come out. ego in Arcano opperior, dum ista cognosce, Att.
10, Z->f or myself I am waiting at the Arcae place, till I ascertain this, (b.) mihf
quidem usque curae erit, quid agas, dum quidegeris, sciero, Fam. 12, 19,
3, for me I shall be anxious all the time to know what you are doing, till I know
what you have done, mansit in condicione usque ad eum finem dum
iudices reiecti sunt, V. a. pr. 16, he stuck to his bargain till the jurors were
challenged.
quoad, d5nec, until.
2007. quoad or donee, until, introduces a protasis in the present
subjunctive when the main verb is present or future ; and in the
perfect indicative when the main verb is past or a general present.
quoad is found once in Plautus with the imperfect subjunctive (2008) ; in other
authors here and there with both moods ; not in Tacitus. With donee the pres-
ent subjunctive is fcund once in Plautus, rarely in late Latin and in poetry; the per-
fect indicative is found at all periods; the present indicative (1590), found once in
Plautus, is poetic and late. But donee is rarely used by Cicero, and never by Caesar
or Sallust. donicum is found in old Latin (not in Terence) with the indicative
(2009), and once in Nepos with the subjunctive of indirect discourse- donique is
found four times in Lucretius with the indicative, always before vowels (2009).
doneque and dSneque cum seem to occur a few times in Vitruvius.
35 *
2008-2009.] Sentences : The Subordinate Sentence.
(a.) ego hie cogito commorari, quoad me reficiam, Fam. 7, 26, 2, 1 am
thinking of staying here till I feel better, ea continebis, quoad ipse te
videam, Att. 13, 21, 4, yott will keep this back till J see you myself, experge-
factique secuntur inania saepe cervorum simulacra, donee discussis re-
deant erroribus ad se, Lucr. 4, 995, and when awakened, often they still keep
hunting the shadowy forms of stags, until the delusion is shaken off and they come
to themselves, magnus mirandusque cliens sedet ad praetoria regis,
donee BIthynS libeat vigilare tyranno, J. 10, 160, a vassal great and strange
he sits in the kitig's gate, till it may suit his oriental majesty to wake, inter
eadem pecora degunt, donee aetas separet ingenuos, Ta. G. 20, they
always live among the same flocks and herds, till maturity puts the free-born by
themselves.
(b.) nostri reppulerunt neque fmem sequendl fecerunt, quoad equi-
tes praecipites hostes egerunt, 5, 17, 3, our people routed them and did not
give up the pursuit till the cavalry drove the enemy headlong. Mild cum in
senatu fuisset e5 die quoad senatus est dimissus, domum venit, Mil. 28,
after staying in the senate that day till the senate adjourned, Milo went home.
numquam destitit orare usque adeo donee perpulit, ^.Andr. 66o,ke never
ceased to tease until he gained his point, usque e5 timui, donee ad reiciun-
dos iudices venimus, V. i, 17, / was afraid all the time till we came to
challenging jurors. The present indicative of vivid narration (1590) is found
in Vergil and Livy : as, socii consurgere tSnsis, donee rostra tenent sic-
cum et sedere carinae omnes innocuae, V. 10, 299, with one accord the
shipmates rose to oars, until the beaks dry land attain, and keels all sat unscathed.
2008. An imperfect subjunctive is rarely found with quoad, until (1725): as.
haec dies praestitutast, quoad referret, PI. Ps. 623, this day -was set by
which he was to fay. exercebatur currendS et luctando ad eum fmem,
quoad Stans complect! posset, N. 15, 2, 5, he used to practise running and
wrestling, till he could give a grip standing. For donee, see 2009 at the end.
2009. Other constructions occur, chiefly in old Latin or poetry, with donee, or
donicum, until, (a.) The future perfect : as, baud desinam, donee perfecerS
hoc, T. Ph. 419, / shall not stop till I have finished this, dellcta maiorum lues,
donee templa refeceris, H. 3,6, i, for sins of sires thou shalt atone, till thou hast
shrines repaired, (b.) The future : coquitS usque donee conmadebit bene,
Cato, RR. 156, 5, boil until it is jvery soft, ter centum regnabitur annos,
donee geminam partu dabit Ilia prolem, V. i, 272, for thrice a hundred
years there -will be kings, till Ilia gives birth to twins, (c. ) The perfect indicative,
less frequently the present, introductory to a general present: impedit piscis
usque adeo, ddnicum ediixit foras, PI. Tru. 38, he always draws his net
abo2d the fish, until he's brought them out (1613). usque mantant neque id
faciunt, donicum parietes ruont, PI. Most. 116, they keep waiting and don't do
it imtil the -walls are falling, (d.) The pluperfect indicative : horriferis accitant
vocibus Orcum, dSnique eos vita privarant vermina saeva, Lucr. 5, 096,
with horrid cries on Death they ''d call till gripings sore had set them free from life.
The imperfect indicative is found once in Tacitus, who also has the infinitive of inti-
mation (1539) once or twice. An imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive sometimes
occurs where purpose is intimated, and in Livy and late Latin to express repeated past
action : as. d5nec egregius properaret exsul, H. 3, 5, 45, till he could hasten
forth a peerless exile, trepidationis aliquantum gdebant, donee quietem
ipse timor fecisset, L. 21,28, n, the elephants always displayed some nervous-
ness, till terror itself restored quiet (1730). But the habit of using the imperfect
subjunctive is very common in Tacitus where neither purpose nor repetition is inti-
mated : as neque proelium omisit donee caderet, Ta. 3, 20, he ceased not
fighting till he fell.
352
Conjunctional Sentences : quando. [2010-2013.
quando.
2010. quando, originally a temporal particle, has the meaning
when, which readily passes over to a causal meaning, since, because.
In both meanings it introduces the indicative. For special reasons,
however, the subjunctive is used, as in indirect discourse (1725) or of
action conceivable (1731). quando is also used to introduce a con-
ditional protasis (2110).
In simple sentences, temporal quando is used in pronoun questions
(1526). As an indefinite adverb it has the meaning ever.
(A.) TEMPORAL quando.
2011. quando, when, introduces a temporal clause with the in-
dicative.
The time is often indefinite or iterative ; so usually in old Latin, quan-
d5 often has turn as correlative.
fio luppiter quandS lubet, PI. Am. 864, I turn into Jupiter at my sweet
will, laudato quando illud quod cupis effecero, PI. Cu. 364, cry your bravo
when I've done what you desire, quando occasiS illaec periit, post ser5
cupit. PI. /til. 249, when that chance is lost, he wants it all too late (1613).
quando omnes creatl sunt, turn ad eos deus fatur, Tim. 40, when all were,
created, then to them spake the god. quando pars maior in eandem senten-
tiam ibat, bellum erat consensum, L. I, 32, 12, when the majority voted for
the same motion, war was always agreed upon. Temporal quando is found
sporadically at all periods ; not in Terence or Caesar.
2012. quandoque, whenever, is found once in the Twelve Tables, a few
times in Cicero (chiefly in legal formulae), three times in Horace, and here
and there in later authors. Not in Caesar.
(B.) CAUSAL quando.
2013. quando, since, seeing that, introduces a causal clause with
the indicative.
The reason is usually one known to the person addressed or one gener-
ally known (1884). quandS is often strengthened by quidem.
quandS hie serviS, haec patriast mea, PI. Per. 641, now that I am a
slave here, this is my country, quin ergo abeis, quando responsumst ?
PL MG. 1085, w/zy don't you go then, since you 've had^your answer? melius
est, quandoquidem ho'c numquam mi ipse voluit dicere, T. Ad. 639, bet-
ter so, since he would n't ever tell me about it of his own accord, quando me in
hunc locum deduxit SratiS, docebS, DN. 3, 43, seeing that my discourse has
brought me to this point, Twill show, haec detur cura censoribus, quando-
quidem eos in re publica semper volumus esse, Leg. 3, 47, let this be the
charge of the censors, seeing that we want such officers _ always in our state.
pr5 urbe ac penatibus dimicandum esse, quandS Italiam tueri nequis-
sent, L. 22, 8, 7, that thev must fight for home and country, now that they had
failed to preserve Italy (1724). Causal quando is found at all periods, though
not in Caesar, and in Cicero's orations only with quidem.
23 353
2014-2019.] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
2014. quanJGque, inasmuch as, is used a few times in a formal or legal
sense in Cicero and Livy : as, quandoque hisce homines iniussu populi
Roman! Quirltium foedus ictum Irl spoponderunt, L. 9, 10, 9, inasmuch as
these persons have promised that a covenant should be made, -withmit the order of
the Roman nation of Quirites.
si.
2OI<>. si, in early Latin sei, is originally a locative, meaning under
those circumstances, so. With the enclitic -ce, it forms sice or sic,
so. The two are sometimes found as correlatives in colloquial style :
as, sic scribes aliquid, si vacabis, Att. 12, 38, 2, so you shall have
time, so you will write something. See 708.
CONDITIONAL PERIODS.
2016. A protasis introduced by si, so, if, or nisi, unless, if
not, states a condition ; the apodosis states action occurring
under that condition. The conditional protasis and apodosis
combined make a Conditional Period.
Thus, si dies est, if it is day, is a conditional protasis ; combined with an
apodosis, lucet, // is light, it makes a conditional period : si dies est, lucet,
Inv. I, 86, if it is day, it is light.
2017. A parenthesis with ut (1943) is added when the speaker asserts that the
action of the protasis is not only assumed, but actually occurs: as, si virtus digna
est gloriatione, ut est, beatus esse poterit virtute una praeditus, Fin. 4,
51, if virtue is entitled to glorification, as it really is, he -will find it possible to be
happy in the possession of virtue alone, si nox opportiina est eruption!, sicut
est, haec prefects noctis aptissima hora est, L. 7,35, 10, if night is always
favourable for a sortie, and it always is, this particular hour of the night is surely
the very best time.
2018. The apodosis is usually declarative. Often, however, it is interro-
gative, exclamatory, or imperative, or it may take any other form which the
thought or the context may require. The apodosis has rarely a correlative to
si : as, igitur, it follows that, idcirco, for all that, turn, then, ita, sic, only, ea
condicione, on condition; at, but, tamen, nevertheless, certe, saltern, at any
rate, turn denique, turn demum, then and not till then.
2019. si is sometimes followed by quidem or, from Cicero on, by modo :
si quidem, that is if, since, even if, si modo, // only, si tamen, at least if,
is found in Lucretius, Sallust, the Augustan poets and in late writers, sive
. . . sive (seu . . . seu) or, in old Latin, si ... sive, -whether . . . or,
with the indicative or the subjunctive of the indefinite second person (1556),
leaves a choice between two cases possible. By abbreviation of the protasis
sive becomes a coordinating particle : see 1672.
354
Conditional Periods. [2020-2025.
2020. The negative of si is si non, if not (si nemo, si iiullus,
&c.), or nisi, unless, if not, used especially of an exception or after a
negative, nisi si, chiefly in old, colloquial, or late Latin, or, particu-
larly in solemn language or poetry, ni is sometimes used for nisi. A
restriction, usually an ironical afterthought, may be introduced by
nisi forte (rare before Cicero) or nisi vero (in Cicero and Pliny the
Younger) with the indicative.
nisi is sometimes found in an adversative sense in old and colloquial
Latin, especially after nescio ; from Cicero on, it may be strengthened by
tamen. For nisi quod, see 1848.
2021. When a second conditional period is opposed to a first, it is some-
times introduced by si (or si autem), but usually by sin (or sin autem). If
the second period is negative, and its verb is not expressed, minus or aliter
is preferred to non.
CLASSES OF CONDITIONAL PROTASES.
2022. Conditional protases may be divided into two classes :
2023. I. INDETERMINATE protases, that is such as merely sup-
pose an action, without implying either its occurrence or its non-
occurrence ; these may take :
(A.) Any tense of the indicative required by the sense ; or (B.) the pres-
ent subjunctive, less frequently the perfect subjunctive, to express a condition
in the future.
2024. II. Protases of ACTION NON-OCCURRENT, that is such
as suppose action not taking place. These take the imperfect
or pluperfect subjunctive.
Thus, in the period si dies est, lucet, Inv. 1, 86, if it is day, it is light, the
protasis if it is day is indeterminate, neither implying that it is, or is not day.
But in si viveret, verba eius audiretis, if he were alive, yoti would hear his
evidence, RC. 42, the protasis denotes action non-occurrent, if he were alive,
implying but he is not. The whole period, like the protasis, is either an Inde-
terminate Period or a Period of Action non-occurrent.
I. INDETERMINATE PROTASES.
(A.) INDICATIVE USE.
2025. The indicative in a conditional protasis may
state present, past, or future time.
The mood and tense of the apodosis are determined by the sense.
The following combinations occur :
355
20262028.] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
(i.) PROTASIS IN THE PRESENT.
2026. (a.) Apodosis in the Present.
si sunt di, benefici in homines sunt, Div. 2, 104, if there are gods,
they are kind to men. si nescis, tibl ignosco, Fam. 10, 26, 3, if you do not
know, I pardon you. deus sum, si hoc itast, T. Hec. 843, I am a god, if this
is so. erus si tuos domist, quin provocas ? PI. Ps. 638, in case your mas-
ter is at home, why don't you call him out ? hoc mortuo, aut si qui ex reli-
quis excellit dignitate, succedit, aut, si sunt plures pares, de principatu
contendunt, 6, 13, 9, when this man dies, if there is any one of the rest superior
in position, he always takes his place ; or if there are several with equal claims,
they have a contest about the supremacy, si vis, potes, H. S. 2, 6, 39, you can,
if you will, in corpore si quid eius modi est quod reliquS corpori no-
ceat, id uri secarique patimur, Ph. 8, i$,in the human body if there is any-
thing likely to damage the rest of the body, we always allow it to be cauterized and
cut. si cui venae sic moventur, is habet febrim, Fat. 15, if a man's
pulse beats thus and so, he always has fever. The present is sometimes loosely
used of future time (1593) : as, si ilium relinqu5, ems vitae timeo, T. Andr.
210, if I desert him, I tremble for his life, assequor omnia, si propero; si
cunctor, amitto, Att. 10, 8, 5, / shall compass all my ends, if I hurry ; if I
delay, I shall lose everything, castra nunc v5bis hostium praedae do, si
mihl pollicemini vos fortiter operam navaturSs, L. 7, 16, 4, I give you the
camp of the enemy as booty now, if you promise me you will quit you like men.
2027. (b.) Apodosis in the Perfect.
si homines rationem a dis datam in fraudem convertunt, non dari
illam quam dari humano generi melius fuit, DN. 3, 78, if men apply rea-
son, the gift of the gods, to purposes of mischief , it would have been better it should
not be given to the human race than given (1495). The perfect of the apodosis
is ordinarily used of future time (1612) : as, occidi, si tu vera memoras,
PI. Most. 369, I'm a dead man, if what you say is true, nunc si indicium
facio, interii; si taceo, interii tamen, PI. MG. 306, now if I tell, Pm dead
and gone ; if I keep dark, I'm dead and gone the same, ni ill5s homines ex-
pello, ego occidi planissume, PI. St. 401, if I don't drive those people off, all's
up with me. nam si argentum prius adfert, continue n5s ambo exclusi
sumus, PI. As. 360, for if he brings the money first, then we 're at once left out
in the cold.
2028. (<:.) Apodosis in the Imperfect.
sed si domist, Demaenetum volebam, PI. As. 452, but if he is at home,
Demaenetus I wanted, iam turn erat senex, senectus si verecundos facit,
T. Ph. 1023, he was already old, if age is what makes shamefastness. si sin-
gula vos forte non movent, universa certe tamen movere debebant, DN.
2, 163, if these points taken severally do not affect you, yet collectively they surely
should have done so (1495).
356
Conditional Periods. [20292032.
2029. (d.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect.
cesseram, si alienam a me plebem fuisse voltis, quae non fuit, in-
vidiae, Sest. 64, / had yielded, if you will have it that the commons "were opposed
to me, though they were not, to hatred, hoc mi unum relicuom fuerat ma-
lum, si puerum ut tollam cogit, T. Hec. 570, this was the only evil left in
store for me, if he compels me to adopt the child.
2030. (<?.) Apodosis in the Future.
si interpellas, ego tacebo, PI. Men. 1121, if you persist in breaking in,
I'll hold my tongue, hie tu si laesum te esse dicis, patiar et concedam ;
si iniuriam tibi factam quereris, defendam et negabo, Caecil. 58, if you
assert that you are hurt in this matter, I am perfectly willing to admit it ; but if
you complain that it is a violation of your rights, I shall stoutly maintain the
contrary. Often in this combination the present is loosely used of future
time (1593): as, nunc si ille hue salvos revenit, reddam suom sibl ; si
quid eo fuerit, habeo dotem unde dem, PI. Tri. 156, now if our absent
friend comes safely back, I'll give him back his cnvn again ; if anything befalls
him, I've wherewith a dower to give, nisi id confestim facis, ego te tra-
dam magistratui, N. 15, 4, 3, if you do not do it at once, I will hand you over
to a magistrate, si pace frui volumus, bellum gerendum est ; si bellum
omittimus, pace numquam fruemur, Ph. 7, 19, if we wish to enjoy peace,
we shall have to make war ; if we give up war, we never shall enjoy peace.
convincam, si negas, C. \, 8, 1 will bring it home to you, if you deny it. tibi
divitias dabo, si impetras, PL MG. 1213, I 1 II make you rich, if you succeed.
2031. (/) Apodosis in the Future Perfect.
si neque5 facere ut abeas, egomet abiero, PI. Poen. 442, if I can't
make you go, I'll instantly begone myself '(1629). si id non facis, ego quod
me in te sit facere dignum invenero, T. Hau. 107, if you don't do it, I will
have a proper course devised to use with you.
2032. (.) Apodosis in the Imperative.
da mihl hoc, mel meum, si me amas, PI. Tri. 244, give me this, honey
mine, an thou lov'st me. redargue me, si mentior, Clu. 62, refute me, if I am
not speaking the truth, desilite, milites, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus pr5-
dere, 4, 25, ^jump overboard, men, unless you choose to abandon your eagle to
the enemy, ni iudicatum facit, secum ducito, vincito compedibus, Twelve
Tables in Gell. 20, I, 45, unless he satisfies the judgement, the complainant shall
take him with him, and put him in gyves (1593, 1575)- qua re, si haec ita
sunt, sic me colitSte ut deum, CM. %\, there fore, if this is so, you are to hon-
our me as a god.
357
2O 33"~ 2O 35-] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
2033. (h.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.
si quid habes certius, velim scire, Alt. 4, 10, i, // you have any-
thing more definite, I should like to know (1554). sin aliter animatus es,
bene, quod agas, eveniat tibl, PI. Tri. 715, but if you're minded otherwise,
may all you do betide y oil well (1540). quod si n5n possumus facere, mori-
amur, Ph. 7, 14, if we cannot do it, let us die (1547). si mini filius genitur,
isque prius moritur, et cetera, turn mihf ille sit heres, DO. 2, 141, if a
son is born to me, and the boy dies before &*c., <Sfc., then so and so is to be my
heir (1593, 1548). si est spes nostri reditus, earn confirmes, Fam. 14, 4,
3, if there is a hope of my coming back, strengthen that hope (1550). eum si
reddis mihi, praeterea unum nummum ne duis, PI. Cap. 331, if you restore
my boy to me, you needn't give one penny more (I55 1 )' s * n * c pernocto,
causae quid dicam? T. Ad. 531, if I sleep here, what reason can I give
(2.) PROTASIS IN THE PERFECT.
2034. (a.) Apodosis in the Present.
si quid venale habuit Heius, si id quanti aestimabat, tanti vendidit,
desino quaerere cur emeris, V. 4, 10, if Hejus had anything for sale, if he
sold it at his own valuation, I stop enquiring why you bought, si vere est a
nobis philosophia laudata, eius tractatid Optimo quoque dignissima est,
Ac. 2, 6, if philosophy has been extolled by me with justice, its study is eminently
worthy of the good, si honoris causa statuam dederunt, inimici non sunt,
V. 2, 150, if they contributed a statue as a compliment, they are not enemies.
postes quoiusmodi ? . . . etiam nunc satis bom sunt, si sunt inducti pice,
PI. Most. 8 1 8, what think you of the posts ? . . . they 're pretty good even now, if
they are only smeared with pitch. This combination is common in general con-
ditional periods (1613) : as, homines aegri si aquam gelidam biberunt,
prim5 relevari videntur, C. I, 31, if sick people drink cold water, at first they
always seem refreshed, si quod est admissum facinus, idem decernunt,
6, 13, 5, if a crime has been committed, they also act as judges, abiurant, si
quid creditumst, PI. Cur. 496, they always swear they haven't it, if anything
is trusted them, si puer parvus occidit, aequo animo ferendum putant,
TD. i, 93, if a baby dies, they always think the affliction should be borne with
resignation.
2035. () Apodosis in the Perfect.
si peccavi, insciens feci, T. Hau. 631, if I've done wrong; it was in igno-
rance. haec bona in tabulas publicas si redierunt, tabulae publicae
conruptae sunt, RA. 128, if this property has been entered on the state books,
then the state books have been tampered with, quo in bell5 si fuit error,
communis Si fuit cum senatu, Ph. n, 34, if there was a mistake in this war,
it was common to him and the senate, interii, si abiit, PI. Ps. 910, 7 *m lost,
if he has gone (1608). Also in general periods (1613) : as, animi si quand5
vera viderunt, usi sunt fortuna atque casu, Div. 2, 108, */ the mind has
ever seen the truth, it has used in every case luck and chance, studiose equi-
dem utor nostris poetis, sed sicubi illi defecerunt, verti multa de
Graecis, TD. 2, 26, / use otir own poets carefully, it is true ; but whenever
they have failed me, I have always translated a great deal from Greek.
358
Conditional Periods. [2036-2041.
2036. (c.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect.
si illud iure rogatum dicere aijsi sunt, oblitine erant ? PC.^ifthey
ventured to say that that measure was brought forward in due form, had not
they forgotten ?
2037. (</.) Apodosis in the Future.
si quis oriente canicula natus est,is in marl non morietur, if anybody
is born when the dogstar is rising, he will never die at sea (general) : si Fabius
oriente camcula natus est, Fabius in mari non morietur, Fat. 12, if
Fabius was born when the dogstar was rising, Fabius will not die at sea (par-
ticular), si parum intellexti, dicam denuo, PI. R. 1103, if you don't
understand, I 'II say again, non utar ea consuetudine, si quid est factum
clementer, ut dissolute factum criminer, V. 5, 19, / will not avail myself
of the common practice, and if a thing has been done in a spirit of mercy, charge
that it zvas done in a lax way. nisi iam factum aliquid est per Flaccum,
fiet a me, Fam. 3, n, 3, Tinless something or other has been done already
through Flaccus, it will be done by me.
2038. (e.) Apodosis in the Imperative.
si plus minusve secuerunt, se fraude est5, Twelve Tables in Gell. 20,
I, 49, if they cut too much or too little, it shall be without penalty (1613). si
vidistis, dicite, PI. R. 323, if ye have seen, declare, si quid est peccatum a
nobis, profer, T. Hec. 253, declare it, if we've erred at all. si numquam
avare pretium statui arti meae, exemplum statuite in me, T. Hau. 48,
if never like a miser I have set a price upon my art, a pattern set in me. si
quos propinquus sangufs patronos dedit, iuvate periclitantem, Ta. 3,
1 2, if relationship has made any of you his advocates, help him in his straits.
2039. (/.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.
si nulla coloris principiis est reddita natura, extemplo rationem red-
dere possis, Lucr. 2, 757, if atoms have no colour, you might explain at once
(1556). merits maledicas mi, si non id ita factumst, PL Am. 572, you
might with perfect right abuse me, if it is not so (1556).
2040. (g.} Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.
si nemo hac praeteriit, postquam intro abii, cistella hie iaceret, PL
Cist. 683, if nobody has passed along this way, since I went in, a casket must
have been lying here (1560). nam cur tarn variae res possent esse require,
ex uno si sunt igni puroque creatae ? Lucr. i, 645, /or hmv could things
so motley be, I ask, if they are made of pure and simple jire (1565)
2041. (h.) Apodosis in the Pluperfect Subjunctive.
si Antoni5 Crassus eloquens visus non est, tib! numquam Cotta
visus esset, O. 106, if Antony did not hold Crassus eloquent, you would never
have held Cotta so (1561).
359
2042-2047*] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
(3.) PROTASIS IN THE IMPERFECT.
2042. (a.) Apodosis in the Present.
si turn n5n pertimescebas, ne nunc quidem perhorrescis ? V, 4, 78,
if you were not getting afraid then, are you not getting scared even now ? si qui
senes ac deformes erant, eos in hostium numero ducit, V. 5, 64, if any
were old and homely, he considers them in the light of enemies (1590). si ad
ilium hereditas veniebat, veri simile est ab illo necatum, Inv. 1,89, if the
inheritance was coming to so and so, it is likely that the murder was committed
by that man. adulescenti nihil est quod suscenseam, si ilium minus
norat, T. Ph. 361, / have no cause for anger with the youth, if he was not
acquainted with the man.
2043. (b.) Apodosis in the Perfect.
sed si properabas magis, pridie nos te hue duxisse oportuit, PI.
Poen. 525, but if you were in greater haste ', you should have brought us here the
day before.
2044. (c.) Apodosis in the Imperfect.
This combination is used chiefly of contemporaneous action (1732), in
general conditional periods: as, si quod erat grande vas, laeti adferebant,
V. 4, 47, if any good- sized vase was ever found , they would always bring it to
him in high glee, atque ea si erant, magnam 'habebas dis gratiam, PI.
As. 143, and if them you ever had, you were monstrous grateful to the gods, si
quae res erat maior, populus commovebatur, Sest. 105, if a thing of more
than ordinary importance occurred, the populace was always aroused, hi, si
quid erat durius, concurrebant, I, 48, 6, whenever there was any pretty
sharp work, these men would always fall to. For the subjunctive in such pro-
tases, see 2071.
2045. (d.) Apodosis in the Future.
flebunt Germanicum etiam ignoti: vindicabitis vos, si me potius
quam fortunam meam fovebatis, Ta. 2, 71, as for weeping for Germanicus,
that will be done by strangers too ; vengeance will be yours, if you honoured in
me more the man than the position. See Att. 14, i, i.
2046. (e.) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.
fac animo magno sis, et si turbidissima sapienter ferebas, tranquil-
Ii5ra laete feras, Fam. 6, 14, 3, be of great heart, and if you bore anarchy like
a stoic t bear a more orderly condition of things with good cheer (1550).
2047. (/) Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.
si amabas, invenires mutuom, PL Ps. 286, you should have borrowed, if
you were in love (1559). quod si meis incommodis laetabantur, urbis
tamen periculo commoverentur, Sest. 54, if they did exult over my mishaps^
still they ought to have been touched by the danger to Rome ( 1559)-
360
Conditional Periods. [2048-2052.
(4.) PROTASIS IN THE PLUPERFECT.
2048. (a.} Apodosis in the Present.
si hoc ita fato datum erat, ut ad pacem petendam vemrem, laetor
te mihl sorte potissimum datum, a quo peterem, L. 30, 30, 3, if it was so
ordained by fate that I should come to sue for peace, I ant glad that you are
allotted me, of all men in the world, to sue from.
2049. (4.) Apodosis in the Perfect.
turn id, si falsum fuerat, filius quor non refellit ? T. Ph. 400, if that
had been untrue, why did not at the time your son disprove it ? vel officio, si
quid debuerat, vel errori, si quid nescierat, satis factum esse duxit, D.
13, he thought he had done enough for duty, if he had been under any obligation^
enough for delusion, if he had bee
ten acting under mistaken ignorance.
2050. (c.) Apodosis in the Imperfect.
sed in aedibus quid tibi meis nam erat negoti me absente, nisi ego
iusseram? PI. AuL 427, but what business had you in my house in my ab-
sence, unless I had ordered? si nihil in ista pugna Roscii fecerant, quam
ob causam tantis praemiis donabantur? RA. 108, if the Rosciuses had
not done service in that fight, why were they presented with such rewards ?
Often of antecedent action, in general conditional periods: as, si quicquam
caelati adspexerat, manus abstinere, iudices, non poterat, V. 4, 48, if he
ever caught sight of a bit of chased work, why, gentlemen, he never could keep
his hands off. stomach abatur senex, si quid asperius dlxeram, DN. I,
93, the old gentleman was always nettled, if I said anything harsh, ac seu
longum post tempus venerat hospes, sive conviva per imbrem vicinus,
bene erat non piscibus urbe petitis, H. S. 2, 2, 118, and if a friend dropped
in, after an absence long, or neighbour, come to take pot-luck upon a rainy day,
we feasted not on fish brought out from town. For the subjunctive in such
protases, see 2071.
2051. (</.) Apodosis in the Imperfect Subjunctive.
ante solem exorientem nisi in palaestram veneras, haud medio-
cris poenas penderes, PI. B. 426, ere sunrise so you came not to the wrest-
ling school, amercement strong you had to pay ( 1 552).
(5.) PROTASIS IN THE FUTURE.
2052. (a.) Apodosis in the Present.
cam sei curabeis, perbonast, PI. Merc. 526, if you'll take care of her, she
is first-rate, quod si perferre non potero, opprimi me malo, RA. 10, if I
tannot succeed in bearing it, I would rather be crushed.
361
2053-205 6-] Sentences: The Subordinate Sentence.
2053. (6.) Apodosis in the Perfect.
quam nisi defendes, Romulus n5n bene vidit aves, Prop. 4 (5), 6, 43,
unless thou savest her, 'twas ill that Romulus espied his birds, actumst, si
quidem tu me hie ludificabere, T. Eu. 717, airs up, that is in case you fool
me here (1612). cui si esse in urbe licebit, vicimus, Att. 14, 20, 3, if he
shall be allowed to stay in town, the day is ours (1612).
2054. (c.) Apodosis in the Future.
si erum insimulabis malitiae, male audies, T. Ph. ^%you '// hear what
you won't like, if you insinuate anything wrong against master, vicinis bonus
est5 : si te libenter vicinitas videbit, facilius tua vendes ; si aedificabis,
operis, iumentis, materie adiuvabunt, Cato, RR. 4, be obliging to your
neighbours : if the neighbourhood looks on you with favour, you willjinda readier
sale for your produce ; if you fall to building, they will help you with labour,
draught animals, and building material, si id audebis dicere, causam in-
imici tui sublevabis, Caecil. 12, if you venture to say that, you will promote the
cause of your enemy, si fortuna volet, fies de rhetore consul ; si volet
haec eadem, fies de consule rhetor, J. 7, \yj , if fortune shall ordain, a mag-
nate from a teacher thou shalt be ; again shall she ordain, a teacher from a
magnate shalt thou be. non modo non laedetur causa nobilitatis, si istis
hominibus resistetis, verum etiam ornabitur, RA. 138, the interests of the
nobility will not be damaged, if you resist those creatures ; oh no, on the contrary,
they will be promoted. The clause with si is apt to take the future perfect
(2061). The future in the apodosis often denotes action holding good at all
times : as, defencor primum, ci poterit, debebit vitam eius, qui insimu-
labitur, quam honestlasimam demonstrate, Inv. 2, 35, the advocate ought
in the first place, if fa can, to prove that the life of the accused is eminently re-
spectable, quod adsequemur, si cavebimus ne in perturbationes incida-
mus, Off, i, 131, we shall attain this end if we take care not to be subject to Jits
of passion. Sometimes in exemplifications : si patriam prodere conabitur
pater, silebitne filius ? Off. 3, 90, if a father shall try to betray his country,
will the son keep silent ? But see 2090.
2055. (d.} Apodosis in the Future Perfect.
oculum ego ecfodiam tib! : : dicam tamen ; nam si sic non licebit,
luscus dixer5, PI. Tri. 463, /'// dig your eye out: : but I'll speak, nathless ; for
if I may not as I am, /'// say my say as one-eyed man. sed si te aequo ani-
mo ferre accipiet, neclegentem feceris, T. Andr. 397, but if he sees you take
it placidly, you'll have him off his guard. The more usual combination is as
in 2062.
2056. (e.) Apodosis in the Imperative.
vir tuos si veniet, iube domi opperirier, PL Cist. 592, in case your hus-
band comes, tell him to wait at home. Almost always the second imperative is
used (1577): as, si volet, suo vivito, Twelve Tables in Cell. 20, \, 4$, if the
prisoner wish, he may subsist on his own food, si veniet nuntius, facito
ut sciam, PL St. 148, // a messenger shall come, be sure you let me know.
si de me ipso plura dicere videbor, ignoscitote, Sest. 31, if I seem to harp
too much on myself, you must excuse me.
362
Conditional Periods. [2057-2061.
(/) Apodosis in the Present Subjunctive.
si quid erit, quod scribendum putes, velim facias, Aft. n, 13, 5, //
there shall be anything which you think worth writing, I wish you would write
(1555). nam si altera illaec magis instabit, forsitan n5s reiciat, T. Ph.
717, for if the other lady presses more, perhaps he'll throw us out ( 1 554). pe-
ream, si te ferre poterunt, Brut, in Fam. n, 23, 2, may I die, if they shall
fi>id it possible to endure you (i 541 ). si quando ilia dicet 
