Full text of "A Latin grammar, on the system of crude forms"

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AT THE

UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO PRESS

LATIN GRAMMAR

ON THE SYSTEM OF

CRUDE FORMS.

^ BY

T. r HEWITT KEY, M.A.,

LATE PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON,

NOW PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR, AND

HEAD MASTER OF THE JUNIOR SCHOOL.

LONDON :

DULAU AND CO., 37 SOHO SQUARE.
1846,

I'RINTED"BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR,
RED MON COURT, FLEET STRKKT.

PREFACE.

GRAMMARS and dictionaries usually give us, as representing
the Latin for any English word, the nominative, if the word
be a substantive or an adjective, and if the word be a verb.
then either the infinitive or the first person of the indicative.
But the nominative is in fact the word and something more.
In its full form it has a letter s at the end, which does not
form part of the true word, but shows the connection be-
tween that word and the rest of the sentence. In the same
way the first person of the indicative has a final o, which
represents the pronoun /, as scrib-o 'I write;' while the in-
finitive has the addition of ere or re, which gives to the word
that modification of meaning which is represented by the term
infinitive. Now the crude form system demands that these
extraneous letters or syllables be thrown away, and that what
is left shall be considered to be the true word. To the naked
word thus divested of what is accidental, the term crude form
has been applied by German writers. The analysis which is
required in order to effect this separation happens to be a very
easy one. But whether easy or difficult, the pupil is not called
upon to perform the duty. It is done for him, and his busi-
ness is merely to learn the contrary process by which from the
bare word the so-called cases are formed by the addition of
syllables or letters. We have said that the analysis is easy.
A few words will show this to be the case.

In the fourth declension, that of yradus for example, the

IV PREFACE.

same letters, down to the vowel u inclusive, appear in every
case both of the singular and plural, except in the dative of the
latter ; and the doubt which this one exception might suggest
is removed by the occasional occurrence of such forms as
gradubus. Hence it is inferred as probable that the remain-
ing letters represent the different cases of the singular and
plural number. In the fifth declension, the part that is com-
mon to every case terminates with the letter e. A noun whose
nominative ends like the word avis, exhibits an i in nearly
every case ; for the singular accusative is avim as well as
avem, and the plural accusative is avis as well as aves. Even
in the plural nominative too such a form as avis is not without
example. Hence in words of this shape the portion which
includes the vowel i is held to be the essential word or crude
form. But the third declension contains many words which
form their cases in several respects differently from avis. For
example, rex regis has but one form of the accusative, regent,
never regim ; and reges, never regis ; and the genitive is re-
gum, and not as the analogy of avium would suggest, regium.
Hence we have every reason to treat reg as the essential word,
for rex is by all admitted to be a corruption of regs. In the
second declension an o is to be traced through both numbers,
for servos and servom were used by Cicero and older writers,
though the Eton Grammar would give us only servus and ser-
vum. Secondly, the oldest forms on record of the plural no-
minative and plural dative (or ablative) are respectively servoe
for servi and servoes for servis. The Greek language, by the
forms Xoyoi and Xoyots, confirms these archaisms. Again, the
Homeric genitive Xoyoto, exhibits after the y the vowel we
should expect to find, and indeed the Latin itself had pro-
bably at one time a genitive servoius (something like the
Homeric ending) which would correspond to the Ciceronian
genitive of the relative : quoius. Nor should such genitives
in this declension as nullius (for nulloius) be forgotten. The

PREFACE. V

vocative alone is left, and when we trace the nominative of a
pronoun from ipsps through the Terentian ipsus, to ipse, there
is no difficulty in the fact that servos or semis has become serci .
Lastly, in the first declension an a is traceable throughout the
singular, and through the plural also, if we include in our view
such datives as equabus, deabns, or the Greek povcra s.

Thus looking to that portion of a noun which appears to be
independent of case-ending, we find that the words of the first
declension all end in a ; those of the second in o ; those of the
third in t, or a consonant ; those of the fourth in u ; and those
of the fifth in e. Hence setting aside the nouns which end in
consonants, we have a separate declension for each of the five
vowels ; and the distinctions which exist between the declen-
sions of rex and avis are enough to justify the establishment
of a separate consonantal declension.

So far we have regarded only that portion of a noun which
is common to the different cases, that is, the crude form. Let
us next look to the part which remains when this common
portion has been removed. Five of the sis nominatives agree
in having a final s, as servo-s. avi-s, gradu-s, re-s and rey-s ;
and even the first declension occasionally exhibits the s, as
Aeneas*. The accusatives again agree, adding em after a con-
sonant, m after a vowel, as muia-m, servo-nt, an-/a, gradu-m.
re-m and reg-em. The accusative plural presents a similar uni-
formity of formation, adding es to those words which end in
consonants, and * alone to the rest, but so as to lengthen the
preceding vowel. Thus we have musa-s, servo-s, ari-s, (or
aves), gradu-s, re-s and reg-es. The brevity which suits a pre-
face prevents a complete investigation of the subject, other-
wise there would be no difficulty in showing that originally

* Conversely, although the Greek language commonly presents an > at
the end of masculine nominatives of the a declension, yet the Homeric
dialect had already set an example of discarding the s iu
Zfit's, &.c.

VI PREFACE.

there was but one declension, the cases of every noun, whether
singular or plural, having been formed upon a model common
to them all.

But an analysis such as we allude to, though necessary to
justify the system of crude forms to the scholar, is a matter
with which the beginner has no concern. To him the nouns
are exhibited for the first time in their naked form. He is
told that equo is ' a horse,' and is taught to proceed from it
as a starting-point to the several cases, including the nomina-
tive itself. In this process he has some great advantages over
those who employ the system in common use. He can never
be under the slightest difficulty about the declension to which
a noun belongs. The last letter is an invariable guide. Gradu
' a step' must belong to the fourth declension, because it ends
in u ; domino ' an owner' must belong to the second, because
it ends in o. On the other hand, in the ordinary system the
nominatives gradus and dominus having a common ending,
are very apt to lead a beginner into error. So again pater ' a
father,' linter 'a boat,' liber l a book,' have a deceitful similarity
of termination, which must frequently mislead. But the crude
form system places these words before the pupil as pater, lin-
teri and libero, so that they are at once referred to their proper
declensions. Nay more, the order in which the declensions
are arranged becomes itself a matter of indifference, as it is
enough to distinguish them by their terminal letters, viz. a
declension, o declension, &c.*

A similar process of induction may be applied without dif-
ficulty to the verb ; and the result would be to place under

* Perhaps it is not an accident that the Italian so commonly presents
the Latin words to us in their crude form : Antonio, Arrezzo ( = Arretio),
pieno, &c. At any rate in the case of proper names such forms are hetter
suited for poetical purposes, and hence the liberty has been taken in the
present book of using Tago ( 1350) and Haleso ( 958) rather than Tagiis,
Halesus.

PREFACE. Yll

the first conjugation all those verbs whose essential portion or
crude form ends in a (ama), while the second would consist
of verbs in e (tnone), the third of verbs in a consonant (reg}
or u (metu), and the fourth of verbs in i (audi).

But it is not merely in the processes of declension and con-
jugation that simplicity is secured by the system of crude
forms. In the general doctrine of derivation similar advan-
tages are gained. The nouns whose nominatives are Pomona,
marinus, tribunus, are deduced with more facility from the
crude forms porno, mart, tribu, than from the nominatives
jjomitm, mare, tribus. Or again, from the adjectives tribulis,
civilis,Jidelis, by striking off the adjectival suffix li, we come
at once to the crude forms tribu, civi,jide, and not to the no-
minatives tribus, cicis,Jides.

Some persons find the strongest motive for a study of the
Latin language in the aid it furnishes towards explaining the
terms of their own language. These also must admit the su-
periority of the crude form system. For example, our adjec-
tives rational, manual, usual, regal, vertical, real, \\heu divested
of the final al, exhibit the crude forms ration, rnanu, usti, reg,
vertic ( = vertec), re. So again the nouns salutary, lapidary,
aviary, sanguinary, stand in closer relationship to salut, lapid.
avi, sanguin, than to salus, lapis, avis, sanguis. A considera-
tion of the nominative alone must often tend to obscure simi-
larities, particularly when a word consists of but few letters.
For instance, a scholar who has been accustomed to deal only
with the nominative res, will often have failed to notice that
our adjective real is derived from it, unless indeed his atten-
tion has been specially excited by a contrast between such
phrases as real accounts and personal accounts in book-keep-
ing, or by the use of the term real dictionary as opposed to a
rerbal dictionary, or by the metaphysical appellation realist.

But one of the most injurious results of the system com-
monly pursued in Latin Grammars is, that the true power of

Vlll PREFACE.

the nominative case has been obscured. Nay, the obscurity
thus created has extended to the accusative, and has in some
measure created a general indistinctness in the conception of
the grammatical notion expressed by the term case. Now
the nominative and accusative cases play the most important
part in an ordinary sentence ; and unless a distinct and ac-
curate conception be formed of the ideas expressed by these
two terms, the whole theory of grammar must be imperfectly
understood. In the present work all the case-endings are
held to be virtually prepositions ; and prepositions themselves
in their primary sense invariably express the relations of place.
In the next place, the simplest form of the verb is that which
denotes action ; and thus the simplest form of a sentence is
one consisting of an active verb with a nominative and accu-
sative, the nominative to express the source of the action, and
the accusative to express its direction or object. In other
words, the nominative-ending in its original use denotes from,
the accusative -ending denotes to.

For a full development of these views this is not the place.
But there still remain a few matters which require mention.

The present Grammar has extended to a much greater length
than was contemplated when it was commenced. This evil is
partly compensated by a full index, but a judicious teacher
will not allow his pupil to overload himself by committing to
memory more than the essential parts ; and these include little
beyond the declensions and conjugations. He should indeed
be thoroughly acquainted with the formation of the perfects
and supines, but in impressing these upon the mind, the great-
est difficulty commonly consists in recollecting their succes-
sion. But this succession is precisely what is most unimport-
ant. It would be wise therefore to let the first column of
pp. 73-91 remain before the pupil's eye. He has in fact
gained all the requisite knowledge if, given the root or crude
form of the verb, he can then supply the principal part*.

PREFACE. IX

The terms accent ( 22-26), enclitic ( 27), and proclitic
(28), may appear perhaps for the first time in a Latin Gram-
mar for schools. The doctrine of accent has a closer connec-
tion than is commonly supposed with the metrical writings of
even Virgil and Horace, and it is admitted to be the basis of
Terentian verse. It therefore deserves an admission into our
grammars. The principles laid down in reference to accent
in 22, 23, agree with the notions commonly prevailing ;
but the two following sections include a principle which has
hitherto been confined to the writings of Bentley and Hermann,
and even by those scholars has been put forward but indi-
stinctly and imperfectly. The present writer has elsewhere
endeavoured to establish the importance of the proposed pro-
nunciation for those who read Plautus and Terence, and its
advantages even in other metrical writings. On the present
occasion it will be enough to point out that the ordinary pro-
nunciation of such words as mulierem, exierat, periimus, gives
the intonation of a long syllable to what is admitted by all to
be a short vowel : whereas he who pronounces mulyerem re-
minds himself by that pronunciation that both the u and the
i are short. The common pronunciation is apt to introduce
errors and impress them on the memory. Thus it is very
commonly supposed that reciipero has a long w. But the
metres of Plautus tell us that this vowel is short, in agreement
with the quantity of the same vowel in occupo, aucupem, for
all these words are ultimately to be traced to cap-ere. If the
new mode, which is now becoming common, of dividing pat-er
so as to give the t to the first syllable, has the recommendation
of fixing the shortness of the a in the memory, a still greater
advantage follows the pronunciation recperare, as it bears
witness to the brevity of two syllables. The term proclitic is
adopted from Hermann's treatise : " De emendanda ratione
Graecae Grammaticae."

In compiling this book much advantage has been derived

X PREFACE.

from the following sources, the Lexicon of Forcellini, the
philological writings of Madvig, and the grammars of Zumpt,
Ramshorn, and Madvig. With the work of Zumpt the
writer has been so long conversant that he cannot trust his
memory to say what he owes and what he does not owe to
it. Ramshorn's examples have frequently been adopted, but
not until after reference to the original sources, as his quo-
tations are often inaccurate. The writings* of Professor
Madvig of Copenhagen deserve to be better known in this
country than they are at present. Repeated reference has
been made to them in the notes upon the Syntax.

The writer must lastly express his great regret at the long
period that has elapsed since the first sheets were printed.
His other engagements are so laborious that he has found it
impossible to proceed with the work except in his vacations,
and of these some portion was always required in order to
provide a stock of bodily and mental vigour for the resump-
tion of his duties. He still feels that justice cannot be done
to the system of crude forms unless a dictionary upon the
same principle be prepared. To this task he will forthwith
apply his vacant time, with some hope of completing it within
a reasonable period, as a dictionary for the use of boys, to be
a good one, must necessarily be short.

University College, London,
January 13, 1846.

* They include the following : Two volumes in 8vo of Opuscula ; an
edition of the De Finibus in 8vo, and of certain orations of Cicero in 12mo ;
a Treatise on Asconius in 12nio ; a Letter to the elder Orelli on his edition
of Cicero in 12mo ; and a Latin Grammar in the German language in 8vo.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Abl. Ab.

Ablative. p.

Ace. Ac.

Adjective.

pp.

pages.

Adj.

Adverb.

Part.

Participle.

Adv.

Afranius.

Perf.

Perfect.

Afran.

Accusative.

Pers.

Persius.

C. F.

Crude Form.

Phaedr.

Phaedrus.

Caes.

Caesar.

Plaut.

Plautus.

Cic.

Cicero.

Plin.

Plinius.

Colum.

Columella.

Plur. PI. P.

Plural.

Comp.

Comparative.

Pos.

Positive.

Dat. D.

Dative.

Pres.

Present.

Enn.
Fern. F.

Ennius.
Feminine.

Quadrig.
(r.)

Quadrigarius.
Reflective verb.

Fut.

Future.

Sal.

Salustius.

Gen. G.

Genitive.

Sen.

Seneca.

Hor.
Imperat.
Imperf.
Ind.
Infin.

Horatius.
Imperative.
Imperfect.
Indicative.
Infinitive.

seq.

Sing. S.
Subj.
Subst.

sequentia, or,
what follows.
Singular.
Subjunctive.
Substantive.

Juv.
Liv.

Lucr.

Juvenalis.
Livius.

Lucretius.

Sulpic.
Superl. Sup.

Syr.

Sulpicius.
Superlative.
Syrus.

MS.

Manuscript.

Tac.

Tacitus.

Masc. M.

Masculine.

Ter.

Terentius.

Neut. N.

Neuter.

Var.

Varro.

Nom. N.

Nominative.

Vb.

Verb.

Obs.
Ov.

Observe.
Ovidius.

Virg.
Voc. V.

Virgilius.
Vocative.

LATIN GRAMMAR.

ALPHABET.

THE Latin language was spoken in Rome and Latium, and after-
wards spread with the Roman conquests over the greater part of
Italy, France, and Spain.

2. The Alphabet consisted of twenty-one letters : a, b, c, d, e, f,
g, h, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, x, without any j, v, w, y, z.

3. The Vowels are i, e, a, o, u.

4. The Liquid Consonants are r, 1, n, m.

5. X is a Double Consonant, the same as ks.

6. K is used only before a, Q only before u.

PRONUNCIATION.

7. The true Pronunciation of the Latin language is no longer
known. The Vowels were probably pronounced as they now are in
Italian.

8. In England the words are pronounced nearly as they would
be in English.

9. When i before a vowel commenced a syllable, it was a con-
sonant, and was pronounced like y in youth. But the English
change it into a _;'. Thus i u n i o r, (yunior) younger, is commonly
written and pronounced junior.

10. When M before a vowel commenced a syllable, it was a con-
sonant, and was pronounced like w in trine. But the English
change it into a r. Thus u a 1 1 o, (wallo), o palisade, is commonly
written and pronounced vallo.

11. Cand^ were always pronounced as in cat and goose, even
before i and e. But the English follow their own rule. Thus Ci-

2 PRONUNCIATION.

cero, the Roman orator, called himself Kikero. The English pro-
nounce his name as if written Sis era.

12. The diphthongs ae, oe, are generally pronounced as e.

13. A short syllable is pronounced rapidly, and is sometimes
marked by a crescent ( w ) : as the i in domino, master.

14. A syllable i*s said to be long by nature, when the voice dwells
upon the vowel : as, ve-na, vein.

15. A syllable is said to be long by position, when the vowel is
followed by two consonants which do not both belong to the next
syllable : as, mag-no, great ; et mater, and the mother ; sunt, they are.

16. A straight line ( " ), placed over the vowel, is used to denote a
long syllable : as, vena, a vein.

17- A diphthong is long by nature : as, au-ro, gold.

18. A vowel followed by a vowel in the next syllable is generally
short : as, fi-li-o, son.

19- A short vowel followed by a consonant should generally be
pronounced with the consonant : as, pat-er, father.

20. A long vowel followed by a consonant should generally be
pronounced separately from the consonant : as, ma-ter, mother.

21. If a short vowel be followed by two consonants which can
be pronounced at the beginning of a syllable, there are often two
ways of dividing the word. Thus funebr i, mournful, connected
with a funeral, is pronounced in prose, fu-ne-bri ; but in verse it may
be pronounced fu-ne"b-ri. Such a syllable is said to be common,
and is marked ( "" ), as funeljri.

22. If the last syllable but one be long, it has the accent, as,
vi-no, wine ; ar-cu, bow ; re-gi-na, queen ; sa-git-ta, arrow.

23. If the last syllable but one be short, and the last syllable but
two be long, this long syllable has the accent : as, fi-li-a, daughter ;
avun-ciilo, a mother's brother.

24. If several short syllables come together, the second of them
counting from the beginning of the word is nearly dropped. Thus
8 per a, work, should be pronounced almost as op'ra ; miseria,
wretchedness, as mis'ria ; e xi % r at, he had gone out, as ex-i'rat.

25. If the syllable to be so dropped be an i or u followed by a
vowel, pronounce the i like y, the u like w. Thus m ii H e r, a wo-
man, was pronounced mul-yer ; periimus, we are ruined, per-yi-
mus j r e s 1 i 1 u e r e, to set up again, restit-were.

WORD-BtriLDING. 3

26. A long word has sometimes more than one accent : as, im-
mortali, immortal; recuperate, (rec'perare), to recover, to get
back.

27. Enclitics are little -words pronounced and sometimes even
written with the word preceding : as, que, and ; mater-que, and the
mother ; ve, or ; mate*r-ve, or the mother ; ne, in asking questions ;
mater-ne abiit ? /* the mother gone away ? Prepositions placed after
a noun are of this kind : as, altis-de montibus, down from the high
mountains.

28. Proclitics are words pronounced and sometimes even written
with the word following. Prepositions are of this kind : as, inter-
nes, between us ; inter-se, between them ; in-primis, among the first ;
a-me, from me.

29. Elision. When one word ends with a vowel or a vowel and
an m, and the next begins with a vowel or an h, the final vowel and
the m of the first word are not pronounced in poetry. Thus,

Monstrum horrendun* informs ingens cui lumen ademptum
should be read :

Monstr', horrend', inform', ingens, cui lumen ademptum.

WORD-BUILDING.

30. The simplest words consist of one syllable : as, the verbs
due, lead or draw ; ag, drive or put in motion ; frag or frang, break ; or
the substantives ped,/oof ; sal, salt ; sol, sun ; or the adjective true,
cruel.

These are called roots.

31. Sometimes they have a vowel besides: as the verbs m8ve,
move ; doce, teach ; audi, hear ; or the substantives manu, hand ; auri,
ear ; naso, nose ; or the adjectives longo, long ; brevi, short.

32. A suffix is a syllable which is added to the end of a word and
adds to or alters its meaning : as, frSg, break ; frag-men, a piece
broken off.

33. A short vowel, generally i, seems sometimes to be inserted
before the suffix : as in frag-i-li, easily broken.

34. Several suffixes may be added one after another to the same

4 NOUNS.

root : as, fac, do ; fac-i-li, easily done ; facill-tat, the being easily
done, facility ; facilitat-Is, of facility.

Words formed by suffixes are said to be derived.

35. A. prefix is a syllable which is placed before a root, and adds
to or alters its meaning : as, frang, break ; per-fring, break through ;
due, lead ; de-due, lead down.

Words formed by prefixes are said to be compounded.

36. In the derivation and composition of words the letters are
sometimes slightly altered : as, frag, or frang, break ; frac-to, broken ;
perfring, break through ; Spes, work ; oper-is, of the work.

NOUNS.

37. The Latin language has no article, so that a Latin substan-
tive may be translated in three ways. 1. without an article, as
mulier, woman. 2. with the indefinite article, as mulier, a woman.
3. with the definite article, as mulier, tlve woman.

38. With Latin substantives there are three* questions to be
asked : What is the gender ? What is the case ? What is the
number ?

39. The genders are two, masculine and feminine. If a noun be
of neither gender, it is called neuter.

See table of genders, (pp. 19, et seq.)

40. Little suffixes with the meaning of prepositions are added to
nouns. Thus Sulmon was the name of a town in Italy. Add the
suffix em to it, and e-o Sulmon-em means / am going to Sulmon.
Add the suffix i, and Sulmon-i habit-o means / reside at Sulmon.

41. A noun, before these suffixes are added, is said to be in the
crude form,

42. The word made up of a noun and one of these suffixes is
called a case.

43. There are five suffixes, which being added to a crude form
make five cases : the nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and
ablative. To these is commonly added the vocative *.

* The case so called is in reality, so far as the Latin language is con-
cerned, a nominative ; except perhaps in the singular of the o declension,
viz. av. But even with this compare the nominatives iste, ille, ipse.

44. The nominative is formed by the suffix s : as, hiem, winter;
nom. hiems.

The nominative marks the quarter from which an action proceeds.
Thus, in the sentence, ' the master strikes the slave ; ' the blow
comes from the master : this word master in Latin would be in the
nominative case.

The nominative is called the subject in English grammar.

The vocative is used in addressing people.

45. The accusative is formed by the suffix en softened into em :
as, hiem ; ace. hiem-em.

46. The accusative marks the quarter to which an action is di-
rected : as, eo Sulmonem, / am going to Salmon. Or again in the
sentence, 'the master strikes the slave;' the blow goes to the slave:
this word slate in Latin would be in the accusative case.

The accusative is often used with prepositions ; as, in urbem
venit, he came into the city.

The accusative is called the object in English grammar *.

47- The genitive is formed by the suffix itis or is : as, quo, v:ho ;
gen. qu5-ius ; hiem; gen. hiem-is.

The genitive signifies from : as, calor sol-is, the heat from the
un. It is commonly translated by of: as, calor soils, the heat of
the sun ; or by the English suffix 's : as, calor soils, the sun's heat^.

48. The nominative and genitive both signify from : but they
differ in this ; the nominative belongs to a verb, the genitive to a noun.

49- The dative is formed by the suffix bi, often changed into I :
as, tu, you ; dat. ti-bi ; hiem, icinter ; dat. hiem-i.

The dative answers to the question, where, and is translated by
at or in : as, Sulmon-I, at Sulmon ; ali-bi, in another place. It
is used also for to, if there is no motion : as, haeret tibi, it clings
to you.

50. The ablative was originally the same as the dative ; but the
I is often changed into an e : as, crude form, hiem, winter ; abl.
hiem-e ; or lost altogether, leaving the preceding vowel long : as,
ala, icing abl. ala.

* The English language has the accusative suffix in him, the accusative
of he \ and in whom, the accusative of who.

t The English language has the genitive suffix in his, the genitive of
he ; and in whose, the genitive of who.

CONSONANT (OB THIBD) DECLENSION.

The ablative often agrees in meaning with the dative : as, D.
rur-i ; or Ab. rur-e', in the country ; D. Sulmon-I ; or Ab. Sulmon-e',
at Sulmon.

51. The ablative is often used with prepositions : as, cum reg-S,
with the king ; in urb-e, in the city.

52. Number. The plural is generally marked in English by a or
en : as, dogs, oxen ; in Latin sometimes by s, sometimes by un or urn.
These suffixes are added to the case-suffixes ; as in the genitives
servo-r-um for servo-'s-um, of slaves ; re-r*-um for re-'s-um, of
things ; or in the datives, vo-bl-s ; re-bii-s.

53. In adding these case-suffixes and plural- suffixes to the crude
forms, some changes take place, particularly if the crude form end
in a vowel.

54. These changes depend chiefly upon the last letter of the
noun. Nouns are therefore divided, according to the last letter,
into classes called declensions.

55. CONSONANT (OR THIRDf) DECLENSION.
1. MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS.

Latin crude )
form. j
English.

Reg.
king.

Pater,
father.

Ration.
account.

OrdSn.
rank.

C8mit.
companion.

Singular,
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

rex

rex
regem
regis
regi
rege

pater
pater
patrem
patris
patri
patrS

r2tio"
ratio
rationem
rationis
ration!
ratione

ordo'
ordo"
ordmem
ordmis
ordini
ordine

c5mes
c8mes
comitem
cbmitis
comiti
c5m!te /

Plural
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

reges
reges
reges
regum
regibus
reglbiis

patres
patres
patres
patrum
patribus
patribiis

comites
cSmites
c8mites
cSmitum
comltibus
comitibiis

rationes
rationes
rStiones
rStionum
rationibus
rStionibus

ordmes
ordines
ordmes
ordmum
ordmibus
ordinibiis

* The r for s in the genitive is seen in the English genitives her and their.
f The numbers of the declensions are given, because they are so arranged
in nearly all grammars and dictionaries.

CONSONANT (OB THIRD) DECLENSIOIC.

56. CONSONANT (OR THIRD) DECLENSION.
2. NEUTER NOUNS.

Neuter nouns differ from others only in the N., V., and Ace.,
which are always alike. In the singular they are nearly always
short in the last syllable, and in the plural always end in a.

Latin crude )
form. /
English.

Nomen.
name.

Opes.
work.

Frigos.
cold.

RSbor.
oak.

Capiit.
head.

Singular.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

n5men
nomen
nomen
nominis
n5mim
nomine

opus
opus
opus
opens
open
op?re

frigiis
frigus
frlgu?
frigorfs
frigori
frigore

robiir
robur
robur
roboris
roborl
roborg

caput
caput
capiit
capitis
capiti
capitS

Plural.
Nom.
Voc.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.

nomina
nomlnS
nomina
nominum
nomlnlbus
nomlnibus

opera
opera"
Spera
operum
operibus
operibus

frlgora
frigorS
frigCra
frigorum
frlgorlbus
frigorlbus

robora
robora
rooSra
roborum
roboribus
roboribus

capita
capit3
capita
capitum
capitibus
capitibus

57. REMARKS ON THE CONSONANT DECLENSION.

The nominative, as has been already said, is most regularly formed
by the addition of s : as, hi?m, irinter N. hiems.

58. If the crude form end in g or c, x is written instead of gs or
: as, reg, king ; N. rex ; niic, nut ; N. nux.

59. If the crude form end in d or /, this letter is omitted : as, IX-
pid, stone ; N. lapis ; comit, companion ; N. cSmes.

60. If in Greek words the crude form end in ant, ent, or /, the
Nom. will end in as, Is, us.

61. Even in Latin words, this change is sometimes found : as,
infant, infant ; N. infans, or infas.

62. If the crude form end in r, I, n, the s is omitted : as, pater,
father; N. patfr.

63. If the crude form end in on or on, the n also is omitted : as,

8 CONSONANT (OR THIRD) DECLENSION.

hbmbn, human being ; ration, an account; N. home?'; ratio'. In Greek
names in on or ont, the n is often retained, but not by the best
writers: as, Lacon ; Xenbphont ; N. Lacon; Xenophon; better Lacd";
Xenopho.

64. If the crude form end in s or ss, only one s is left at the end of
the nominative : as, mus,mouse; os, mouth; oss,bone; N. mils; os; 8s.

65. If the crude form end in II, rr, or rd, the second of these
consonants is omitted in the nominative : as, ass, a unit or a pound
weight ; N. as.

66. If the word be neuter, the s is not added : as, alec, a sort of
fish ; N. alec. Many adjectives, however, take the s even for the
neuter N. V. Ac. : as, feroc, haughty ; praesent, present ; N. V.
Ac. neut. ferox ; praesens.

67. Neuters in mat, borrowed from the Greek language, drop the
t in the N. V. Ac. : as, poemat, a poem ; N. V. Ac. poema.

68. If the crude form has a short i before the final consonant,
this is often changed in the N. into e : as, milit, soldier ; N. miles.

69. If the crude form end in es or os, the N. and V. generally pre-
fer us : as, v^nes, beauty; corpbs, a body ; N. and V. venus ; corpus.
Neuter words retain the iis in the Ac. also. Greek words prefer 8s
in the N. V. Ac. of neuters.

70. The crude form of comparative adjectives ends in os ; whence
the neuter N. V. Ac. end in us, the masculine and feminine N.
and V. in or : as, melios, better ; N. and V. m. and f. meli8r ; N.
V. Ac. neut. melms.

71. * When the nominative is left with a single consonant at the
end, the quantity of the preceding vowel generally remains as in the
crude form : as, salut, safety; custod, keeper ; N. saliis ; custos. On
the other hand, anat, duck ; lapid, stone ; pater, father, have in the
N. amis ; lapis ; pater.

72. But the crude forms in or have a short nominative : as, ti-
mor, fear ; N. timor.

* In old writers, such as Ennius, Plautus, Terence, (and occasionally
even Virgil,) nominatives, which should be short according to this rule,
are at times long : as, pater, like the Greek Trarn.p. So the nominatives
iter, sontpes, abies, aries, pSries, CSres, amor, sanguls, pulvis, from the
crude forms aer, soiriped, abiet, ariSt, pariet, Core's, ampr, sauguln, pulvis,
are met with.

COXSOXAXT (OR THIRD) DECLEXSIOX.

73. Crude forms in s coexist for the most part with crude forms
in r : as, arbos or arbor, a tree ; odos or odor, scent. Of these, the
form with r is preferred, in those cases where a vowel follows : as,
G. arborls, of a tree ; Moris, of the scent.

74. If the crude form end in is, er takes its place in those cases
where a vowel follows : as, pulvis ; dust, G. pulverls.

75. If the crude form end in on, en, fit, &c., the short vowel is
often changed into i in those cases where a vowel follows : as, ordon,
rank; caput, head; G. ordmTs; capitis. Caron, flesh, drops the vowel
altogether in those cases : as, G. carnis.

76. V. Greek words in ant form the V. in a : as, Atlant; N. Atlas ;
V. Atla.

77. Ac. Greek words often form the Ac. in a : as, Pallad ; N. Pal-
las; Ac. Pallada.

78. G. Greek words often form the G. in os or us : as, Pallad; G.
PalladSs.

79. D. The dative sometimes takes an 5 instead of an I : as, aes,
bronze ; D. aeri, and very rarely acre.

80. D. Greek words sometimes form the D. in I : as, Pallad ;
D. Palladi.

81. Ab. The ablative sometimes takes an I instead of an e : as,
caput, head; Ab. caplte, and very rarely capiti.

82. N. and V. pi. Greek words often shorten the last syllable
of the X. and V. pi. : as, rhetor ; N. and V. pi. rhetores.

83. N. V. Ac. pi. Greek neuter nouns whose crude form ends
in es form the N. V. and Ac. pi. in 25 or e : as, epes ; N. sing.
Spos ; N. V. Ac. pi. 5peS or epe.

84. Ac. pi. Greek words often form the Ac. pi. in 2s : as, rhetor ;
Ac. pi. rhetor as.

85. G. pi. There is an antiquated form of the G. pi. in erum :
as, nuc, nut ; G. pi. niicerum.

86. D. and Ab. pi. Greek nouns in mat often form this case in
matis, rather than in matibus : as, poemat ; X. sing, poema ; D.
and Ab. pi. poematlbus, or more commonly poematis.

87. D. and Ab. pi. Greek nouns sometimes form the D. and Ab.
pi. in si or sin, with the final consonant of the crude form omitted,
so as to leave the preceding vowel short : as, Troad ; N. sing.
Troas ; D. and Ab. pi. Troasi or Troasin.

VOWEL DECLENSIONS.

88. VOWEL DECLENSIONS.

1. MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS.

Last letter.

No. of 1
Declension. /

Latin crude 1
form. /

ala.

Svo.

avi.

acu.

re.

English.

wing.

grandfather.

bird.

needle.

thing.

Singular.

Norn.

alii

avos, avus

avisj

aciis

res

Voc.

ala

ave

avis

aciis

res

Ace.

alam

avom, avum

avim, avem

acum

rem

Gen.

alae

avi*

avis

acus

re'i, re

Dat.

alae

Svo

avi

acui, acu

re"!, re

Abl.

ala

avo

avi, ave

acii

Plural.

Norn.

alae

avi

aves

acus

res

Voc.

alae

avi

aves

acus

res

Ace.

alas

avos

avis, aves

acus

res

Gen.

alarum

avorum

avium

acuum

rerum

Dat.

alls f

avis

avibus

actibus

rebus

Abl.

alls

avis

avibus

acubus

rebiis

* The o of the crude form may be traced even in those cases which ap-
pear commonly without it. See the gen. sing, quo-ius, with the Homeric
Xoyoto ; the old nom. pi. oloe, with the Greek Xoyot ; the dat. and_abl. pi.
duobus, &c., with the Greek Xoyois.

t The a of the crude form is visible through all this declension except in
the dative and ablative plural. That it once existed here also is proved by
the old forms equabus, &c., and by the Greek dative fiovffais.

J Compare this declension with the Greek TroXt ; N. 7ro\s.

JIBST DECLEXSIOJf.

89. VOWEL DECLENSIONS.
2. NEUTER Nouxs.

Last letter.

Declension.

Latin.

bello.

man.

cornu.

English.

tear.

sea.

horn.

Singular.
Nom.

bellurn

mare

cornu

Voc.

bellum

mare

cornu

Ace.
Gen.
Dat.

P
J

bellum
belli
bello

mare
marls
man

cornu
cornus
cornui, cornu

_ 5

Abl.

no neuters (
eclension.

bel!5

marl

cornu

no neuters (
clension.

Plural.
Nom.
Voc.

bella
bella

maria
maria

cornua
cornua

Ace.
Gen.
Dat.

a.'

bella
bellorum
bellis

maria
marium
maribiis

cornua
cornuum
cornubus

Abl.

bellis

maribus

cornuhus

REMARKS ON THE FIRST, OR A DECLENSION.

90. A very large number of feminine adjectives are of this de-
clension, while the masculine and neuter forms end in o : as, buna,
fern, good ; b5no, masc. and neuter.

91 . N. Four words add an e to make the nominative : quae ; haec ;
istaec ; illaec. In the three last the c has nothing to do with the
case suffix.

92. N. The nominative in Greek proper names sometimes has an
s : as, JEnea ; nom. ^Eneas ; but the best prose writers prefer the
N. and V. in S : as, Aristagora.

93. V. The vocative of Greek proper names sometimes has a
long a ; as, .Jine! ; voc. ^Enea.

94. Ac. The accusative of Greek proper names sometimes has an
n : as, .nea ; ace. JEnean ; Maia ; ace. Mai an.

12 VOWEL DECLENSIONS.

95. G. The genitive has an old form in i : as, alai.

96. G. The genitive sometimes takes an s : as, familia, (fam'lia)
a gang of slaves, an establishment of slaves ; gen. famflias.

97. D. The dative has an old form in i : as, alai.

98. G. pi. The plural genitive sometimes has a short form : as,
caelicola, inhabitant of heaven ; gen. caelicolum, instead of caelicS-
larum. And in foreign proper names on, as in Greek, is sometimes
written instead of um.

99. D. and Ab. pi. The dative and ablative have an old form in
bus : as, equa, a mare ; D. and Ab. equabus. This form is often re-
tained to distinguish the sex ; otherwise, equo, a horse, and equa, a
mare, would have the same dative and ablative plural ; so also dua,
two ; amba, both, have D. and Ab. duabiis ; ambabus.

REMARKS ON THE SECOND, OR DECLENSION.

100. The Greek words Tro, a Trojan, and hero, a demigod, are
declined like Greek words of the consonant declension.

101. If the crude form end in ero, the e is often dropped in
those cases where a vowel follows the r : as, libero, the inner bark
of a tree, a book ; N. and V. liber ; Ac. librum ; G. librl ; D. and
Ab. libro ; plural N. and V. librl ; Ac. libros ; G. librorum ; D.
and Ab. libris.

102. N. and Ac. The nominative and accusative prefer an o, if u or
v precede : as, avo, grandfather ; N. livos ; Ac. Svom ; othei"wise u
is preferred : as, bono, good ; N. bonus ; A. bonum.

103. N. In Greek words o is preferred to u : as, Delo, the island
Delos ; N. Delos.

104. N. and V. If the crude form of a masculine noun end in
ro, the N. and V. often drop the letters that follow r : as, libero, a
book ; N. and V. liber.

105. N. Three nouns form the N. in % : ipso, self; N. ipsus or
ipse ; isJto, that near you ; N. iste ; illo, yonder ; N. ille. If nomi-
natives so formed take after them the enclitic ce, look or lo, they
have an i instead of an e. Hence, ho, this; N. hie; isto; N. istic;
illo ; N. illic.

106. V. The vocative from proper names in io contracts ie into I ;

SECOND DECLENSION.

as, Antonio; V. Antonf. So genio, a guardian spirit; V. gem;
filio, son ; V. fill.

107- V. Meo, mine, contracts the V. into mi.

108. V. The nominative is sometimes used as a vocative : as,
Deo, God ; N. or V. Detis.

109. Ac. Greek proper names sometimes form the accusative with
n : as, Delo, the island Delos ; Ac. Delon.

110. G. and D. The following adjectives form their genitives in
ius, their datives in I, for the masculine, feminine, and neuter, though,
some of them have occasionally the more common forms.

eo,

ejus

ipso,

ipsliis

ipsi

quo

quoius

quoi

alio,

alms

ali

or cu,

or cuj us

or cui

altero.

alterliis

alter!

utero,

utriiis

utri

uno,

unius

unl

neutero,

neutriiis

neutri

ullo,

ullius

ulli

ho.

hujus

hui-c

nullo,

nullius

nulll

isto,

istius

isti

s51o,

sollus

soli

illo,

illius

toto,

totiiis

totl*

111. Many of these genitives in ius are found in poetry with a
short penult, as illius ; but the genitive alms (contracted from aliius)
is always long. Alterius with a long i is found in poetry. In
prose it is usual to pronounce the i short : alterius.

112. G. Substantives in io contract il into I: as, otio, leisure;
G. otl. This final i is sometimes written so as to overtop the other
letters, as oxl.

113. G. Greek words sometimes form the genitive in u : as, Me-
nandero, the poet Menander ; G. Menandru.

114. D. Names of places form a dative in I with the meaning at :
as, Mileto, the town Miletus ; D. Mlletl, at Miletus ; so humo,
ground ; D. humi, on the around ; domo, house ; D. domi, at home ;
bello, war ; D. belli, IB war ; and some adjectives in certain phrases :
as, quint! die, on the fifth day, &c.

115. X. pi. The old nominative ended in e : as, oloe from olo,

* These words may be recollected by the following rhymes :

Ius and I, from alio, altero, I eo and quo. uno and ullo,
solo, toto, utero, neutero, [ ho, isto, illo, ipso and nullo.

14 VOWEL DECLENSIONS.

yonder, instead of ill! from illo. So also in Greek words : as,
A"delpho, brother ; N. pi. Adelphoe.

116. N. pi. Deo, God, has the plural N. Del, Dii, or more com-
monly Di ; and eo, this or that, has a plural N. ii, i, or more
commonly hi.

1 17. N. and Ac. pi. Duo, two, and ambo, loth, have for the mas-
culine N. duo and ambo, Ac. duos or duo ; ambos or ambo ; for
the neut. N. and Ac. duo and arabS.

118. G. pi. The genitive sometimes has a short form : as, duo,
two ; G. pi. duorum or duum ; modio, a bushel ; G. pi. medium.

119. G. pi. Greek words form the G. pi. in on : as, Georgico, be-
longing to agriculture; G. pi. Georgicon.

120. D. and Ab. pi. The dative and ablative of duo and ambo,
are in the masculine and neuter duobus, ambobiis.

121. D. and Ab. pi. Another form of the old D. and Ab. pi. is
in es : as, oloes from olo, yonder, instead of illls from illo.

122. D. and Ab. pi. Deo, has in the D. and Ab. pi. Deis, Diis,
or more commonly Dis ; and eo has els, us, is, or more commonly
his.

123. Four neuters in o take a d in the N. and A. singular : quo,
quod ; isto, istud ; illo, illiid ; alio, aliud.

124. Ho, isto, illo, when compounded with the enclitic ce, look
or lo, take neither d nor m in the N. and Ac. neut. Thus, ho, isto,
illo ; N. and Ac. neuter, hoc, istoc or istuc, illoc or illuc.

REMARKS ON THE THIRD, OR I DECLENSION.

125. Many words belong partly to the i declension, partly to the
consonant declension : as, sort or sorti, a lot or ballot. In such
words the singular is generally formed according to the consonant
declension, the plural according to the i declension. Thus N. and
V. sors ; Ac. sortem ; G. sortis ; D. sort! ; Ab. sorte ; pi. N. and
V. sortes ; Ac. sortis or sortes ; G. sortium ; D. and Ab. sortibus.

126. Many words belong partly to the i declension, partly to the
e declension : as, aede or aedi, temple. The forms from e are sel-
dom used except in the nom. and voc. But, fame or fSmi, hunger,
has an Ab. fame with the e long, as in the e declension.

127. N. and V. If a crude form end in ri, the letters which
should follow r are often dropped in the nom. and voc. : as, linteri,

THIRD DECLEXSIOIf. 15

a wkerry ; N. and V. linter ; "Arari, a river in GaUia; N. and
V. "Arar or, v Ar5ris.

128. N. and V. Some adjectives ending in Sri have both forms :
as, aceri, sharp ; N. and V. acer, for the masculine ; acris, for the
feminine ; but acris is sometimes used even for the masculine.

129. If the crude form end in eri, the e is often dropped in those
cases which do not end in er : as, linteri, wherry ; G. lintris.

130. N. and V. If the crude form ends in li, the letters which
should follow 1 in the N. and V. are sometimes dropped : as, vigfli, a
night sentinel ; N. and V. vigil. This word is in origin an adjective.

131. N. V. Ac. If the crude form of a neuter substantive end in
ari or all, the N. V. Ac. generally drop the final e and shorten the
a : as, calcari, spur ; N. V. Ac. calcar. These words are in origin
neuter adjectives.

132. N. and Ac. Three nouns form the neut. sing. N. and Ac.
in d : qui, quid ; i, id ; ali, alid.

133. Ac. Adjectives prefer the accusative in em to that in im :
as, leni, smooth ; Ac. masc., and fern., lenem.

134. Ac. Greek words often form the accusative in n : as, Pari ;
N. Paris ; Ac. Parin.

135. G. Greek words sometimes form the gen. in os : as, mX-
thesi ; G. matheseos.

136. Ab. Neuter substantives and adjectives of all genders prefer
the ablative in I to that in e : as, mari, sea ; Ab. mari ; leni, smooth ;
Ab. leni. But adjectives used as masc. or fern, substantives prefer
the Ab. in e : as afflni, a relative by marriage ; Ab. affine.

137. G. pi. Some nouns drop the i in the G. pi. : as, cani, dog ;
juveni, young man ; celeri, quick ; G. pi. canum ; jiivenum ; celerum.
This is often the case in poetry : as, agresti ; G. pi. agrestium ;
or in poetry, a"grestum.

138. G. pi. Greek words sometimes form the G. pi. in on: as,
metamorphosi ; N. Sing, metamorphosis; G. pi. metamorphoseon.

139. G. pi. Plural names of festivals often form the G. pi. as if
from a C. F. in io : as, Baccanali ; N. pi. Baccanalia ; G. pi. Bac-
canalium or Baccanaliorum.

16 DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOTJNS.

REMARKS ON THE FOURTH, OR U DECLENSION.

140. Two monosyllabic nouns, su, a boar or sow, gru, a crane, are
not contracted like the longer nouns of this declension, and are
therefore declined as in the consonant declension ; but su has both
subus and suibus in the D. and Ab. pi.

141. Many crude forms in u coexist with crude forms in o : as/
lauro or lauru, laurel. Hence the genitives Senatl, tiimulti, &c., as
well as SSnatiis, tumultus, &c., are found.

142. G. From ami, an old woman, the uncontracted Gen. SnuTs is
used.

143. G. pi. One u is sometimes omitted in the G. pi. : as, curru,
chariot ; G. pi. curruum, or in poetry, currum.

144. D. and Ab. pi. Many words change the penult ti into i :
as, cornu, horn D. and Ab. pi. cornlbus.

REMARKS ON THE FIFTH, OR E DECLENSION.

145. Many crude forms in e coexist with crude forms in a: as,
materia or materie, timber.

146. G. Old forms of the genitive, such as dies and dil, from die,
day, are found.

147- G. and D. The penult e in the G. and D. was originally
long in all the nouns of this declension ; but if no i precede, it is
considered to be short in prose : as, from fide, faith ; G. and D.
f idel ; but from die, day, G. and D. diei.

148. Few nouns in e have a plural, and still fewer a G. D. and
Ab. pi.

DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOUNS.

149. Some nouns are not declined : as, nihil, nothing fas, per-
mitted by Heaven; nequam, good for nothing ; quot, how many, tot,
co many ; and many numerals. See Numerals.

150. Some nouns want the plural : as, senectut, old age; ver, n.
spring ; sxiperbia, pride ; prole, offspring ; auro, n. gold ; oleo, n. oil.

151. Some nouns want the singular: as, tene^bra; N. pi. te'ne'-
brae, darkness j'castro, n. ; N. pi. castra, a camp ; armo, n. ; N. pi.
anna, arms ; Piiteblo ; N. pi. Puteoli, (wells,') the name of a town.

152. Some nouns have both singular and plural, but with dif-
ferent meanings : as,

DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR XOVXS. 17

Sing. Plur.

aedi or aede, a room or temple ; a house.

2qua, tcater; medicinal springs.

auxilio, n. help ; allied troops.

copia, abundance; military forces.

fini, end; boundaries, territory.

fortuna, fortune ; property.

gratia, favour ; thanks.

litera, a letter of the alphabet ; a letter or epistle.

Spera, work, assistance ; labourers, or hired men.

153. Some nouns are deficient in one or more cases : thus, vie,
turn, has no X. or D. sing. ; vi, force, has no G. sing.

154. Some nouns form their cases partly from one crude form,
partly from another. Thus, volgos, n., mob, supplies a X., V., Ac.
sing., and volgo, n., the G., D., Ab. sing. ; iter, n., route, supplies
a N., V., Ac. sing., and itiner, n., the other cases ; praecip, head-
foremost, supplies praeceps for the N. and V. sing, of all genders,
and the Ac. neut. sing., the other cases being formed from praeci-
pit ; vas, n., a vessel, is declined in the singular along -with vaso, n.,
in the plural.

155. Some nouns have one gender in the singular, another in the
plural. Thus,

die, day, is m. or/, in the singular, but m. in the plural.

caelo, air, sky, is n. m.

freno, bridle, is n. , m. or n.

rastro, rake, is n. m. or n.

joco, joke, is m. m. or n.

loco, place, is m. m, or n.

156. Some adjectives are deficient in gender. Thus, memor,
mindful, pauper, earning -little, have no neuter ; victric or victrlci,
victorious, is only fern, in the sing., only fern, or neut. in the plur.

SOME IRREGULAR NOUNS DECLINED.

157- Bov, ox or cow. N. V. bos; Ac. bovem ; G. bovis ; D. bovi;
Ab. bove. PI. N. V. Ac. boves ; G. bourn ; D. and Ab. bobtis or
bubus.

18 DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR NOUNS.

158. Deo, God, N.V. Deiis ; Ac. Deum; G. Dei; D. Ab. Deo;
PI. N. V. Dei, Dii, more commonly Di ; Ac. Decs ; G. Deorom
or Deum ; D. Ab. Deis, Diis, more commonly DIs.

159. Domo or domu,/., house. N.V. domus; Ac. dSmum ; G.
domus ; D. domui, domo, with domi, at home ; Ab. domu or
domo. PI. N. V. domus ; Ac. domus or dom5s ; G. domuum or
domorum ; D. Ab. dSmibus.

160. Jov-piter (=pater). N.V. Juppiter or Jupiter ; Ac, JoVem ;
G. Jovis ; D. Jovi ; Ab. JOY?.

161. Jus-jurando, ., oath (really two words). N. V. Ac. jus-
jurandum ; G. jurisjurandi ; D. jurljurando ; Ab. jurejurando.

162. Nig or niv, snow. N.V. nix; Ac. nivem; G. nivis; D. nivl;
Abl. nive. PI. N. A. nives ; Ab. nivibus.

163. Re-publica, common-wealth (really two words). N.V. res-
publica; Ac. rem-publicam ; G. D. rei-publicae ; Ab. re-publica,
&c. PI. Ac. res-publicas ; G. rerum-publicarum ; Ab. rebus-
publicis.

164. Senec or sen, an old man. N. V. senex ; Ac. senem ; G. senis ;
D. seni; Ab. sene. PI. N. V. Ac. senes; G. senum ; D. Ab.
senibus.

165. Vi, force. N. V. vis ; Ac. vim. D. Ab. vi. PI. N. V. A.
vires ; G. virium ; D. Ab. viribiis.

SOME FOREIGN PROPER NAMES DECLINED.

166. A/i/g;,Aenea. N. Aeneas ; V. Aenea; Ac.Aenean, or am;
G. D. Aeneae ; Ab. Aenea.

167. Ayjcr, or YI, Anchisa, or Anchise. N. Anchises ; V. An-
crilse, or a ; Ac. Anchlsen, or am ; G. D. Anchlsae ; Ab.
Anchise, or a.

168. OfrTj,''Oreste,or ta. N. "Orestes; V. w Oresta; Ac. v Ore6ten,
or em j G. D. "Orestae ; Ab. "Oreste.

169. Mf^oti/Sfo, Menandero. N. Menandros, or drus, or deY.
V. Menandre, or Menander ; Ac. Menandron, or drum ; G.
Menandru, or drl ; D. Ab. Menandro.

170. Hotvdoo, Panthoo. N. Panthus ; V. Panthu ; Ac. Panthun, or
Panthum ; G. Panthi ; D. Ab. Pantho.

171. &6u, "Atho, or'Athon (and perhaps w Ath5) . N. "Athoa ; Ac.

GENDER. 19

"Athon, "Atho, "Athonem (and perhaps "Athon) ; G. D. "Atho ;
Ab.'Atho, or "Athene.

172. Aitia, Dido. N. V. Ac. Dido ; G. Didus ; D. Ab. Dido. Also
from Didon ; N. V. Dido" ; Ac. Didonem, &c.

173. Koa, or K, Coo. N. Cos; Ac. Coon, or Con; G. Coi, or
Co ; D. Ab. Coo, or Co.

174. n5<, or ILt^/3, Pari, or Parid ; N. Paris ; V. Paris, or Pan ;
Ac. Parim, or in ; Paridem, or da ; G. Paridos, or dis ;
D. Parldi or di ; Ab. Paride.

175. AxiMsf, Achillev, or le. N. Achilles; V. Achille ; Ac.
Achillen, or aa, or em ; G. Achilleos, Achillei, Achillis, and
in the best prose Achilll ; D. Achillei, or lei, or li ; Ab.
Achille.

176. O^tftf, Orphev, or Orpheo. X. Orpheus; V. Orpheu ; Ac.
Orphea, or eum ; G. Orpheos, or el, or ei, or i ; D. Or-
phei, or ei, or eo ; Ab. Orpheo.

17". I*iwff, Ilionev. N. Ilioneus; V. Ilioneu; Ac. Ilionea; G,
Dioneos, or Ilionei ; D. Ilionei, or ei, or eo ; Ab. Ilioneo.

178. Hfyaf, Persev, or Perse. Like Orphev : but also X. Perses ;
V. Perse ; Ac. Persen ; G. D. Persae ; Ab. Perse, or sa.

179. 2>t*T*;, Socrates, or Socrate. N. Socrates ; V. S5crates, or
tes, or te ; A. Socraten, or tern ; G. Socratis, or rather
Socrati ; D. Socrati ; Ab. SocrSte.

180. Tlioi^fs;, Pericle. N. Pericles; V. Pericles, or cle; Ac.
Periclea, or clem ; G. Pencils, or rather Pericli ; D. Pericll ;
Ab. Pericle.

181. >.>JT, Thalet, or Thale. N. Thales ; V. Thales, or le;
Ac. Thaleta, or tern ; Thalen, or em ; G. Thaletis, Thalis,
or li ; D. Thaleti, or Thali ; Ab. Thalete, or Thale.

182. A TV, Aty. N.Atys; V. Atj; Ac. At jn, or ym; G. AtySs,
or is, or Atys ; D. Atyi, or Aty ; Ab. Atye, or Aty.

GENDER.

183. It has been already stated, that there are two genders,
masculine and feminine, and that those nouns which are of no
gender are called neuter.

20 GEJCDER.

184. The gender may be determined partly by the meaning,
partly by the suffix or termination.

GENDER DETERMINED BY MEANING.

185. Males, months*, winds, and rivers, are generally masculine.

186. Females, countries*, islands*, towns, and trees, are gene-
rally feminine.

187. Nouns undeclined, words belonging to the other parts of
speech used for the time as substantives, sentences used as sub-
stantives, and the produce of trees, are generally neuter.

188. Many substantives denote both the male and female, and
are therefore called common : as, sacerdot, priest, or priestess.
These are for the most part really adjectives.

189. Sometimes there are two different words or two different
terminations, one for the male, the other for the female : as, tauro,
bull ; vacca, cow ; equo, horse ; equa, mare.

190. At other times the natural gender of animals is forgotten
for a fanciful gender. Thus, the words volpe, fox ; cani, or cane,
dog ; anat, duclc, are generally considered to be feminine. On the
contrary, anser, goose; lepos, hare, are masculine. Those words,
which under one grammatical gender are applied to both male and
female, are called epicenes. If the real gender must be noticed, the
words mas, N. mas, male, and femina,/ema?e, are added.

* The names for the months are really adjectives agreeing with the
masculine noun, mensi, month, understood. The names of countries and
islands are also often adjectives agreeing with the feminine nouns, terra,
land, and iusiila, island.

GEXDER.

GEXDERS DETERMINED BY SUFFIXES.

MASCULINE SUFFIXES.

191. The following suffixes produce masculine nouns.
are arranged alphabetically according to their last letters.

They

Suffix

Added
to

Gives a

subst.
meaning.

Thus,
from

English

Is
derived

English

verbs

one who s

incol

inhabit

incol-a

inhabitant.

a person

navi

ship

navl-ta

sailor.

vort

turn

vort-Ic

eddy.

magnitude

naso

nose

Nas-on

big-nose.

verbs

turba

disorder

turb-on

whirlwind.

mon

verbs

sow, scatter

ser-mon

conversation.

verbs

act

lud

play

lud-o

play.

iof

verbs

flu

flow

fluv-io

river.

filof

verbs

tiime

swell

tum-ulo

mound.

Inof

as-lno

ass

STO

num-2ro

number.

tSrof

verbs

instrument

col

cut, dig

cul-tero

plough-share.

to;

verbs

one ed

lega

depute

lega-to

deputy.

verbs

time

fear

tlm-or

fear.

tor

verbs

one who s

ara

plough

ara-tor

ploughman.

verbs

ing

audi

hear

audl-tu

hearing.

192. It would be a useful exercise to collect examples of each
suffix. Thus, for the suffix a, from verbs, denoting a person :

conviv-a, a messmate or guest, from con, together , and vlv, live.

advcn-a, a stranger, from ad, to, and ven, come.

scrib-a, a secretary, from scrib, write.

parrlcid-a, o parricide, from pater, father, and caed, strike.

transfug-a, a deserter, from trans, across, and fug,jty.

caellcol-a, heaven-inhabiting, from caelo, sky, and col, inhabit.

ignige"n-a, fire-born, from igni, fire, and gen, produce.

* Words of this class may perhaps be considered as common, but the
masculine is generally meant.

f See the neuter suffixes. J These are really masculine participles.
These are often called supines.

GENDER.

193. FEMININE SUFFIXES.

Suffix

Added
to

Gives a
subst.
meaning.

Thus,
from

English

derived

English

verbs

act

fSg

fly

fug-a

flight.

subst.

collective

fSmiilo

slave

famil-ia

family*.

people

a country

Gallo

a Gaul

Gall-ia

Galliaf.

adj.

quality

mlse'ro

wretched

mls^r-Ia

wretchedness.

Itia

adj.

quality

amico

friendly

amic-Itia

friendship.

ela

verbs

act

quSr

complain

quer-ela

complaint.

ela

subst.

state

client

vassal

client-ela

vassalage.

tela

verbs

act

tue

protect

tu-tela

protection.

ilia

tab-iila

plank.

verbs

act

speak

"a-ma

report.

ina

p&te

be-spread

jSt-Ina

dish.

Tna

male

female

reg

king

reg-ina

queen.

ina

verbs

act

rush

ru-ina

down-fall.

bra

verbs

ie hid

ate"-bra

hiding-place.

era

pate

De-spread

3at-era

bowl.

ura

verbs

act

model

ig-ura

shape.

tura

verbs

act

Pig

mint

nc-tura

painting.

verbs

act

vlv

ive

a-ta

life.

adj.

quality

uveni

young

uven-ta

youth.

tricj

verbs

'emale

vie

conquer

vic-tric J

conqueress.

verbs

act

fid

trust

nd-e||

faith.

verbs

state

fac

make

'ac-ie

form.

Itie

adj.

quality

;risti

sad

rist-itie

sadness.

verbs

act

mor

die

mor-t,mor-ti

death.

don

verbs ?

quality

dulce

)e sweet

lulce-don

sweetness.

jon

verbs ?

act

Sri

rise

SrI-gon

origin.

;udon

adj.

quality

ongo

ong

ongl-tudon

length.

ion

verbs

act

oplna

hink

opln-ion

opinion.

tion

verbs

act

die

speak

lic-tion

speaking.

tat

nouns

quality

civi

citizen

civl-tat

citizenship.

tut

nouns

[uality

servo

slave

ervl-tut

slavery.

* Literally, a slave-gang.

t This perhaps strictly means the whole people, and is thus a collective,
like familia. The plural Galli, on the other hand, sometimes means the
country.

J Or trici ; this is perhaps an adjective.

f| Obs. the change of quantity.

These suffixes, which are nearly the same, also denote collectives : as,
clvltat, all the citizens, the state; juventut, either youth, a period of life,
or youth, young men.

GEXDER.

194. NEUTER SUFFIXES.

Suffix

Added
to

Gives a

subst.
meaning.

Thus,
from

English

Is derived

English

li*

snbst.

place, &.c.

anima

life ,anlma-li

animal^

ri*

subst.

place, &c.

pulvino

cushion pulvina-ri

shrine.

verbs

ungu

anoint jungu-e'n

ointment.

men

verbs

instrument

teg

cover (teg-men

covering.

o
io

verbs
verbs

act, &c.

jug
gande

yoke jiig-o
rejoice fgaud-io

yoke,
joy.

Itio

nouns

serro

slave fserv-Itio

slaverv.

ulo

verbs

instrument

jac

throw

jac-ulo

dart. '

bulof

verbs instrument

vena

hunt

vena-bulo

hunting-spear.

bulof

subst.

instrument

tus

incense

turi-bfilo

censer.

cfiloj

verbs

instrument

vgh

carry

vShl-culo

carriage.

Ino

reg

king

reg-no

royal power.

ero

verbs instrument

scalp

scratch

scalp-ro

graving-tool.

b'ro f

verbs instrument

cer

sift

cri-bro

sieve.

c'ro J

verbs

instrument

sepel

bury

spul-cro

burial-place.

t'ro

verbs

instrument

rad

scrape

ras-tro

rake.

verbs

thing done

lega

leave

egii-to

legacy.

eto

trees

collective

quercu

oak

querc-eto

oak-grove

ento

verbs

ungu

anoint

unguento

ointment.

naeuto

verbs

instrument

orna

equip

ornamento

equipment.

verbs

it or i

It-Sr

route.

iner

verbs

it ori

It-in&

route.

fir

verbs

fulg

shine

fulg-ur

lightning.

verbs

gen

produce

gen-es

race, birth.

verbs

frige

be cold

frig-OS

cold.

mos

verbs

fac

fac-lnSs

deed.

195. The tables of suffixes here given are far from sufficient to
determine the gender of all words. Indeed, some of the suffixes
will be found common to the masculine and neuter tables : as, o,
io, ulo, mo, ero, tero, to.

196. It will be observed that a large number of substantives in a

* These are really neuter adjectives, and the two suffixes are closely
related ; puMnari being preferred to pulvinafi, because the word has al-
ready got an /.

f Bulo and b'ro are probably the same suffix. This suffix also means
place.

J The same may be said of cillo and c'ro, and perhaps t'ro.

"As, es, os, us, together with ar, &:, or, ur and iit, are mere varieties
of the same suffix. So also Iner, inos, Inor, &c., are of one origin. Com-
pare the last three with the Greek repeves, sacred ground.

24 GENDER.

are feminine. But the rule is far from universal ; as may be seen
in the masculines : Belga, a Belgian ; Sulla, the Roman dictator ;
Matrona, m., the river Marne- Hadria, the Hadriatic; nauta,
sailor ; incola, inhabitant.

] 97. The nouns in i occasion much trouble. The majority are
feminine, but the exceptions are numerous. These may perhaps
be remembered by the following acrostic :

M asciillni generis crini
A mni* axi funi* fini*
S enti* denti fusti fasci
C olli calli* cossi cassi
U ermi vecti orbi hosti
L ieni torqui* pani posti
I gni folli pisci ponti
N ot omitting fonti monti
E nsi mensi cauli angui*
S crob scrobi-ue torri ungui.

*Many e'en of these as fini
Are also generis femtninl.

FORMATION AND GENDER OF DIMINUTIVES.

198. The gender of a diminutive is the same as that of the noun
from which it is formed : as, frater, m. brother ; fraterculo, m. little
brother ; corona, f. a circular wreath or chaplet ; cbrolla, /. a small
chaplet ; corpos, n. body corpusculo, n. a small body.

199. Hence the gender of a diminutive will often assist the me-
mory to the gender of the primitive or word from which it is de-
rived. Thus corbiciila, /. a little basket, proves that corbi, a basket,
is feminine.

200. If the noun be of the first or second declension, that is, if it
end in o or a, the diminutive ends in ulo or iila. Thus from anima,
breath or life, dim. animiila.

201 . If the letter before o and a be v, e or i, olo and Sla are
preferred. Thus from servo, slave ; llnea, line ; servolo, linebla,
are derived.

202. If the letter before o and a be an r, 1, or n, a contraction
generally takes place producing a termination llo or lla. Thus from

puera, girl ; tfciilo, eye ; vino, trine, are derived (puerula) puella, f. ;
(ocululo) ocello, m. ; (vinulo) villo, n.

X.B. If the vowel before the liquid was short, the diminutive ge-
nerally has an e before 11.

203. If the letter before o or a was an 1, and that 1 was itself
preceded by a long vowel or diphthong, the diminutive ends in xillo
or xilla. Thus velo, sail ; vexillo, flag ; ala, wing ; axilla, armpit.

204. If the noun be not of the first or second declension, the di-
minutive generally ends in ciilo or cula. Thus from cani, f. dog fra-
ter, m. brother ; genu, n. knee ; spe, f. hope, are derived caniciila, f. ;
fraterciilo, m. ; genlculo, n. ; specula, f.

205. But if the noun end in c or g, t or d, the form ulo or ula is
generally preferred. Thus from cornic, f. crow ; reg, m. king ; ca-
piit, n. head ; lapid, m. stone, are derived corniciila, f. ; regulo, m. ;
capitiilo, n. ; lapidulo, contracted into lapillo, m.

206. If the noun end in on or on, the o is changed into u. Thus
from homon, man ; ration, f. account, are derived homunculo, m. ;
ratiuncula, f.

207. These rules for forming diminutives are applicable to ad-
jectives also.

208. The feminine diminutives in io declined like neuters ; a?,
Glycerio, nom. Gljrcerium, from Glycera ; belong to the Greek lan-
guage.

209. To the same language belong the masculine diminutives in
isco and astero : as, Syrisco, nom. Syrisciis, little Syrus ; paraslta-
stero, a little parasite.

210. Many adjectives are used as substantives, the real substan-
tive being understood . Thus :

Medlclna, arti art understood, the art of healing.
"Arithmetlca, arti art understood, the art of numbers.
Mediclna, taberna shop understood, the doctor's shop.
Agnina, caron Jiesh understood, lamb's flesh, lamb.
Belluna, dea goddess understood, the goddess of war.
Africa, terra land understood, the land of the Afri.
Annona, copia supply understood, the year's supply.
Corona, yitta fillet understood, circular fillet, chaplet.

26 ADJECTIVES.

Comped, catena chain understood, foot-chain, fetter.
Manica, catena chain understood, hand-chain, hand-cuff.
December!, mensi month understood, the 10th month, (from
March,) December.

Statuario, masc. (a man) of statues, a sculptor.
Praetorio, neut. (the place) of the praetor, the general's tent.
Griinario, neut. (the place) for grain, granary.
"Ovlli, neut. (the place) for sheep, sheep-fold.

ADJECTIVES.

211. Adjectives are declined like substantives.

212. Adjectives -with crude forms in o for the masculine and
neuter, in a for the feminine, are often called adjectives of three ter-
minations.

213. Bono, m. and n. ;

bbna, f. good.

Singular.

Plural.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

Masc. Fem.

Neut.

bonus

bbna

bbnum

bbnl bbnae

bbna

bone

bbna

bbnum

bbni bbnae

bbna

Ac.

bbnum

bbnam

bbnum

Ac.

bbnos bbnas

bbna

bbni

bbnae

bbni

bbnorum bbnarum

bbnorum

bbno

bbnae

bbno

bbnis bbnls

bbnis

Ab.

bbno

bbna

bbno

Ab.

bbnis bbnis

bbnis

214

.-Atero,

m. andn.

; atera,

215

. Aspero, m. andn.

; aspera,

black.

f. rough.

Singular.

Masc.

Fern,

Neut.

Masc. Fem.

Neut.

ater

atra

atrum

asper aspera

asperum

ater

atra

atrum

asper aspera

asperum

Ac.

atrum

atram

atrum

Ac.

asperum asperam

asperum

&c.

8cc.

216. Adjectives with crude form in i are often called adjectives
of two terminations.

ADJECTIVES.

217. Tristi, sad.

Singular.
Masc. Fern.

Neui.

N. tristis

tristis

triste

V. tristis

tristis

triste

Ac. tristem

tristem

taste 1

G. tristis

tristis

D. tristi

tristi

.40. tristi

tristi

Plural.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. tristes tristes tristia

V. tristes tristes tristia
Ac. tristis or -es tristis or- es tristia

G. tristium tristium tristium

D. tristibus tristibus tristibus

Ab. tristibus tristibus tristibus

N.
V.
Ac.

218. "Aceri, sharp.

Singular,
Masc. Fern.

acer or acris
acris

acrem acrem

&c.

feut.

Celeri, quick.
Singular.
Masc. Fern.

Neuf.

acre

ff.

celer or celeris

celere

celeris

acre

celer or celeris

celere

celeris

acre

Ac.

celerem celerem

celere

&c.

219. Adjectives with one crude form in a consonant, and another
in i, form the singular from the first, the plural from the second :
as,

Ac.

Ab.

Ac.

Ab.

220. Adjectives with the crude form in a consonant, are some-
times called adjectives of one termination.

Praesent or praesenti, present.

Singular.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

praesens

praesentem

praesens

praesentis

praesenti

praesenti or

praesente

Plural.

Masc.

Fern .

Neut.

praesentis

praesentes

praesentia

praesentes

praesentia

praesentis or -es

praesentia

praesentium

praesentibus

praesentlbus

praesentibus

praesentlbus

praesentibus

praesentlbus

ADJECTIVES.

Singular.

Masc. Fern.

N. vetus vetus

V. vetxis vetus

Ac. veterem veterem

G. veteris veteris

D. vetSri veteri

Ab. vetere* vetere*

221. Vetes, old.

Plural.

Neut. Masc. Fern. Ncuf.

vetus A'', veteres veteres vetera"

vetiis V. veteres ve'te'res vetera

vetiis Ac. veteres veteres vetera

veteris

veteri

vetere*

G. veterum veterum veterym
D. veteribus veteribus veteribxis
Ab. veteribus veteribus vetSribus

222. Tristios or tristior, sadder or more sad.

Masc.

Singular.
Fern.

Neut.

tristior

tristiiis

tristior

tristiiis

Ac.

tristidrem

tristiorem

tristius

tristioris

tristiorl

tristiori

Ab.

tristiore*

Plural.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

tristiores

tristiora

tristioris

tristiores

tristiora

Ac.

tristiores

tristiora

tristiorura

tristiorum

tristiorurr

tristioribiis

tristioribus

tristioribC

Ab.

tristioribus

tristioribv

223. Many adjectives whose crude form ends in a consonant
have no neuter.

224. Some adjectives have a crude form in i as well as that in o
or a : as,

cheerful ur

u-eak or

unarmed or

half-asleep or

of-one-mind or

hilaro

imbecillo

inermo

semisomno

iinanimo

bijugu

yoked-two-together or

hilSri

imbccilli

inermi

semisomni

finanimi

bijiigi, &c.

* Seldom veteri, tristiori.

SUFFIXES OF ADJECTIVES.

fa
O

3.,

^C > xs xs =.^ - ^ 3

- -

" " '

233

c 5 = =

^ "r - " " "T "

o "2 ^3
- 5 CyaiS

SUFFIXES OF ADJECTIVES.

a a

a 1 "1

o> <o is
tObO

^3
1

S ^

silA fjb [r

3 alt?s
^ 11-11

-> _oS fcb.bo

^3^-2 .3 ^ e <^ e ^

D t S'o3a- tJ 'c3'~ H o^ -

o III >| g>j3 | | || "

Si* al^l.lllj*:

'i'o'o'o S^JiS =L t o"o"o"

^ g'a s'o S'SSS Sg^

Is derived

8 .9*0 1

8 8o^3'2 |o<

filial Is I nil

t> 7^5 > feJO 1 "^ fl 5 ""d i-i M fi^ fcD>

1^ i^- ji-< *j >Rj ^15 22 (3 M M C3 1^5

o -S

1 .2 ^ S ' .9 ^ *? .3 "

3 i S > S ^ 2 *f be'c! bo 3
3 ^iS 53 >; * fa =3 w a ia a ig

tead o!pro-i

cj c?

Slllgglllull

a 3 13

g
i

3 .a 3 ' J J "1 ^ > f'g 2

<u be

"c
'

233

be bo bo V

o c o o o S

"*"* "*"* "*^ "*"* "*^ QJ o C?

bo be bo C bo bo* > >

a a a o VM <*H i-i

'bc'ho'bb"^

a a a " a a co - j3 ;S
'to'Sa'Sb ^'Sb'aj g g

-M O O O 1 "^,^ a_ 4 _.'BT3 l T3

O O O-J5 O O-g'3,^'3"tn

4S u'3'o S'3'a3"= ; 3 = ^ g
I2^=j=^! C^^^tS a S a

J=,S,S'S,Sj= r S ; 3i5 ; 3 i

,rt

ojj

W CO CO CO T

j-i??5*-'^'^*H^555^

'illiiiitlfi

* O o

C/3

oo '^'a eo

.2 O O

oll S^ S8 8 .<

>.2.2l-!5:l-2lJ>3>g

SUFFIXES OF ADJECTIVES. 31

3 .~ t+ ^ .5 5

Ks c:r-_^ -> j: - ' ., = - =

liJiljjHitjjg-tjigiJjjgJj^i

ooocoo s .ti

^ ^

tpiCi~ tr.tcicictctp o too

= - -

----- ^ . ^r'

32 ADJECTIVES.

226. Of these suffixes many are closely connected : as, ac and
oc ; li, ri, and rio ; bili and beri ; estri and esti ; uco, ivo, uo, and
io, from verbs ; oso and coso ; itio and titio ; &c.

227. In adding the suffixes, the last vpwel of the preceding word
must not be neglected. Thus, with the suffix ino or no, the follow-
ing derivatives are formed :

Roma, Rome; Roma-no, of Rome.

porno, apple, fyc. ; Pomo-na, (goddess} of fruit.

mari, sea ; marl-no, of the sea.

tribu, tribe; tribu-no, (commander) of a tribe, tribune.

ege (verb), want ; ege-no, in leant.

228. Or, with a slight change :

divo, a god ; (divoino) divino, belonging to a god.

vipera, a viper ; (viperaino) vipermo, belonging to a viper.

229. And, lastly, since o is readily interchanged with a :
Pompeio, Pompey ; Pompeiii-no, belonging to Pompey.

230. Now, as by far the greater number of Latin nouns end
in a or o, and the latter itself is often changed to a, the result was,
that of the adjectives formed with the suffix ino or no, a large
majority were found to end in ano. Hence ano was itself mis-
taken for a suffix, and from mont, mountain, was formed montilno,
belonging to the mountains, &c.

231. Again, as the nouns ending in o or a, when the suffix ino is
added, often suffer a contraction so as to form adjectives in Tno, and
as the same termination resulted from adding the same suffix to
nouns in i, the consequence was that ino was mistaken for a suffix.
Hence from anser, goose, was formed anserine, belonging to a
goose, &c.

232. Similarly, with the suffix li or ri, are formed :
ancbra, anchor ; ancbra-li, of the anchor.
puella, girl ; puella-ri, girl-HJce.

fluvio, river ; fliivia-li, of the river.

pbpulo, state ; pbpulii-ri, of the same state.

civi, citizen ; clvi-li, like a citizen.

tribu, tribe ; tribu-li, of the same tribe.

fide, faith ; f ide-li, faithful.

ADJECTIVES. 33

233. Again, of adjectives so formed, the greater number will be
found to end in ali or ari. Hence these were mistaken for suffixes ;
and, accordingly, from capiit, head, virgon, maid, reg, Icing, &c.,
were formed caput-ali, virgin-ali, reg-ali.

234. In the same way ario was supposed to be a suffix in place
of rio, and from carbon, coal, was formed carbon-ario, coal-dealer.

235. Adjectives are also formed as follows : by prefixing a par-
ticle to a substantive : as,

from in, not, gent or genti, nature ; in-genti, unnatural, immense.
from se, apart, cord, heart ; se-cord, senseless.

from se, apart, cura, care ; se-curo, unconcerned.

from con, together, muni, share ; com-muni, common.

236. By prefixing a substantive or adjective to a substantive : as,
from capero, goat, ped, foot ; capri-ped, goat-footed.
from (quadra,) four, ped, foot; quadrii-ped, four-footed.
from centum, hundred, manu, hand ; centl-mano, hundred-handed.
from magno, great, anifmo, mind ; magn-animo, great-minded.
from mlsero, wretched, cord, heart ; misen-cord, tender-hearted.

237. By prefixing a particle to an adjective : as,
from in, not, utili, useful ; m-utili, useless.

from per, thorough, magno, great ; per-magno, very great.
from prae, preeminently, claro, bright; prae-clilro, very illustrious.

238. By prefixing a substantive or adjective to a verb : as,
from tuba, trumpet, can, sing ; tiibi-cen, trumpeter.
from parti, part, cap, take ; partl-cep, partaking.
from caron, /es/i, vora, devour ; carn!-voro,^es7*-ea^"ny.
from (beno,) good, gen, produce ; beni-g'no*, generous.
from malo, bad, dicf, speak; mali-dlcof, abusive.

239. Adjectives are also formed from prepositions. See the table
of words derived from prepositions.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

The suffixes which form the Comparatives and Superlatives are
so much used, that they must be spoken of more at length.

240. The simple adjective is said to be in the positive degree :
as, longo or a, long.

* Literallv v-ett-born. f Observe the change of quantity.

34 ADJECTIVES.

241. The comparative degree takes the suffix ios or ior : as, lon-
g-ios* or long-ior, longer, or more long.

242. The superlative degree takes the suffix umoorimot* issumo
or issimo : as, long-issiimo*, longest, or most long*.

243. If the adjective ends in ero, eri, or er, the superlative suffix
is slightly changed : as, nigero, Hack, niger-riimo, blackest.

244. If the adjective ends in ili, the superlative suffix is slightly
changed : as, facili, easy, facil-lximo, easiest.

. 245. The comparatives and superlatives are derived sometimes
from kindred words of different forms, sometimes from different
words of like meaning. Hence the following irregularities :

Pos. Comp. Sup.

bbno, good, melios, better, optumo, best.

malo, bad, pejos (=ped-ios), worse, pessiimo, worst.

mag-no, great, majos (=mag-ios),rreater,maxumo, greatest.

parvo, little, mmos, less, miniimo, least.

multo, much, plus:}:, n. more, plurumo, n. most.

multoll, p]., many, plur, pi., more, plurumo 11, pi., mosf.

See also the table of words derived from prepositions.
246. Sometimes one or more of the positive, comparative and
superlative, are deficient : as,

Pos. Comp. Sup.

oc-ios, quicker, oc-issiimo, quickest.

nequ-ios, worse, nequ-issumo, worst.

novo, new, nov-issumo, newest.

falso, false, fals-issumo, most false.

ingenti, immense, ingent-ios, more immense.

desul, slothful, desid-ios, more slothful.

* In adding the suffixes of the comparative and superlative, the vowels
a, o, i, at the end of the crude form of the positive are discarded.

f The forms with ii are the oldest. They were used by Terence, &c.,
down to Cicero, inclusive.

J From pie, full, the root of pie-no, is formed ple-ios contracted into
pious and plus. Compare the Greek ir\e-iov and irXe-ov.

II These are used in the singular in poetry.

NUMERALS. 35

NUMERALS.

247. Cardinal numbers answer to the question, Quot? (unde-
clined), How many ? as, one, two, three, &c. or Tot, (undecl.), So
many.

248. Ordinal numerals state the place occupied in a rank or se-
ries. They answer to the question Quoto, or -ta, N. quotus, -ta,
-turn? Occupying ickat place in the series* ? Answer: First, second,
third, &c. ; or Toto or -ta, Occupying such a place.

249. Distributives answer to the question, Quoteno, or N. pi.
qubtem, -ae, -a ? Hoic many at a time ? One at a time, tico at a time,
&c. Or the preposition by may be used : By twos, by threes, &c. ;
or the word each : as, Two each, three each, Stc.

250. The numeral adverbs answer to the question, Quotiens or
qubties ? How often: Once, twice, thrice, four-times, &c. ; Totiens
or toties, So often.

251. Roman symbols. The symbols for 1, 10, 100, 1000, seem
to have consisted of one, two, three, and four lines respectively : viz.
I, X, E, IVl j for the two last of which the more easily written
symbols C, and /TA or fl\ , were afterwards substituted. The
mark for 1000, seems to have suggested those for 10 000, 100 000,
1000000, viz. .ff\ ^,^\ or /{ ; , A,^- The next step
was to find symbols for the halves of these numbers, and the most
easy course was to take the half of the symbols themselves. Thus,

V, L, F) or K - , fl or K, ft or k> M or k ,

severally denoted 5, 50, 500, 5000, 50000, 500000. Lastly, modern
printers found it convenient to use the existing types for letters, to
avoid the expense of new types for the numerical symbols. Hence,
in modern Latin books, we find the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, M, and
the inverted 3, all used in the representation of Latin numerals. It
was probably an accident, that of these seven letters, two were the
initials of the words for which they stood : viz. C and M, of centum
and mille.

* No single English word corresponds to quoto. Such a form as
what-th, Mkeff-th, six-tJi, would best suit it.

NUMERALS.

111

a p bp ;

.
' P *

X'X

g -3
g-2

S
K

NUMERALS. 37

u =

c T* u
o -2 *

ss'ss ^ssssssliliilpiiiisg

38 NUMERALS.

253. Cardinal numbers. Those from quattuor to centum, both
inclusive, are not declined. Mille is both substantive and adjective.
If no smaller number accompany it, it is more commonly used as
a substantive. Hence the phrases mille hominum, mille homi-
nes ; tria milia hominum ; tria milia trecenti homines.

254. The three first numerals are declined. Uno, C. F., one,
makes G. unms ; D. uni. The other cases are regular. The plural
is used with those substantives which with a plural form have a
singular meaning : as, N. pi. una castra, one camp.

255. Duo, dua, C. F. two, is declined thus : Plur. N. duo, duae,
duo ; Ac. duo or duos, duas, duo ; G. duorum, duarum, duorum or
m. f. n. duum ; D. and Ab. duobus, duabus, duobus. In the same
way is declined ambo, amba, C. F., both.

256. Tri, C. F., three, is declined regularly.

257. Milli or mili, C. F., thousand, is declined : Sing, for all cases
mille ; PI. N. V. Ac. milia ; G. mllium ; D. and Ab. milibus.

258. From 13 to 19 there occur also decem et tres, &c. Be-
tween 20 and 100 there are two forms, viz. viginti unus, or unus et
viginti, &c. Above 100, the greater number precedes : as, trecenti
sexaginta sex, or trecenti et sexaginta sex.

259. The practice of prefixing the smaller number to the greater
in order to denote subtraction : as, IV, (one from five) ; I IX,
(two from ten ;) extended also to the names. Hence duodeviginti,
18; undeviginti, 19; duodetriginta, 28; undetriginta, 29; duo-
dequadraginta, 38 ; undequadraginta, 39 ; and so on to duodecen-
tum, 98 ; undecentum, 99. A series of the same kind belong to
the ordinals, distributives and adverbs.

260. The high numbers were chiefly required for representing
money. Here abbreviations were found convenient. Thus millions
of sesterces were commonly denoted by adverbs alone, the words I
centena milia being omitted : as, deciens, ten times, (a hundred j
thousand) sesterces; that is, a million sesterces; viciens, twenty*
times, &c., or two million sesterces.

261. Ordinal numbers. From 13 to 19 there are also some-^
times found decumus tertius, and decumus et tertius, &c. Between)
20 and 100 there are two forms, vicensumus quartus, or quartus etj
vicensumus, &c. For 21, 31, 41, &c., unus et vicensumus, una et
vicensuma, or unetvicensuma, &c., frequently occur.

262. Distributive numerals. These are also used as cardinal num-
bers with those nouns which with a plural form have a singular
meaning : as, N. binae aedes, two houses ; binae litterae, two letters
or epistles. Duae aedes ; duae litterae, would signify, two temples - r
two letters of the alphabet, "With uno there could not be the same
confusion : hence una littera, unae litterae, signify respectively, one
letter of the alphabet ; one letter or epistle. The distributives are
often used by the poets for the cardinals.

263. Adverbs. From 13 to 19 there are also the forms tertiens
deciens, &c. And between 20 and 100 there are three expressions :
bis et viciens, viciens et bis, viciens bis. Bis viciens, would mean,
twice twenty or forty times.

264. Series with crude form ending in plic, surface or fold, an-
swering to quotiiplex ? how many fold ? viz. simplex*, duplex, tri-
plex, quadruplex, quinciiplex, , septemplex, , ,

decemplex and centiiplex.

265. Series of similar meaning, with crude form ending in plo
answering to quotiiplus : viz. simplus, diiplus, triplus, quadruplus,
quinciiplus, , septuplus, octuplus.

266. Series with suffix rio formed from the distributives, con-
taining tu:o, three, &c. : viz. , binarius, ternarius, quaterna-

rius, quinarius, senarius, septenarius, octonarius, &c.

26r. Series with suffix no, formed from ordinal series, belonging
to the first, second, &c. : viz. primanus, secundanus, tertianus, &c.
These terms are chiefly used to denote the legion to which a soldier
belongs. Hence, in the higher numbers are found such forms as
tertia decumanus, tertia et vicensumanus ; where the feminine form
of the first part seems to be determined by the gender of the Latin
word for legion.

268. Fractions are expressed by the ordinal series with parti or
part, expressed or understood : as, 1, tertia pars ; i, tres septumae.

269. But many shorter forms were employed. Thus, when the
numerator is one less than the denominator : as, -f-, duae partes,
two parts out of three ; ^, tres partes, three parts out of four, fyc.

* Not from sine plica, but from an old root sim or sam, one ; which is
also found in singuli, simplus, similis, sincerus, semel, simul ; Gr. u^a,
ovcafios, airXovs; Eng. same ; Germ, sammlung, &c.

PRONOUNS.

270. Again, when the denominator is 12, the unit or whole being
represented by as (C. F. ass), the parts are T V uncia (whence the
English words ounce and inch) ; -ft- or -J-, sextans ; -rr or -^, qua-
drans ; T * 7 or ^, triens ; -fV> quinc-unx ; -f^, or 4-, serais ; -??, sept-
unx ; T 8 j or -, bes (C. F. bess) ; T 9 7 or 4, do-drans ( =de-qua-
drans or 1 ^) ; -J-S- or , dextans (=de-sextans, or 1 ) ; -Hb
deunx (=1 iV)-

271- Fractions were also expressed by the addition or multipli-
cation of other fractions : as, tertia septuma, -$- of f, or J T ; tertia
et septuma, i + ^ or if.

272. Mixed numbers were denoted by the Latin for the fractional
part accompanied by that number of the ordinal series which ex-
ceeds by unity the given whole number. Thus, 3^ is quadrans
quartus ; 5 J, semis sextus ; 2j, semis tertius, or rather, by contrac-
tion, sestertius. The last quantity, viz. 2g, was represented in
symbols by adding s, the initial letter of semis, to the symbol for
two, with a line running through the whole symbol, as in our own

IB, , for pounds ; thus, fj. But printers have found it conve-
nient to substitute the letters HS.

PRONOUNS.

273. Pronouns are, strictly speaking, substantives, adjectives,
adverbs, &c., and therefore belong to those heads of grammar ; but
it is convenient to discuss them separately, partly because they
exhibit the suffixes in a more complete form than other words
belonging to the same parts of speech, and partly because they are
so much used.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

zy*. jrtr,
Sing.

n rerson.
Plur.

z/ o. oeu</fl
SlHff.

t rvravii.

Plur.

C. F. I.mc.

C. F. no, toe, its.

C.F.tu,thoii,you.

C. F. vo, you.

N. ego.

N. nos.

N. tu.

N. vos.

V. tu.

V. vos.

Ac. me.

Ac. nos.

Ac. te.

Ac. vos.

G. mei.

G. nostrum or -ri.

G. tui.

G.vostrumor-ri.

_D. mihi or ml.

D. nobls.

D. tibi.

D. vobls.

Ab. me.

Ab. nobls.

Ab. te.

Ab. vobls.

PBOXOUNS. 41

276. For the pronoun of the third person, viz. lie, she, it, the
several parts of the adjective eo or i are used.

277. The nominatives of these pronouns are not expressed, unless
emphatic, because the personal suffixes of the verbs already denote
the persons.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

2"8. Reflexive pronouns refer to the person or thing expressed in
the nominative case. In English the word self is used for this
purpose.

279. Reflexive pronouns, from their very nature, can have no
nominative or vocative.

280. In the first and second persons, the common personal pro-
nouns are used, viz. me, mei, &c., te, tui, &c. For the third person
the several cases formed from the C. F. sue, self, are used without
any distinction for number or gender, to signify himself, herself,
itself, themselves.

C. F. Sue, self,
Ac. se ; G. sul ; D. sibi ; Ab. se.

REMARKS ON THE PRONOUNS EGO, TU, SE.

231. Ac. Med and ted are used by old writers, as Plautus, for me
and te. Me, te, se, are also doubled, as meme, tete, sese. The
two first are rare, and only used to give emphasis. Sese is not
uncommon. It is used when no emphasis is intended, if it refer
to a plural nominative. Mehe is an antiquated form for me.

252. G. Mis and tis are antiquated forms, found in Plautus.

283. D. Mi is rarely used in prose writers. Me, tibe, sibe, are
severally antiquated forms for mihi, tibi, sibi.

284. Ab. Med and ted are found in old writers.

285. G. pi. These are merely genitives of the possessive adjec-
tives nostero, vostero. (See below.) Indeed, nostrorum, vostrorum,
for the m., nostrarum, vostrarum, for the f., are found in old
writers. Vestrum, vestri, with an e, are used by later writers.
For the distinction between the genitives in um and i, see the
Syntax.

PRONOUNS.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

286. The three demonstrative pronouns are adjectives, which
point as it were with the finger, to the place occupied : as, ho, this
near me ; isto, that near you ; illo, that yonder.

287. Illo (older form, olo, or olio), that yonder.

Singular. Plural.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

illT, illae, ilia,

illos, illas, ilia,

illorum, illarum, illorum.

illls, illls, illis.

illls, illls, illls.

288. In the same manner is declined isto, that near you.

289. To the three demonstratives, and to the adverbs derived
from them, the demonstrative enclitic ce or c (for ecce, lo, behold),
is often added for the sake of greater emphasis.

290. Illo, with enclitic ce.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

ille,

ilia,

illfid.

Ac.

ilium,

illam,

illud.

Ac.

illlus,

illlus.

iffi,

mi,

illi.

Ab.

il!5,

ilia,

illo.

Ab.

Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.
N. illic, illaec, illoc,orilluc.
Ac. illunc, illanc, illoc, or illuc.
G. illiusce, illiusce, illiusce.
D*. illic, illic, illic.
Ab. illoc, iliac, illoc.

Plural.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. illice, illaec, illaec.

Ac. illosce, illasce, illaec.

G. illorunc, illarunc, illorunc.

D. illisce, illisce, illisce.

Ab. illisce, illisce, illiscS.

291. In nearly all those cases which end in c, the e may be added :
as, Ac. m. illunce, &c.

292. In the same manner is declined isto with ce.

293. If, besides the enclitic ce, the enclitic ne, whether, is also
added, the first enclitic takes the form ci throughout : as, illicme,
illaecine, illocme, &c. ; isticme, istaecme, istocme, &c ; hicine, hae-
cine, hocine, &c.

294. Many of the cases from ho alone, have disappeared from
the language, their places being supplied by those formed from hoJ
with ce. Hence, in part, the irregularities of the following de-l
clension.

* The dative illic is only used as an adverb.

PROXOCXS.

295. Ho, this (partly with, partly -without the suffix ce).

Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. hfc, haec, hcFc.

Ac. hunc, hanc, ho'c.

G. hujus, hujiis, hujus.

D*. huic, hulc, huic.

Ab. hoc, hac, hoc.

Plural.

-V.
Ac.
G.
D.

Masc.
hi,
hos,
horum,
his,

Ab. his,

Fern. Neut.

hae, haec.

has, haec.

harum, horum.

his, his.

296. Those cases which do not end in c, as here declined, may
have that enclitic added : as, G. hujusce ; N. pi. m. hice, f. haece,
or haec ; Ac. hosce, &c.

297. An old form of the D. or Ab., is hibus.

298. The adverbs frqm illo (or olo), are illo, or illoc, or illiic, to
yonder place, thither illim or illinc, from yonder place ; illi or illic,
in yonder place, yonder, there ; ilia or iliac, by yonder road, along
that line- and olim, formerly or hereafter, in those days. See
also Table of words derived from prepositions.

299- The adverbs from isto are, isto or istoc, or istuc, to the
place where you are, to your part of the country ; istim or istinc,
from the place ichere you are ; isti or istic, ichere you are ; ista or
istac, along the place or country ichere you are.

300. The adverbs from ho are, hue, hither, towards me; hinc,
hence, from me, from this time ; hie, here, near me ; hac, along this
road, by me ; and sic (which also contains the enclitic ce), thus,
ia this icay.

LOGICAL PRONOUNS.

301. Logical pronouns refer only to the words of a sentence.
To these belong i or eo, this or that ; and qui or quo, which, &c.

302. I or eo, this or that.

Plural.

Masc. Fern. Neut.
N. hi, ii, or i, eae, ea.
Ac. eos, eas, ea.

G. eorum, earum, eorum.
D. his, eis, iis, or is, for all genders.
Ab. his, eis, iis, or is, for all genders.

* Hie is the form of the dative when used as an adverb.

Singular.

Masc. Fein.

Neut.

N. is,

ea,

id.

Ac. eum,

earn,

id.

G. ejus,

ejus,

ejus.

D. ei,

ei,

ei.

Ab. eo,

ea,

eo.

44 PRONOUNS.

303. Old forms are Ac. im or em ; D. or Ab. pi. ibus and eabus.

304. The adverbs from i or eo are, eo, to this or to that place or
degree, thither ; inde (in compounds im or in, as exim or exin),

from this* , from that , thence ; ibi, in or at this , in

that , there, then ; ea, along this or thai line or road ; ita, thus,

so ; jam, now, already, at last.

305. Qui or quo, which, what, who, any.

Singular.

Masc. Fern. Neut.

N. quis or qui, quae or qua, quid or quod.
Ac. quern, quam, quid or quod.

G. quojiis or cujiis, for all genders.
D. quoi or cui, for all genders.
Ab. quo or qui, qua or qui, quo or qui.

Plural.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

N.
Ac.
G.

qui,
quos,
quorum,

quae,
quas,
quarum,

quae or qua.
quae or qua.
quorum.

D. Ab. quibus or quis, for all genders.

306. Of the double forms, qu!, N. and quod are adjectives ; quis,
both adj. and subs. ; quid, a subs. only.

307- Qui or quo is called a relative when it refers to a preceding

word, as, the person who , the thing which , the knife u-ith

which , &c. To the relative belong, N. qui, quae, quod ; Ac.

quern, quam, quod, &c. ; and in the N. pi. only quae.

308. It is called a direct interrogative, when it asks a question, as
who did it ? and an indirect interrogative, when it only speaks of a
question, as, we do not know who did it. To the interrogative, be-
long all the forms, except qua, in the N. f. and neut. pi.

309. It is said to be used indefinitely, when it signifies any. In
this case it is placed after some word to which it belongs ; very
commonly after si, ne, num, ec, ali. All the forms are used in this
sense, but qua is more common than quae.

* For the blanks insert time, place, Sj-c., as it may be.

310. N. Ac. quis and quern in old writers are sometimes fern.

311. G. D. quojus and quoi are older than the other forms.
They appear to have been used by Cicero. The old genitive cui
occurs in the word cui-cui-modi, of whatever kind.

312. Ab. qui is the older form, and is only used by the later
writers in particular phrases.

313. X. pi. ques is a very old form.

314. D. and Ab. pi. quis, sometimes written queis, is the older
form of the two.

315. The adverbs from quo or qui, are : quo, whither, to icJiat ;

unde, (formerly cunde,) from what , whence ; tibi, (formerly

cubi,) in what , where, when ; qua, along what road or line, &c.

316. The conjunctions from quo or qui, are: quom, quum, or
cum, when; quando, ichen ; quam, how ; quare, (qua re,) quur, or
cur, ichy ; tit, (formerly cut,) or uti, how, that, as : quod, that,
because, &e.

OTHER PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, &c.

317. The following adjectives are derived from quo or qui : quan-
to, how great ; quali, like what, of what kind ; quot, (undeclined,)
hoic iiianu, (whence quutiens, how ofteti) ; quoto, occupying what
place in a series.

318. From an old root, to, this, are derived the adjectives, tanto,
to great ; tali, like this, of this kind ; tot, (undecl.), so many,
(whence totiens, so often) ; toto, occupying this place ; also the ad-
verbs tarn, so ; turn or (with the enclitic ce) tune, then.

319. Of pronominal origin are : nam, thus or for ; andnum, note,
(Greek vv,~) an old word still used in etiam-num, even now, still,
and in niidius tertius, noic the third day, two days ayo. In com-
mon use the enclitic ce is always added : as, nunc, noir.

320. Ali is prefixed to many of the relative forms : as, aliqui,
any, some, (emphatic,) declined like qui, any ; N. n. aliquantum,
some, a considerable quantity ; aliquot, (undeclined), some, a consider-
able number, &c.

321. EC is prefixed : as, N. ecquis, &c., whether any ? ecquando,
tchether at any time ?

322. Num, whether; si, if; ne, not, are also prefixed: as, num-

46 PRONOUNS.

qui, whether any ; siqui, if any ; nequi, lest any. Nom. numquis,
slquis, nequis, &c.

323. Of the adverbs formed from aliqui, nequi, numqui, siqui,
many take the old initial c : as, ali-ciibi, ali-cunde, &c.

324. "Utero, (originally cu-tero,) generally an interrogative, which
of the two ? ; and sometimes a relative, he of the two, who ; and after
si, either : as, si uter, if either, has G. utrius ; D. utri. Hence neu-
tero, N. neuter, &c., (formerly ne-cuter,) neither *.

325. Ipso, ipsa, self, very, is declined : N. ipsiis or ipse, ipsa,
ipsum ; Ac. ipsum, ipsam, ipsum ; and the rest like illo.

326. The N. ipsiis is found only in old writers, as Terence.
Apse or 'pse undeclined is sometimes found in old writers instead
of the proper case of ipso : as, re-apse for re-ipsa, eampse for earn
ipsam, &c.

327- "Alio, another, has G. alms ; D. alii, and N. and Ac. neut.
sing, aliud. From a crude form all are derived the old N. m. f. alls,
n. alid: whence alibi, elsewhere; aliter, otherwise.

328. When alio is used in two following sentences, it is translated

by one , another ; or some , others : as,

alius ridet, alius lacrumat, one laughs, another cries; alios caedit,
alios dimittit, he kills some, and lets go others.

32Q. When alio is used twice in the same sentence, that sentence
is commonly translated twice over : as, aliud alio tempore, one thing
at one time, another at another; or by each other : as, alii aliis pro-
sunt, they do good to each other.

330. Altero (from ali,) another of two, the second, has G. altering ;
D. alter! ; but alterius occurs in poetry *.

331. When altero is used in two following sentences, it is trans-

* The plural of those words which have the suffix tgro must be care-
fully distinguished from the singular. Thus,
N. sing, uter, which of the two individuals.
N. pi. utri, which of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.
N. sing, alter, one of the two individuals.

N. pi. alter!, one of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.
N. sing, uterque", both of the two individuals.
N. pi. utrique, both of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.
N. sing, neuter, neither of the two individuals.
N. pi. neutri, neither of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.

ated by the one , the other : as, alter ridet, alter lacrumat, the
one laughs, the other cries.

332. When altero is used twice in the same sentence, it is com-
monly translated by each-other : as, alter alterum volnerat, eacA
wounds the other.

333. As ali and qui form aliqui, so from altero and utero is
brmed alter-utero, one of the two ; which is declined in both parts ;
mt elision generally takes place if the first part end in a vowel or

m : as, N. alteruter, alter'utra, alter'utrum, &c., but G. alterius-
itriiis.

334. Ullo, any, (a diminutive from uno, one,) has G. ulllus; D.
ulli. It is accompanied by a substantive, and is used only in nega-

ive sentences. Hence nullo, none.

335. Many enclitics are added to the pronouns to give emphasis
to them : viz.

336. Quidem : as equidem, for ego quidem, I at least.

337. Met : as, egomet, I myself; vosmet, you yourselves ; suismet
psi praesidiis, they themselves with their own troops.

333. Te, only with the nominative tu : as, tute, thou thyself.

339. Ce, only with the demonstrative pronouns. See above.

340. Pote, (Greek, -rorf) : as, ut-pote, as.

341. Pte, (perhaps the same,) in certain old forms : as, mihipte,
nepte ; and above all with the fern, ablatives, meapte, tuapte, su-
ipte, &c.

342. Dem, with the pronoun i or eo : as, i-dem, the same. The
N. m. drops the s, but leaves the vowel long ; the N. and Ac. neut.
take no d, and have the vowel short. In the Ac. sing, and G. pi. the
final m becomes n before d. Thus, N. i-dem, ea-dem, ii-dem ; Ac.
'feun-dem, ean-dem, i-dem, &c. So also with tot, toti-dem, (undecl.)
precisely as many ; and with tanto ; N. tantus-dem, &c., of the same
'magnitude.

343. Dam, with quo or qui. N. qui-dam, quae-dam, quid-dam
pr quod-dam ; Ac. quen-dam, quan-dam, quid-dam or quod-dam,
kc., a certain person or thing. It is used when a person cannot or
will not state whom or what he means, and often serves to soften
idjectives which would express too much : as, divina quaedam elo-
^uentia, a certain godlike eloquence, a sort of godlike eloquence, I had

48 PRONOUNS.

almost said a godlike eloquence. From quidam is derived quondam,
at some former or future time, formerly, hereafter.

344. Quam, with quo or qui : as, N. quisquam, quaequam,
quidquam or quicquam, &c., any, in negative sentences. It is com-
monly used without a substantive. See ullo above. From quis-
quam are formed the adverbs, umquam or unquam, (originally cum-
quam,) ever ; from whence nunquam, never ; ne-quicquam, in vain ;
haudquaquam, in no way, by no means ; neutiquam or niitiquam, in
no way, by no means ; usquam, any where ; nusquam, no where.

345. Piam, (probably another form of preceding suffix,) with quo
or qui : as, N. quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam or quodpiam, &c.,
any (emphatic). From quispiam comes the adverb uspiam, any
where.

346. Nam : as, N. quisnam or quinam, quaenam, quidnam or
quodnam, &c., who, which?, in interrogations, (emphatic); and N.
iiternam, ivhich of the two ? in interrogations, (emphatic.)

347. Que, (this enclitic is probably a corruption of the relative
itself) : as, N. quisque, quaeque, quidque or quodque. &c., every,
each ; whence the adverbs xibique, every where ; undique, from every
side ; 'xitique, any how ; usque, every step, every moment : also N.
uterque, litraque, litrumque, each of two, both.

348. Quisque in old writers is used in the same sense as qui-
cunque.

349- Quisque is generally placed ; 1. after relatives and relative
conjunctions : as, ut quisque venit, as each arrived ; 2. after reflexive
pronouns : as, pro se quisque, each for himself; 3. after superlatives
and ordinal numerals : as, optumus quisque, all the best men ; de-
cumus quisque, every tenth man ; quotus quisque ? (every how many-
eth,) how feic ?

350. Cumque or cunque, (an old neuter of the preceding word) :
as, N. qulcunque, quaecunque, quodcunque, &c., whoever, whosoever,
whichever, whatever ; and N. litercunque, utracunque, utrumcunque',
&c., whichever of the two ; N. quantuscunque, &c., how great soever ;
quandocunque, whensoever, fyc. Cunque may be separated from the
other word : as, qui me cunque vidit, whoever saw me.

351. Vis, (thou icishest, from vol, wish) -. as, N. qulvls, quaevis,
quidvis or quodvls, &c., any one you please, (the best or the worst,) i

PROXOUNS. 49

a universal affirmative ; whence quamvis, as much as you please, no

matter how , though ever so ; and utervls, iitrSvis, litrum-

vis, whichever of the two you please.

352. Litbet or liber, (it pleaseth') : as, X'. quili~bet, &c., any one you
ilease ; and X". literlibet, &c., whichever of the two you please.

353. Relative forms are often doubled. Thus, qui doubled : as,
L quisquis (quaequae ?), quidqukl, or quicquid, &c., whoever, no

matter who.

354. Utero doubled : as, X. iiteruter, &c., ichichever of the two,
no matter ichich.

355. Quanto doubled: as, N. quantusquantus, &c., how great
toever, no matter how great.

356. Quali doubled : as, X*. qualisqualls, &c., ichatever-Iilce, no
matter tchat-like.

357- Quot doubled : as, quotquot (undeclined), how many soever,
no matter how many.

358. So also there are the doubled adverbs or conjunctions :
luamquam, however, no matter how, although, and yet ; litiit, how-
ever, no matter how ; quoquo, whithersoever ; undeunde, ichenceso-
ver ; ubiiibi, wheresoever ; quaqua, along whatsoever road.

359. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

Meo, mea, mine, my.

Tuo, tua, thine, thy, your, yours (referring to one person).

Suo, sua, his, hers, her; its; theirs, their.

Nostero, a, ours, our.

Vostero, a, yours, your (referring to more than one).

Cujo, a, whose.

360. These are all declined regularly, except that the m. voc. of
ueo is mi.

361. Suo, like sue, is a reflective pronoun, and can only be used
vhen it refers to the Xominative. In other cases, his, her, or its, must
e translated by the genitive ejus from i ; and their by the genitive
orum or eiirum.

362. The adjective cujo is rarely met with, the genitives ciijiis,
uorum, quarum, being used in its place.

363. The possessive pronouns, if not emphatic, are placed after the

PRONOMINAL ADVERBS.

noun they belong to. If they are emphatic, they are placed before it.

364. From the possessive pronouns are derived :
Nostrati or nostrat, N. nostras, of our country.
Vostrati or vostrat, N. vostras, of your country.
Cujati or ciijat, N. ciijas, of whose country.

365. Formed in the same way are infimati, belonging to the lowest ;
summati, belonging to the highest. All these are declined like Arpi-
nati or Arplnat, belonging to Arpinum.

366. TABLE OF PRONOMINAL ADVERBS.

Ending in.

M or I.

n, m,ornde.

Meaning.

ivhere.

ivhither.

whence.

alony
what road.

lie

rio*, hue

liinc

tiac

isto

istl, istic

isto, istocf, istuc

istim, istinc

.sta, istac

illo

ill!, illic

illo, illocf, illiic

illim, illinc

ilia, iliac

i or eo

ibr

inde

i or eo + dem

Tbidem

eodem

indidem

eadem

qui or quo

ubi"

qu5

unde

qua

titero

utrobT"

utro

utrinde

utra

alio

aliiibi

alio

aliunde

alia

ali

alibi

altero

altroj

altrirn J

neutero

neutriibi

neutro

ali + qui or quo

alicubi

aliquo

alicunde

aliqua

si-)- qui, &c.

sTcxibi

siquo

sicunde

siqua

ne-f-qui, &c.

neciibi

nequo

necunde

nequa

num+qiii, &c.

numciibi

numquo

qui doubled

libiiibi

quoquo

undeunde

quaqua '

qui or quo+vis

ubivls

quovls

undevls

quavis

qui, &c.+libet

tibUibgt

quolibet

undelibet

quallbet

qui, &c.-f que

ubique

undique

utero + que

utrobique

utroque

utrinque

utraquS j

qui, &c. + quam

quoquam

quaqua

qui, &c. + nam

ubinam

quonam

* Occurring in horsum for ho-vorsura, hitherwards.
f Less used than the other forms.

J Occurring in altro-vorsus, towards the other side ; altrinsecus,
the other side.

In nequaquara and haudquaquam, in no way, by no means.

VERBS. 51

VERBS.

367. An active verb denotes action or movement : as, caed, cut or
strike ; curr, run.

368. The person (or thing) from whom the action proceeds is
called the nominative to the verb.

369. The object to which the action is directed is called the accu-
sative after the verb.

370. A verb which admits a nominative is called personal : as,
vir caedlt, the man strikes.

371. A verb which does not admit a nominative is called imper-
sonal : as, tonSt, it thunders.

372. A transitive verb is one which admits an object or accusative
after it : as, caedit puerum, he strikes the boy.

373. An intransitive verb is one which does not admit an accusa-
tive : as, currit, he runs.

374. The object of a transitive verb may be the agent himself: as,
caedo me, I strike myself; caedis te, you strike yourself; caedit se,
he strikes himself, fyc. A verb is then said to be used as a rejiecfive.

375. In Latin a reflective suffix is added to a transitive verb, so as
to give it the reflective sense : as, verto, / turn ; vertor, / turn
myself; vertis, you turn ; verteris, you turn yourself; vertit, he turns;
vertitur, he turns himself.

376. A reflective verb then, denotes an action upon oneself, and in
Latin is conjugated in the imperfect tenses with a suffix * or r*. It
will be denoted by an r between brackets : as, vert (r.), turn one-
self.

377- The perfect tenses of a reflective verb are supplied by the
verbs es, and fu, be ; united with the participle in to.

* Tliis suffix is no doubt the pronoun se, self, which, as it is not limited
in number and gender, -was probably at first not limited in person. In
some of the Sclavonic languages the same pronoun is actually applied to
all the persons ; and in the Lithuanian the reflective verb is formed from
the simple verb through all the persons by the addition of s. The inter-
change of s and r has been seen already in the nouns ; another example
presents itself in verter-is, which is formed from vertis, precisely as the
gen. pulver-is, from the C. F. pulvis ; and the old pi. gen. nucer-um (see
85), from the sing. gen. nucis.

D 2

52 VERBS.

378. An intransitive verb is generally in meaning reflective : as,
curr, run, i. e., put oneself in a certain rapid motion; ambula, walk,
i. e., put oneself in a certain moderate motion ; but as the object in
these cases cannot be mistaken, no reflective pronoun or suffix is
added.

379. When the source of an action (i. e. the nominative) is not
known, or it is thought not desirable to mention it, it is common to
say that the action proceeds from the object itself. A reflective so
used is called a passive : thus vertitur, literally, he turns himself, is
often used for he is turned*.

380. This passive use of a verb with a reflective suffix is much
more common than the proper reflexive use.

381. The nominative to the passive verb is the same as the accu-
sative after the transitive verb, caedunt puerum, they strike the boy ;
or caeditur puer, the boy is struck.

382. Hence passive verbs can be formed only from transitives.

383. A passive impersonal verb, however, is formed from intrans-
itives f : as, from noce, do damage ; nocetur, damage is done ; from
resist, stand in opposition, offer resistance ; reeistitur, resistance is
offered, 8fc. When the intransitive verb can be thus expressed by
an English verb and substantive, the passive impersonal may be
translated by what is also strictly impersonal, the person who does
the damage, or offers the resistance, &c., not being mentioned. At
times this is impracticable, and it is necessary to use the word they
or people with the active, as from i, go ; Itur, they go.

384. Transitive verbs also may form a passive impersonal: as,

* Many European languages will afford examples of this strange use of
the reflective, as the German : Das versteht sich von selbst, that is under-
stood of itself; the French : Le corps se trouva, the body was found; the
Italian : Si loda 1'uorao modesto, the modest mar. s praised ; the Spanish :
Las aguas se secaron, the waters were dried up. There is something like
this in our own language : the chair got broken in the scuffle. Nay, chil-
dren may be often heard to use such a phrase as the chair broke itself.

f Where the action of an intransitive verb is to be expressed without
mentioning the nominative, the artifice of supposing the action to proceed
from the object is of course impracticable, because an intransitive verb
has no object. Here a second artifice is adopted, and the action is sup-
posed to proceed from itself; thus, nocetur, literally translated, is damage
does itself.

VERBS. 53

from die, say ; dicitur*, they say ; but in this case the words of the
sentence that follow dicitur, may perhaps be considered as a nomi-
native to it. See Syntax.

385. A static verb denotes a state: as, ?s, be; dormi, sleep ;
vigila, be aicake ; jace, lie ; metu, fear.

336. Static verbs generally end in e, by which they are distin-
guished from active verbs of nearly the same form and meaning ; as,

jacorjaci, throw; j'ce, lie.

pend, hang or suspend ; pende, hang or be suspended.

sid, alight or sink ; ) %

_, . , , , 7 > sede, sit.

seda, cause to sink back, calm ; J

cap or capi, take ; habe, hold or have.

possid, enter upon possession ; posside, possess.

ferv, boil ; ferve, be boiling hot.

cand, set on fire ; cande, blaze.

alba, whiten ; albe, be white.

densa, thicken ; dense, be thick.

357- A static imperfect is nearly equivalent to the perfect of an
active ; as, possedlt, he has taken possession, and possidet, he pos-
sesses, or is in possession ; possederat, he had taken possession, and
possidebat, he possessed, or was in possession ; possederit, he will have
taken possession, and possid ebit, he ic ill possess, or be in possession.

33S. Hence many static verbs in e have no perfect; and even in
those which appear to have one, the perfect, by its meaning, seems
to belong to an active verb. Thus, frige, be cold, is said to have a
perfect, frix. The compound refrix does exist, but not with a static
meaning. Thus, vinum refrixit, the wine got or has got cold again.
The form of the perfect itself implies a present re-frig, not refrige.

389- Hence, two perfects from active verbs are translated as
static imperfects ; as, gno or gno-sc, examine ; perf. gnov, whence
gnovit, he has examined, or he knou-s, gnoverat, he had examined, or
he knew : consue or consuesc, acquire a habit, or accustom oneself;
perf. consuev, whence consuevit, he has acquired the habit, or is ac-
custamed, consueverat, he had acquired the habit, or icas accustomed.

* In Italian, 'se dice ;' in Spanish, ' se dize.' In German it is expressed
fay ' man saa^t,' man says, from which the French have literally translated
their ' on dit,' originally ' horn dit.'

54 VERBS.

390. Two verbs have only the perfect in use, and these translated
by English imperfects of static meaning, viz. od*, memm ; whence
odit, he hates, oderat, he hated, oderit, he will hate ; mSmrrut, he
remembers, meminerat, he remembered, meminerit, he will remember.

391. Static verbs are for the most part intransitive: but some
are transitive, as those which denote possession, habe, hold ; tene,
Jceep ; posside, possess ; sci, know ; and verbs of feeling, as, Sma,
love; time, fear.

IRREGULARITIES OF FORM AND MEANING.

392. A static intransitive has sometimes a reflective or passive
perfect. Such a verb is commonly called a Neuter -Passive : as,

Lat.

English.

Pres. 3 pers.

Perf. 3 pers. masc.

aude,

dare.

audet,

ausus est.

gaude,

rejoice.

gaudet,

gavisxis est.

fid,

trust.

fidit,

fisus est.

sole,

be wont.

solet,

solitus est.

393. To the same class belong several impersonal verbs of feeling,
&c. ; viz.

misere denoting pity ; miseret, migeritum or misertum est.

pude shame ; pxidet, puduit or puditum est.

pige reluctance ; piget, piguit or pigitum est.

taede iceariness ; taedet, taeduit or per-taesum est.

lube pleasure ; lubet, lubuit or liibitum est.

place approbation; placet, placuit or placltum est.

lice permission ; licet, licuit or licitum est.

394. Some transitive verbs are used without a reflective pronoun
or suffix, yet with a reflective or intransitive meaning : as, fortima
verterat, fortune had turned, i. e. had turned herself. In these cases
the pronouns me, te, se, &c., are said to be understood.

395. This use of a transitive form with a reflective or intransitive
meaning, is more common in the perfect tenses : as, revertitur, he
returns, revertebatur, he was returning, revertetur, he will return ;

* The imperfects seem to have been odi or od, take offence, and men*
mind, or observe attentively.

VERBS. 55

but, reVertit, he has returned, reverterat, he had returned, reverterit,
he icill have returned.

396. Some of the principal verbs which are thus used with both
a transitive, and reflective or intransitive meaning, are the following :

Lot. Trans. Intrans. ' Lat. Trans. Intrans.

mSve, move, move. 'plane, beat, beat oneself.

auge, increase, increase, intipi, begin, begin.

laxa, loosen, get loose., \n-clina., slant, slant.

lava, wash, wash. aba-tune, keep away, abstain*

muta, change, change, re-mitt, let go again, relax.

sta, set up, stand.

ru, put in violent rush,
Motion,

suppedita, supply, abound.

praecipita, throw headlong , rush head-
long*.

397. In some verbs the transitive meaning, though originally
belonging to the word, has become nearly or quite obsolete, as in
propera, hasten, trans, or intrans. ; propinqua, make near or ap-
proach ; and perhaps in exula, nigra, &c.

398. The reflective form seems to have been originally given to
some verbs to denote reciprocal action : as, from loqu, amplect,
consola, osctila, suavia, loquimur, we talk together; amplectimur,

e embrace each other, &c.

399- Many reflective verbs are translated by an English intransi-
tive : as, profic-isc (r.),se/ out ; laeta (r.), rejoice, which have still
a reflexive sense. These are called Intransitive Deponents.

400. Many reflective verbs have so completely thrown off the
reflective meaning, that they are translated by an English transitive
and take a new accusative: as, mira (r.), admire; vere (r.),
fear; amplect (r.), embrace; indu (r.), clothe oneself , put on; sequ
(r.), follow; imita (r.), make oneself like, imitate. These are called
Transitive Deponents.

401. Some intransitive verbs, by a slight change of meaning, are
used transitively : as, from horre, bristle or shudder; horret tene-
bras, he fears the dark ; mane, wait ; manet adventum ejus, he

* It is in this way that fi, only a shortened form of faci, first signified
make myself, and then become or am made. It is indeed probable that
the c in facio was not always pronounced. This would account for its
disappearance in the Italian infinitive fare, and the French faire ; and
would also account for the fact that fi is commonly long before a vowel,
as fi-o, / am made, for fai-o.

56 VERBS.

awaits his arrival ; ole, smell ; olet unguenta, he smells of perfumes.
Tliis is particularly the case with some neuter pronouns : as, from
labora, labour ; id laborat, he is labouring at this.

402. Intransitive verbs may have an accusative of a noun which
has the same meaning: as, vltam jucundam vivit, he is living a
delightful life. This is called the Cognate Accusative.

403. Intransitive verbs when compounded sometimes become
transitive : as, vad, go ; evad, go out, escape ; whence evade're peri-
ciilo or ex perlciilo, to make one's way out of danger ; or evadere pg-
riciilum, to escape danger ; veni, come ; conveni, come toge-
ther, meet ; whence convenire aliquem, to meet one, to go and see a

person; grad or gradi (r.), march; egred or egredi (r.),

march out, leave ; whence egredi urbe or ex urbe, to march out of
the city ; or egredi urbem, to leave the city.

404. Some transitive verbs when compounded take a new transi-
tive sense, nearly allied to the original meaning, and thus have a
double construction : as, da, put ; circumda, put round or surround ;
whence circumdare miirum urbl, to throw a wall round the city ; or

circumdare urbem miiro, to surround the city with a wall ;

ser, sow or plant ; inser, plant in, graft ; whence inserere plrum
orno (dat.), to graft a pear on a wild csh ; or inserSre ornum piro

(abl.), to engraft a wild ash with a pear; du, put; indu, put

on, clothe ; induere vestem alicui, to put a dress on one ; or induere
aliquem veste, to clothe one with a dress.

405. The verb then has two forms or voices; the simple voice
(commonly called the active), which does not take the reflective
suffix ; the reflective voice (commonly called the passive), which does
take it.

PERSONAL SUFFIXES TO VERBS.

406. In English the pronouns /, you, or thou, he, she, it, &c., are
prefixed to a verb. In Latin, as in Greek, little syllables with the
same meaning are attached to the end of a verb so as to form one
word with it.

407. The Greek verb in its oldest shape formed from the prc
nouns me, me ; su or tu, thou ; and to, this ; the three suffixes mi.

VERBS. 57

tT, or, with a short vowel prefixed, omT, esi, eti*. Now the Latin
language has its personal suffixes not unlike these : viz. om, is, It.

408. The suffix om, belonging to the first person, is scarcely
altered in sum (= es-um), / am, or in mqu-amf, I say.

409. More commonly the suffix om undergoes one of two
changes. Either the m is lost, as scrib-d', I write, for scrib'omj ;
or, if a vowel precede, the o sometimes disappears, leaving the m :
as, scribeba'm, / icas icriting.

410. The final o of the first person is always long in Virgii, but
common in later poets.

411. The suffixes of the second person, is[|, and of the third per-
son, it, also lose their vowel, if the verb itself end in one. Thus,
scrib-is, you write, and scrlb-it, he irrites ; but scribeba's, you were
writing ara's, you plough ; scribeba't, he was writing ; ara't, he
ploughs. So also the I is lost in fers, you briny ; fert, he brings ; "s
(for fs-"s), you are est, he is ; and volt, he mshes.

412. When the suffix it thus loses its vowel by contraction : as,
ara-it, arat, he ploughs, it might be expected that the syllable would
be long; but it is in fact nearly always short^f.

413. The form of the second person sufKx in the perfect is ti for
tu : as, scripsisti, you have written.

414. The suffixes of plurality for the nouns were s and un. (See
52.) The same are employed for the verbs.

415. From ome and s is formed the double suffix omes, ire, for
the old Greek verb. The old Latin prefers limus : as, in vol-iimus,

* Compare the old verb e<r-^i, ea-ai, etr-n, with the old reflexive verb

t The English language still retains a trace of the first person suffix in
the verb, am.

J See the adverbs of motion towards, where om final is similarly reduced
to o.

Spondeo and nescio appear to have a short o in Virgil, but in realitv
are to be considered as words of two syllables, spondyo and uescyo. Scio
in Italian has become so.

II The English language still retains its suffix of the second person est,
and of the third person eth : as, in sendest and sendeth.

f Still in the reflective the right quantity is preserved : scribebat-ur, aril-
tlir ; and the old poets, including even Virgil, have examples of a long
quantity in such words as versat, augeat, accidet.

58 MOODS.

we wish ; siimiis (= es-umus), we are ; quaes-iimus, we ask. Com-
monly imiis is written as scrlb-imiis, we write *.

416. The i is lost after a vowel: as, scribeba-mus, we were
writing ; ara-mus, we plough.

417. Fromtu orti and s is formed the double suffix, tis, you (pi.) ;
or, with a short vowel prefixed, itis : as, scrib-itis, you (pi.) write.

418. The prefixed i is lost after a vowel : as, scribeba-tis, you
(pi.) were writing ara-tis, you (pi.) plough. So also in es-tis,
you are ; fer-tis, you bring ; and vol-tis, you wish.

41Q. The syllable attached to the verb to form the third person
plural seems to be a single suffix denoting plurality only : viz. the
suffix un, more strongly pronounced by the addition of a t. Thus,
scrib-unt, they write.

420. The u is always lost if the verb end in a or e, and some-
times if it end in i. Thus, scribeba-nt, they were writing ; scri-
be-nt, they will write ; scripseri-nt, they will have written ; but, au-
di-unt, they hear.

421. In the jussive mood the suffixes of the second person sin-
gular and plural change the is into e, and itis into ite : as, scrib-e
and scrib-ite, write. So the imperative mood has scrib-itote in the
plural f.

422. The final e is lost after a vowel : as, ara, plough ; also in
fer, bring ; fac, make ; die, say ; due, lead ; es, be ; and the obso-
lete vel, wish.

MOODS, &c.

423. The indicative mood is used for the main verb of a sentence,
whether it be affirmative, negative, or interrogative. It is also used
in some secondary sentences.

The indicative mood has no special suffix.

424. The imperative mood commands. Its suffix is the syllable
to or ito : as, scrib-ito, thou shalt write.

425. The jussive mood directs. It has no special suffix.

426. The imperative and jussive are commonly united as one mood.

* See the same interchange of umus and iraus in the superlatives ( 242),
and the ordinal numerals ( 252).

t So in the Greek, even the indicative has rwrere for Tvirreris. Compare
also the double forms tristis and triste, magls and mSge, and, above all, the
second persons of reflective verbs : vlderis, videre ; vldebarTs, videbare, &c.

TEXSES. 59

427. The subjunctive mood, as its name implies, is used in se-
condary sentences subjoined to the main verb.

428. In some sentences it is not uncommon to omit the main
verb, and then the subjunctive mood seems to signify power, permis-
sion, duty, wish, purpose, result, allegation, hypothesis ; whereas, in
fact, these notions rather belong to the verb which is not expressed.
Thus, the phrase, Quid faciam ? is translated by, What should I do ?
or What am I to do ? But the full phrase is, Quid vis faciam ? What
do you wish me to dot

429. The suffix of the subjunctive mood cannot be satisfactorily
separated from those of the subjunctive tenses.

430. The infinitive mood is also used in secondary sentences sub-
joined to the main verb. It differs from the subjunctive in that it
does not admit the personal suffixes to be added to it.

431. The suffix of the infinitive mood is ese, or ere : as, es-se,
be; scrib-ere, write.

432. The infinitive mood may also be considered as a neuter sub-
stantive undeclined, but differing from other substantives in that it
has the construction of a verb with a noun following.

433. The supines are the accusative and ablative cases of a mas-
culine substantive formed from a verb with the suffix itu, or ru.
The accusative supine has occasionally the construction of a verb,
with the noun following.

434. The accusative supine is in many grammars called the su-
pine active ; and the ablative supine, the supine passive.

435. The gerund is a neuter substantive formed from a verb with
the suffix endo, or undo ; of which the first vowel is lost after a and
e. In the old writers, it has the construction of a verb with the
noun following.

436. A participle is an adjective in form, but differs from adjec-
tives ; first, because an adjective speaks of a quality generally,
while a participle speaks of an act or state at a particular time ; se-
condly, because a participle has the construction of a verb with the
noun following.

OX TEXSES IX GEXERAL.

437. Tense is another word for time. There are three tenses :
past, present, and future.

4.35. The past and future are boundless; the present is but a
point of time.

TENSES.

439- As an act may be either past, present, or future, with re-
spect to the present moment, so yesterday had its past, present, and
future ; and to-morrow again will have its past, present, and future.

Thus, first in reference to the present moment, we have : Past,
he has written to A ; Pres. he is writing to B ; Fut. he is going to
write to C.

Secondly, in reference to yesterday or any other moment now
gone by : Past, he had written to D ; Pres. he was writing to E ;
Fut. he was going to write to F.

Thirdly, in reference to tomorrow or any moment not yet arrived :
Past, he will have written to G ; Pres. he will be writing to H; Fut.
he will be going to write to I,

440. Or the same ideas may be arranged as follows :

Action finished, or perfect : at a past time, he had written to D ;
at the present moment, he has written to A ; at a future time, he
will have written to G.

Action going on, or imperfect : at a past time, he was writing to
E ; at the present moment, he is writing to B ; at a future time, he
will be writing to H.

Action intended : at a past time, he was going to write to F at
the present moment, he is going to write to C \ at a future time, he
will be going to write to I.

441. Or lastly, the same ideas may be represented by the lines in
the following diagram :

PAST TIME. FUTURE TIME.

y P t

it*

TEXSES. 61

Any point in the vertical line pp denotes present time ; any point
in yy denotes yesterday or some past time ; any point in it, to-mor-
row, or some future time.

The several horizontal lines a, b, c, &c., denote the time of the
letter-writing to A, B, C, &c., respectively. Thus,

a is wholly to the left of pp, and signifies he has written present
perfect.

b partly on the left, partly on the right : he is writing present
imperfect.

c wholly to the right : he is going to write present intention.

d wholly to the left of yy : he had written at time y past perfect.

e partly on the left, partly on the right : he was icriting at time y
past imperfect.

/ wholly to the right : at time y he was going to write past inten-
tion.

g wholly to the left of tt : he will have written at time t future
perfect.

h partly on the left, partly on the right : he will be writing at time
t future imperfect.

i wholly to the right : at time t he will be going to write future in-
tention.

442. The word perfect in all these phrases means relatively past :
thus, the present perfect is past, the past perfect was past, the future
perfect will be past.

443. Again the perfect tenses are used for events recently past, the
consequences still remaining. / have passed a good night and feel re-
freshed; he had had his breakfast, and was putting on his boots; you
will then have finished your letter and will be ready to walk with me.
But we cannot say, Jniliam the Conqueror has died in Normandy.

444 . So also the tenses of intention apply to a time soon to arrive.

445. The aorist, he irrote, is not thus limited ; it may be applied to
any past time ; as, Cicero wrote a history of his consulship. It does
not, like the past tenses which we have been considering, stand in
any relation to any other point of time. The consequences of the
act are not alluded to, as in the perfects ; nor the duration of the
act spoken of, as in the imperfects. On the contrary, the aorist treats
the act as a mere point of past time.

446. In the diagram the aorist maybe represented by the point k.

62 TENSES.

447. The simple future, he will write, corresponds in general cha-
racter to the aorist of past time. It is equally independent of other
points of future time, and speaks of the act as momentary.

448. In the diagram the future may be represented by the point I.
44Q. If the simple present were strictly limited to the mere point

of time which belongs to it, it would seldom be used ; but this, like
some of the other tenses, is employed to denote a state of things,
customs, general truths, &c., the duration of which, in fact, is not
limited to a mere moment*.

450. The true present may be represented in the diagram by the
point m in pp.

TENSES OF THE LATIN VERB.

451. The Latin indicative has six leading tenses: three perfect
tenses, and three which, for convenience, but somewhat inaccurately,
are called imperfects ; viz. the present, the past-imperfect, the future ;
the present-perfect, the past-perfect, the future-perfect.

452. The present has no tense suffix : as, scrib, write; scribit, he
writes.

453. When an affirmation is made with emphasis, also in nega-
tive and interrogative phrases, the verb dp is commonly used in the
translation : as, he does write ; he does not write ; does he write ?

454. The present imperfect has the same form in Latin: as,
scribit, he is writing.

455. The present is sometimes employed in past narrative, both

* An example of the true present, as applied to acts, occurs in Ivanhoe
(c. 29), where the agitated Rebecca, standing at the lattice, reports to the
sick knight the proceedings of the siege. " He blenches not, he blenches
not !" said Rebecca. " I see him now ; he leads a body of men close under
the outer barrier of the barbican. They pull down the piles and palisades ;
they hew down the barriers with axes. His high black plume floats
abroad over the throng, like a raven over the field of the slain. They have
made a breach in the barriers ! they rush in ! they are thrust back ! Front-
de-Boeuf heads the defenders ; I see his gigantic form above the press.
They throng again to the breach, and the pass is disputed hand to hand
and man to man. God of Jacob ! it is the meeting of two fierce tides
the conflict of two oceans moved by adverse winds." Such a use of the
true present can only be looked for in dramatic writing. The historic
present, as it is called, is an imitation of this dramatic excitement.

TENSES. 63

in English and Latin, as if the scene described were passing before
one's eyes. This is called the historic present : as, He then plunges into
the river, sicims across, and seeks the tent of the Icing.

456. The present is also used in Latin when a state has continued
for some time and still exists : as, Jam tris mensis abest, He has been
absent note three months.

457- The present in Latin sometimes denotes not even the begin-
ning of an act, but only the purpose, when the mind alone is em-
ployed upon it, or the matter at best is only in preparation : as,
Uxorem duclt, He is going to be married.

458. On the other hand, the present is at times used in Latin after
certain conjunctions, when past time is in fact meant : as,
Vivom, quom inde abimus, liquimus.
"We left him alive, when we came away.
Diim studeo obsequi tibi, paene inlusi vitam filiae.
While I have endeavoured* to oblige you, I have almost

trifled away my daughter's life.

So also with postquam, after, and ubi, when, and ut, signifying the
moment that, &c.

459- The past-imperfect has the suffix eba : as, scribeba, teas
uriting ; scribebat, he was writing.

460. But the e is lost after the vowels a and e : as, ari'bat, he was
ploughing ; doce'bat, he was teaching. While after the vowels i and
u the e is commonly left : as, veni-ebat, he was coming ; acu-ebat,
he was sharpening.

461. The verb i, go, loses the e : as, ibat, he tea* going. The old
writers and the poets often use this contracted form with other
verbs in i : as, mollibat, he was softening.

462. Sometimes this tense is expressed in English by the simple past
tense, he wrote. Thus, in answer to the question, IThat used to be
his duties in the counting-house ? the reply might be, He wrote the
foreign letters. This would be expressed in the Latin by the tense
in eba, because a continued state of things is meant, he used to
Krite, he always wrote. The Latin aorist would speak only of one
act : He wrote tlie foreign letters on a particular occasion.

463. The use of the English simple past tense for a continued

* Or, In my endeavours.

64 TENSES.

state of things is very common with verbs of static meaning (see
385.) : as, He sat (all the time) on a rock, he loved frank and open
conduct.

464. The past- imperfect is also used in Latin when a state had
continued for some time, and still existed at the moment spoken of:
as, Jam trls mensis aberat, He had been absent then three months.

465. The past-imperfect sometimes denotes only a past purpose,
or that a matter was in preparation : as, Uxorem ducebat, He was
going to be married.

466. The simple future appears to have had for its suffix the syl-
lable ab or eb, which however loses its vowel after verbs in a, or e,
and its consonant* after verbs ending in a consonant, i, or u. Thus,
from verbs in a and e, we have : arab', will plough ; ara'b-it, he
will plough; doce'b, will teach ; doce'b-it, he will teach^.

467. Those verbs which retain only the vowel prefer a for the
first person singular, and e for the rest : as, scrib-a'm, I shall write ;
scrib-e's, you will write ; scrlb-e't, he will write, &c.

468. The verbs in i, according to the preceding rules, form the
future with a or e : as, audi-a'm, / shall hear ; audi-e's, you will
hear, &c. But the verb i, go, prefers the future in b : as, I'b-it, he
will go. In the old writers many othor verbs in i have a future of
the same shape : as, sci'b-it, he will know.

469. The Latin future from an active verb is not an imperfect
future ; i. e. scribet, does not signify, he will be writing.

* The loss of a i has been seen already in the datives of nouns.

t The suffixes eba and eb seem from their form to be related to one an-
other. Perhaps they are both connected with the verb habe, have, which
is so common an auxiliary in all languages. Thus, eba, would be a past
tense, having that past time denoted by the a, as is the case in era, was,
from es, be, and the meaning of eba would be, had the matter in hand,
which accords accurately with the notion of the past-imperfect. On the
other hand, ab or eb would be the simple verb, and would signify, have the
doing of anything. This would precisely agree with the formation of the
futures in French, Spanish, and Italian, which consist of the present of the
verb signifying have, added to the infinitive, with little or no change.
Thus, in French, aimer-ai, aimer-as, aimer-a, pi. almer-ont, and faiir-ai,
&c. It is also confirmed by the use of a similar phrase in Latin : Scriben-
dum est mihi, / have the writing ; which is so often used as a future ; and
in, est mihi, has an exact equivalent for habeo.

TEXSES. 65

470. The perfect tenses are formed by the addition of certain suf-
fixes to a crude form of the perfect.

471- This crude form of the perfect is itself formed from the sim-
ple verb in four different ways :

By reduplication, that is, by prefixing to the verb a syllable more
or less like the verb itself : as, morde, bite, momord or memord,
lit; tend, stretch ; tetend, stretched*.

By a long vowel : as, fac or faci, make, perf. fee, made ; ven or
i, come, perf. ven, camef.

By s suffixed : as, scrib, write, scrips, wrote ; die, say, dix, said.

By u or v suffixed : as, ama, love, amav, loved ; col, till, colu, tilled.

The irregularities in applying these four rules -will be spoken of
afterwards.

472. The present-perfect has for its suffix a syllable is or er, pro-
bably the same as the verb es, be. Thus, scrib, write, scrips, wrote
or written, scrips-is, have tcritten, scrips-is-ti, you have icritten,
scrips-is-tis, you. (pi.) have icritten, scrips-er-unt (rarely, yet some-
times, scrips-er-unt), they have written. The suffix is, has lost its
last letter in the first person : scripsl, / have written, and is altoge-
ther lost in the first person plural : scripsimus, we have written ;
whilst in the third person singular it does not indeed itself appear,
but still shows its power in causing the final syllable sometimes to be
long, as in perrupit, he has broken through ; rediit, he has returned +.

* The English language appears to have an example of this formation
in \vhat we may perhaps call one of its oldest verbs, do, perf. did, the ori-
ginal meaning of which verb vf&sput, whence d'on, put on ; d.'off,put off;
d'out, put out. The German compounds of thu'n, would confirm this
view of the meaning. Thus our English verb corresponds to a Latin verb
of kindred form and meaning, viz. da, put (for such is its meaning), perf.
ded. The Gothic abounds in perfects of reduplication : as, halt, call, perf.
haihait, called ; skaid, separate, perf. skaiskaid, separated.
\ t This formation also has its parallel in the English come, perf. came.
It is not improbable that the long vowel perfects originated in reduplica-
tion : as, veni, come, perf. veven, contracted into ven, came ; Sg, drife,
lag, contracted into eg, drove. The last contraction is precisely the same
is occurs in the subj. pres. of the verb ama, love, C.F. amaa, ame, 3 pers.
imaat, amet. Compare also the so-called temporal augment of Greek verbs.
As if they had once ended in ist. Compare the French subjunctive
-euse,fusse,fusaes,fvt ; or, as the old French has it, fust.

66 TENSES.

473. The present-perfect tense of the Latin is also used for an
aorist : as, scripsit, he has written, or, he wrote.

474. Thus, the English language confounds the aorist and past-
imperfect ; while the Latin confounds the aorist and the present-
perfect.

475. The past-perfect has for its suffix era, was ; the past tense
of es, be, which is itself resolvable into es, be, and a past suffix a*.
Thus, scrips-era, had written, scrips-erat, he had written.

476. The future-perfect has for its suffix es, or er, will be, the
future tense of es, be. Thus, scrips-ero, / shall have written, scrips-
eris, you will have written, scrips-erit, he will have written. See the
future tense of the irregular verb, es, be.

477- The perfect tenses of some intransitive verbs are expressed
in English not only by the auxiliary verb have, but also by the
tenses of be. Thus, rediit, he has returned, or, he is returned ; redie-'
rat, he had returned, or, he was returned ; redierit, he will have re-
turned, or, he will be returned. These perfect tenses expressed by the
auxiliaries, is, was, will be, are often mistaken by beginners for pas-
sives. But a little reflection would of course satisfy them that the
verbs in question do not admit of a passive.

473. The perfect tenses are often expressed in English without
the perfect form. Thus, in the three phrases :

If a Roman soldier left his post, he was put to death.
If an English soldier sleep on his post, he is shot.
If you receive a letter, you will send it on to me.
The verbs left, sleep, receive, would be expressed in Latin by per-
fect tenses, viz. left, by a past-perfect ; sleep, by a present-perfect ;
receive, by a future-perfect ; for an offence precedes in order of time
the punishment, and of course a letter must be received before it is
forwarded.

479. The imperative and jussive moods have but one tense, and

* The past suffix a, plays an important part in the Greek verb, as in thl i
imperfect ertQea, the aorist erinf/a, the perf. rerv^a, and the past-perfj
ererv^ea. Indeed, the last had once a a, erervtyeffa, as may be seei
from the third pers. pi. ereru$6(ra, v. Thus, the Greek suffix of thi
tense is eera, corrupted into ea, and the Latin is era, itself a corruptioi
from esa. Consequently, the two tenses have the same suffix, viz. the pas '
tense of the verb es, be.

TENSES. 67

that is a future ; but they commonly refer to an immediate fu-
ture.

480. The imperative, memento, mementote, remember, is derived
from a perfect crude form, like all the other tenses of the same verb.

481. The subjunctive mood has four tenses : the present, the past,
the present-perfect, and the past-perfect. Of these, the two former
are often called the imperfect tenses.

482. The subjunctive present has the suffix a; as scrib-a, whence
the third person, scribat. When the suffix a follows another a, the
two are contracted into e, as ara, plough; subj. pres. araa, con-
tracted into are, whence the third p. aret. An old suffix of this
tense was ie or I ; as sie, or si, from es, be ; third p. siet, or, sit.

483. The subjunctive past has the suffix ese, or, ere ; as, from es,
be, subj. past, es'se ; from scrib, write, subj. past, scribere ; whence
the third p. esset, scriberet. The suffix e"re loses its short vowel
after a, e, i : as, third p. ara- 'ret, doce-'ret j audi-'ret ; and some-
times after a consonant ; as, fer-'ret.

484. The perfect tenses of the subjunctive, like those of the indi-
cative, are derived from the crude form of the perfect.

485. The subjunctive present-perfect has the suffix esi, or, eri
scrips ; (the old subj. pres. of es, 6e) ; as, scrib, write ; perf. crude form
(that is, sub. pres. -perf. scrips-Sri, corrupted from scrips-esi); 3 p.

;scrips-erit.

486. The subjunctive past-perfect has the suffix isse (= esse, the
subj. past of es, be) ; as scrips-isse ; third pers. scrips-isset.

487- The translation of the subjunctive tenses has various forms,
which depend chiefly upon the meaning of the verb to which the
subjunctive is attached.

488. If the preceding words denote a command, the subj. pres.

and past are translated respectively by shall and should, or by to.

1 Impero ut mittat, / command tliat he shall send, or, / command him

to send. Imperavi ut mitteret, / commanded that he should send, or,

/ commanded him to send.

489- If the preceding words denote permission, the subj. pres. and

past are translated respectively by may and might, or mose com-

i monly by to. Concedo ut mittat, / grant that he may send, or, I

\ permit him to send. Concessi ut mitteret, / granted that he might

send, or, I permitted him to send.

490. If the preceding words denote a purpose, the subj. pres. and

68 TENSES.

past are translated respectively by may, and miyht, or, is to, and, was
to. Ob earn causam scribo, ut scias, / write for this reason, that you
may know ; Ob earn causam scripsi, ut scires, / wrote for this rea-
son, that you might know. Mittit qui dicant, He sends persons (who
are} to say ; Misit qui dicerent, He sent persons (ivho were) to say.

491. When the preceding words speak of the cause which leads
to the result expressed in the following subjunctive, the latter mood
is translated as an indicative. Tantus est terror ut fugiant, So great
is the alarm that they fly.

492. The subjunctive, in all its tenses, may be translated as an in-
dicative in passages where the assertions or thoughts of another are
expressed. Qui scribat, who is writing (they say) ; qui scriberet, who
was ivriting (they said) ; qui scripserit, who has written (they say) ;
or, who wrote (they said) ; qui scripsisset, who had written (they said).

493. The subjunctive, in all its tenses, after certain conjunc-
tions, may be translated as an indicative. Quum scribat, as he is
writing ; quum scriberet, while he was writing ; quum scripserit, as
he has written ; quum scripsisset, when he had written.

494. The subjunctive, in all its tenses, may be translated as an in-'
dicative in indirect interrogatives : as, Nescio quid faciat, I know not
what he is doing ; Nesciebam quid faceret, / knew not what he was
doing ; Nescio quid fecerit, I know not what he has done, or, what he
did ; Nesciebam quid fecisset, / knew not what he had done.

495. When the two verbs in these phrases have the same nomi-
native, the meaning is ambiguous : as, Nescio quid faciam, / know
not what I am doing, or, / know not what to do Nescis quid facias,
you know not what you are doing, or, what to do, Sfc.

496. In hypothetical sentences, the subj., which marks the condi-
tion, is expressed by English past tenses : as,

si scribat if he were writing, or, were to write.
si scriberet if he had been writing.
si scripserit if he were to write.
si scripsisset if he had written.

497. With verbs of static meaning, the past indicative of the t
English is still used, but somewhat differently : as,

si sciat if he knew.

si sciret if he had known.

si adsit if he were present.

si adesset if he had been present.

TENSES. 69

498. In hypothetical sentences, the subjunctive, which marks the
consequence, is translated in the pres. by shouid, or, would ; in the
past and past-perfect by should have, or, would have : as,

scribat, he would write.
scriberet, he would have written.
scripsisset, he would have icritten.

499. In elliptical sentences, with quasi, a* if, tanquam, as if, &c.,
the subjunctive is translated nearly in the same way : as, Tanquam
dormiat, As if he were asleep (when in fact he is not) ; Tanquam dor-
miret, As if he had been asleep (when in fact he was not) ; Quasi
nunquam antehac proelio adfueris, As if you had never before this
been present at a battle (when in fact you have been} Quasi nun-
quam antea proelio adfuisset, As if he had never before that been pre-
sent at a battle (when in fact he had been*).

I 500. The subjunctive mood has no special future tenses ; still all

ts four tenses are at times used as future tenses.

501. The so-called subj. pres. is used for a future after a pres. or
Vut. : as, Mitto qui rogent, / am sending persons to ask ; Mittam qui
regent, / shall send persons to ask ; MIsi qui rSgent, / have sent per-

ons to ask.

2. The so-called subj. past is used fora future after past tenses :
J is, Mittebam qui rogarent, / was sending persons to ask ; MIsi qui
IfSgarent, J sent persons to ask ; MIseram qui rogarent, / had sent

us to ask.

503. The so-called subj. pres.-perf. is used fora fut.-perf. after a
' >res. or fut. ; and the so-called subj. past-perf. is used for a fut.-perf.

ifter a past. Thus, in the phrase, Is coronam acclpiet qui primus
scenderit, He shall receive a chaplet who first climbs up the word
scenderit is the indicative future-perfect. But, by making the sen-
ence depend upon such a word as dlclt, he says, or, dixlt, he said,
he indicative escenderit will be changed for a subj. : as, Dicit eum
oronam accepturum qui primus escenderit, He says that he shall
eceive a chaplet who first climbs up ; Dixit eum coronam acceptu-
um qui primus escendisset, He said that he should receive a chaplet

:ho first climbed up.

504. Thus, when the subj. perf. tenses are used as future-perfects,

* The clauses in the brackets are useful guides to the Latiu tense.

70 TENSES.

the present-perf. of the Latin is translated by the English ind. pres. ;
the past-perf. of the Latin by the English ind. past.

505. If then, we unite the different uses of the tenses in the sub.
junctive, we shall have

Tense in a Pres. or Fut. after Pres. or Fut.

ere Past or Fut. after Past,

eri Pres.-Pref. or Fut.-Perf. after Pres. or Fut.
isse Past-Perf. or Fut.-Perf. after Past.

506. The infinitive has strictly but two forms, the imperfect and
perfect.

507. The infinitive imperfect has for its suffix esse, or, ere : as,
from es, be, inf. es'se ; from scrib, write, inf. scribere.

508. Slightly irregular are the infinitives fer're, from fer bear i
velle, nolle, inalle, from vol or vel, wish ; nol, be unwilling ; mal,
prefer.

509. The infinitive imperfect maybe translated in three ways :-^
by to ; as, IncTpit ridere, He begins to laugh. In some phrases the
English language omits this to ; as, Potest ridere, He can laugh, i.m
is able to laugh ; Vidi eum ridere, I saw him laugh. By ing ; as, In-
cipit ridere, He begins laughing, or, Vidi eum ridere, I saiv him laugJt-
ing. As an indicative, with that before the English nominative : as,
Scio eum ridere, / know that he is laughing ; Sciebam eum ridere, J
knew that he was laughing.

510. The infinitive perfect is formed by adding isse (== esse, the
inf. of es, 6e) to the crude form of the perfect : as, from scrib, write, '
perf. crude form scrips, and inf. perf. scrips-isse.

511. The inf. perf. may be translated in three ways : by lo have : j
as, Scripsisse dlcitur, He is said to have written. By having : as,
Risisse exitio fuit, The having laughed was fatal. As an indicative,;
with that before the English nominative : as, Scio eum scripsissS, !

I know that he wrote, or, that he has written ; Sciebam eum scrip-)

t
sisse, I knew that he had written.

512. Thus the infinitive imperfect, scribere, corresponds to two|
indicative tenses, scribit and scribebat ; and the inf. perf., scripsiMl
also to two, scripsit and scripserat.

513. The inf. imperfect is sometimes used as a future, where th<
preceding verb itself implies a reference to futurity : as, Pollicete
dare", He promises to give.

CONJUGATIONS. 71

514. The participle in ent or enti, is an imperfect, and belongs
alike to past, present and future time.

515. The participle or gerund in endo, is also an imperfect, and
belongs alike to past, present and future time.

516. The participle in to, is a perfect, and belongs alike to past,
present and future time.

51T. The participle in turo denotes intention or destiny, and be-
longs alike to past, present and future time.

518. CONJUGATIONS.

As the changes which take place in adding the suffixes to a vert)
depend in a great measure upon the last letter, verbs may be di-
vided into the following classes or conjugations*, viz. :

The consonant (or third f) conjugation, as, scrib, write; whence
the infinitive scribere, and the second person present indicative
scribis.

The a (or first) conjugation, asara, plough; whence the infinitive
arare, and the 2 p. pres. ind. a:

The e (or second) conjugation, as doce, teach ; whence the infini-
tive, docere, and the 2 p. pres. ind. doces.

The u (or third J) conjugation, as acu, sharpen ; whence the in-
finitive, acuere, and the 2 p. pres. ind. aculs.

The i (or fourth) conjugation, as audi, hear ; whence the infini-
tive, audire, and the 2 p. pres. ind. audis.

519. The o conjugation has nearly disappeared from the Latin
language. There remain however two verbs of this conjugation,
viz. :

gno, examine ; whence gno-sco, gno-vi, gno-tum, or, as they are
more commonly written, no-sco, no-vi, no-turn ; also the substan-
tives no-men (n.), no-tion (f.), &c. ; and po , drink ; whence the

* See a similar division of nouns into declensions, 54, 55, 56, 88, 89.

t The numbers of the conjugations are given, because they are so ar-
ranged in nearly all grammars and dictionaries.

J Observe that the u and consonant conjugations are united to form the
third conjugation, just as the i and consonant nouns are united to form the
third declension.

Compare the Greek verb xtv-w, I drink, or rather, the tenses, sru-ffw,
ire u-ca.

72 CONJUGATIONS.

participle poto, drunk, the substantives, pociilo (n.), drinking-cup,
po-tion (f.), drinking, and the adjective, pociilento, drinkable, &c.

520. The other verbs, which might have been expected to end in
o, have changed that vowel for a (see 229), as from auro, gold, is
formed the verb in-aura-re*, to gild.

521. The monosyllabic verbs ending in a consonant generally de-
note an act, and may be considered as the oldest verbs of the lan-
guage, as due, draw or lead. (See 30.)

522. The verbs in a are generally formed from substantives or
adjectives of the a or o declension, and have a factitive meaning,

that is, signify, to make , as from albo or alba, white, alba-re,

to make white ; from medico, a physician, medica-ri (r.), to make
oneself a physician, to act the physician, to cure.

523. The two monosyllabic verbs, da, put, and sta, stand, must
be classed with the old verbs of the language. So also many other
verbs ending in a had older forms without that final a, which there-
fore belonged to the consonant conjugation and the old verbs. See
those verbs of the first or a conjugation, which are said to form
their perfects and supines irregularly, as cuba, lie, &c.

524. The verbs in e generally denote a state, as jace, lie ; and
often correspond to a consonant verb, as jac-ere, throw. (See 386.)

525. The monosyllabic verbs, fle, weep, ne, spin, &c., must be
classed with the old verbs of the language. So also many other
verbs in e had older forms without that final e, which therefore
belonged to the consonant conjugation and the old verbs, as ride or
rid, laugh.

526. The verbs in u are often derived from substantives in u, as
from metu,/ear, is formed metu-ere, to fear ; from tribu, a division,
tri"bu-ere, to allot.

527. The monosyllabic verbs, nu, nod, su, sew, &c., must be
classed with the older verbs of the language.

528. The verbs in i are often derived from substantives or ad-
jectives in i, as from tussi, a cough, is formed tussi-re, to cough ;
from molli, soft, molli-re, to soften.

529. The monosyllabic verbs, sci, know, i, go, ci, rouse, must

* The Greek language retained many verbs of the o conjugation, as from
dov\o slave, ov\o-eiv to enslave ; from xP Vff sold, xpvvo-f.iv to gild.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 73

classed with the older verbs of the language. So also those verbs
which had an old form without the i, as veni or ven, come.

530. An attention to the final vowel of a verb is required in the
formation of the derivatives, particularly as regards the quantity.

teg, cover, teg-ii-mento, covering.

arma, equip, arma-mento, equipment.

ere, grow, in-cre-mento*, increase.

argu, prove, argu-mento, proof.

e-moli, heave vp, emoli-mentof, great effort.

gno, examine, know, co-gn5-mento, surname.

531. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A VERB.

When the infinitive, the indicative present, the perfect, and the
supine or verbal in tu of a Latin verb, are known, there is seldom
any difficulty in conjugating it. They are therefore called the prin-
cipal parts of the verb.

532. In the following lists the first person of the present and
perfect are given, and the accusative of the supine. In other words,
o is added to the C. F. of the present, i to the C. F. of the perfect,
and m to the C. F. of the supine. These additions are made only
that the lists may be more easily committed to memory. In most
of the compounds the infinitive has been omitted for the sake of
brevity.

533. THIRD OR CONSONANT CONJUGATION.
LIP LETTERS, B, P.

scab, scratch, scabere scabo scabi.

lab, lick, lambere iambo ambi.

lab (r.), slip, labi labor lapsus;.

* Monumento, dociiniento, said to be derived from the verbs, moue,
doce, imply rather verbs of the consonant conjugation, viz. mon, doc, as
do also the perfects and supines of the same.

f Not to be confounded with e-mol-fi-mento, outgrinding or profit (of
the miller, who pays himself by the excess of bulk in grinding his cus-
tomer's corn).

J 'Where the verb is used as a reflective or passive, the past participle is
given in the nominative.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

bib, drink, bibe're bibo bibi

scrib, write, scribe're scrlbo scrips!

cub, lie down, (cumbere) (cumbo) ciibui *

with pro, fall forward,
glub, peel, glubere

nub, veil, nubere

ap (r.), obtain, apisci

with ad (r.), obtain, adipisci
cap, take, capere

with re, take again,
rap, seize ,carry away, rapere

withab, carry away,
sap, taste, be ivise, sapere

procumbo prociibui

glubo

niibo nupsi
Spiscor aptus ;
adipiscor adeptus.
capio cepi
recipio recepi
rapio rapui
abrTpio abnpui
sapio saplvi ;

bibitum.
scriptum.
cubitura ;

prdcubiitum,&c.
gluptum.
nuptum.

captura ;
receptum,&c.
raptum ;
abreptum,&c.

with re, come toone's senses agaiii,resip'}sco resipivi.

clep,

steal,

clepere

clepo

clepsi or clcpi.

rep,

creep,

repere

repo

repsi

reptum.

strep,

resound,

strepere

strepo

strepui

str^pitura.

scalp,

scratch,

scalpere

scalpo

scalpsi

scalptum.

sculp,

carve (as a

sculpere

sculpo

sculpsi

sculptum.

sculptor),

carp,

pluck,

carp?re

carpo

carpsi

carptum ;

v,'itlidis,puU to pieces,

discerpo

discerpsi

discerptum,&c.

serp,

creep,

serpSre

serpo

serpsi

serptum.

cup.

desire eagerly,

cupere

ciipio

ciipivi

ciipi turn.

rup,

burst,

rumpere

rumpo

rupi

ruptum.

534. THROAT LETTERS, C, G, H, Q, X :
fac, make,do, facere f acio feci factum ;

with per, finish, perficio perfeci perfectum,&c. ;

withpro(r.), setout, prolicisci proficiscor profectus.
jac, throw, jacere jacio jeci jactum ;

with con, hurl, conicio conjeci conjectum,&c.

ISc, drawgently, only used in compounds, as,

with ad, allure, adlicio adlexi adlectum,&c. ;

draw out, eltcio elicui elicituui.

with ec,
nac (r.),

obtain by
chance,

nancisci nanciscor nanctus ornactus.

* See cuba.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

ac (r.),
ec,
C-c,
lec,

fi*.

bend,

pacisci

paciscor

pactus.

pectere

pecto

pexi

pexum.

flectere

flecto

flexi

flexum.

plectere

plecto

plexi

plexum ;

plait,

witham(r.), embrace, am plecti amplector amplexus, &c.
plec (r.), befogged, plecti, plector

nee, link, join, nectere necto nexui or nexu

nexi

spec, look, only used in compounds, as,

with in, look in,

inspicio

inspexi inspectum.&c.

Ic, strike, Icere

ICO*

ici ictum.

die, say, dlcere

dlco

dixi dictam.

diet, learn, discere

disco

didici.

vie, conquer, vincere

vinco

vlci victum.

ulc (r.), avenge, ulcisci

ulciscor

ultas.

pare, spare, parcere

parco

peperci parsuni.

com-pescoj,con/?ne, compescere compesco

compescui.

pose, demand, poscere

posco

pSposci.

due, lead, draw, ducere

duco

duxi ductum.

535. ag, drive,put agere

ago

egi actum ;

in motion,

with red, drive back,

redigo

redegi redactum,&c. ;

with con, drive together,

cogo

coegi coactum.

plag, " strike(the plangere

plango

planxi planctum.

breast)

pag, foe, pangere

pango

pepigi or pegi pactum ;

with c8n, fijc firmly,

compingo

compegi compactum,

&c.

frag, break, frangere

frango

fregi fractum ;

withpt-r, break through,

perfringo

perfregi perfractum,

&c.

t5g, touch, tangere

tango

tetigi tactum ;

with con, touch closely,

contingo

contlgi contactum,&c.

* Same root as jac, throw, and the quantity of the i perhaps doubtful.

f Same root as in doce teach.

t A compound of pasc/eerf (animals). Same root as in plec.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

leg, sweep, read, legere

lego

legi

lectum ;

with con, sweep together,

colligo

collegi

collectum, &c. ;

with re, read again,

relego

relegi

relectura, &c. ;

with inter, perceive,

intellego

intellexi intellectum ;

with dis, esteem,

diligo

dilexi

dilectura.

neg-leg, leave behind, neglegere

neglego*

neglexi

neglectum.

reg, ma be straight, regere

rego

rexi

rectum ;

with pro, stretch forward,

porrigo

porrexi

porrectum,&c.f ;

with sub, rise, get up,

surgo

surrexi

surrectum ;

with per, keep on,

pergo

perrexi

perrectum.

teg, cover, tile, tegere

tego

texi

tectum.

fig, fix, figere

figo

fixi

fixum.

fig, mould, invent, fingere

fingo

finxi

fictura.

nig, snow, uinguere

ninguo

ninxi.

or ningere

or ningo

pig, paint, pingere

pingo

pinxi

pictura.

frig. fi"il> frigere

frlgo

frixi

frictum.

strig, grasp,graze, stringere

stringo

strinxi

strictum.

stig, stick, extinguish, used only in the compounds, as,

with dis, spot, distinguo distinxi distinctum.

withec, extinguish, extinguo extinxi extinctum,&c.

fulgJ,^asA, fulgere fulgo fulsi.

ang, grasp violent- angers ango anxi.

ly, strangle,

cing, gird, cingere cingo cinxi cinctum.

ting, dye, steep, tingere or tinguere tingo or tinguo tinxi tinctum.

ung, grease, ungere or unguere ungo or unguo unxi unctum.

fung(r.), discharge, fungi fungor functus.

mang,wipe, only used in the compound

with ec, wipe (the nose], emungere emungo emunxi emunctum.

sparg,scfflWer, spargere spargo sparsi sparsum ;

* From a root signifying leave (compare linqu-ere, legfi-re) and a prefix
signifying after, like the German preposition ' uach.' Compare the German
verb ' nach-lass-en,' to neglect.

f Also porgSre, porgo ; whence exporgisci, exporgiscor, exporrectus, to
iva&e up, which is often erroneously referred to pergo.

J See also fulge.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

with con, bespatter,

merg, sink, mergere

terg*, wipe, tergere

verg, incline, vergere

fug, flee, fly, fugere

jug, yoke, join, jungere

pug, puncture, pungere

conspergo conspersi conspersum, &c.
mergo mersi raersum.

tergo tersi tersum.

vergo and perhaps versi.
fugio fiigi ffigitum.

jungo juiixi junctum.

pungo piipugi punctum

withcon, puncture forcibly, compungo compunxi compunctum, &cv
sug, suck, siigere sugo suxi suctum.

536. trah drag, trahere traho traxi tractum.

veh carry (in a vehere veho vexi vectum.

vehicle, boat, or on horse-back),

537. seq(r.),/o//ozc, sequi sequor
liq, leave, linquere linquo

with re, leave, relinquo

coq, cook, coquere coquo

ISq (r.), talk, loqui loquor

538. tex, weave, texere texo

539. Add also the following with u or v :
viv or vig, live, vivere vivo vixi
flu or flue, flow, fluere fluo fluxi
fru or frug (r.) , enjoy, frui fruor
struor struc,pile, build, struere struo

sequutus or seciitus.
llqui ;

relictum.

coctum.

rellqui
coxi

loquutus.
texui

textum.

victum.

fluxum-f.
fructus or frultus.
struxi structum.

540. TEETH LETTERS, D, T :

cad, fall, cadere

with ob, set (as sun), die,
with re, fall back,

rad, scrape, radere

grad(r.),sroooM/y,gradi
with ec,

vad, go,

cado cecidi casumj ;

occido occidi occasum, &c.

recido recldi recasum.

rado rasi rasum.

gradior gressus ;

goboldlyout, egredi egredior egressus, &c.
vadere vado ;

with ec, come out, escape, evado evasi evasum, &c.

ed or es, eat, edere or esse edo edi esumj.

* See also terge. t Also subst. fluctu.

% Cicero and Virgil appear to have preferred a double s, as :

caesura, essum, divissum, plaussum, cussum, per-ossus.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

caed, fell, strike, caedere
cut,

with ob, cut down, kill,
laed, strike, hurt, laedere

with con, dash together,
ced, go quietly, yield, cedere
scid, cut, scindere

caedo cecidi

occido occidi occisum,&c.

laedo laesi laesum ;

collido colllsi colllsum, &c.

cedo cessi cessum.

scindo (scicidior) scidi scissum ;

with re, cut away, cut open, rescindo rescidi rescissum, &c.

fid, cleave, findere fmdo (fifidior)fidifissum;

diffindo diffidi
fldo
strido
sido
resldo

diffissum, &c.
fisus.
stridi.

sedi or sidi sessura ;
resedi resessum, &c.

with das, cleave in two,
fid, trust, fidere

strld, hiss, screech, stridere
sld, sit down, sidere
with re, sink back,
subside,
vid, separate, see vide ;

with dis, divide, dividere dlvido divisi divisum.

cand*, set on fire, used only in the compounds, as,

with sub, setjireatthesuccendo succendi succensum, &c.
bottom,

scando
escendo
mando
pando

with ex, spread open, expando expand! expansum or expassum, &c.
fend, strike, only used in compounds, as,

with <\e,ward off, defendere defendo defendi
pend, hang ,iveigh , pendSre pendo pependi
with ex, weigh out, spend, expendo expendi

f rend, grind with the teeth, gnash, frendere frendo.
prehendf, takeholdof, prehendere prehendo prehendi prehensum ;

or premiere prendo prendi prensum.
tend (or ten), stretch, tendere tendo tetendi tentum

or tencli or tensum ;

scand*, climb, scandei e

with ec, climb up,
mand*, chew, mandere
pand*, spread, pandere

scandi scansum ;

escendi escensum, &c.
mandi , man&um.
pandi pansum or passum ;

defensum,&c.
pensum ;
expensum,&c.

* These four roots also appear with an 1 instead of nd, as in cal-or heat,
scala a ladder, mala a jaw, palam openly.

t Probably a compound of prae, and an old verb, hand.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

with 6b or obs, hold towards, ostendo ostendi

5d or odi, take offence,

fSd, dig, fodere fbdio

rod, gnaw, rodere rodo

claudordud,sA/, claudere claudo

or cludere cludo

with ex, shut out, exclude

plaud, clap, plaudere plaudo

ostentum or
ostensutn, &c.
odilhateosus.
fodi fossum.
rosi rosum.
clausi clausum,
cliisi clusum ;
exclusi exclusum, &rc.
plausi plausum ;

with con, clap loudly, complodo complosi complosum, &c.

cud, hammer, coin,
fud, pour,
lud, play,
trud, thrust
tad, Immmer, thump,

cudere cudo cudi cusum.
fundere funclo fiidi fusum.
ludere ludo Ifisi lusum.
trudere trudo trusi trixsum.
tundere tundo tiitudi tunsum or tiisum ;
with con, hammer to pieces, contundo contiidi contunsura

or contusum, &c.

541. Fat, crack, gape, fail, fatiscere fatisco fessus ;
with de (r.), be wearied out, defetisci def^tiscor defessus.
pat (r.), suffer, pati patior passus.

with per (r.)r suffer to the last, perpeti perpetior perpessus.

quat, strike, shake, quatere quatio

percutio percussi

with per, strikejpiolently ,

met, mow, metere

pet, go, seek, petere

mitt, let go. send, mittere

nit* (r.), strain, niti

stert, snore, stertere

vort or vert, turn, vortere

sistt,maA-e to stand, sistere

quassum ;
percussum, &c.
messum.
petitum.
missum.

meto messui

peto petivi

mitto m:si

nitor nixus or nisus,

sterto stertui.

vorto vorti vorsum.

sisto steti or stiti statum ;

restiti restitnm, &c.

usus.

with re, stand against, resist, resisto
fit (r.), use, uti utor

542. The compounds of da, put or give, with prepositions of one

syllable, are all of the third conjugation ; as,
with ab, put away, hide, abdere abdo abdidi abditum.

* Perhaps the root was originally nic. Compare vita, life, for viv'ta
or vig'ta.
f The root is sta. whence si-st, as from gen is formed gi-gn.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

ec,
in,
per
ob,

ad, put to, add,

con, put together,

de put down, surrender,

dis, distribute,

put out, utter,

put on,

foredo, destroy,

put to (as a bar),
prae, furnish, endue,
pro, abandon, betray,
red, put back, restore,
sub, put up, -put in place of,
transmit/ across, hand over,

So also the compounds
vend*, exhibit for sale, sell,
cred, trust, believe,

addere

condere

dedere

didere

edere

indere

perdere

obdere

addo

condo

dcdo

dido

edo

indo

perdo

obdo

addidi

condidi

dedidi

didkli

edidi

indidi

perdidi

obdidi

prodere prodo prodidi
reddere reddo reddidi
subdere subdo subdidi
tradere trado tradidi

additum.

conditum.

deditum.

diditum.

editum.

inditum.

perditum.

obditum.

praediitus.

proditum.

redditum.

subditum.

traditum.

vendere vendo vendidi venditum.
credere credo credidi creditum.

543. L, M, N:

al, rear, feed, alere alo alui alitum or altum.

fall, cheat, fallere fallo fefelli falsum

sail, salt, . sallere sallo salsum

cell, raise (obsolete, except in the compounds, as :)

with ex exalt, surpass, excellere excello excellui, &c. ;

with per overturn, percello perculi perculsum.

re-fell, refute, refellere refello refelli.
pell, push, drive, pellere pello pepiili pulsum ;

with con drivetogcther, force, compello compiili compulsum, &c. ;

with re drive back,
veil, pull, pluck, vellere
toll, raise, bear, tolleref

carry away,

col, dig, till, colere
mo], grind, molere

* The first syllable is an abbreviation of venum, which occurs iu venuin
i-re, venl-re, venun-da-re.

t In meaning, the following go together : tollere, tollo, sustiili, sublatuui.
See fer.

} Latum, instead of tlatvim ; compare the Greek rXaw, ra\as, ro\/ii;.

repello

reppiili

repulsum.

vello

velli

volsum.

tollo

tetilli

latumj.

or tuli

colo

colui

cultum.

molo

molui

molitum.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

vol, wish, velle volo volui.

con-sul(V together), consulere consulo consiilui consultum.
consult,

544. em, take, buy, Smere
-with ex, takeout,

with de, take down,

with con, put together,
arrange (the hair),

with pro, bring out, promo prompsi promptum ;

with sub, take up, sumo sumpsi sumptum.

ge'm, groan, gemere gemo gemui gemitum.

frem, mutter, fremere fremo fremui fremitum.

prem,press, premere premo pressi pressum ;

withre, press back, reprimo repressi repressum, &c.

trem, tremble,
tern (cut), despise, rarely used except in the compound

with con, despise, contemnere contemno contempsi contemptum.

545. can, sing, canere cano cecini cantum.

withcon, sing together, concmo concmui concentum,&c.

or loudly,

gen, produce, gignere gigno genui genitum.

men, mind, memini, / remember ;

withcon (r.), invent, comminisci commmiscor commentas.

with re (r.), remember, remlnisci remmiscor.

Smere emo

emi

extmo

exemi

demo

dempsi

, como

compsi

promo

prompsi

siimo
gemere gSmo
fremere fremo

sumpsi
gemui
fremui

premere premo

pressi

reprimo
tremere tremo

repressi
tremui.

Imere

lino
oblino

si no
desino

ievi litum ;

oblevi oblitum,&c.
slviorsii situm ; .
desii desitum.

lin, daub,

with ob, daub over,
sin, put, permit, sinere

withde (put down) leave off,

546. R, S:

par, produce, par?re pario

quaer or quaes*, seek, quaerere quaero

ask,
withcon, get together, conqulro conquislvi conqulsltum, &c.

peperi partum.
quaeslvi quaesttumf ;

* Quaeso is used in the sense, I pray, orpryfhee.
t From this verb come qnaestu, trade, gain, quaestor, a treasurer, quae-
sitor, a judge.

E 5

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

cer, sift, separate, cernere cerno crtvi creturu*.

see,
fer, raise, bear, ferre f fero J.

carry,

ger orges, wear, carry, gerere
sper, reject, despise, spernere sperno
ser, put, put in a serere

row,
ser, plant, sow, serere

with con, plant all over,
ter, rub, terere

ster, strew, sternere

queror ques (r.), complain, queri queror
verr, sweep, verrere

mor(r.),die, mori

uror us,burn, urere

bur^[, ir, only used in the compound

withcon, burn up, comburo combussi combustum, &c.
curr, run, currere curro ciicurri cursum ;

with ob, run towards, occurro occucurri or occurri occursum, &c.

547. pasorpa,/eed pascere pasco pavi pastum.

(animals') ,

gero

gessi

gestum.

sperno

sprevi

spretum.

sero

serui

sertum.

sero

sevi

satum ;

consero

consevi

consltum,&c.

tero

trivi

trltura.

sterno

striivi

stratum.

queror

questus.

verro

verri

versum.

morior

mortuus ||.

uro

ussi

ustura.

vis,

be,

go to see,

esse
vlsere

sum.
vlso

* Crevi is used in a different sense ; certo, distinct, certain, is originally
a participle of this verb : creto, born, helongs to the verbs cresc, grow,
crea, create,

f But in meaning the following go together :

ferre fero tuli latum ;

with ab, carry off", auferre aufero abstuh' ahlatuni (see toll)
ob, present, obfeiTe obfero obtfih' obliitum, &c. ;
re bring back, referre refero rettuli relatum or rellatum.
% Freto, supported by, relying on, is a participle from this verb ; as also
infesto, presented (as a spear), from the compound infer.
These verbs are in fact the same.
I) But the future participle morituro.

^f Busto, the place whtre a body has been burnt, comes from this verb.
** In meaning, the following go together, esse, sum, fui.

PRINCIPAL PART?.

lacesslvi lacessitum.

facessi.

arcesslvi arcessltum ;

accersivi accersitura.

capessivi capessitum.

lacess *, provoke, lacessere lacesso

facess *, perform, cause, facessere facesso
&r cess*, send for, arcessere arcesso
or accersere accerso
capess *,take, under- capessere capesso

take,
petess *, seek, petessere petesso.

548. U, V :

ISvf, wash, lavere lavo lavi laatam c/K/lotum.

buj, make to drink, used only in the compound

with in, soak, imbue, inbuere inbuo inbui inbutum.
tribu, distribute, tribuere tribuo tnbui tribiitum.

acu, sharpen, acuere acuo acui Scutum,

du, put, an old form of da, put, whence the compounds :

with in, put on, clothe,

with ec, put off, strip,
fu, be,
argu, prove,
vlv, live. See 539.

la, pay (a penalty}, atone for, luere luo lui.
lu**, wash, rarely used except in compounds, as

induere induo

indui

indutum ;

exu5re exuo

exui

exiitum.

f8re I) (fao)

fui

(fiitumlD.

arguere arguo

argui

argutum.

with dis, di-ssolce,
fln,/otr. See 539-
solv, loosen, solvere
volv, roll, vohvre
plu, rain, pluere

diluere diluo dilui dllfitum, &c.

solvo solvi s'jlutum.

volvo volvi volutum.

pluo plfivi or plui.
nu, nod, used only in the compounds, as :

with ad, nod assent, adnuere adnuo adnui, &c.
minu, lessen, minuere minuo minui mmiitum.
sternu,sneeze, sternuere sternuo sternui.
spu, spit, spuere spuo spui.

* These five verbs are formed from the verbs 15c or laci, fac or f5ci,
arci (compound of ci, call), cap or capi, pet or petL

t See lava. t See bib.

The perfects of verbs in u were originally formed in uv, as fuvi. an-
nuvi; and even without the v had the u, at times, !o: or.

|| Used as a future. V Hence futuro.

** See lav and lava.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

sgqu (r.), follow. See seq.

liqu, leave. See Uq.

cSqu, cook. See coq.

15qu, talk. See loq.

ru, make to rush, rush, mere ruo rui

with ob, overwhelm, obruo obrui

fru(r.),ett/oy. See 539.
stru, build. See 539.
su, sew, suere suo

statu, set up, statuere statuo statui

with re, set tip again,
metu fear,

restituo restitui
metuere metuo metui.

rutum * ;
obriitum, &c.

sutum.
statutum ;
restitutum,&c.

549. FIRST, OR A CONJUGATION.

Da f put, give, dare do dedi datum ;

with ab, put away, hide, abderej abdo abdi'di abditum, &c.
sta make to stand, stand,stare sto steti statu ra or statum ;

with prae, place lefore, produce, or, stand before, excel,

praestare, praesto praestiti praestatum or praestitum.
550. cuba|j, lie, ciibare ciibo ciibui ciibitum or ciibavi cubatum.
neca, kill, neciire neco necui or necavi necatum ;

with ec, Mil off, talk to death, eneco or enico, enicavi or enicui,

enicatum or enectum.
seca, cut, secare seco secui sectura, or secavi secaturn.

plica ^f, fold, plicare plico plicatum.

withex,MH/oW, explico explicui explicitum, or explicavi expliciitum.
rnica, move rapidly backwards and forwards,

miciire mico micui, or micavi ;
with ec, spriny forward, emico eraicui emicatum .

* But rulturo.

f This verb can scarcely be said to be of tbe first conjugation, as the
a is short in the infinitive, &c. See du.

t See the compounds of da in 542.

Sta, like da, scarcely belongs to the first conjugation. Many of the
derivatives have a short vowel, as, statu, stabfli, &c. See also sist, 541.

|| See cub, lie down, in 533. See also the irregular verbs.

Tf See plcc, 534. SupplTca, duplica, are not compounds of plica,
but derived from the adjectives supplec, duple'c.

PRIXCIPAL PARTS. 85

with dis, fight a general battle, dimico dimlcavi* dlmlcatuni.
frica, rub, fricare frico frlcui frictuni, or fricatum.

doma, tame, domare domo domui domitum.
sona, sound, sonare sono sonui sonitum or sonavi sonatum.
tona, thunder, tonare tSno tonui tonltum f,

crepa, creak, chatter, crepare crepo crepui crepitum ;

with in, sound against, chide,

increpo increpui increpitum or increpavi increpatum.
veta J, forbid, vetare veto vetui vetitum.
lava ,j, wash, lavare lavo, lavavi or lavi, lavatum lautum or lotum.
juva, assist, jiivare juvo juvi juvatum or jutum.

551. The thirteen dissyllabic verbs given in the preceding sec-
tion were probably at one time all monosyllabic, and consequently
of the consonant or third conjugation. The verbs lavere, abluere,
procumbere, plectere, etc., are met with in the best authors ; and in
the older writers there occur such forms as sonere, sonit, sonunt ;
tonimus, etc. Observe, too, that the same thirteen verbs have all the
first vowel short.

552. The other verbs in a, form the principal parts, like
ara, plough, arare aro aravi aratum.

553. SECOND, OR E CONJUGATION.
habe*~, hold, have, habere habeo habui habitum;

with pro, keep off, . prbhibeo prohibui prohititum.&c. ;

with de, owe, ought, debere debeo debui debitum ;

with prae, present, praebere praebeo praebui praebitum.
sorbe **, suck up, sorbere sorbeo sorbui ;

with ab, tuck away, absorbeo absorbui or absorpsi.

jiibe, bid, order, jubere jubeo jussi jussum.

jace, lie, jacere jaceo jacuift-

place, give pleasure, placere placeo placui placitum ;

please,

with dis give pain, displiceo displicui displicltum.

* Ovid has dimicuisse. t Horace has iutonata.

J An older form is vota. Persius has vetavit.

II See also lav, trash, and the compounds of In, as ablu.

J Compare cap, take.

** Also sorb, of the consonant conjugation.

ft The future participle jaclturo, occurs.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

licuit or ITcitum est.
Kcitus.

doceo

docui

doctura.

noceo

ndcui

nocitum.

arceo
coerceo

arcui f ;
coercui

coercitum, &c.

misceo

miscui

mixtum or

mistum.

mulceo J,
1 iicet* ;

luciscit *

luxit.

taedet *
sedeo ;
restdeo.

per-taesum.

tace, be silent, tacere taceo tacui taciturn ;

with con, become quite silent, conticisco conticui.
lice, be lawful, ITcere licet *

lice (r.), bid(atan awc-liceri liceor

tion),

doce, teach, docere

noce, do damaye, nocere

arce, confine, keep off, arcere

with con, confine,
misce, mix, miscere

mulce, stroke, raulcere

luce, be light (not dark), liicere

become light,

taede, feel weary, taedere
sede, sit, sedere

with re, sit behind, residere

remain behind,

ride ||, laugh, rldere rideo risi risum.

stride ^1", hiss, screech, stridere stndeo.
vide **, see, vtdere video vidi visum.

prande, breakfast, prandere prandeo prandi pransura.
pende, hang, be suspended, pendere pendeo pependi.
spondeff, bind oneself, spondcre spondeo spopondi sponsum ;

promise,

with re, promise in return, respondeo J{, respond!, responsum.
answer,

* The third persons are given because the verb is impersonal.

f Arcto, or rather arto, occurs as an adjective.

J No sufficient authority for the perfect and supine.

The perfect usually given belongs to sld, of the consonant conjuga-
tion.

|| There was also an obsolete verb rid, of the consonant conjugation.

1f See strid, 540.

** The original meaning was probably to separate, whence the com-
pound div'id, divide.

ff Probably related to the Greek <Tirevd-w, pour a libation.

Jt Responde and respondmras occur ; and perhaps in Ca;sar, respondit
is intended for a present.

PRINCIPAL PART:?.

tonde, shear, tondere

arde, be on fire, ardere

take fire, bla-e, ardescere

morde, bite,

mordere

aude, dare, audere

gaude, rejoice, gaudere

pude, feel sluune, piidere

pige, feel reluctance, pigere

frige, be cold, frigere

tondeo
ardeo ;
ardesco
mordeo

audeo
gaudeo
pudet
piget
frigeo ;

totondi tonsum.

arsi arsum.

momordi morsum.

ormemordi

ausua.

gavisus.

piiduitor pudltumest.

piguit or pigitura est.

with re, get cold again, refngescere refrigesco refrixi.

alge, be cold,

algere

algeo ;

.7 JJ

fu/tc CCt-llj

indulge, fie t/jjrf,

in- indulgere

iudulgeo

dulge,

fulge*, be bright,

fulgere

fulgeo.

raulge, milk,

mulgere

mulgeo ,

indulsi indulttun.

mulsi

langueo ;

laugue, haiiy drooping, languere

be faded,
fall drooping, languescere langtiesco langui.

fade,

tergef, wipe, tergere

urgue+, press, urgutre

turguej, be swollen, turgutre
auge, increase (trans. ) augere
mourn, lugere

rouse, call (by citre

name),
bend, viere

luge,
cie,

tergeo

urgueo.

turgueo.

augeo

iugeo

cieo

tersi

aux

luxi.

civi

raulctumor
mulsum.

tersum.

auctum.

citum.

* See also fiilg, to wliich the perfect fulsi belongs.

t The form terg, of the consonant conjugation, is used by the older
writers and Cicero ; terge, by Virgil, Horace, and later writers.

J Urgue and turgue, the older forms, afterwards urge, turge.

See also ci, of the fourth conjugation. From the present verb are
derived the compound participles exc;to, concito, perdto, incite.

|| Nearly obsolete: hence a-e derived vita, avoid, vimeu, tic., and the
adjective vieto.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

quie,

be quiet,

quiescere

quiesco

quievi

quietum.

le*,

daub,

- levi

Htum ;

with

de, blot out,

delere

deleo

delevi

deletum.

cale,

be hot,

calere

caleo ;

become hot,

calescere

calesco

calui f.

vale,

be strony,

be valere

valeo ;

vSlesco
sileo ;
stlesco
fleo

valui f.

silui.
flevi

fletum.

abolitum ;

well,

become strony, valescere
sile, be silent, silere

become silent , silescere
fle, weep, flere

ole J, grow, obsolete except in composition ; as
withab, grow outof use, abolescere abolesco abolevi,
abolish, .Ibolere, iiboleo abolevi

with ad, grow up, adolescere adolesco adolevi or sidolui adultum ;
with con, grow together, unite, coalescere coalesce coalui coalitum
with ex, grow out of use, exolescere exolesco exolevi exoletum ;
with in, grow in, inolescere mblesco inolevi ;
Avith obs, </roM>ow/o/obsble5cere obsolesco obsolevi obsoletum

use,
olejl, smell, olere oleo

with ad, burn (incense), adolere ;iddleo
dole, ache, be indig- dolere doleo

nant,

sole, be wont, solere soleo

pie, fill, only used in compounds ; as

with ex, fill up, explere expleo

time, fear, timere timeo

ne, spin, nere neo

mane**, remain, manere maneo

olui ;
adolui.

solitus.

explevi expletum,&c.

timui.

nevi netum.

mansi mansum.

* Compare lln, daub, of the consonant conjugation.
f The future participles calituro and valituro occur.
J Compare this with the verb al, raise, the form of which remains more
perfect in coalesce.

Perhaps connected with sole.

|| An old verb, 81, smell, also exists.

If The future participle dolituro occurs.

** Compare the Greek verb pipy-M = jui-juev-w.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

tene*, grasp, hold, t&aere

Imp,

with re, hold back,
mone, advise, mSnere

liquef, be liquid, be clear, liquere

melt, or become clea r, liquescere
torquej, twist, or hurt, torquere
re (r.), reckon, think, reri
care, be without, carere
pare, be present, icait parere
upon, obey,

teneo

retineo

retinui retentum, &c.

moneo

monui

momtum.

liqueo ;
liquesco
torqueo
reor

licui.
torsi
ratus.

tortum.

careo

cam! .

pareo

parui

paritum.

ere, grow,
haere, stick,

crescere
haerere

cresco
haereo

crevi
haesi

cretum.
haesum.

maere, mourn,
mere, earn, deserve,

maerere
merere

maereojl-
mereo

merui

meritum ;

or(r.)
misere, feel pity,

merer!
miserere

mereor
miseret

meritus.
mlseruit

miseritiun

or (r.) misereri misereor

vere (r. ~),fear, vereri vereor

torre, roast, torrere torreo

cense, reckon, think, censere censeo

fate (r.), oicn, confess, fateri fateor

or misertum est ;
miseritus or misertus.
veritus.

tormi tostum.
censui censum.
fassus.

with pro, publickly declare, profiler! proflteor professus.

late, lie hid,

latere

lateo latui.

with de, hide oneself, delitescere delitesco

nite, shine, nit ere nlteo

paenite, feel sorry, paenitere paenitet

pute, stink putere puteo

cuve, be on one's cavere caveo
guard,

delltui.
nitui.
paenituit.
putui.

cavi cavltum or

cautum.

* Compare the verb tend, stretch, and the Greek reir-w.
t Compare the verb Bqu (r.).

t The English word tAroic is like this both in form and double mean-
ing, as we say to throic a stone, or to throw siiit.

The future participles carlturo, latlturo, occur

|| Hence the adjective maesto, sad.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

fave, wish well, favere

pave, fear, pavere

con-mve, wink, conniveri

fove, keep warm (trans.), fovere
move, move, movere

vSve, vow, voyere

ferve*, boil, fervere

sue, accustom oneself, suescere
tue or tu (r.), watch, tueri

faveo

favi favitum or

fautum.

paveo

pavi.

connlveo

connixi or conruvi.

fbveo

fovi fdtura.

moveo

movi raotum.

voveo

vovi votum.

ferveo

ferbui.

suesco

suevi suetum.

tueor

tuitus or tutus.

554. FOURTH, OR I CONJUGATION.

it,

go,

ire

Ivi

itum ;

with ex,

go out,

exire

exeo

exii

exitum.

rouse,

clvi

cltum.

amici,

throw round amicire

amicio

amicui

araictum.

one, clothe.

fulci,

prop,

fulcire

fulcio

fulsi

fultum.

sanci,

hallow, ra-

sancire

sancio

sanclvi

sancitum

nfy,

or sanxi

sanctum.

vinci,

bind,

vincire

vincio

vinxi

vinctum.

farci,

cram,

farcire

farcio

farsi

farctum ;

with in,

cram in,

infercio

infers!

infertum,&c.

sarci,

mend, repair, sarcire

sarcio

sarsi

sartum.

rauci,

be hoarse,

raucire

raucio

rausi

rausum.

ordi (r.),

begin,

ordlri

ordior

orsus.

sail,

leap,

sallre

salio

saluiorsalii saltum ;

with de,

leap down,

desilio

desilui

desultum,&c.

or desilivi

sepeli,

bury,

sepelire

sepelio

sepellvi

sepultum.

veni||,

come,

venire

venio

veni

ventum.

saepi,

hedge in,

saepire

saepio

saepsi

saeptum.

* See also ferv, which is always used by Virgil,
t See the irregular verbs. J See also cie.

A compound of jaci, throw, with am, round.

|| The verb ven, of the consonant conjugation, is found even in the im-
perfect tenses in the older writers, as Flautus

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

aperi *, open, aperire aperio aperui apertum-

Speri*, cover, operire operio operui opertum.

reperi *, find, reperire reperio repperi repertum.

comperi *, find out for comperire comperio comperui compertum
certain,

experiri experior

opperiri opperior

oriri orior

haurire haurio

xperi(r.)t, try,
pperi (r.), wait for,
riJ (r.), rise,

draw (as
water),

hauri,

expertns.

opperitus or oppertus.

ortus.

hausi haustum.

meti (r.),
senti,

measure,
feel,

metlri
sentire

metior
sentio

mensus.
sensi

withad(r.), agree to, assentiri assentior assensus.
qui, be able, seldom used except in the compound

with ne, be unable, nequire nequeo nequivi nequitum.

555. The other verbs in i form their principal parts like
audi, hear, audlre audio audlvi auditum.

* These are commonly considered to be compounds of pari, produce,
bring to light. Opperi, with the p doubled, occurs in Terence in the same
sense, to cover.

f Experi (r.) is probably a compound of the obsolete verb peri(r.), try,
whence the adjective perito, skilled, and the neuter noun periculo, trial,
danger.

J See 537.

CONJUGATIONS.

556. CONJUGATION OF IMPERFECT TENSES.

^ast Letter

Consonant

Conjugation

Latin

ara,

doce,

scrib,

acu,

audi,

English

plough.

teach.

write.

sharpen.

hear.

. ar6"

oceo 1

cribo"

cuo'

ludio^

aras

oces

cribls

cuTs

ludis

arat

ocet

cribit

cult

aiidit

3 . aramiis

ocemus

scriblmus

culm us

audimus

aratls

ocetls

scrlbitls

cuHls

auditts

O
O

arant

ocent

scribunt

cuunt *

audiunt

S. arabarn

ocebam

scrlbebain

cuebam

audiebam

<fc

arabas

ocebas

scribebas

cuebas

audiebas

arabat

ocebat

scribebat

cuebSt

audiebat

I 4

^ ^

'. arabamus

ocebamus

scribebiimus

ctiebamus audiebamiis

arabatls

ocebatis

scribebatis

cuebatls

audiebatls

arabant

ocebant

scribebant

cuebant

audiebant

^ arabo"

.ocebo"

scrlbain

cuam

audiam

ariibls

ocebls

scribes

cues

audies

f-(

arablt

.ocebit

scrlbet

cuet

audiet

3 .arabimus

ocebimus

scribemus

cuemus

audiemus

-S

arabltls

ocebitis

scrlbetis

cuetls

audietls

arabunt

locebunt

scribent

cuent

audient

JUSSIVE

S. 2. ara

[oce

scribe

acuS

audi

MOOD.

P. 2. aratS

locete

scribltS

aculte

audit e

IMPERA-

S. 2. arato"
3. aratd"

doceto"
doceto^ 1

scrlbito"
scribitd'

aculto'
aculto'

audltd'
audlto"

TIVE

P. 2. aratot

docetotS

scrlbltote

acultote

auditotS

MOOD.

3. aranto"

docento"

scribunto"

acuunto"

audiuntd'

S. arem

doceam

scrlbam

acuaui

audiam

ares

doceas

scrlbiis

Ico&a

audias

ar^t

doceat

scribat

acuat

audiat

P.aremus

doceamiis

scribamiis

acuamus

audiamtis

aretis

doceatis

scribatls

acuatls

audiatls

arent

doceant

scrlbant

acuant

audiant

S. ararem

docercm

scriberem

acuerem

audlrem

B<u

arares

doceres

scrlbSres

acu^res

audlres

araret

doceret

scriberSt

acueret

audiret

P. araremu

docercmus

scribereniu

acueremus

audlremus

araretls

doceretis

scriberetis

acuSretis

audiretts

ararent

docerent

scrlbeYent

Scu^rent

audirent

Or Scuont.

CONJUGATION'S.

Last Letter
Conjugation

a
1

Consonant.
3

u
3

Lathi
English

ara,
plouyh.

doce,
teach.

scrib,
write.

aeu,
sharpen.

atidi,
hear.

INFINI-
TIVE
MOOD.

arare

docere

scriberS

acuere

audire

PARTICI-
PLE*.

aranti or
arant

docenti or
decent

scribenti or aeuenti or
scribent acuent

audienti or
audient

PART.
FUTURE.

araturo
or a

docturo
or a

scripturo acuturo
or a or a

audlturo
or a

GERUNDt

arando

docendo

scribendo iacuendo audiendo

55". There are certain verbs which mix together the consonant
and i conjugations in the imperfect tenses, viz.:

f ac or faci, make, j fod or fodi, dig. I sap or sapi, taste.
fug fugi, flee. \ cup ciipi, desire.
cap capi, take. ' par pari, produce.

jac jaci, throw.

lac J laci, draw.
spec J speci> look.

rap rapi,
together with the reflective verbs,

grad or gradi, march.
or ori, rise.

mor or mori, die.
pat ' pati, suffer.

quat quati, shake.

pot or poti, make

oneself master.

Observe, too, that all these seventeen verbs have the vowel short.

558. Conjugation of the imperfect tenses of verbs which mix
together the consonant and i conjugations :

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
S. fugio, fugis, fugit. P. fugimus, fugitis, fugiunt.

Past- Imperfect. Future.

S. fugiebam, fugiebas, &c. 5. fugiarn, fugies, &c.

* DecUned like praesenti or praesent. See 219.
t Declined like a neuter noun in o.
J Only used in the compounds.

94 CONJUGATIONS.

JUSSIVE MOOD.
S. fugg. P. fugfte.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
S. 2. fugfto, 3. fugito. P. 2. fugttote, 3. fugiunto.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Tense. Past Tense.

S. fugiam, fugias, &c. /S. fugerem, fugeres, &c.

INFINITIVE, fugere. PARTICIPLE, fugient or fugienti.
PARTICIPLE FUTURE, fugituro. GERUND, fugiendo.

559- Observe that those forms which have the short vowels marked
follow the consonant conjugation ; the others are derived as from a
verb in i.

560. In old writers such forms as caplre, fodire, parire, &c., occur.

561. CONJUGATION OF PERFECT TENSES.
Crude form of perfect, arav.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present-Perfect, or Aorist.

S. aravl, aravisti, aravit. P. aravimiis, aravistts, araverunt,

or arav ere.
Past-Perfect.

S. araveram, araveras, araverat. P. araveramiis, araveratis, arii-

verant.

Future-Perfect.
S. aravero", araveri's, araverit. P. araverrmtis, araverrtls, ariiverint.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present-Perfect, or Aorist.

S. araverim, araveri's, aravertt. P. araveri"mus, araverftis, araverint.

Past-Perfect.
S. aravissem, aravisses, ariivisset. P. tiravissemiis, ariivissetis, ara-

vissent.
INFINITIVE MOOD.

aravisse.

562. One example suffices, as the same suffixes are always added
to the crude form of the perfect.

CONJUGATIONS. 95

563. The perfect tenses often undergo a contraction : as,

Sriivl

aravisti or arasti

aravit

aravimus

aravistis or arastis

araverunt or ararunt or araverS.

araveram or araram, &c.

araverd' or arard, &c.

araverim or ararim, &c.

aravissem or arassem, &c.

aravisse or arasse.

564. In the perfects of the i conjugation similar contractions oc-
cur : as,

audivi or audii

audivistl, audiistT, or audisti

audlvit or audiit

audlvimiis or audiimus
audivistis, audiistis, or audistis
audlverunt or audierunt, or

audivere or audiere.

audiveram or audieram, &c.

audivero"' or audierd', &c.

audive'rim or audierim, &c.

audivissem or audiissem or audissem, &c.

audivisse or audiisse or audisse.

565. If the crude form of the perfect end in x or s, the following
contractions are found :

dixi

dixisti or dixti

dixit

diximus

dixistis or dixtis
dixerunt or dixere.

dixissem or dixem, &c.
dixisse or dixe, &c.

566. As the future-perfect of the indicative originally ended in
eso, rather than ero, and the subjunctive perfect in esim, rather
than erim, the following contractions, which occur in old writers,
are explained :

Ind.fut.-perf. faxo^, fiuus, &c. for fecero, &c.
Subj. pres.-perf. faxim, faxfs, &c. for fecerim, &c.
Subj. past-perf. faxem, faxi?s, &c. for fecissem, &c.

567. So again, arass6 J , arassfs, &c. for aravero, &c.

CONJUGATIONS.

568. From this future-perf. is formed an old infinitive future
arassere.

569- The gerund of the consonant and i conjugations often ends
in undo, rather than endo ; as scrlbundo.

570. REFLECTIVE OR PASSIVE VERBS.
CONJUGATION OF IMPERFECT TENSES.

Last letter
Conjugation

a
1

e
2

Consonant.
3

u
3

i
4

Latin
English

orna,
dress.

doce,
teach.

vort,
turn.

metu,
fear.

audi,
hear.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.

S. ornor
ornaris or
ornare
ornatttr
P. ornamiir
ornaralnl
ornantfir

doceor
doceris or
docere
docetur
docemur
docemim
docentiir

vortor
vorterls or
vortere
vortltur
vortmiur
vortlmlnl
vortuntSr

tnetuor
m^tueils or
metuere
metultor
metuimur
metuimlm
mStuuntur *

audior
audlrts or
audire"
audittir
audlmur
audlmlnl
audiuntur

Past-Imperfect
Tense.

ornabar
ornabarfs or
ornnbare
ornabatur
P. ornabamur
ornabamlni
ornabantur

docebar
docebaris or
docebare
docebatur
docebamur
docebamln!
docebantnr

vortebar
vortebiirisor
vortebare
vortebatur
vortebamur
vortebamlni
vortebantiir

metuebar
metuebarls or
metuebare
metuebatfir
metuebamur
metuebammi
metuebantiir

audiebar
audiebaris or
audiebare
audiebatur
audiebamiir
audiebamlnl
audiebanttir

Future Tense.

S. ornabor
ornaberls or
ornabere
ornabftur
P.ornablmfir
ornabimlnl
ornabuntiir

docebor
doceberls or
docebere
docebltiir
doceblmtir
doceblm'inl
docebuntur

vortar
vorteris or
vortere
vortetur
vortemiir
vortemlnl
vortentiir

metuar
ra^tuerls or
metuere
metuetttr
mStueniur
metuemlni
metuentur

audiar
audierls or
audierg
audietur
audiemur
audiemlnl
audientiir

JUSSIVE
MOOD.

5. 2. ornare
P.2.oruamlni

docere
docemlui

vortere
vortlmlnl

metuSre
metulmlni

audire
audimfni

IMPERA-
TIVE
MOOD.

S. 2. ornator
S.ornator
P.2.ornamlnor
S.ornantor

docetor
docetor
docennnor
docentor

vortltor
vortltor
vortfmlnor
vortuntor

metuitor
mStuttor
metulniliior
mStuuntor f

auditor
auditor
audTmlnor
audiuntor

* Or mStuontur.

t Or metuontor.

CONJUGATIONS.

letter
Conjugation

a
1

e
2

Consonant
3

u
3

i
4

Latin
English

orna,
dress.

doce,
teach.

vort,
turn.

mtu,
fear.

audi,
hear.

SUIiJUNCTIVE MOOD.

1
Present Tense.

S. orner
ornerts or
ornerS
ornetur
P.ornemur
ornemlul
ornentur

docear
docearis or
doceart:
doceatur
dSceamur
doceamiiu
doceantur

vortSr
vortarls or
vortarS
vortatur
vortamiir
vortamlnl
vortantiir

metnar
metuaris or
metuare
metuatiir
metuamJir
metuamini
metuantur

audiar
audiarls or
audiare'
audiatiir
audiamiir
audiamlm
audiantur

1
^S

5. ornarer
ornarerisw
ornarere
ornaretur
P.ornaremur
ornaremlni
ornarentiir

docerer
docereris or
docerere
doceret&r
doceremur
docer erauii
do cerent iar

vortgrer
vortereris or
vort r ere"
vorteretiir
vortSremiir
vorteremirii
voiterentur

metuerer
metuererls or
metuerere
metueretur
metneremiir
m^tueremlnl
metuerentur

audlrer
audireris or
audirerg
audiretiir

audiremur
audlremini
audlrentur

INFINI-
TIVE
MOOD.

ornarier* or
ornari

docerier* or
doceri

vortier* or
vorti

metitier* or
metul

audlrier* or
audlrl

PARTICI-
PLE f-

ornando

docendo

vortendo

metuendo

audiendo

5"1. Conjugation of the imperfect tenses of reflective or passive
verbs which mix together the consonant and i conjugations. (See

557.)

INDICATIVE Moon.

Present Tense.
S. rnorior, mSreris, moritur P. morimiir, moriminl, mSriuntiir.

or mbrerS,

Past-Imperfect. Future.

S. moriebar, moriebans, &c. S. moriar, morieris, &c.

JUSSIVE MOOD.
S. morere' P. morimim.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
S. 2. morltor, 3. moritor. P. 2. moriminor, 3. moriuntSr.

* The infinitives in er belong to the old language.

t The reflective verbs have also participles in ent or enti, and in turo.

CONJUGATIONS.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Tense. Past Tense.

S. moriar, mbriaris, &c. S. morerer, morereris, &c.

INFINITIVE, mori.

PARTICIPLES IMPERFECT, morient or mbrienti, and moriundo ;
PARTICIPLE FUTURE, morituro.

In old writers such forms as morimiir and mbrlri occur.
572. Ori, rise, and poti, make oneself master, partake more of the
i conjugation : as, orirer, oriri ; potiris, pbtltur, potlmur, potirer,
potiri.

5/3. The perfect tenses of a reflective or passive verb are formed
by the perfect participle in to and the verbs es or fu.

574. Conjugation of the perfect tenses of a reflective or passive
verb.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present-Perfect, or Aorist.

S. ornatus sum or fuT. P. ornati sumus or fuTmiis.

ornatus es or fuisti. ornati estis or fuistis.

ornatus est or fuit. ornati sunt, fuerunt or fuere.

Past- Perfect.

S. ornatus eram or fueram. P. ornati eramiis or fueramus.
ornatiis eras or fueras. ornati eratis or fueratis.

ornatus erat or fuerSt. ornati erant or fuerant.

Future-Perfect,
or fuero. P. ornati erimiis

or fuerFs. ornati eritis

or fuerit. ornati erunt

S. ornatus ero
ornatus ens
ornatus erit

or fueri"mus.
or fuerrtis.
or fuerint.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present-Perfect, or Aorist.

S. ornatus sim or fuerim. P. ornati simiis or fueri^mua.
ornatus sis or fueri s. ornati sitis or fuerrtis.

ornatus sit or fuerit. ornati sint or fuerint.

Past-Perfect.

S. ornatus essem or fuissem. P. ornati essemus or fuissemus.
ornatus esses or fuisses. ornati essetis or fuissetis.

ornatus esset or fuisset. orniiti essent or fuissent.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
ornatus esse or fuisse.

COJfJUGATIOXS. 99

575. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB, WITH THE
ENGLISH TRANSLATION.

C. F. SCRIB, write,
Principal parts scribere, scrib, scrips, scripta.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, scrib.
As a present-imperfect, am -- ing :

Ad fratrem meum scribo, I ant writing to my brother.

Ad fratrem tuom scribis*, You* are writing to your brother.

Ad fratrem suom scribit, He is writing to his brother.

Ad fratrem nostrum scribimus, We are writing to our brother,
Ad fratrem vostrum scribitls, Youj are writing to your brother.
Ad fratrem suom scribunt, They are writing to their brother.

576. - as an historic present :

Postero die ad senem scribo, Tke next day I write to the old man.
Postero die ad senem scribis*. The next day you* write to the old man.
Postero die ad senem scribit, The next day he icritea to the old man.

Postero die ad senem scribimus. The next day we write to the old man.
Postero die ad senem scribitisf,T7ie next day you-\- write to the old man.
Postero die ad senem scribunt, The next day they write to the old man.

57". - as a present of custom :
Ego calamo scribo, / J write with a reed.

Tu pluma scribis, You J write with a pen.

Ille stilo scribit, ffe* (yonder) writes with a stile.

Nos calamls scribimus, Jl'e* write with reeds.

Vos plumis scribitis, You+ write with pens.

III! stifKs scribunt, ^*y+ (yonder) write with stiles .

* Where you means only one person, or thou art writing, thov writett

may be used.

t Where you means more than one person.

J These pronouns must be pronounced emphatically.

A Roman instrument for writing on waxen tablets.

100 CONJUGATIONS.

578. as a present, translated by do :

Ego vero scribo, Yes I do write.

Tu vero scribis, Yes you do write.

Ille vero scribit, Yes he does write.

Nos vero scribimus, Fes we do ivrite.

Vos vero scribitis, Fes you do write.

Illi vero scribunt, Yes they do write.

579. as a present, including past time, have been ing :

Jam duas horas scribo, / have been writing now two hours.

Jam duas horas scribis, You have been writing now two hours.

Jam duas horas scribit, He has been writing now two hours.

Jam duas horas scribimus, We have been writing now two hours.
Jam duas horas scribitis, You have been writing now two hours.
Jam duas horas scribunt, TJtey have been writing now two hours.

580. Past- Imperfect, scribeba.

Asa past- imperfect, was ing :

Scribebam cum puer intravit, / was writing when the boy came in.
Scribebas cum puer intravit, You ivere writing when the boy came in.
Scribebat cum puer intravit, He was writing when the boy came in.

Scribebamus cum puer intravit, We were writing when the boy came in.
Scribebatis cum puer intravit, You were writing when the boy came in.
Scribebant cum puer intravit, They were writing when the. boy came in.

581. as a past tense of custom, used to :

Ego calamo scribebam, I used* to write with a reed.

Tu pluma scribebas, You used to write with a pen.

Ille stilo scribebat, He (yonder) used to write with a stile.

Nos calamis scribebamus, We used to write with reeds.
Vos plumis scribebatis, You used to write tcith pens.

111! stills scribebant, They (yonder) used to write with stiles.

* Or I wrote, &c.

CONJUGATIONS. 101

582. ' as a past tense, including time preceding, had been

ing :

Jam tris horas scribebam, / had been then icriting three hours.
Jam tris horas scribebas, You had been then writing three hours.

Jam tris horas scribebat, He had been then writing three hours.

Jam tris horas scribebamus, We had been then writing three hours.
Jam tris horas scribebatis, You had been then writing three hours.
Jam tris horas scribebant, They had been then writing three hours.

583. Future Tense, scriba or scribe.
Translated by shall, will :

Cras mane scribam, / shall write tomorrow morning,

Cras mane scribes, You will write tomorrow morning.

Cras mane scribet, He will write tomorrow morning.

Cras mane scribemus, We shall write tomorrow morning.
Cras mane scribetis, You icill write tomorrow morning.

Cras mane scribent, They icill write tomorrow morning.

Present-Perfect Tense, scripsis.

584. As a present perfect, have en* :

Quattuor epistolas scripsT, / have icrittenfour letters.

Quattuor epistolas scripsistl, You have written four letters.

Quattuor epistolas scripsit, He has written four letters.

Quattuor epistolas scripsimiis, We have written four letters.
Quattuor epistolas scripsistis, You have written four letters.

Quattuor epistolas scripserunt, They have written four letters.

585. as an aorist, translated by the English past :

Herl ad negotiatorem scripsi, I wrote yesterday to the merchant.
Heri ad negotiatorem scripsisti, You wrote yesterday to the merchant.
Heri ad negotiatorem scripsit, He wrote yesterday to the merchant.

Heri ad negotiatorem scripsimus, We wrote yesterday to the merchant.
Heri ad negotiatorem scripsistis, You wrote yesterday to the merchant.
Heri ad negotiatorem scripserunt, They wrote yesterday to the merchant.

* That is, the perfect participle of the English verb.

102

CONJUGATIONS.

586. ' ' as an aorist, translated by did :

Ego vero scripsi, Yes I did write.

Tu vero scripsisti. Yes you did write.

Ille vero scripsit, Yes he did write.

Nos vero scripsimus, Yes we did write.

Vos vero scripsistis, Yes you did write.

Illi vero scripserunt, Yes they did write.

687- as a present perfect, translated by an English present :

Ego si scripsi, Caesar rescribit ; If I write, Caesar writes again.
Tu si scripsisti, Caesar rescribit ; If you write, Caesar writes again.
Is si scripsit, Caesar rescribit ; If he writes, Caesar writes again.

Nos si scripsimus, Caesar rescribit ; If we write, Ctssar writes again.
Vos si scripsistis, Caesar rescribit ; If you write, Ctesar writes again.
Hi si scripserunt, Caesar rescribit ; If they write, Caesar writes again.

588. Past-Perfect, scripsera.
Translated by had en :

Ante id tempiis scripseram,
Ante id tempus scripseras,
Ante id tempus scripserat,

Ante id tempus scripseramus,
Ante id tempus scripseratis,
Ante id tempus scripserant,

I had written before that time.
You had written before that time.
He had icritten before that time.
We had written before that time.
You had written before tfiat time.
They had written before that time.

589. translated by an English past :

Ego si scripseram, Caesar rescribebat; If I* wrote, Caesar wrote

again.
Tu si scripseras, Caesar rescribebat ;

Is si scripserat, Caesar rescribebat ;

If you* wrote, Caesar wrote

again.
If he* wrote, Ccssar wrote

cicjain.
Nos si scripseramus, Caesar rescribebat ; If we* wrote, Ccesar wrote

again.
Vos si scripseratis, Caesar rescribebat

If you* wrote, Caesar wrote

again.
If they * wrote, Ccssar wrote

again.
Pronounce these pronouns emphatically.

Hi si scripserant, Caesar rescribebat ;

COKJTJGATIOXS.

103

590. Future- Perfect, scripser.

Translated by shall hare en ; will have en :

Ante noctem scripsero, / shall have written before night.

Ante noctem scripserfs., You, will kave written before night.

Ante noctem scripserit, He will have written before night.

Ante noctem scripserrmus, We shall have written before night.

Ante noctem scripserftii, You trill have written before night.

Ante noctem scripserint, They will have written before night.

591. translated by an English present :

Ego si scripsero, Caesar rescribet ; If I write, Caesar will write

again.
Tu si scripseris, Caesar rescribet; Jf you icrite, Ccssar will write

again.
Is si scripserit, Caesar rescribet ; If he writes, Ccssar will write

ogam.
Nos si scripserrmus, Caesar rescribet ; If we write, Ctesar will write

again.
Vos si scripseritis, Caesar rescribet ; If you write, C&sar will write

again.
Hi si scripserint, Caesar rescribet ; If they write, Caesar will write

again.

592. JUSSIVE MOOD.
Translated by the simple verb :

Scribe ad patrem tuom, Write to your father.

Scribite ad patrem vostrura, Write to your father.

593. IMPERATIVE MOOD, with suffix to.
Translated by shall, must, let :

Scrlbito, Thou shall write. Scrlbitote, Ye shall write.
Scrlbito, He shall write. Scribunto, They shall write.

594. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, scriba.

As a present imperfect, am ing :

Xescio quid scribam, / know not what I am writing.

Nescio quid serious, / know not what you are writing.

Nescio quid scribat, I know not what he is writing.

104 CONJUGATIONS.

Nescio quid scribamus, J know not what we are writing.
Nescio quid scribatis, / know not what you are writing.

Nescio quid scribant, / know not what they are writing.

595. translated by an indicative present :

Inde fit ut nil de hac re scribam, Hence it happens that I write

nothing on this subject.
Inde fit ut nil de hac re scribas, Hence it happens that you write

nothing on this subject.
Inde fit ut nil de hac re scribat, Hence it happens that he writes

nothing on this subject.
Inde fit ut nil de hac re scribamus, Hence it happens that we write

nothing on this subject.
Inde fit ut nil de hac re scribatis, Hence it happens thai you write

nothing on this subject.

Inde fit ut nil de hac re scribant, Hence it happens that they write

nothing on this subject.

596. translated by do :

Ut scribam, non est satis ; Even granting that I do write, it is not

enough.
Ut scribas, non est satis ; Even granting that you do write, it is

not enough.

Ut scribat, non est satis ; Even granting that he does write, it is

not enough.

Ut scribamus, non est satis ; Even granting that we do write, it is not

enough.
Ut scribatis, non est satis ; Even granting that you do write, it is

not enough.
Ut scribant, non est satis ; Even granting that they do write, it is

not enough.

597. translated by should, would :

Si pinna mini sit, scribam ; If there were a pen for me, I would

write.
Si pinna tibi sit, scribas ; If there were a pen for you, you

would write.
Si pinna el sit, scribat ; If there were a pen for him, he would

write.

CONJUGATIONS. 105

Si pinnae nobls sint, scribamus; If there were pens for us, tee would

write.
Si pinnae vobis sint, scribatis ; If there were pens for you, you would

write.
Si pinnae his sint, scribant ; If there were pens for them, they

would write.

598. translated by were ing :

Sedeo hie, tanquam scribam ; I sit here, as if I were writing.
Sedes istic, tanquam scribas ; You sit there, as if you ivere writing.
Sedet illlc, tanquam scribat ; He sits yonder, as if he were writing.
Sedemus hie, tanquam scribamus ; We sit here, as if we were writing.
Sedetis istic, tanquam scribatis ; Yausit there, asifyou were writing.
Sedent illic, tanquam scribant ; They sit yonder, as if they were

writing.

599. translated by may :

Pinna datur, qua* scribam ; The pen is given, that I may icrite

with* it.
Pinna datur, qua scribas ; The pen is given, that you may write

with it.
Pinna datur, qua scribat ; The pen is given, that he may write

with it.
Pinna datur, qua scribamus ; The pen is given, that we may write

with it.
Pinna datur, qua scribatis ; The pen is given, that you may write

with it.
Pinna datur, qua scribant ; The pen is given, that they may icrite

with it.

*599. translated by must or shall:

Lex est ut scribam, There is a law that I must twite.

Lex est ut scribas. There is a law that you must write.

Lex est ut scribat, There is a law that he must write.

Lex est ut scribamus, There is a laic that tee must icrite.

Lex est ut scribatis, There is a law that you must write.

Lex est ut scribant, There is a law that they must write.

* Literally, with which.

106 CONJUGATIONS.

600. translated by to :

Nescio quid scribam, / know not what to write.

Nescis quid scribas, You know not what to write.

Nescit quid scribat, He knows not tvhat to write.

Nescimus quid scribamus, H'e know not what to write.

Nescitis quid scribatis, You know not what to write.

Nesciunt quid scribant, They know not what to write.

601. translated by shall, will :

Puer timet ne scribam, The boy is afraid I shall write.

Puer timet ne scribas, The boy is afraid you will write.

Puer timet ne scribat, The boy is afraid he will write.

Puer timet ne scribamus, The boy is afraid we shall write.

Puer timet ne scribatis, The boy is afraid you will write.

Puer timet ne scribant, The boy is afraid they will write.

602. translated by from ing .

H o^c impedit ne scribam, This prevents me from writing.

Hoc impedit ne scribas, This prevents you from writing.

Hoc impedit ne scribat, This prevents him from writing.

Hoc impedit ne scribamus, This prevents us from writing.

Hoc impedit ne scribatis, This prevents you from writing.

Hoc impedit ne scribant, This prevents them from writing.

*602. translated by English infinitive :

Sine scribam, Let me write. Sine scribamus, Let us write.
Sine scribat, Let him write. Sine scribant, Letlhemwrite.

f602. translated as a jussive mood :

Ne scribam, Let me riot write. Ne scribamus, Let us not write.
Ne scribas, Do not write. Ne scribatis, Do not write.

Ne scribat, Let him not write. Ne scribant, Let them not write.

603. Past Tense, scribere.

As a past-imperfect, translated by was ing :

Nesciebam quid scrlberem, I knew not what I was writing.
Nesciebam quid scriberes, J knew not what yon were u-ritiny.
Nesciebam quid scriberet, I knew not what he was writing.

CONJUGATIONS.

107

Nesciebam quid scribereraus,
Nesciebam quid scriberetis,
Nesciebam quid scriberent,

604. translated by

Inde factum est ut nil de hac

scnberem,
Inde factum est ut nil de hac

scriberes,
Inde factum est ut nil de hac

scriberet,

/ knew not u-hat tee wert writing.
1 knew not what you, were writing.
I knew not what they were writing.

an English past :

re Hence it happened that I wrote no-
thing on this subject.

re Hence it happened thct you wrote
nothing on this subject.

re Hence it happened that he wrote
nothing OR this subject.

Hence it happened that we wrote

nothing on this subject.
Hence it happened that you wrote

nothing on this subject.
Hence it happened that they wrote
nothing on this subject.

translated by should or would have en :

Si pinna mini esset, scriberem ; If there had been a pen for me, I

should have written.
If there had been a pen for you,
you would hate written.

Inde factum est ut nil de hac re

scriberemus,
Inde factum est ut nil de hac re

scriberetis,
Inde factum est ut nil de hac re

scriberent,

605.

Si pinna tibi esset, scriberes
Si pinna ei esset, scriberet ;

If there had been a pen for him,
he would have written.

Si pinnae nobis essent, scribere-
mus ;

Si pinnae vobls essent, scribere-
tis ;

If there had been pens for us, ire

should have written.
If there had been pens for you,

you would have written.
Si pinnae his essent, scriberent ; If there had been pens for them,

they would have written.

606. translated by had been ing :

Sedebam hie, tanquam scriberem ; / was sitting here, as if I had

Sedebas istlc, tanquam scriberes ;
Sedebat illlc, tanquam scriberet ;

been writing.
You were sitting there, as if you

had been writing.
He was sitting yonder, as if he

had been writing.

108 CONJUGATIONS.

Sedebamus hie, tanquara scribereraus ; Wt were sitting here, as if

we had been writing.

Sedebatis istic, tanquam scriberetis ; You were sitting there, as if

you had been writing.

Sedebant illic, tanquam scriberent ; They were sitting yonder, as

if they had been writing.

607. translated by might :

Pinna data est qua* scriberem, The pen was given me that I might\

write with it *.
Pinna data est qua scriberes, The pen was given that you might

write with it.
Pinna data est qua scriberet, The pen was given that he might

write with it.
Pinna data est qua scriberemus, The pen was given that we might

write with it.
Pinna data est qua scriberetis, The pen was given that you might

write with it.
Pinna data est qua scriberent, The pen was given that they might

write with it.

608. translated by must or should :

Lex erat ut scriberem, There was a law that I must write.

Lex erat ut scriberes, There was a law that you must write.

Lex erat ut scriberet, There was a law that he must write.

Lex erat ut scriberemus, There was a law that we must write.

Lex erat ut scriberetis, There was a law that you must write.

Lex erat ut scriberent, There was a law that they must write.

609. translated by to :

Nesciebam quid scriberem, / knew not what to write.

Nesciebas quid scriberes, You knew not what to write.

Nesciebat quid scriberet, He knew not what to write.

Nesciebamus quid scriberemus, We knew not ivhat to write.

Nesciebatis quid scriberetis, You knew not what to write.

Nesciebant quid scriberent, They knew not what to icrite.

* Literally, with which. f Or, to write tcittt.

CONJUGATIONS. 109

610. translated by should or would :

Puer timebat ne scriberem, The boy was afraid I should write.
Puer timebat ne scriberes, Tlie boy was afraid you would write.
Puer timebat ne scriberet, Tlie boy was afraid he would write.

Puer timebat ne scriberemus, Tlie boy was afraid we should write.
Puer timebat ne scriberetis, The boy was afraid you would write.
Puer timebat ne scriberent. The boy was afraid they would write.

611. translated by from ing :

Ho~"c impediebat ne scriberem, This prevented me from writing.

Hoc impediebat ne scriberes, This prevented you from writing.

Hoc impediebat ne scriberet, This prevented him from writing.

Hoc impediebat ne scriberemus, This prevented us from writing.

Hoc impediebat ne scriberetis, This prevented you from writing.

Hoc impediebat ne scriberent, This prevented them from writing.

612. translated as a past order* :

Ne scriberem, (ffe bade) me not write.

Ne scriberes, (He bade) you not write.

Ne scriberet, (He bade) him not write.

Ne scriberemus, (He bade) us not write.

Ne scriberetis, (He bade) you not write.

Xe scriberent, (He bade) them not write.

613. Present-Perfect, scripseri.

As a present-perfect, have en :

Xescio quid scripserim, / know not what I hate written.

Nescls quid scripseri"s, You know not what you have icritten.

Nescit quid scripserit, He knoics not what he has written.

Nescimus quid scripserTmus, We know not what we have written.
Nescltis quid scripserTtis, You know not what you have written.
Nesciunt quid scripserint, They know not what they have written.

614. as an aorist :

Nescio quid her! scripserim, / know not what I wrote yesterday.
Nescis quid heri scripseris. You know not what you wrote yesterday.
Nescit quid heri scripserit, He knows not what he wrote yr-sterday.
* In the ' oratio obliqua.' See Syntax.

110 CONJUGATIONS.

Nescimus quid heri scripserimus, We know not what we wrote yester-
day.

Nescitis quid heri scripseritis, You know not what you wrote yes-
terday.

Neseiunt quid heri scripserint, They know"^ not what they wrote

yesterday.

615. translated by may have en :

Forsitan nimium scripserina, Perhaps I may have'written too much.
Forsitan nimium scripseris, Perhaps you may have written too much.
Forsitan nimium scripserit, Perhaps he may have written too much.

Forsitan nimium scripserimus, Perhaps we may have written too much.
Forsitan nimium scripseritis, Perhaps you may have written too much.
Forsitan nimium scripserint, Perhapsthey may have written too much.

6 16. used as a future- perfect after a present, translated

by an English present :

Caesar polllcetur se, si scripserim, Ccesar promises that if I write, he
rescriptiirum ; will write again.

Caesar pollicetur se, si scripseris, Cassar promises that if you write,
rescripturum ; he will write again.

Caesar pollicetur se, si scripserit, Caesar promises that if he writet,
rescripturum ; he (Ceesar) will write again.

Caesar pollicetur se, si scripseri- Ccesar promises that if we write,

mus, rescripturum ; he will write again.

Caesar pollicetur se, si scripseri- Ccesar promises that if you write,

tis, rescripturum ; he will write again.

Caesar pollicetur se, si scripserint, Caesar promises that if they write,

rescripturum ; he will write again.

617. translated by were to , or English past tense :

Si* scripserim ad eum, redeat ; Iflwere to write f to him, he wouldreturn.
Si scripseris ad eum, redeat ; If you were to write to him, he would

return.
Si scripserit ad eum, redeat; If hewere to write to him, he would return.

* This si might be omitted. Thus in the English too, we might drop
the if, and say, were I to write to him, &c.
f Or, if I wrote, &c.

Ill

Si scripserimus ad eum, redeat ; If toe wen to write to him, he would

return.
Si scripseritis ad eum, redeat ; If you were to write to him, he would

return.
Si scripserint ad eum, redeat ; If they were to write to him, he would

return.

618.

translated bv should, would :

619.

Frustra scripserim.
Frustra scripseris,
Frustra scripserit,

Frustra scripserimus,
Frustra scripseritis,
Frustra scripserint,

translated bv had

I shored write in vain.
You would write in rain.
He would write in vain.

We should write in vain.
You would write in vain.
They would write in vain.

Sedeo Me, tanquam epistolam

perscripserim* ;
Sedes istic, tanquam epistolam

perscripseris ;
Sedet illic, tanquam epistolam

perscripserit ;

Sedemus hie, tanquam epistolam

perscripserimus ;
Sedetis istic, tanquam epistolam

perscripseritis ;
Sedent illic, tanquam epistolam

perscripserint ;

/ sit here, as if I had written the

whole letter.
You sit there, as if you had written

the whole letter.
He sits yonder, as if he had written

the whole letter.

We sit here, as if we had written
the whole letter.

You sit there, as if you had writ-
ten the whole letter.

They sit yonder, as if they had
written the whole letter.

620.

translated as the jussive mood :

Id nunquarn scripserim
Id nunquam scripseris,
Id nunquam scripserit,

Id nunquam scripserimus,
Id nunquam scripseritis,
Id nunquam scripserint,

Let me never write that.

Never write that.

Let him never write that.

Let us never write that.

Never write that.

Let them never write that.

* Per-scrib literally signifies write through, write to the end.

112 CONJUGATIONS.

621. Past-Perfect, scripsisse.

As a past-perfect, translated by had en :

Quaesltum est, u'trum scripsissem ; The question was asked, whetfar

I had written.
Quaesitum est, utrum scripsisses ; The question was asked, whether

you had written.
Quaesitum est, utrum scripsisset ; The question was asked, whetlier

he had written.

Quaesitum est, utrum scripsissemiis ; The question was asked, wltether

we had written.

Quaesitum est, utrum scripsissetis ; Tlie question was asked, whether

you had written.

Quaesitum est, utrum scripsissent ; The question was asked, whether

they had written.

622. as a future-perfect after a past, translated by an

English past :

Caesar pollicebatiir se, si scripsis- Caesar promised that if I wrote, he

sem, rescripturum ; would write again.

Caesar pollicebatur se, si scripsis- Caesar promised that if yon wrote,

ses, rescripturum ; he would write again.

Caesar pollicebatur se, si scripsis- Caesar promised that if he wrote,

set, rescripturum ; he (Caesar') would write again.

Caesar pollicebatur se, si scripsis- Caesar promised that if we wrote,

semus, rescripturum ; he would write again.

Caesar pollicebatur se, si scripsis- Caesar promised that if you wrote,

setis, rescripturum ; he would write again.

Caesar pollicebatur se, si scripsis- Caesar promised that if they wrote,

sent, rescripturum ; he would write again.

623. ' translated by had en :

r/tiamsi scripsissem, frustra csset ; Even if I had written, it would

have been in vain.
Etiamsi scripsisses, frustra esset ; Even if you had written, it would

have been in vain.
Etiamsi scripsisset, frustra esset ; Even if he had written, it would

have been in vain.

CONJUGATIONS. 113

Etiamsi scripsissemus, frustra esset ; Even if we had written, it would

have been in vain.

Etiamsi scripsissetis, frustra esset ; Even if you had written, it would

have been in vain.

Etiamsi scripsissent, frustra esset ; Even if they had written, it

would have been in vain.

624. translated by should have, would have :

Turn* quoque scripsissem, Even in that case* I should have written.
Turn quoque scripsisses, Even in that case you icould have icritten.
Tutu quoque scripsiaset, Even in that case he icould have icritten.

Turn quoque scripsissemus, Even in that case we should, have written.
Turn quoque scripsissetis, Even in that case you would have written.
Turn quoque scripsissent, Even in that case they would have written.

625. INFINITIVE IMPERFECT, scribere.
Translated by an English infinitive :

Debeo scribere, / ought to write.

Nequeo scribere, / cannot write.

626. translated as an English indicative :

Scio eum scribere, I know that he is writing.

Sciebam eum scribere, I knew that he was meriting.

627- translated by an English perfect infinitive :

Debebam scribere, / ought to have written.

628. INFINITIVE PERFECT, scripsisse.
Translated by an English perfect infinitive :

Scripsisse dicitur, He is said to have written.

629. translated by an English indicative :

Scio eum scripsisse, / know that he has icritten.

Scio eum herl scripsisse, / know that he icrote yesterday.
Sciebam eum scripsisse, / knew that he had written.

630. translated by the having en :

Scripsisse exitiu ei fuit, The having written was fatal to him.

* Literally then.

114 CONJUGATIONS.

631. PARTICIPLE IMPERFECT, scnbenti or scribent.
Translated by ing

Senex epistolam scribens decidit, The old man, while writing a

letter, fell down.

632. PARTICIPLE FUTURE, scripturo.

Translated by about to , intending to :

Ad ipsum heri scripturus, haec Intending to write to himself to-
nunc omitto ; morrow, I pass over these things

now.

633. : translated as an intention not fulfilled :

Habebam el gratias, scripturus * I felt grateful to him, and should
quoqiie, nisi aegrotarem ; have icritten too, if I had not

been ill.

634. GERUND, scribendo.

Translated by ing :

N. MihF est scrlbendum episto- To me belongs the writing the

las, letters.

Ac. Deligitiir ad scribendum epi- He is selected for writing the

stolas, letters.

G. Veni epistolas scribendi causa, / came for the sake of writing

the letters.

D. Aptus est scribendo epistolas, He is fit for writing letters.

Ab. Scribendo epistolas occupa- He is engaged in writing letters.

tus est,

635. SUPINE, scriptu.

Translated as an English infinitive :

Ac. Eo illuc scriptum, I am going yonder to write.

Ab. Sericae litterae difficiles sunt The Chinese letters are difficult to
scriptu, write.

* See the conjugation of the verb fu with the participle in turo.

CONJUGATIONS. 115

636. CONJUGATION OF A REFLECTIVE VERB, WITH
THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION.

Anna (r.), arm oneself.
Principal parts, annari, anna, armato.

637- INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense, am arming myself, arm myself, &c.
Armor, / am arming myself.

Annans or armar?. You are arming yourself.

Armatur, He is arming himself.

Armamur, We are arming ourselves.

Annammi, You are arming yourselves.

Annantur, They are arming themselves.

638. Past -Imperfect, was arming myself, &c.
Armabar, / was arming myself.

Annabaris or armabare, You icf-re arming yourself.
Armabatur, He was arming himself.

Armabamur, We were arming ourselves.

Armabammi, FOB were arming yourselves.

Armabantur, T/iey were arming themselves.

639- Future, shall or will arm myself, &c.

Armabor, / shall arm myself.

Armaberis or armabere', You trill arm yourself.
Armabitiir, He iri'ZZ arm himself.

Armabimiir, We shall arm ourselves.

Armabimini, You will arm yourselves.

Armabuntur, They will arm themselves.

640. Present- Perfect, have armed myself, &c. (or Aorist, armed
myself) .

Armatus* sum, / have armed myself.

Annatus * es, You have armed yourself.

Armatus* est, He has armed himself.

* Armata if the nominative be feminine, armatnm if it be neuter.

CONJUGATIONS.

Armati* sumus, We have armed ourselves.

Armati * estis, You have armed yourselves.

ArinatI* sunt, They have armed themselves.

641. Past-Perfect, had armed myself, &c.

Armatus eram f, I had armed myself.

Armatus eras, You had armed yourself.

Armatus crat, He had armed himself.

Armati eramiis, We had armed ourselves.

Armati eratis, You had armed yourselves.

Armati erant, They had armed themselves.

642. Future- Perfect, shall have armed myself, &c.
Armatus ero I, I shall have armed myself.

Armatus eris, You will have armed yourself,

Armatus erit, He will have armed himself.

Armati erimus, We shall have armed ourselves.

Armati eritis, You will have armed yourselves.

Armati erunt, They will have armed themselves.

643. JUSSIVE MOOD.
Armare, Arm yourself. \ Armamim, Arm yourselves.

644. IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Armator, You must arm yourself.

Armator, He must arm himself.

Armammor, You must arm yourselves.

Armantor, Tfiey must arm themselves.

645. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present. (See the several translations of scriba-m.)

Consul imperat tit armer, The con-sul commands me to arm myself.

Consul imperat ut armeris Tfie consul commands you to arm your-

or armere, self.

Consul imperat ut armetur, The consul commands him to arm himself.

* Armatae if the nominative lye feminine, armata if it be neuter,
t Or fuerain, &c. J Or fuero, &c.

CONJUGATION'S. 117

Consul imperat ut armemur, The consul commands us to arm ourselves.

Consul imperat ut armemmi, The consul commands you to arm your-
selves.

Consul imperat ut annentur, The consul commands them to arm them-
selves.

646. Past. (See the several translations of scribere-m.)
Consul imperavit ut armarer, The consul commanded me to arm

myself.
Consul imperavit ut annareris, The consul commanded you to arm

or armarere, yourself.

Consul imperavit ut armaretiir, Ttie consul commanded him to arm

himself.

Consul imperavit ut armaremiir, The consul commanded us to arm

ourselves.
Consul imperavit ut armareminl, The consul commanded you to arm

yourselves.
Consul imperavit ut armarentur, The consul commanded them to arm

themselves.

647- Present-Perfect. (See the several translations of scripseri-m.)
Nescio quare armatus sim, / know not ichy I hate armed myself.
Nescio quare armatus sis, I know not why you hare armed yourself .
Nescio quare armatus sit, ITcnouc not why he has armed himself.

Nescio quare armati simiis, Ilcnow not why we have armed ourselves.
io quare armati sifts, / know not why you have armed your-
selves.

Nescio quare armati sint, / know not why they have armed them-
selves.

648. Past-Perfect. (See the several translations of scripsisse-m.)

Nesciebam quare armatus essem, / knew not why I had armed my-
self.

Nesciebam quare armatus esses, / knew not why you had armed

yourself.

Nesciebam quare ajmatus esset, I knew not uhy he had armed

himself.

118 CONJUGATIONS.

Nesciebam quare armati essemus, / knew not why we had armed

ourselves.
Nesciebam quare armati essetis, I knew not why you had armed

yourselves.
Nesciebam quare armati essent, I knew not why they had armed

themselves.

649. INFINITIVE IMPERFECT.
Debeo armari, / ought to arm myself.

Scio eum armari, I know that he is arming himself.

Sciebam eum armari, / knew that he was arming himself.
Armari signum belli est, To arm oneself is a sign of war.
Debebam armari, I ought to have armed myself.

650. INFINITIVE PERFECT.

Scio eum armatum esse, / know that he has armed himself.
Sciebam eum armatum esse, / knew that he had armed himself.

651. PARTICIPLE IMPERFECT.
N. armans, (While) arming myself*.

652. PARTICIPLE PERFECT.

N. masc. armatus, Having armed myself*.

653. PARTICIPLE FUTURB.

N. masc. armaturiis, About to arm myself*.

654. GERUND.
N. armandum, Arming oneself.

CONJUGATION OF A PASSIVE VERB, WITH THE
ENGLISH TRANSLATION.

Pre'm, press.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

655. Pres. Premorf, I cfm pressed; premeris, you are pressed;
premitiir, he is pressed. Premimur, we are pressed; prgmimml,
you are pressed ; premuntur, they are pressed.

* Or thyself, himself, &c., as the case may be.

f With many verbs this translation would not give the meaning, and
indeed the English passive is defective in the imperfect tenses. Thus

CONJUGATIONS. 119

656. Past. Prernebar*, / was pressed ; premebaris, you were
pressed ; premebatur, he icas pressed. Premebamur, we were pressed ;
premebammT, you were pressed ; premebantur, they were pressed.

657- Future. Premar, I shall be pressed ; premeris, you will be
pressed; premetiir, he will be pressed. Prememur, ice shall be
pressed; prememini, you iciU be pressed; prementur, they will be
pressed.

658. Pres.-perf. Pressusf sumj, I have been pressed ; pressus
es, you have been pressed; pressus est, he has been pressed. PressI
sumus, we have been pressed ; press! estis, you hare been pressed ;
press! sunt, they have been pressed.

659. Past-perf. Pressus 7 eram||, / had been pressed^; pressus
eras, you had been pressed ; pressus erat, he had been pressed. Press!
Sramiis, ice had been pressed ; press! eratis, you had been pressed ;
pressl erant, they had been pressed.

660. Fut.-perf. Pressus f ero**, I shall have been pressed ; pressus
Sris, you will have been pressed ; pressus erit, he will have been pressed.
PressI erimus, we shall have been pressed ; press! eritis, you will have
been pressed; press! erunt, they icill have been pressed.

661 . JUSSIVE. Premere, be thau pressed ; preoummi, be ye pressed.

domiis aediflcatiir means, not the house is built, for that would imply that
the building is completed, but the house is being built, or M a-building ;
but of these two phrases, the first is scarcely English, and the second is
obsolete. Again, such a verb as occldor must not be translated / am
killed, but rather / am on the point of being killed.

* Similarly, domus aedificabatur would signify the house was being built,
or was a-building. So occidebar must not be translated / was killed, but
rather 7 was on the point of being killed.

f i. e. Presses, , or um.

J Or as an aorist, I was pressed, &c. Also pressus fni, &c.

With some verbs the translation, is cd is admissible. Thus domus
aediflcata est means the house is built, or the building is now completed.
Occlsus sum, / am killed.

[| Or fueram, &c.

\ With some verbs this tense may be translated, was ed. Thus,

domus jam aedificata erSt, the house was now bnilt, i. e. the building was
completed.

** Or fuero, &c.

120 CONJUGATIONS.

662. IMPERATIVE. Premitor, thoushaltbe pressed; premitor, he
shall be pressed. Premrmmor, you shall be pressed; premuntor,
they shall be pressed.

663. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.

am ed.

Res eo redii't, ut malls prernar ; Matters are come to this, that lam
pressed with troubles.

Res eo rediit, ut malis premaris, or premare ; Matters are come to
this, that you are pressed with troubles ; &c.

664. were ed.

E"go si tot mails premar, peream ; Jf I were pressed by so many
troubles, I should die.

Tu si tot malis premaris, pereas ; If you ivere pressed by so many
troubles, you mould die ; &c.

665. should, would be -ed.

Turn nimium premar, In that case I should be too much pressed.
Turn nimium premaris, In that case you would be too much
pressed ; &c.

666. shall, will be ed.

Timor est ne premar, The fear is that I shall be pressed.
Timor est ne premaris, Tfie fear is that you will be pressed ; &c.

667. being *-ed.

Stat per Caium, quominus premar ; Caius prevents me from being

Stat per Caium, quominus premaris; Caius prevents you from beiny
pressed ; &c.

668. to be ed.

Nitor ne premar, I am striving not to be pressed.

Niteris ne premaris.. You are striving not to be pressed ; &c.

669. Past Tense.

should be ed.

Timor erat ne premerer, There was a fear that I should be pressed.
Timor erat ne premererls, There was a fear that you would be
pressed; &c.

CONJUGATIONS. 121

670. was ed.

Res eo redierat, ut malis premerer ; Matters had come to this, that
I was pressed tcith troubles.

Res eo redierat, ut malis premereris, or premerere ; Matters were
come to this, that you were pressed tcith troubles ; &c.

6~1- had been ed.

E"g6 si tot malis premerer, perlrem ; If I had been pressed with
so many troubles, I should have died.

Tu si tot malis premereris, perues ; If you had been pressed by so
many troubles, you would have died ; &c.

672. should, would have been ed.

Turn nimium premerer, In that case I should have been too much
pressed.

Turn nimium premereris, In that case you would have been too
much pressed ; &c.

6~3. being ed.

Stetit per Caium, ne premerer ; Caius prevented me from being
pressed.

Stetit per Caium, ne premereris ; Caius prevented you from being
pressed &c.

674. to be ed.

Xitebar ne premerer, / was striving not to be pressed.

Nitebaris ne premereris, You were striving not to be pressed ; &c.

675- Pres.-perf.

hate been ed.

Nescit, quam graviter pressus sim ; He Icnoics not hotc heavily I
have been pressed.

Nescit, quam graviter pressus sis ; He knows not how heavily you
have been pressed &c.

6"6. As an Aorist, teas ed.

Nemo scit, quanrls turn mails pressus sim ; No one knows with
what great troubles I was then pressed.

Nemo scit, quantis rum malis pressus sis ; Xo one knows with
what great troubles you were then pressed ; &c.

122 CONJUGATIONS.

677- were ed.

Si pressus sim, cedam ; If I were pressed, I should give way.

Si pressus sis, cedas ; If you were pressed, you would give way ; &c.

678. had been ed.

Palleo, tanquam ab urso pressus sim ; I look pale, as if I had been
pressed by a bear.

Palles, tanquam ab urso pressus sis ; You look pale, as if you had
been pressed by a bear ; &c.

679. should, would be ed.

Nequiquam pressus sim, / should be pressed to no purpose.
Nequiquam pressus sis, You would be pressed to no purpose ; &c.

680. As a Future-perfect, translated by an English present.
Scit me, si malo pressus sim, tamen incoliimem evasurum ; He
knoivs that if I am pressed by trouble, still I shall come out unhurt.

Scit te, si malo pressus sis, tamen incolumem evasurura ; He
knows that if you are pressed by trouble, still you will come out un-
hurt ; &c.

681. Past.-perf.

had been ed.

Nesciebat, quam graviter pressus essem ; He knew not how
heavily I had been -pressed.

Nesciebat, quam graviter pressus esses ; He knew not how heavily
you had been pressed ; &c.

682. should, would have been ed.

Nequiquam pressus essem, / should have been pressed to no purpose.

Nequiquam pressus esses, You would have been pressed to no pur-
pose ; &c.

683. As a Future-perf. translated by were ed.

Sciebat me, si malo pressus essem, tamen nunquam cessurum ;
He knew that if I were pressed by trouble, still I should never yield.

Sciebat te, si malo pressus esses, tamen nunquam cessurum ; He
knew that if you were pressed by trouble, still you would never yield ; &c.

684. INFINITIVE IMPERFECT. PremI, to be pressed.

INFINITIVE PERFECT. Pressus esse, to have been pressed.

PARTICIPLE IMPERFECT. Premendo, being pressed, or to bepresse

PARTICIPLE PERFECT. Presso, pressed.

CONJUGATIONS. 123

685. CONJUGATION OF A DEPONENT VERB.

C. F. Sequ, folloic.

Principal parts, s^qui, sequ, secuto.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

686. Present. Sequor, I follow; sequeris, you folloic ; sSqvutur, he
follows. SequTmur, tee follow; sequimmi, you follow; sSquuntur*,
they follow.

687. Past. Sequebar, I was following ; sequ ebaris, you tcere fol-
lowing ; sequebatiir, he was following. Sequebamiir, tee were follow-
ing; sequebamini,yoHK'ere following; sequebantur, they were following.

688. Future, Sequar, I shall follow; sequeris, or sequere, you
tr ill follow ; sequetur, he will follow. Sequemiir, tee shall follow ;
sequemTnl, yon tcill follow ; sequentur, they will follow.

639- Pres.-perf. Secutust sum, I have followed^ ; secutus es,
you have followed ; secutus est, he has followed. Secuti sumus, tee
have followed ; secuti estls, you have followed ; secuti sunt, they have
followed.

690. Past-perf. Secutus -f- eram ||, I had followed; secutus eras, you
had followed ; secutus Srat, he had followed. Secutl eramus, tee had

followed ; secuti eratis, you had followed ; secuti erant, they had
followed.

691. Fut.-perf. Secutus f erof, I shall have followed ; secutus
ens, you trill have followed ; secutus ent, he uill have followed.
Secuti erimiis, we shall have followed ; secuti eritis, you will have

followed ; secuti erunt, they mill have followed.

692. JUSSIVE. Sequere, folloto ; s5quimmi, follow.

693. IMPERATIVE. Sequitor, thou shah follow ; sequiitor, he shall
follow. Sequimmor, ye shall follow ; secuntor, they shatt follow.

694. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD**.

Present. Sequar, sequaris, or sequare, sequatur ; s^quamur, se-
quaminl, sequantur.

* The forms sequontur and secuntur also occur.

t Secutus, -a, -um, according to the gender of the nominative.

J Or as an aorist, I followed, &c. Also secutus fui, &c.

Secuti, -ae, -a, according the gender of the nominative.

|| Or fueram, &c. f Or fuero, &c.

** For the English translation, see the mode of translating scriba-m, &c.
594-624 ; and observe that Deponent verbs are translated by English
active verbs.

G 2

124 CONJUGATIONS.

695. Past. Sequerer, sequgreris or sequerere, sSqueretiir ; se-
queremur, sequerernini, sequerentiir.

696. Pres.-perf. Secutus sim*, secutus sis, secutus stt ; sScuti
simiis, secuti sltis, secuti sint.

697. Past-perf. Secutus essemf, secutus esses, secutus essSt ;
secuti essemus, secuti essetis, secuti essent.

698. INFINITIVE. Sequl.
INFINITIVE PERFECT. Secutus esse.
PARTICIPLE IMPERFECT. Sequent or sequent!.
PARTICIPLE and GERUND. Sequendo.
PARTICIPLE PERFECT. Secuto.

699. Conjugation of an Impersonal Verb :

C. F. Plu, rain.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present. Pluit, it rains.

Past. Pluebat, it was raining.

Future. Pluet, it will rain.

Pres.-perf. Pliivit, it has rained, or
As an aorist. Pluvit, it rained.
Past-perf. Pliiverat, it had rained.
Fut.-perf. Pluverit, it will have rained, &c. &c.

700. Conjugation, in part, of an Impersonal Verb of the feelings.
(See 393.)

C. F. Piide, shame.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Pudet me ignaviae, / am ashamed of my cowardice.

Pudet te ignaviae, You are ashamed of your cowardice.

Pudet eum ignaviae, He is ashamed of his cowardice.

Pudet nos ignaviae, We are ashamed of our cowardice.

Pudet vos ignaviae, You are ashamed of your cowardice.

Pudet eos ignaviae, They are ashamed of their cowardice.
Past. Pudebat me ignaviae, I was ashamed of my cowardice.

Pudebat te ignaviae, You were ashamed of your coward ice, 8tc.
Fut. Pudebit me ignaviae, I shall be ashamed of my cowardice.

Pudebit te ignaviae, Youwillbeashamedof your cowardice, &c.

* Or fuerim, &c. t Or fuissera, &c.

CONJUGATIONS. 125

TOl. Conjugation, in part, of a Passive Impersonal Verb :
C. F. resist, stand against, make opposition, oppose.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present.

Resistitur mihT, Opposition is made to me, or / am opposed.

Resistitur tibi", Opposition is made to you, or you are opposed.

Resistitur el, Opposition is made to him, or he is opposed.

Resistitur nobis, Opposition is made to us, or ice are opposed.

Resistitur vobis, Opposition is made to you, or you are opposed.

Resistitur eis, Opposition is made to them, or they are opposed.

Past. Resistebatur mihi, Opposition was made to me, or / teas
opposed *.

Resistebatur tibi, Opposition u-as made to you, or you were op-
posed, &c.

Future. Resistetur mihi, Opposition will be made to me, or /
shall be opposed.

Resistetur tibi, Opposition will be made to you, or you will be op-
posed, &c.

Pres.-perf. Restitum mihi est, Opposition has been made to me,
or / have been opposed-^.

Restitum tibi est, Opposition has been made to you, or you have
been opposed, &c.

Past-perf. Restitum mihi erat, Opposition had been made to me,
or / had been opposed.

Restitum tibi erat, Opposition had been made to you, or you had
been opposed, &c.

702. Conjugation, in part, of the participle in turo, with the
verbs es and fu, in the sense of intention or destiny.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
With the present of es ; intend to .

Nihil acturus sum, / intend to do nothing.

Nihil acturus ts, You intend to do nothing, &c.
am destined to .

Quid timeam, si beatus futurus sum ? What am I to fear, if I am
destined to be happy ?

* i. e. Att this time or for a time. This tense must not be confounded
vrith the aorist.
f Or as an aorist, Opposition was made to me, &c.

12G CONJUGATIONS.

Quid timeas, si beatus futurus es ? What are you to fear, if you
are destined to be happy ? &c.

703. With the Past of es ; intended to .

Nihil acturus eram, I intended to do nothing.
Nihil acturus Sras, You intended to do nothing, &c.

was destined to .

Quid timerem, si beatus futurus eram ? What was I to fear, if I
was destined to be happy ?

Quid timeres, si beatus futurus eras ? What were you to fear, if
you were destined to be happy ? &c.

704. With the Future of es ; shall be going to .

Demonstrabo, quae dicturiis ero, magna esse ; / will point out
that what I am going * to say, is important.

Demonstrabis, quae dicturus ens, magna esse ; You will point
out that what you are going to say, is important, &c.

705. With the Perf. of fu ; intended to , and should have done

so, if .

Deditos, occlsurus ful ; If they had been given tip, I should have
Killed them.

Deditos, occisurus fuistl ; If they had been given up, you would
have killed them, &c.

was destined to , and should have done so, if

Nisi revertissem, interfturus fuT ; If I had not turned bacJc, 1 should
have perished.

Nisi revertisses, interiturus fuistl ; If you had not turned back,
you would have perished, &c.

706. With the Past-perf. of fu ; had intended to , and would

have done so, if .

Quam vim latro mihi fuerat illaturus, in ipsum converti ; Tfie
violence, which the robber had intended to direct against me, I turned
against himself.

Quam vim latro tibi fuerat illaturus, in ipsum convertisti ; The

* Here the English incorrectly uses the present in the sense of a
future.

COXJUGATIO: 127

violence, u-hich the robber had intended to direct against you, you
turned against himself, &c.

707. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

"With the Pres. of es ; intend to .

Scrfbam, quid acturus sim ; / will write word, what I intend to do.
Scribes, quid acturus sis ; You icill write word, what you intend to
do, &c.

am destined to .

Nescio quando sim moriturus, / know not when I am to die.
Is'escls quando sis moriturus, You know not when you are to die, &c.

70S. With the Past of es; intended to .

Scrips! quid acturus essem, / wrote word what I intended to do.
ScripsistI quid acturus esses, You wrote icord what you intended
to do, &c.

was destined to .

Nesciebam quando essem moriturus, / knew not when I was to die.
Nesciebas quando esses moriturus, You knew not when you vrtre
to die, &c.

709. With the Perf. of fu ; intended to, and should have done so,

Quis dubitat, quln deditos occisurus fuerim ? Who doubts but that,
if they had been given up, I should have killed them ?

Quis dubitat, quin deditos occisurus fuerf s ? Who doubts but that,
if they had been given up, you would have killed them ? &c.

was destined to, and should have done so, if .

Sequitur ut nisi revertissem, interiturus fuerim ; // follows, tha
if I had not turned back, I should have perished.

Sequitur ut nisi revertisses, interiturus fuerTs ; It follows, that if
you had not turned back, you would have perished, &c.

710. With the Infinitive of es ; intend to .

Scio* eum nihil acturum esse ; / know* that he intends* to do
nothing.

* After a past tense, as sciebam, 7 knew, the infinitive would be trans-
lated by intended or, were destined. (See next example.)

128 CONJUGATIONS.

is destined to

Scio omnes hbmlnes morituros esse, I know that all men are
destined to die.

711. With the Perf.-inf. of fu ; intended to , and should have

done so, if .

Fama est me deditos occisurum fuisse ; There is a report, that if
they had been given up, I should have killed them.

was destined to , and should have done so, if .

Certum est me nisi revertissem, interiturum fuisse ; It is certain,
that if I had not turned back, I should have perished.

712. Translation of the participle in endo, when used with the
verb es and fu, in the sense of duty or necessity :

INDICATIVE MOOD.
With the Pres. of es :
Mihi omnia uno tempbre sunt agenda, I have everything to do at once.

713. With the Past of es:

Mihi omnia uno tempore erant agenda, / had everything to do at once.

714. With the Fut. of es:

Mihi omnia uno tempore erunt agenda, I shall have everything to
do at once.

715. With the Pres.-perf. of fu :

Nisi firmata extrema agminis fuissent, ingens clades accipienda
fuit ; If the rear of the line of march had not been strengthened, a
tremendous blow must have been received.

A"b Alexameno fuit habenda oratio, The speech was to have been
made by Alexamenus (but as he is now dead), &c.

716. With the Past-perf. of fu :

Ab Alexameno fuerat habenda oratio ; The speech was to have been
made by Alexamenus (but as he was then dead), &c.

717- SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
With the Pres. of es :

Nescio quid sit nobis agendum, / know not wliat we ought to do.
718. With the Past of es :

Nesciebam quid esset ndbis agendum, / knew not what we ought
to do.

CONJUGATIONS.

129

"19. With the Pres.-perf. of fd:

Hoc baud diibium fecit quin nTsI firmata extrema agminis fuissent,
ingens clades accipienda fuerit ; This made it certain, that if the rear
of the line of march had not been strengthened, a tremendous blow must
have been received.

720. INFINITIVE MOOD.

With Imperf. of es :

Sentit differendum esse m aestatem bellum ; He feels that the war

ust be put off to the summer.

721. With the Perf. of fu :

Hoc scio, nisi revertisset, in illo ei conclavi cubandum fuisse ;
This I know, that if he had not turned back, he would have had to
sleep in that chamber.

722. SOME IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS CON-
JUGATED.

E~s, be.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present.

S. sum, lam.
es*, you are.
est, he is.
P. sumus, ice are.
estis, you are.
sunt, they are.
Jussive. S. Es.

Future.
S. ero~, / shall be.

ens, you will be.

erit, he will be.
P. erimiis, we shall be.

eritis, you icill be.

erunt, they will be

Past.

S. eram, 1 was.
eras, you tcere.
erat, he icas.
P. eratnus, we were.
eratfs, you were.
erant, they were.
P. Este".
Imperative. S. Esto", esto~. P. Estote, sunto".

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Present. S. Sim, sis, sit. P. SImus, sitis, sint.
Past. S. Essem, esses, esset. P. Essemus, essetis, essent.
Infinitive. Esse.

723. There is no participle of the simple verb, but the compounds
with prae and ab have praesenti, absenti, formed from prae-es-enti,
ab-es-enti.

724. Those parts of this verb which begin with es are also used
iu the sense of eat ; at any rate the following occur :

* This word is long in Plautus, Miles, m. 1, 30, which agrees with the
Greek form els.

130 CONJUGATIONS.

Ind. Pres. Est. Jussive, es*, este. Imperative. Esto*. Subj.
Essem, esses, &c. Infin. Esse". Supines, esura and esu. Part,
esxiro. Also in the passive estiir and the perfect-part, eso.
725. Fu, be.

The imperfect tenses of this verb in the Indicative are obsolete.

INDICATIVE. Pres.-perf. Have been, or was. S. Fui, fuistl,
fuit. P. fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt, or fuere.

Past-perf. Had been. S. Fueram, fueras, fuSrat. P. Fueramiis,
fueratis, fuerant.

Fut.-perf. Shall have been. S. Fuero", fueri v s, fuerit. P.
fuerfmus, fuerTtTs, fuerint.

Jussive and Imperative. Not in use.

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres.-Imperff. S. Fuam, fuas, fuSt. P. Fua-
mus, fuatis, fuant.

Past-Imperf. S. Forem, fores, foret. P. Foremus, foretis, forent.

Pres.-perf. S. Fuerim, fueri's, fuerit. P. Fueri'mus, fueri'tis,
fuerint.

Past-perf. S. Fuissem, fuisses, fuisset. P. Fuissemus, fuisse-
tis, fuissent.

Infinitive-Imperf. Fore (used as a future, will be). Perf. Fuisse.

Participle Future. Future.

726. This verb, fu, supplies the perfect tenses which are wanting
in the verb es, be.

727. E"s and fu compounded with pro or prod, be profitable.
INDICATIVE. Pres. /S. Prosum, prodes, prodest. P. Prosiimus,

prodestis, prosunt.

Past. S. Proderam, proderas,&c. Fut. S. Prodero", proderis,&c.

Pres.-perf. Profui, &c. Past-perf. Profueram, &c. Fut.-perf.
Profuero", &c.

Jussive and Imperative. Probably not in use.

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Prosim, &c. Past. Prodessem, &c.

Pres.-perf. Profuerim, &c. Past-perf. Profuissem, &c.

Infinitive-Imperf. Prodesse. Perf. Profuisse.

* The quantity is not proved by the authority of any poet, but in-
ferred from the statements of the grammarians Priscian, ix. 1, 11, and
Servius ad Aen. V. 785.

f These forms are obsolete.

CONJUGATIONS. 131

Participle- Fut. Profuturo.

728. E"s or fu, compounded with the adjective pot or p5ti, be able.
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Possum, potes, potest. P. Possumiis,

potestis, possunt.

Past. S. Poteram, poteras, poterat. P. PSteramus, poteratfs,
poterant.

Fat. S. Potero% pbteris, pSterit. P. Pbterimus, pStgritis, p-
terunt.

Pres.-perf. Pbtui, pbtuisti, &c. Past-perf. potue'ram, &c.

Fut.-perf. S. Potuero", potuerrs, potuerit. P. PStuerrmus,
pStaerrtis, potuerint.

Jussive and Imperative. Not in use.

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Possim, possis, &c. Past. Possem, pos-
ses, &c.

Pres.-perf. S. Potuerim, potuerTs, potuerrt. P. PotuerTmus,
potuerrtis, potuerint.

Past-perf. Potxiissem, pbtuisses, &c.

Infinitive-Imperf. Posse. Perf. Potuisse.

Participle. Potenti*.

729. Fer, bring, used in the imperfect tenses only (see 546) :
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Fero, fers, fert. P. Ferimus, fertis, ferunt.
Past-imp. Ferebam, &c. Fut. Feram, &c.

Jussive. Fer, ferte. Imperat. FertcT, ferto", fert5te, feruntS".
SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Feram, &c. Past. Ferrem, &c.
Infinitive. Ferre. Part. Ferenti. Gerund. Ferendo.
The passive is regular except in the indie, pres. ferns, fertur ; the
imperative fertor ; and the infin. fern.

730. Inqu or inqui, say :

IND. Pres. Inquam, inquis, inqult, inquimus, inquinnt.

Past-imp. inquiebat, inquiebant.

Future inquies, inquiet.

Aorist. InquiT, inquisti.

Jussive. Inque. Imperative. Inqaito.

731. Ced, give, tell, only used in the jussive.
S. Ced5, give (me), teU (me).

P. Cede, give (me), tell (me).

* This is used rather as an adjective than as a participle.

132 CONJUGATIONS.

732. Da, put or give :

INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Do", das, dat. P. Damus, datis, dant.

Past-imp. Dabam, &c. Fut. Dabo, &c. Pres.-perf. Dedi, &c.
Past-perf. Dederam, &c. Fut.-perf. dedero", &c.

Jussive. Da, date. Imperat. Dato", dato", datote, danto".

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. S. Dem. des, det. P. Demus, detis,
dent. Past-imperf. Darem, &c. Pres.-perf. Dederim, &c. Past-
perf. Dedissem, &c.

Infinitive- Imperf. Dare. Perf. Dedisse.

Part.-Imperf. Danti. Part. Fut. Datiiro. Gerund. Dando.

The Subj. Pres. has also an old form, duiin, duls, &e., from a
crude form, du.

733. Vol or vel, wish :

INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Volo", vis, volt or vult. P. Volumus,
voltis or vultis, volunt.

Past-imp. Volebam, &c. Fut. Volam, voles, 8cc. Pres.-perf.
Volui, &c. Past-perf. Volueram, &c. Fut.-perf. Voluero", &c.

Jussive and Imperat. Not in use.

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. S. Velim, veils, velit. P. Velimus, velitis,
velint.

Past. Vellem, velles, &c. Pres.-perf. Voluerim, &c. Past-perf.
Voluissem, &c.

Infinitive Imperf. Velle. Perf. Voluisse.

Part.-Imperf. Volenti. Gerund. Volendo.

734. Nevol or nol, be unwilling, a compound of ne or non and vol :
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Nolo v , ne'vis* or nonvis, nevolt* or

nonvoltf. P. Noliimus, nevoltis* or nonvoltisf, nolunt.

Past.-imp. Nolebam, &c. Fut. Nolam, noles, &c. Pres.-perf.
Nolui, &c. Past-perf. Nolueram, &c. Fut.-perf. N51ucro", &c.

Jussive. Noll, nollte. Imperative. Nolito", nolltote.

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Nolim, noils, &c. Past. Nollem, &c.
Pres.-perf. Noluerim, &c. Fut.-perf. Noluissem, &c.

Infinitive Imperf. Nolle. Perf. Noluisse.

Part.-Imperf. Nolenti. Gerund. Nolendo.

735. Mavol or mal, prefer, a compound of mage and vol :

* The forms with ne are fotmd in the older writers,
t Or nonvult and nonvultis.

CONJUGATIONS. 133

INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Mavolo"* or male?', mavis, mavoltf. P. Mii-
lumiis, mavoltlsf, mavolunt* or malunt.

Past-imp. Malebam, &c. Fut. Mavolam* or malam, &c.
Pres.-perf. Malui, &c. Past-perf. Malueram, &c. Fut.-perf. Ma-
luertT, &c.

Jussive and Imperat. Not in use.

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Mavelim* or malim, malls, &c. Past. Ma-
veilem* or mallem, &c.

Pres.-perf. Maluerim, &c. Past-perf. Maluissem.

Infinitive Imperf. Mavelle* or malle. Perf. Maluisse.

736. Fi, become, used in the imperfect tenses as a passive of faci,
make (see 534) :

INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Flo*, fis, fit. P. , , fiunt.

Past- imp. Fiebam, &c. Fut. Flam, fies, &c.

Jussive. Fi, flte.

Irnperat. Not in use.

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Flam, &c. Past. FTerem, &c.

Infinitive. Frerl.

737- I, #o:

INDICATIVE. Pres. S. E5", Is, it. I'mus, Ttls, eunt.

Past-imp. Tbam, &c. Fut. I'bo", ibis, &c. Pres.-perf. Fvi or ii,
&c. Past-perf. Fveram or ieram, &c. Fut.-perf. Tvero" or iero", &c.

Jussive. I", Ite.

Imperat. rto", ito", Itote, eunto".

SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Earn, eas, &c. Past. Frem, &c. Pres.-perf.
I'verim or ierim, &c. Past-perf. Tvissem, or ussem, or issem, &c.

Infinitive Imperf. Fre. Perf. Tvisse, usse or isse.

Part. Imperf. lenti. N. lens. A. Euntem. G. Euntis, &c.

Part. Fut. rturo. Gerund. Eundo.

The passive is used impersonally. Indie. Ttur, Ibatur, ibitiir,
itumest,&c. Subj. Eatiir, Iretiir, itum sit, &c. Infin. I'ri, itum esse.

738. Qui, be able, and nequi, be unable, are conjugated as i, yo.

739. Ai, affirm, say, is seldom used except in the following forms :
Ind. Pres. Aio, ai's, a'it ; , , aiunt.

Ind. Past. Aiebam or aibam, aiebas, &c.

* The forms mavolo, &c. are found in the older writers.
t Or mavult and mavultis.

134 DERIVATION OF VERBS.

740. DERIVATION, &c., OF VERBS.

It has been stated that many substantives and adjectives in a and
o are used as verbs in a ( 522.) ; that some substantives in u are
used as verbs in u ( 526.) ; that some substantives and adjectives
in i are used as verbs in i ( 523.)-

741. It has been stated ( 224.) that some adjectives have a crude
form in i as well as that in o or a. Similarly some adjectives in o
or a coexist with verbs in i ; and some adjectives in i coexist with
verbs in a. Thus there is

An adj. insano, mad, and a verb insiini, be mad.
An adj. largo, bountiful, and a verb largi (r.), lavish.
An adj. celeri, quick, and a verb celera, quicken.
An adj. levi, light, and a verb leva, lift.
An adj. levi, smooth, and a verb leva, polish.

742. As so large a number of substantives and adjectives ended
in o or a, and these led to verbs in a, the consequence was, that
there was a tendency to introduce an a in all such secondary verbs,
even when the substantive or adjective ended in a consonant. Thus
there is

A subst. nomen, name, and a verb nomina, name.

A subst. laud, praise, and a verb lauda, praise.

A subst. ones*, load, and a verb onera, load.

A subst. robor, strength, and a verb robora, strengthen.

A subst. exul, an exile, and a verb exula, be an exile.

An adj. memor, mindful, and a verb memora, mention.

An adj. exoss, boneless, and a verb exossa, bone.

An adj. praecip or praecipit, headforemost, and a verb praecipita,
send headforemost.

A few compound verbs take a final a although the simple verb
ends in a consonant ; as,

From stern, strew, consterna, throw into alarm and disorder.

* Verbs formed in this way from nouns in es, os, &c. are very nume-
rous ; as, pignera, venera (r.), fr'ige'ra, tempera, volne'ra, genera, glomeYa,
modSra, &c. The neuter noun mode's is obsolete, it is true, but its existence
is proved by the adj. m&desto. Ramshorn erroneously considers era as a
verbal suffix, and even quotes as an example vocifera (r.).

DERIVATION OF VERBS. 135

From due, lead, educa, bring up.
From spern (kick), despise, aspcrna (r-) tpun*.
Some verbs in a from substantives signify to supply with the
thing which the substantive denotes f. Thus there is

A subst. tabula, plank, and a verb con tabula, cover with planks.
A subst. tigno (n.), beam, and a verb contigna, furnish with beams.
A subst. calceo, shoe, and a verb calcea, shoe.

743. Such verbs are often found only as perfect participles in to :
thus

From barba, beard, barblto, bearded.
From ociilo, eye, ociilato, provided with eyes.
From auri, ear, aurito, provided with ear*.
From cornu, horn, cornuto, horned.
From aes, bronze, aerato, armed icith bronze.
From dent or denti, tooth, dentato, armed trith teeth.
From cord, heart, bene cordato, good-hear led, i.e. in the Roman
sense of the phrase, clever.

744. Certain reflective verbs from substantives also signify to
provide oneself with what the substantive denotes. The verbs in
question belong to military phraseology:

From aqua, neater, aqua (r.), fetch wafer.

From frumento (n.), corn, frumenta (r.), fetch corn, forage.

From pabulo (n.), fodder, pabiila (r.), fetch fodder, forage.

From materia, timber, materia (r.), fetch timber.

From ligno, firewood, ligna (r.), fetch firewood.

* To this class some would perhaps refer such verbs as the following,
which however are more probably formed directly from compounded
nouns :

Remlsra, rmc, from remlg, rower; and that from remo (m.), oar, and
Ig, put in motion.

Velifica (r.), make sail, from vellflco, mating sail; and that from veto
(n.), sail, and fac, make.

Voclfera (r.), raise one's voice, from an obsolete adj. vodfSro, raising
the voice \ and that from voc, voice, and f er, raise.

O^pltula (r.), bring help, from an obsolete adj. opltulo, bringing help ;
and that from op, help, and toll, bring.

f The English language agrees in this use of substantives as verbs.
Thus we use the phrases, to shoe a horse, to water a horse, to horse a
coach.

136 DERIVATION OF VERBS.

745. Verbs called frequentative, and they are very numerous, are
formed by adding the suffix ita to the simple verb ; as,

A"g, put in motion, agita, put infrequent motion.

Quaer, seek, quaerita, seek perseveringly.

Clama, cry out, clamita, keep crying out.

Mma (r.), threaten, minita (r.), keep threatening.

Flu, flow, fluita, keep flowing.

Sequ (r.), follow, secta (r.), be in the habit of following.*

746. As this suffix, ita, is very similar to ito, the suffix of perfect
participles, similar contractions and alterations commonly take
place ; thus,

Merg, sink, has a participle, merso, and a frequentative, mersaf.
Trah, draw, has a participle, tracto, and a frequentative, tracta.
Pell, drive, has a participle, pulso, and a frequentative, pulsaf.
747- Some frequentatives are formed by the suffix tita, as from
scrib, write, scriptita ; from leg, read, lectita ; from viv, live, victita.

748. Many frequentatives have superseded the simple verb : thus
gus-ta, taste, was formed from an obsolete verb, gus, taste, which
is also the root of the substantive gus-tu, taste ; imita (r.), copy,
was formed from an obsolete verb, ima (r.), which is also the root of
the substantive ima-gon, picture ; potare, drink to excess, was formed
from an obsolete verb, po, drink, which is also the root of the participle
poto, drunk, and of the substantive po-culo'(n.), drinking -cup.

749. A few verbs form their frequentatives with the suffix ica, as
fod, dig, f bdica, keep digging ; veil, pluck, vellica, keep plucking.

750. A few verbs, called diminutives, are formed with a suffix,
ilia or tilla : as fove, warm ; f ocilla, cherish : scrib, write ; conscri-
billa, scribble, scribble over : sorbe, suck ; sorbilla, suck a drop or
two : can, sing ; cantilla, warble. Ventila, fan, from the subst.
vento, wind, and ustula, singe, from the verb us or ur, burn, are also
diminutives]:.

* The so-called frequentatives in cina (r.), as sermo-cina (r.), converse;
patro-dna (r.), act the patron; vatl-cma (r.), act the prophet, are proba-
bly formed upon the same principle from the verb can, sing, just as mSdlta
is at one time applied to music, at another to any repeated act.

f But the frequentatives merta, pulta, are used by the old writers.

J Ramshorn erroneously treats as diminutives extila, jactila (r.), 5pl-
tula (r.), vig'ila, strangiila ; the last of which is probably formed from an
obsolete subst. strangiila, a halter, corresponding to the Greek crrpa

DERIVATION" OF VERBS.

137

751. A few imitative verbs are formed from nouns, with a suffix
in issa ; as, from pater, father, patrissa, take after one's father ;
from Graeco, a Greek, Graecissa, be in the Greek fashion* .

752. Inceptive verbs are formed from verbs, substantives and
adjectives, with the suffix escf or isc : as,

From fen - , boil, ferv-esc or ferv-isc, begin to boil.
From sen, an old man, sen-esc, grow old.
From luc, light, lucisc or lucesc, get light.

If the substantive or adjective end in o or a the e of esc is omitted,
and the vowel a prevails ; as from

Puero, a boy, re-puera-sc, become a boy again.

Inte"gero or -a, whole, red-inte^gra-sc, become Khole again.

753. But there are exceptions both ways, those verbs taking an
a which are not entitled to it, and those which should have it,
dropping it ; as,

From mature or -a, ripe, maturesc, ripen.
From vetts, old, veterasc, become old.

754. The suffix ess is added to a few verbs in i without any
marked change of meaning. Thus,

From capi, take, is formed capess, take.
From (lacij) draic, lacess, provoke.

From (ar-ci) cull to one, - arcess, sendfor.

755. A few verbs, called desiderative, are formed from verbs with
a suffix tiiri, which is liable to the same changes as the participial
suffix to. Thus,

From em, buy, emptiiri, desire to buy.
From ed, eat, esuri, be hungry.

From par or pan, bring forth, partiiri, desire to bring forth, be in
labour.

756. Compounds of fac or faci and fi are made with prefixes
commonly supposed to be verbs : as,

* These verbs are formed after the Greek verbs in t : as,
Indeed the later Latin writers use the z instead of ss, and write patriz-are.

t In Greek, COK.

t Obsolete.

Petess, seek, is formed in this way from the obsolete form peri, teck,
which is also the root of petiv, pStlto, pStitor.

138 DERIVATION OF VERBS.

From tepe, be warm, tepe"fac* or tepe'faci, make warm ; tep^fl,
become warm.

From lique, melt, liquefac or lique'faci, melt, cause to melt;
lique"fi, melt, become melted.

757. The compound verbs formed by prefixed prepositions are
very numerous. (See prepositions in the Syntax.)

758. The verbs so compounded often undergo certain changes of
the vowel. Thus, a frequently becomes i before one consonant, e
before two consonants. Thus,

From statu, set up, is formed constitu, establish.

From cad, fall, occid, set or die.

From sali, leap, insili, leap upon.

From cap or capi, take, accip or accipi, receive ; and

accepto, received.
From jac or jaci, throw, conic or comcif, hurl; and

conjecto, hurled.

But the compounds of cave, beware ; mane, wait ; trah, draw ;
ama, love, remain unaltered.

759. Again, e generally becomes i before a single consonant : as,
From sede, sit, asside, sit near.

From reg, make straight, ding, guide.
From tene, keep, abstine, keep away.

But the compounds of pet, go or seek ; teg, cofer ; ter, rub ; ger,
wear or carry, remain unaltered.

760. The diphthong ae becomes I, and au becomes o or u. Thus,
From caed, cut, occid, kill.

From laed, strike, illld, dash against.

From quaer, seek, exqulr, seek out.

From claud or clud, shut, reclud, open.

From plaud, clap (the hands'), explod, drive off (by clapping the
hands J).

But the compounds of haere, stick, retain the diphthong. Generally
for the changes in compound verbs see 533 and the following.

* In these words the vowel e before f is seldom long except in the older
poets.

f Commonly spelt, conjic or conjici.

J Corresponding in effect to the English hooting off, hissing off.

PARTICLBS. 139

761. A few compound verbs are formed with a prefixed particle :
thus,

From ne, not, and sci, know ; nescio, know not.
From ne, not, and qui, be able ; ne"qui, be unable.
From ne, not, and vol, wish ; nev81 or nol, be unwilling.
From male, ill, and die, speak ; maledic, abuse.
From bene, well, and fac, do ; benefac, do a kindness.
From mage, more, and vol, wish ; mavol or mil, prefer.
From sat, enough, and ag, rfo ; satSg, have enough to do.

762. The negative in appears never to be prefixed to verbs*, ex-
cept to the perfect participles in to, and even then the compound
participle becomes an adjective :

Docto, taught ; indocto, unlearned.
Loto, washed ; illoto, unwashed.

763. Many of these participles with in prefixed are to be trans-
lated by not to be ed.

As, victo, conquered ; invicto, invincible.
menso, measured ; immense, immeasurable.
penso, weighed ; impenso, too enormous to be weighed.

764. PARTICLES.

This term includes those secondary parts of speech which have
little or no variety of form, and are called adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions and interjections.

765. It is not always possible to draw the line between these, as
the same word may be at one time an adverb, at another a prepo-
sition ; or again at one time an adverb, at another a conjunction.
Thus, ante, before or formerly, may be either adverb or preposition ;
and simul, at the same time or as soon as, may be either an adverb
or conjunction.

766. A large number of the particles must be treated individually
to show their origin. In a grammar, however, it is out of place to
do more than exhibit those suffixes which apply to whole classes.

* Hence it is probably an error to derive ignosc, pardon, from In, not,
and gnosc, take cognizance. The In is more probably the preposition.
Compare the Greek av-f-jivuat;, pardon.

HO ADVERBS.

767. ADVERBS.

Adverbs are formed, in Latin, from adjectives and substantives,
including pronouns, and also from verbs.

768. From adjectives in o or a are commonly formed adverbs in
e : as, from the adjective liito or -a, wide, the adverb late, widely ;
from the adjective perlculoso or -a, dangerous, the adverb perlcu-
lose, dangerously.

769. From participles in o or a, used as adjectives, are formed in
like manner adverbs in e : as, from docto, learned, the adverb docte,
learnedly ; from ornato, dressed, the adverb ornate, with ornament ;
from doctissumo, most learned, the adverb doctissiime, most learnedly.

770. But malo, bad, and bono (old form, beno) good, form their
adverbs, male, ill, and bene, well, with e. Inferne, below, and su-
perne, above, also occur with e.

771. Some adjectives and participles in o or a form adverbs in o* :
as, from raro or -a, scattered, an adverb, raro, seldom ; from tuto or
-a, safe, an adverb, tuto, safely.

772. But cito or -a, quick, forms its adverb cito, quickly, with of.

773. From adjectives and participles in i, or a consonant, are
formed adverbs in iter or ter : as,

From molli, soft, the adverb molliter, softly.
From celeri, swift, celeriter, swiftly.
From felic or felici, fortunate, feliciter, fortunately.
From memor, mindful, memoriter, from memory.

774. If the adjective or participle end in t or ti, one t is omitted.
Thus, from amant or amanti, loviny, is formed the adverb amantcr,
lovingly.

775. As adjectives in o or a sometimes coexist with adjectives in
i, so adverbs in iter or ter are sometimes found in connexion with
adjectives in o or a : as,

* In some cases this termination is the ablative of the noun ; in others
it probably corresponds to the Greek adverbs in ws, from adjectives of the
same form. Thus, even in Greek, otlrws and OVTU, thus; a^vws and
atyvbi, suddenly, coexist.

t Vero, in truth ; sero, late ; postremo, at last, have always a long o in
the best writers. It is only in the late writers, such as Martial and Sta-
tius, that these words are used with a short o.

ADVERBS. 141

From diiro or -a, hard, the adverbs diire and duriter, severely.
From largo or -a, bountiful, the adverb largiter, bountifully*.

776. Many adjectives, particularly comparatives, use their neuter
singular as an adverb. Thus,

From facili, easy, the adverb facile, easily.

From multo or -a, much, the adverb multum, much.

From doctior, more learned, the adverb doctiiis, more learnedly -f.

777. From adjectives and substantives are formed adverbs in itus
ortiisj. Thus,

The adj. antique, old, has an adverb antiqultiis, from of old.
The subst. caelo, heaven, has an adverb caelitiis, from heaven.

778. A few adjectives form adverbs with a suffix per, denoting
time : as, from novo or -a, new, niiper, lately.

So also parumper and paulisper, for a little while ; tantisper, so
long ; quantisper, as long as ; semper , always.

*778. The adverbs of numerals have already been given in 252,
last column.

779. Adjectives and substantives form adverbs in tim with the
sense of one at a time or one by itself. Thus, from the adj. singulo
or -a, one a time, the adverb singiilatim, one at a time ; from caterva,
horde, catervatim, horde by horde ; from paulo (n.), little, paula-
tim, little by little ; from viro, man, viritim, man by man ; from
tribu, tribe, tributim, tribe by tribe ; from greg, fiocTc, gregatim,
Jloclt byjtock from gradu, step, gradatim, step by step\\.

* Observe the same irregularity in the formation of the verb largi (r.),
lavish. Aliter, otherwise, like alibi, elsewhere, is formed from the obsolete
pronoun ali, whence the nominatives alls and alld.

t The poets use adverbs of this form more freely than the prose writers,
and even in the plural ; as Virgil, acerba tuens, crebra ferit.

J This termination corresponds in meaning to the suffix of the old
Greek genitive Oev ; as, ovpavoGfv, from heaven. Indeed the forms also
are identical, for the 9 must necessarily lose its aspirate in Latin, and the
final syllable ev of the Greek would be iis in Latin. Compare rvjrro/iev,
scribimus.

The first syllable of semper is probably the same root which is spoken
of in the note to 264, so that it would signify one unbroken time.

|| Compare the irregularities of pauiatim, viritim, gregatim, &c., with
the irregularities in the formation of adjectives, 227, 228, 229. This

142 ADVERBS.

7.80. From verbs also are formed adverbs in tim : as,
From sta, stand ; statim, constantly ; statim, immediately.
From prae, before, and seY, place ; praesertim, especially.
From caed, cut ; caesim*, by cutting.
From pung, pierce ; punctim, by piercing \.

78 1 . From substantives and verbs are formed a few adverbs in
us. Thus,

CSn, together, and manu, hand, form an adverb, co-min-us, hand
to hand.

E"c, from, and manu, hand, form e-mifn-us, from a distance.

So from the verb tend, stretch, the adverb teniis J, stretching ;
whence pr5tenus, forthwith^. And from the verb vert, turn, the
adverb versus \, which has also the form versum, corresponding in
meaning to the English termination ~wards.

782. From substantives and verbs are formed a few adverbs by
adding the suffix am.

Thus, con, together, and os or or (n.), mouth or face, form an ad-
verb, coram, face to face.

The verb pand ||, open, forms an adverb, palam, openly.
The verb cela, hide, forms an adverb, clam, secretly.

783. The suffix is is occasionally used for adverbs : as, magis,
more ; sStis, enough ; nimis, too much ; bis (for duis) twice^.

784. The cases of adjectives and substantives, particularly pro-
suffix, tim, is identical with the Greek Sov ; as, from dye\j, a herd, aye-
\t]bv, by herds.

* The s in this word represents the t, as it does so often in the perfect
participle.

j- This corresponds to the Greek suffix STJV added to verbs ; as, from
ypa0, write, ypafiSiiv, in writing.
J These are also prepositions.
There is also a form tenam of the same meaning as tenus, whence

, forthwith.

Compare scand, climb, and scala, ladder ; mand, chew, and main, jaw ;
e, sit, and sella, chair.
If The words for thrice, four times, are not trts (as in Greek), qnatrfs,
but tr, quater: just as linter is preferred to lintrfs for the nominative of
linteri, a boat. The final s in quotannis, every year, and in multfmodls, is
probably only an adverbial suffix, and not a mark of plurality.

ADVERBS. 143

nouns, are often used as adverbs. Thus, the following, sometimes
called adverbs, are in origin datives denoting the time when, or the
place where, &c. hSri, yesterday ; mam, in the morning ; luci, in the
daylight ; dSmi, at home ; run, in the country ; forls, out of doors ;
mu'.timodis, in many a tray.

785. The pronominal adverbs in bi or I, which answer to the
question if here or when, and may be seen in the second column of
the table in 366, are probably old datives.

786. Again, the following, sometimes called adverbs, are in origin
accusatives :

Domum, home, i. e. to one's home ; rus, into the country foras, out
of doors, \. e. going out of doors,

787- The pronominal adverbs in o, which answer to the question
whither, and may be seen in the third column of the table, 366,
are probably old accusatives which have lost the final m.

788. Closely related to the pronominal adverbs in o are the ad-
verbs in tro from prepositions, &c. as,

Re'-tro, back/card.

Por-ro, forward.

CT-tro*, towards the speaker.

UI-tro*, to a distance, forward, voluntarily.

In-tro, inwards.

Con-tro, towards^.

789. Adverbs in 5+, chiefly from pronouns, are used with com-
parative adjectives or comparative adverbs : as,

Eo magis, so much the more, or the more.
Quo minus, by how much the kss, or the less.

* "Whence ultro citroque, backwards and forwards, in which the word
backwards is a translation of citro. The common derivation of ultro,
willingly, from vol, wish, is altogether indefensible.

t This word is seen in the compound verb contro-vort, turn against.
These adverbs in tro, though ultimately derived from prepositions, are
immediately formed from adjectives, more or less obsolete, in tero.

These are commonly held to be ablatives, and supposed to be trans-
lated literally when we say multo major, greater by much. The Greek,
too, uses Tro\\(f peiZuji'. Still it is possible that they are in reality only
the old accusatives in o, which have lost their final m : eo major, the
greater to this degree.

144 ADVERBS.

Hoc utiliiis, to this extent the more usefully.
Nihilo minus, never the less.

790. The terminations inde, in, and im, seen in the fourth column
of the table, 366, must be considered as varieties of one suffix, since
the compounds deinde, exindg, &c., have also the shortened forms
dein, exin, exim*, &c.

791. The adverbs in am, from pronouns, denote how much or IB
what manner : as, tarn, so ; quam, how ; quanquam, however, no
matter how, although ; quamvis or quamlubet, as much as you please,
although.

792. The adverbs in urn, chiefly from pronouns, denote the time
when : as, turn or tuncf, then; (num) or nuncf, now; quom or
quum or cum, when ; umquam or unquam (formerly cumquam),
ever; numquam or nunquam (for ne-umquam), never; quondam
(for quom-dam), at a certain time (past or future) ; iterum, again ;
plerumque, generally.

793. The adverbs in aj generally denote the road along which
anything is done. A large majority of these are from pronouns, as
may be seen in 366. Other examples are, recta, in a straight
line ; dextra, along the road on the right ; sinistra, along the road on
the left.

794. Some ablatives of nouns are used as adverbs. Thus, ergo,
indeed, really, in the matter of, is the ablative of an old Latin noun,
ergo (n.), work ; and similarly modo||, only, is literally by measure,
being the ablative of mbdo (m.), measure. Likewise, mane, in the

* This is the orthography used in Virgil.

t This c is the demonstrative enclitic : See 289. And if the interro-
gative enclitic ue be added, ci is preferred to c, as in nunctaS : See
293. Num still exists in etiarnnum.

J It is generally held that these are feminine ablatives agreeing with
via, road, understood.

Corresponding to the Greek dative pyy, in reality.

|| Whether we are speaking of a very great or a very small quantity, it
adds weight to our assertion, if we can speak of the quantity as known by
measurement. Hence, with small quantities, modo, by measure, may be
translated by only. On the other hand, with great quantities, admodura,
up to the measure, is equivalent to full, quite,

ADVERBS. 145

morning ; diu, in the day time noctu or nocte, by night ; luce, in
the daylight, may be considered as ablatives.

795. The adverb quando, from the relative and those connected
with it, denote time : as, quando*, when; aliquando*, sometime;
quandocunque, whenever ; quandoque, whenever, some time or other.

796. The adverb uti or ut, how, that, when, (itself connected with
the relative), has many adverbs compounded with or derived from
it : as, iitique, any hoic, at least ; utiit, no matter how ; utcunque,
howsoever, ichensoecer ; neutiquam or nutiquam (for ne-utiquam), in
no way ; utinam, Oh that !

796*. The adverbs in us, from pronouns of relative origin, com-
monly denote the place where or whither : as, usquam, any where, or
to any place ; uspiam, any where ; nusquam, no where, or to no place.

797- Many adverbs are nouns and prepositions written as one
vrord. Thus,

Prcfecto f, indeed^, is from pro facto, for a thing done.

Imprimis, specially, from in primls, among the first.

rilco, immediately, from in loco, on the spot.

Indies, every day (more and more), from in dies.

Denuo, a-fresh, from de novo.

CTbiter, in passing (or in French, en passant), from ob iter, on
the road.

Interim, meanwhile, from inter im, during this.

Admodum, quite, from ad modum, up to the measure.

798. Thus the preposition or adverb vorsum or vorsiis, -wards, is
added to a number of adverbs in o, prepositions, &c. : as,

Horsum, hithericard ; istorsum, towards your neighbourhood; il-
lorsum, towards yonder place ; quorsum, in what direction ; alior-
sum, in another direction ; aliquovorsum, in some direction ; quoquo-
vorsum, in every direction ; iTtroquevorsum, in both directions ; ad-
vorsum, towards ; prorsum, foncards, downright; rursum or riisum||

* The later writers shorten the o in these two words,
f Plautus uses this word with the first syllable long.
J Indeed = in-deed, is itself a parallel example from our own language.
So also forsooth.

An old accusative of the pronoun i, this.

H Rusum is the form which Virgil appears to have preferred.

146 ADVERBS.

(for revorsum), again ; deorsum, downwards, sursum or susum, tip-
wards ; introvorsum or introrsum, inwards ; retrorsum, backivards ;
dextrovorsum or dextrorsum, towards the right ; smistrorsum, to-
wards the left*.

799- Thus, too, prepositions that govern an accusative are at-
tached to the pronominal adverbs in o : as,

A w deo, to this or that degree, so ; in addition to this, moreover.

Quoad, to u'hat degree, how far ; to what time, hoic long.

Adhuc, to this time, so far, as yet.

800. The prepositions that govern an ablative are prefixed to the
pronominal adverbs in inde, &c. (see 366.) : as,

Proinde -J- or proin, henceforward, therefore, accordingly, at once then.

Deindo or dein, after this, afterwards.

Subinde, soon after, ever and anon.

Exinde, exin or exim, after this.

Abhinc, from this time (reckoning towards the past).

Dehinc, from this time forward, after this.

Posthinc, after this.

801. Thus, too, the suffix secus is added to pronominal and other
adverbs in inde, &c. : as,

Altrinseciis, from the other side. Extrinsecus, from ivithout.
Utrinqueseciis, from both sides. Intrinsccus, from within.

802. Thus too the prepositions that govern an accusative are
prefixed to pronouns in am or a, which last too, appear to have
been corrupted from accusative pronouns in am (see 366.) : as,

Antea, before this or that. Praeterquam, besides that

Postea, after this or that. Siiperquam, over and above that...

Interea, in the meanwhile. Antehiic, before this.
Propterea,/or this or that reason. Posthac, after this.

Praeterea, besides this or that. Praeterhac, besides this.

Antequam, 6e/ore that Postilla, since that time, from that

Postquam, after that time.

* Most of these adverbs have also another form ending in versus, in-
stead of vorsuni, and also in versum, versus.

t Perindu is only a corruption of proinde, and in no way related to the
preposition per. Indeed the MSS. generally have proinde where editions
give pe'rinde'.

ADVERBS. 147

803. Thus too, the preposition teniis, stretching, is suffixed to
pronominal forms in a : as,

Eatenus, to this or that extent, so Quateniis, to what extent, so far

far. as.

Hacteniis, to this extent. ATiquateniis, to some extent.

Istacteniis, so far as to reach your Quadamtenus, to a certain ex-

neighbourhood. tent.

804. Some so-called adverbs consist of aa adjective and substan-
tive written as one word : thus,

Quoin odo~, ho ic, is from quo modo, in what manner.
Magnopere, greatly, is from magno opere, vnth great labour.
Hodie, tcday, is from ho * die.
QuotTdie, every day, from quoti-f die.

805. Nuddustertras, the day before yesterday, is a whole sentence
abbreviated, from num J dius est tertius, it is now the third day.

806. Some adverbs are formed by the addition of two or more
particles ; as etiam, even noir, stitl, also, from et, even, and jam,
noir, and etiamnum, even noie-a-days, from et, jam, and num.

807. Scilicet, videlicet, IKcet, though called adverbs, are in origin
verbs. When literally translated, they signifv respectively :

Scilicet , one may kiioic, of course.

Yide~iicet, one may see, no doubt.

riicet, one may go, it is all over.

It is wrong to consider them as corrupted from scire-licet, videre-
licet, ire-licet. They are formed at once from the crude forms, sci,
know ; vide, see ; i, go, without the intervention of the infinitive
mood || .

* The old ablative before the enclitic c was added.

f An old dative case.

The old form which with the enclitic ce produced nunc, now. Dius
is that nominative of the u declension which has an ablative diu, in the
day time.

These words are actually employed as verbs. Thus scilicet, Plaut.
Curcul. ii. 2, 10 ; Lucr. ii. 468 ; Sail. Jng. 4 ; vide~licet, Plaut. Stich. iv.
1, 49, and 51 ; Lucr. i. 210 ; fficet, Ter. Phor. i. 4, 31. Similarly DcSt, it
it permitted, became used as a conjunction hi the sense of though.

|| Similarly in our own language after may, can, and some other verbs,
the preposition to, which usually precedes the infinitive mood, is not re-
quired ; as, one can see, you may know, &c.

H 2

148 PREPOSITIONS.

808. PREPOSITIONS.

Prepositions are particles that are prefixed * to substantives and
verbs, and sometimes to other parts of speech. In their original
sense they denote the relations of place ; as, sub, up ; de, down ;
ob, towards.

809. The letter s is often added as a prepositional suffix. Thus
ab, by, sometimes becomes abs, aps or as ; sub, up, becomes sus ;
ob, towards, obs or os ; ec, out, ex ; dl, different ways, dis ; (ci),
(this), cis ; (ol), (yon), uls.

810. The first three of these prepositions, viz. ab, by or from;
sub, up ; ob, towards, take this s more particularly in composition
with verbs which begin with one of the letters p, c or q, t ; as,

As-porta, carry away. Sus-pend, hang up. Os-tend, stretch to-
Abs-cond, put away. Sus-cip, take up. wards.

Abs-tinef, keep away. Sus-tine, hold up.

811. EcJ, out, takes an s before the same consonants, and also
before vowels ; as,

Ex-pon, put out ; ex-tend, stretch out.
Ex-curr, run out ; ex-im, take out.

812. Di, different ways, takes an s before the same consonants,
and takes s, or its substitute r, before vowels ; as,

Dis-pon, put in different places ; dis-ic , throw different ways.
Dis-ced, depart ; dir-im, disperse.
Dis-tine, keep apart.

813. E"c before a verb beginning with an s has two forms, as

* The name preposition itself implies this. But in fact they occasionally
follow (more particularly in the older authors), as in me-cum, ivith me ;
quo-ad, to what degree; de quo or quo de, concerning which. So in En-
glish we have here-in, here-upon, &c.

t Abs is found even before nouns in old authors ; as, abs te, by you ;
abs quivis homnie, ly any man you please. But observe that this is only
before the same consonants.

J This form is still preserved in the composition of verbs which begin
with f ; as, ec-fer, carry out; ec-fod, dig out, &c. Such at least was the
orthography of Plautus, Terence, Cicero and Virgil. The Greek too has eir.

Commonly written disjic.

PREPOSITIONS. 149

from sali, leap ; exsiii or exili, leap up ; which do not differ in
sound *.

814. Dis is preferred to di before a verb beginning with s, if that
s be followed by a vowel ; as, dis-sona, sound a different note ; but
not so, if that s be followed by a consonant, as di-scrlb, distribute in
writing.

815. The letter d is often added as a prepositional suffix. Thus
pro, for ; In, in ; re, back, become severally prod, ind, red, as in
prod-i, go forward ; ind-ige, be in leant ; red-i, go back^.

816. The prepositions often lose one of their final letters. Thus
ab becomes a in the composition of verbs which begin with the
letter m ; as a-move, move away. Before the verb fu, be, ab and a
are both found ; as, ab-fuit or a-fuit, he was absent ; while before
the verb f er, carry, the form au is used ; as, au-fer, carry away.
Similarly a instead of ab is used before many nouns beginning with
a consonant.

817". In like manner ec, out, becomes e before other consonants
than p, c or q, t ; as, e-bib, drink up ; e-duc, lead out, &c.

818. Pro, for, before verbs beginning with r and 1 sometimes takes
the form por and pol ; as, por-rig, stretch forward, pollice (r.), bid
beforehand, promise.

819. Trans, across, before verbs sometimes takes the form tra ;
as, tra-duc, lead across.

820. Cum, with, before verbs becomes com or con ; as, com-ed,
eat up ; con-cid, cut to pieces.

* XS, i.e. XS, to use the Greek characters, was the symbol originally
of the sound chs ; but as the Romans never used the aspirate X in any
other combination of letters, they eventually came to look upon X as re-
presenting the sound ex, and therefore discarded the superfluous s. Hence
exsiii may be looked upon as the older form, but representing ech-slli.

t The preposition se, aside, might have been added to these, as the con-
junction sed, but, is another form of that word. Besides sed-itiou, a seces-
sion or division (of the people), implies the previous existence of a verb
sSd-i, go apart ; or se-d, put apart. In old authors other prepositions take
this d. Thus post, ante, supra, extra, &c. become postld, antld, suprad,
extrad, &c. Perhaps apiid, near, may be only another form of ab ; or, as the
Greeks wrote it, apo, by. Lastly, ad, near, is probably itself an abbrevia-
tion of apud, just as a is of ab, and as of abs. AU this is consistent with
the original meaning of ab, as may be seen in the syntax.

150 PREPOSITIONS.

821. The other changes which prepositions sometimes undergo
before verbs may be seen in the tables of perfects and supines,
533554.

822. From prepositions and two of the pronouns demonstrative
are formed adjectives in tero * and ero ; and from these again, pre-
positions in ter or er, and in trii or ra. Thus from sub, up, is
formed the adjective siipero, upper ; whence the prepositions super
and supra, above. So from the obsolete root inf, or rather nef, be-
low, is formed first the adjective inf ero, lower, and secondly the pre-
position infra, below. Again, from in, in, is formed first the obsolete
adjective intero, inner, and thence the prepositions inter, between,
and intra, within, &c.

823. From prepositions and two of the pronouns demonstrative
are formed comparatives and superlatives. Thus from prae or pro,
before, a comparative, prior, former, a superlative, prlmo, first ; from
In, in, a superlative, Tmo, inmost ; from sub, up, a superlative, summof,
uppermost ; from post, after, postumo J, last ; from ec or ex, out,
extumo, outmost or uttermost ; from the pronominal root ci, this or
near, cituino , hithermost, nearest ; from ol, yon, ultiimo , farthest,

824. Comparatives and superlatives are also formed from the in-
termediate adjective in tero or ero. Thus from post, after, is formed
first the adjective postero, after, and thence a comp. posterior, and a
superl. postremo ; from ec, out, an adj. extero, outer, and thence a
comp. exterior, and superl. extreme ; from de, down, an obsolete
adj. detero, and thence a comp. deterior ||, worse, and superl. deter-
rumo |[, worst; from sub, up, an adj. siipero, upper, and theiice a
comp. superior, higher, and a superl. supremo, highest, &c.

825. From the simple prepositions and from the adjectives in
tero and ero are formed other adjectives in no ; as,

* These are in fact comparatives, as may be seeu in the Greek irpo-
Tepo, &c.

t For subimo or siipiino. In the same way from sub, up, and &n, take,
is formed the compound sum, take up. Indeed the best MSS. more com-
monly have sumra, take.

J The vulgar orthography is posthumo, which is grounded upon a ludi-
crously erroneous derivation from post humum.

Related respectively to ho, this, and illo, yonder.

|| Literally lower, lowest ; but they occur only in the sense of value.

PREPOSITIONS. 151

Supino, looking upward ; prono, looking downward.

Superno, above ; inferno, below.

Externo, without ; interne, icithin.

826. From some of the prepositions are formed adjectives in Ico.
Thus,

Postico, behind, as postica janua, the back gate.

Antico or antique, preceding (either in time or value).

827- From some of the prepositional superlatives are formed ad-
jectives in ti ; as,

From summo, highest, summati or summat, of the highest rank.

From infurao, lowest, iufumati or infumat, of the loicest rank.

828. Adverbs in tiis are formed from prepositions; as,

Intiis, icithin ; subtiis, under.

829- For the adverbs in troand triu from prepositions, seebeloTv.

830. The prepositions* in use before substantives are the following :
First, before accusatives alone :

ad, to. contra, facing. prope, near.

advorsum or ad versus, erga, toirards. propius, nearer.

towards. infra, beloic. proxume, nearest.

ante, before. intra, icithin. praeter, beside.

Spud, near. inter, between. secundum, folloicing.

circa, round. juxta, near. supra, above.

circum, round. ob, towards. trans, across.

circiter, about. penes, in the hands of. (uls), beyond.

cts, on this side of. per, through. ultra, beyond.

cttra, on this side of. post, after.

831. Secondly, before ablatives alone :

ab, abs or a, by or from. ec, ex or e, out of.

absque, mthout. prae, before.

cum, with. pro, before.

de, down from. sine, without.

832. Thirdly, before an accusative or ablative :

* Many of these prepositions are common to the Greek language ; viz.
ab = airo. c = e*:. con or cuni = ffi'i' or trr.

6b=eiri. ante = avr. pro = -po.

subandsiiper=i'7ro anduTTep. iu = ev or ets. post = iera or

152 PREPOSITIONS.

in, in. subter, under.

sub, up or under. super, upon.

833. Clam, secretly ; coram, face to face ; palam, openly ; simul,
at the same time ; teniis, extending ; versus, towards ; usque, all the
way, or all the time, are rather adverbs than prepositions. But see
the syntax of prepositions.

834. Other prepositions are found in the composition of verbs
and adjectives ; viz.

Am* or amb, round; as, am-bur, burn round, singe; amb-ed, eat
round; and the adj. ancip or ancipit, two-headed.

Di f or dis, different ways ; as, dis-ced, depart ; and from corda,
string, the adj. dis-cord or discordi, of a different note.

Re or red, buck ; as, re-pell, drive back; red-i, go back; and the
adj. re-due, returning.

Se J or sed, aside ; as, se-pon, put aside ; and the adjectives se-
ciiro, unconcerned ; se-cord or so-cord, spiritless.

Veh or ve, away; as the adj. vecord (heartless, i.e.), senseless;
vehement or vehement! (devoid of mind), furious \\.

835. The prepositions, in modern editions, are usually written in
immediate connection with verbs, but separately from nouns. The
Romans themselves, however, generally wrote them in connection
with nouns also : as, inforo, in theforum^.

836. Hence, if an enclitic be inserted, it commonly follows the
noun, not the preposition : as, inforoque, and in the forum, or, to
copy the modern mode of printing, in foroque.

837. If the preposition be repeated it has a stronger emphasis,
and may be separated from the noun : in curia itique foro**, in the
senate house and in the forum.

* Related to the Greek a^tpi.

f Related to the Greek Sia, and the German zcr.

% Related to the English sund-er, and German sond-ern.

Related to the German weg, and English away.

|| To these might be added the solitary example of neg, after; viz.
neg-leg (leave behind} neglect. This prefix is identical with the German
nach, and consequently with the English nigh.

f This consideration is of importance in the laws of metre.

** Precisely on the same principle, and under the same circumstances,
Lucretius separates the preposition even from a verb, and writes disqug
stipavit for dissupiivitquS.

PREPOSITIONS.

153

H- P -

ii 1

B
u

w 2

*3 '

2 i ~s a.

III

1 1! II

,-i*

;o ;o -g

J4>

.2 T

S TT .5

^ *s

2 2 2 -
(-898 s ;

a >= >= = :

- = - .S

5 = 2 =

L 111

13 o

S ~

O ^

* *

a a

'C "C

M-
H-
IO

13"

- 'H l= 'E

> t3 .tj o

.-H

I '1 ' :=

'2'c

\ .S

'"a "r 8

~*^ 2

iTr T^F

I |j

' Il"

'g"g N 'g v
A^^ 2

J. |>:

r ^;=

^2 'S "5 2 8

~ -

"S ^ 2 1

3 *f

o 2 ^

>S 1 J= !-' !'2 -^ 3 El 1

o" o o

*^ ^

3 -d

5 **

O !M

tJ5

? ^

^ .^

o o p

< * to

^
'u

in i i ">

C3 jj 3

- 60 M

S >>

= - =
3 g

3S5

>. .

a 5

"S >? S

? "a S

'5 - i

:_>

E g

w <S :3

a 5 'Hi - 3 -S

A similar table for the English language will illustrate this
table :

H 5

154

CONJUNCTIONS.

Preposi-
tion.

-er, -ther.

Superl.

Superl. from
-er.

Comp.
Preposition.

-wards.

in
out

low
neath
fore"!
for /
back
be, the
yon
hind
aft
nigh

inner
outer \
utter J
upper 1
over J
lower
nether
farther "1
former J

inmost
outmost "I
utmost J
upmost

lowest

innermost
outermost 1
uttermost J
uppermost

inwards
outwards

upwards

(be out) ~[
about ? /
above

below
beneath
before 1
(afore) J
aback

nethermost

foremost "1
first |

forwards

backwards
liitherwards

hither
yonder
hinder
after
nigher "1
near* J

hithermost
yondermost
hindermost
aftermost
nearest

beyond
behind
abaft

hindmost
next

afterwards

839. CONJUNCTIONS.

The name conjunction is commonly given to several classes of
particles which require to be distingu'shed.

840. Copulative conjunctions are those which unite words, phrases
or sentences, without making one dependent upon another. Such
are et, and, the enclitic quef, and, atque, and ; velj, or, aut, or;
together with the interrogative particles an, or, ne, or.

841. There are several words compounded of the above particles,
which also serve as copulative conjunctions : for instance, neque,
nor ; neve, nor ; sive, or if.

842. Many of these may be used in pairs: as, et hoc et illiid,
both this and that ; Dlque hommesque', both gods and men ; vel hoc
vel illiid, either this or that ; aut hoc aut illiid, either this or that ;
neque hoc neque illud, neither this nor that ; sive hoc sive illiid,
ichether this or that.

* Also nearer, a comparative from a comparative,
t The same as the Greek re. Compare the interrogatives ns and quls.
J Probably an obsolete imperative of the verb vol, wish.
Probably a corruption of alterum, as our or is of other. Compare tl
German oder.

CONJUNCTIO^ 155

843. Several of the particles above-mentioned admit of abbrevia-
tion. Thus, atque, vel, neque, neve, slve, may severally become ac,
ve, nee, neu, seu.

844. Many adverbs, when used in pairs, perform the part of co-
pulative conjunctions : as, nunc hoc nvnc illud, note this now that;
modo hoc modo illud, at one time this at another that ; rum sapiens,
turn fortis, on the one hand wise, on the other brave.

845. Certain phrases which run in pairs may also perform the
office of copulative conjunctions : as, non modo hoc, sed etiam illud,
not only this, but also that.

846. Adjunctive conjunctions are those which unite a dependent
sentence to the main sentence, as antequam in the compound sen-
tence : antequam lux nos obprinilt, erumpamus, let us sally out, be-
fore daylight comes upon us.

847- Adjunctive conjunctions are often formed by prefixing a pre-
position to some derivative from the pronoun quo : as, quam, quod, tit *.

* This use of quam, quod, at, is probably to be explained on the prin-
ciple on which Home Tooke has explained the origin of the English con-
junction that. I knoic that he is returned may be resolved into two sen-
tences : He is returned. I know that fact. So, in Greek, Aeyo* ore reOvqKe,
I say this : he is dead. The quam, quod, ut, then have, in the phrases we
are speaking of, the signification this or that, a meaning which accords
with the use of the Greek relative in Homer. The particles in question
enable the reader to pause before the words to which they refer. So long
as we have only a preposition and noun no such pause is requisite. In the
same way the mathematician reads a X 6, a into b ; but if we substitute
for b a quantity containing more than one term, a pause is required in
reading, and a vinculum in writing : as, a X b -(- c, which is read, a into

b -f- c. Precisely in the same way, if a long infinitive or subjunctive

clause be employed after a Latin verb, it adds to perspicuity if we insert
near the main verb hoc, ita, or sic. Thus, Cicero says, Velim ita statutum
habeas, me tui memoriam cum sumnia benivolentia tenere : and again,
Sic habeto, neminem esse qui me amet quin idem te aniet ; and Terence
says, Hoc scio, esse meritam ut memor esses sui. Lastly, the French form
in the same way their conjunctions puis-que, sans-que, pmtrqvoi, par-ce-
gve; the Germans, in-dem, nach dem, dar-aua dass; and the English,
before that, beyond what, according as. See ' Penny Cyclopaedia,' under
the words Article and Conjunction.

156 CONJUNCTIONS.

Thus there are : post-quam, after that or after ; ante-quam*, before
that or before ; siiper-quam, beyond what ; pro-ut, according as.

848. Conjunctions of this character perform for a secondary sen-
tence the same office which simple prepositions perform for nouns.
Thus the same idea might be expressed by ante lucem erumptimus,
let us sully out before daylight. Or, again, we may say either post
reditum ejiis, after his return, or postquam rediit, after he returned.

84Q. Sometimes, instead of a preposition, a comparative adjective
or adverb, or other word of comparison, precedes the relative ad-
verb : as, major quam speraveram, greater than I had hoped ; prius-
quam speraveram, before I had hoped; aliter quam speraveram,
differently from what I had hoped ; simul ut vldl eum, the moment I
saw him.

850. Or some phrase may precede : as, eo consiliS ut te terre-
rem, with the design that I might frighten you or of frightening you ;
hac lege ut ne redeas, with the condition that you shall not return.

851. Sometimes the relative adverb is doubled: as, ultra quam
ut videam, beyond seeing ; super quam quod dissenserant, besides the
fact that they had disagreed.

852. Sometimes a derivative from eo, this, is inserted between
the preposition and the relative adverb : as, post-ea quam, after ;
pro eo ut, accordingly as ; pro-inde lit, just as ; propter-ea quod, for
the reason that ; ex eo quod, from the fact that ; in eo lit, in the act of.

853. Sometimes the particle atque f or ac occupies the place of
the relative. Thus we may say simiil iit, a-t the same time that, as
soon as, or simul atque, as soon as ; and in familiar Latin, major
atque, greater than.

854. Sometimes the relative particle is omitted. Thus, we may
say, simul ut rediit or simul rediit, as soon as he returned.

855. Very frequently the prepositional word is omitted, and a
solitary relative adverb performs the office of a conjunction : as, ut,

* Sometimes the preposition is separated. Thus we might say, Ante
erumparnus quam lux nos obprimit.

f This use of atque grows out of the abbreviation of a longer phrase.
Thus, Aliud ego dico atque aliud tu dicis, / say one thing and yott, say an-
other, easily degenerates into Aliud ego dico atque tu.

IXTERJECTIOX5. 157

how, when, in order that ; quum, when, quando, when ; quod, be-
cause.

856. Or the relative may be accompanied by its noun : as qua-re,
or abbreviated cur, why.

857. Or the relative adverb may have an enclitic particle at-
tached to it : as, quando-quidem*, since, quon-iam (= quum jam)
since.

S5S. These relative adverbs are used in direct questions, in which
case they no longer perform the office of conjunctions, and may be
more conveniently called interrogative adverbs : as,

Quando, when ? Cur, why ? ITt, how ? Quoad, how long ? &c.

859. Many conjunctions have correlative adverbs in the main
sentence which point to them ; and these, in one sense, may also be
called conjunctions t

Thus, ita, so, and sic, so, answer to ut, a* ; tarn, so, to quam, as ;
turn, then, to quum, when ; tamen, yet, to quanquam, although ; ita,
o the condition, to si, if; sic, on the condition, to si, if; at, yet, to
si, if, &c.

860. INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections are abbreviated sentences which denote a sudden and
hast}- emotion of the mind. They are commonly inserted in another
sentence as a parenthesis.

861. A few of them admit of being analysed. Thus, the formula,
so may such a deity preserve me, is the source of several.

Tta me Hercules adjuvet is corrupted into meherciiles, meherciile,
mehercle, hercle.

Fta me Deus Fidiusi adjuvet, into medius-fidius.

I"ta me Deus Pollux adjuvet, into edepol or epol.

And similarly, from the names of Castor, Juno, Ceres, there arise
the interjections mecastor or ecastor, ejuno, ecere.

* Perhaps this word was pronounced as a trisyllable, quandoqueui. See
* Penny Cyclopaedia,' under Terentian metres.

t In fact, they are to their conjunctions what the antecedent is to the
relative ; and the relative itself is the great conjunction of all languages.

J That is the god of Faith, like the Greek Zevs opcios. Some derive
tliis phrase from Atos filius, '. e. Hercules.

158 INTERJECTIONS.

862. Some of the more common interjections are
Ah, jilas.

Atat or attat (for atatat) from at, but, denoting a sudden dis-
covery, but I have it ; yes, yes.

Ecce*, behold.

Ehem, hem, denoting surprise, ah ! often best translated by re-
peating the word which caused the surprise.

Eheu, heu, alas.

Ehof, calling a person to you, here, answer me this.

E'ja, quick ! and various other senses.

E~n, em, hem, behold, see.

Eu, and euge, good ! bravo !

Ha ha, or ha ha ha, ha ha ha ! (laughing).

Hei or ei, alas !

Heus, harkee.

Hui, bless me !

Nae, verily.

Oh, o, denotes emotion, oh !

Papae, ye gods .'

Proh, pro, denotes wonder, oh!

St, hist, hush.

Vae, woe !

Vah has various senses, depending upon the tone in which it is
uttered, and must be translated according to the context.

863. There are also several neuter adjectives which are used as
exclamations : as, maHim, ill betide you, the deuce ; infandum, un-
utterable thought, &c.

864. A few verbs are used in the same way : as, age, quick ;
quaeso, prythee ; amabo, please ; obsecro, by all that 's sacred.

865. The preposition per, with its accusative, in the sense of im-
ploring, belongs to the class of interjections : as, per dextram hanc,
by this right hand.

* Probably the jussive of an old verb connected with OKKO and oculo,
the eye.
t Probably connected with ho or hue, hither.

159

SYNTAX.

866. SYNTAX means the connection of words in a sentence. In
treating this part of grammar the same order will be followed as in
the former part.

NOUNS.

NOMINATIVE CASE.

867. The nominative* case marks the quarter from which an
action f proceeds. Hence the nominative is commonly a living
being : as,

Pastor capellae cornu fregerat (Phaedr.), A shepherd had broken

a goat's horn .
A'per segetes proculcat (Or.), The wild boar tramples down the

crops.

868. Instead of living beings, inanimate J and abstract nouns are
often used as the nominative : as,

Cursum mutavit amnis (Hor.), The river has changed its course.
Dies lemt Iras (Cfc.), Time assuages wrath.

869. The agent may act upon the agent. Hence the nominative
is used with reflective verbs : as,

Rhenus septentrional! oceano miscetur (Toe.), The Rhine mixes
(itself) with the Northern Ocean.

870. As the use of the passive has grown out of that of the re-
flective, the nominative is also found with passive verbs : as,

Insula adpellatur Mona (Caes.J, The island is called Mona.

871- As verbs of a static character have generally something of
action |j mixed up with them, the nominative is used before static
verbs : as,

Tiire calent arae (Fzrjr.), The altars are warm with incense.

* See 44,48,368,381.

f The active verb is probably the oldest form of the verb.

J This savours of poetry, but language in its early state is always and
of necessity what \ve call poeticaL

See 379, 380, 381, 382.

I! Thus, he who sleeps often snores or drops his head, or dreams. At any
rate the going to sleep is commonly preceded by certain acts of preparation.

160 NOMINATIVE.

872. The old construction of verbs of feeling is seen in 700,
889, &c. But a large number of verbs which denote feeling have a
nominative like other static verbs : as,

Cicero eum et amabat et verebatiir (Cic.~), Cicero both loved and

respected him*.

Impersonal verbs admit a nominative of a neuter pronoun, just as
in English we use it, there.

Hoc luciscit (Ter.), It is getting light here.

Non te haec pudent? (Ter.), Are you not ashamed of these things ?

873. Thus the nominative is used before verbs of almost every
kind. A very common use of it is before the verb signifying ' be :' as,

Tu es tristis (Ter.), You are melancholy.

Senectiis ipsa est morbiis (Ter.), Old age itself is a disease.

874. Some grammarians are in the habit of treating those sen-
tences which have the verb ' be ' as the form to which all others are
to be reduced. Hence they divide a sentence into three parts :

The Subject, that of which you speak ;

The Predicate, that which you say of the subject ; and

The Copula, or verb ' be/ which unites the subject and predicate.

Thus, for instance, in the sentence or proposition, ' man is an
animal,' man is the subject, animal the predicate, is the copula.

The subject, according to this system, is the nominative case.
When, instead of the verb ' be/ another verb is used, they resolve
it into some part of the verb 'be' and a participle. Thus, Cicero
writes a letter is resolved into Cicero is writing a letter, where Cicero
is the subject, writing a letter the predicate, is the copula.

875. The substantive, adjective, or participle that accompanies the
verb ' be ' as a predicate, is in Latin made to agree in case with
the subject nominative, and is called the nominative of the predi-
cate f. Thus,

Sapientia est rerum divlnarum et hiimanarum scientia (Cic.), Phi-
losophy is the knowledge of things divine and human.

* The old writers said Cicero eius verebatur, or even, Cicero uera eius
verebatiir.

f This nominative in the predicate must be referred to what grammari-
ans call attraction. The German language in such cases very properly di-
vests the adjective of all case : der maim ist gut, not guter. See also
below.

NOMINATIVE.

161

Insignls annus hieme nivosa fuit (Liv.), The year was remarkable

for a snowy winter.
Viae clausae, Tiberis innavigabilis fuit (Liv.), The roads were

blocked up, the Tiber not navigable.

876. In the same manner other verbs have at times a nominative
in the predicate referring to and agreeing in case with the subject
nominative : as,

Miinitiones integrae manebant (Cues.), The fortifications remained
untouched.

877. The accusative with the active verb becomes a nominative
with the passive : as,

Marcium consulem creaverunt, They made Marcius consul.
Marcius consul creatus est (Liv.), Marcius was made consul.
Deiotarum regem sociumque et amicum adpellant, They call Dei-

otarus king, ally, and friend.
Deiotarus rex sociusque et amicus adpellatur (Cic.), Deiotarus

is called king, ally, and friend.

SIciliam provinciam faciunt, They make Sicily a province.
Fit* Sicllia provincial, Sicily is made a province.

878. Even when these verbs are in the infinitive mood dependent
upon another verb, the noun in the predicate referring to the sub-
ject nominative will still agree in case with the subject nominative,
if no reflective pronoun in the accusative be interposed : as,

Homines minus crediili esse coeperunt (Cic.), Men began to be
less credulous.

Vis formosa-f- videri, You wish to appear beautiful.

879- It is only in poetry that we find such phrases as

Seusit^ delapsiis in hostls (Virg.~), He perceived that he had un-
wittingly fallen among the enemy.

880. In the old authors, and in the poets, the nominative is found
for the vocative : as,

A"gedum Pontifex Publlcus praei verba qiiibus me pro legionibus

* This verb is in meaning a passive. See 736.

t The insertion of the pronoun te would require a change : thus, Vis
te formosam videri, You wish yourself to appear beautiful.
J In prose it must have been Seusit se delapsum In hostls.

162 VOCATIVE. ACCUSATIVE.

devoveam (Liv.), Come, Priest of the State, repeat (for me to
follow) the words in which I am to devote myself for the
legions.

881. In interjectional phrases the verb is often understood : as,
Ecce litterae (i. e. mihi traduntiir) (Cic.), Behold, a letter is all

at once put into my hand*.

VOCATIVE.

882. The vocative is used in addressing a person : as,
Die Marce TullI (CYc.), Speak Marcus Tullius.

883. In the old writers, and in the poets, the vocative is some-
times used with verbs of the second person, instead of the nomina-
tive : as,

Macte virtute esto (Liv.~), Be increased in virtue, i. e. Go on in

thy virtuous course, and heaven bless thee.
Quo moriture ruis? (Virg.), Whither dost rush to dief?

ACCUSATIVE.

884. The accusative case answers to the question whither. Hence
motion to towns or small islands is expressed by the accusative : as,

Concessit Capuam (Liv.), He withdrew to Capua.
Navigabat Sy'racusas (Cic.), He was sailing to Syracusae.

885. With the names of countries the preposition in is usually
employed }. But the poets use the simple accusative with names
of countries, and even other words, after verbs of motion : as,

Italiam fato profugus Lavmaque venit Littora (Virg.~), To Italia,
by fate an outcast, and to the Lavine beach he came.

886. The accusatives domum, rus, foras, are used after verbs of
motion : as,

Domum revertere (Cic.), They turned back home.
Rus ibo (Ter.), I shall go into the country.
Ecfugi foras, I escaped into the street.

* For the nominative in apposition see below.

t For the vocative in apposition, &c., see below.

{ Thus, Tarentum ui Ttaliam venit, He came to Tarentum in Italy.

If any phrase be added by apposition to the name of the town the pre-
position In is required : as, Se contulit Tarquinios in urbem Etruriae
florentissumara. Cic. R. P. ii. 19. See also Sallust, Jug. 75.

ACCUSATIVE. 163

887- The Verbal Substantives in tu (called Supines) are used
in the accusative after verbs of motion : as,

E6 pabiilatum venient (Cats.), They will come here to get fodder.
Spero debellatum in, I hope that they are going to finish the
war.

888. After active verbs the object to which the action is directed
is put in the accusative case : as,

Dominus servora verberavit, The master flogged the slave.

889. The impersonal verbs of feeling have the accusative of the
person who suffers that feeling : viz.

Me miseret ejus, et piget ;
Pudet taedetque ac paemtet : as,

E5s infamiae suae non pudet (Cic.), They are not ashamed of
their infamy.

890. So also certain other impersonals take an accusative of the
person who suffers : viz.

Me vel te juvat decetque
Turn praeterit fiigit latetque
FallTt oportet dedecetque : as,
-\~nrinem vostrum praeterit (CYc.), It escapes no one among you.

891. Many reflective verbs, called Transitive Deponents, take an
accusative* : as,

Naturam sequif (Cic.), To follow nature.

892. The perfect participle of what are commonly called passive
verbs are used, particularly by the poets, like those of reflective or
deponent verbs, and so take an accusative case : as,

Stratus membra sub arbiito (Hor.~), Having spread his limbs un-
der an arbute tree.

Adversum femur tragilla ictus J (Liv.), Wounded in the front of
the thigh with a tragic.

893. Similarly, some verbs, which are commonly intransitive,

* This and some of the following sections have been anticipated. See
400 to 404. But the repetition was necessary for completeness.

t The compound obseqai, to follow the wishes of any one, to oblige,
requires a dative of the person obliged, agreeing thus with the Greek con-
struction of the allied word e--o^ai (Aorist, e-eT

% Ictus, ' having it wounded.'

164 ACCUSATIVE.

are occasionally used (by the poets more particularly) with an ac-
cusative : as,

Ingrati animl crimen horreo (Cic.}, I dread the charge of ingra-
titude.

894. Some verbs, commonly intransitive, take an accusative of a
noun related to the verb in form or meaning (called the cognate
accusative), often in order to attach thereto an adjective : as,

Mlrum somniavl somnium (Plant.}, I have dreamed a wonderful
dream .

A'manti herd servitutem servit (Plant.}, He is in the service of an
affectionate master.

Alium cursum petivit (Cic.}, He went another route.

8Q5. Similarly, the verbs of smelling and taste, and a few others,
take an accusative which defines the nature : as,

Piscis ipsum mare sapit (Sen.), The fish tastes of the very sea.

(Tlet peregrinum (Cic.), It has a foreign smell.

Redolet antlquitatem (Cic.}, It savours of antiquity.

896. Verbs of making, creating, electing, have an accusative of
the new condition or office (called the factitive accusative), besides
the accusative of the object : as,

Me hebetem molestiae reddiderunt (Cic.), For myself, troubles

have made me dull of feeling.
Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit* (Liv.}, The citizens

elected Ancus Marcius king.

897. So also verbs of calling, thinking^, showing, seeing, take two
accusatives : as,

Octavium sul Caesarem salutabant (Cic.}, Octavius his own
friends saluted as Caesar.

Socrates totiiis mundl se incolam et civem arbitrabatiir (Cic.},
Socrates thought himself an inhabitant and citizen of the uni-
verse.

Gratum me praebeo (Cic.}, I show myself grateful.

* There is a sort of motion to in this construction : ' They put him
into the office.' A German, indeed, would insert the preposition signify-
ing ' to : ' as, Sie wahlen ihn zum Fiihrer, They choose him leader.

t With verbs of thinking the ablatives nuuiSro and loco, and the pre-
position pro, are also used : as, in nume'ro hostium eum habeo, in loco
hostls habeo, pro hoste eum habeo.

ACCUSATIVE. 163

898. The verbs doce, teach, cela, hide, keep in the dark, may have
two accusatives, one of the thing, one of the person : as,

Quid te, litteras doceam ? (Cic.), What, am I to teach you your

letters ?
Non te celavl sermonem Ampi (Cic.'), I did not conceal from

you the conversation with Ampius *.

899- The thing taught or concealed may be in the accusative with
the passives of these verbs, the accusative of the person becoming
the subject :

Celabar (Cze.), I was kept in the dark.

Nos ne hoc tamdiu celatos ? (Ter.), To think that we, of all people,

should have been kept in the dark about this so long.
Dulcis docta modos (//or.), Taught sweet measures.

900. Some transitive verbs of motion, compounded with trans,
circum, praeter, ad, may have two accusatives, one of the thing
crossed, &c., one of what is conveyed across, &c. : as,

Iberum copias traiecit (Liv.), He threw his forces over the Ebro.
ITquitatum pontem transducit (Cues.), He leads the cavalry over

the bridge.
I"dem jusjurandum adigit Afranium (Caes.), He compels Afranius

to take the same oath.

901. The thing crossed, &c., may, with the passive verb, be an
accusative^ : as,

Belgae Rhenum transducuntur (Caes.), The Belgae cross the

Rhine.
Scopulos praetervecta videtur oriitio mea (CVc.), My speech seems

now to have passed by the rocks.

902. Many verbs of asking, begging, demanding, may have two
accusatives, one of the person, the other of the thing : viz.

* These two verbs are also used with ' de/ of the matter referred to, or
with an ablative alone of the means employed : as, celare or docere de aliqua
re, docere fidibus.

t Or, so far as traic, tramitt are concerned, in the nominative : as,
Bhodanus trajectiis est, The Rhone has been crossed.

With the thing conveyed the nominative is required in the passive : as,
exercltus trajectiis est.

166 ACCUSATIVE.

Roga, perconta (r.) flagitaquS
Pose, repose, interrdgaque
Quaes, et ora postiilaque : as,
Pacem te poscimus omnes (Virg.), Peace of thee ask we all*.

903. The thing asked with the passive verb may be an accusa-
tive : as,

Sclto me non esse rogatum sententiam (Cic.), You must know I
was not asked my opinion.

904. Many verbs which are originally intransitive }*, become trans-
itive when compounded, as, from I-re, to go, is formed co-i-re, ' to
go together,' or 'meet/ and hence

Coire societatem (Cic.), To form a partnership J.
So, from versa-ri, to turn, is formed a-versa-rl, to turn away : and
hence,

Filium aversatus (Liv.), Turning away from his son.
Aversatur sceliis (Curt.), He turns away in horror from the (pro-
posed) crime.

905. Some transitive verbs, when compounded, slightly change
their meaning, and thus have a changed construction : as, from
sparg, scatter, sprinkle, spargere aquam, to sprinkle water ; but
conspergere || aliquem aqua, to besprinkle any one icith water.

906. Hence some verbs have a double constructional, one derived
from the simple verb, one from the changed meaning of the com-
pound, viz.

Adsperg et insperg indu-o-que,
Exu circvimda inperti-o-que,
Adde circumfund iuser-o-que.

* PSto, leg, and quaer, ask, never take an accusative of the person, but
employ a preposition, the first ab, the second, ab, ex, or de.

t See 403.

J Hence in the passive sScietas coittir, a partnership is formed.

Only the poets, and their prose imitators, use sparg in the sense of
1 besprinkle.'

|| The same difference exists between sper and comper, between sr and
conser or obseY.
" fl See 404.

ACCUSATIVE. 167

907. Substantives from verbs occasionally follow the construc-
tion of the verb, and take an accusative : as,

Domum reditionis spe sublata (Caes.), The hope of returning home

being taken away.
Quid tibi hanc curatio est rem ? (Plaut.), What business have you

to trouble yourself about this matter ?
Quid tibi istunc tactio est? (Plant.), What business have you to

touch that person ?

908. The adjectives propior and proxumo, and the adverbs pro-
pius and proxume, from the preposition prope, sometimes, like that
preposition, take an accusative (as well as a dative) : as,

Exercitum habere quern proxume hostem (Cic.), Te keep the

army as near as possible to the enemy.
LaconTcus ager proximus fineni eorum est (Lit-.), The territory of

the Lacones is nearest to their frontier.

909. The neuters of pronouns and common adjectives or substan-
tives are often used in the accusative where other nouns in the accu-
sative would be rare, or even inadmissible. In these cases the
English language often requires the insertion of a preposition :

Id tibi" suscenseo, I am angry with you for this.

Unurn omnes student, They are all eager for one object.

lllud tibr non assentior, One thing I do not agree with you in .

Xihil habet quod gaudeat, He has nothing to rejoice at.

Hoc operam do, I am labouring at this.

Utrumque laetor, I am delighted at both things.

Quid lacrumas ? What are you crying for ?

I"d auctor sum, I am the adviser of this.

BenTficio isto nihll utitur, That advantage you offer he makes no

use of.
And even unconnected with a verb : as,

Id temporis (Cic.), At that time.
Hommem id aetatis (Cic.), A man at that age.

Ego istuc aetatis (Ter.), I at your tune of life.

910. The possessive pronouns in a which accompany the imper-
sonal verbs refert and interest are in origin accusatives feminine
singular. Thus,

Mea refert, ' it concerns me,' is a corruption of meam rem fert,
' It carries with it a something belonging to me.' So,

168 ACCUSATIVE.

Nostra* interest is a corruption of nostram inter rera est, ' It is
in the midst of and consequently mixed up with a something
belonging to us.'

911. After many active verbs, instead of a single word, a whole
sentence may take the place of the object, in which case the secon-
dary verb is put in the infinitive mood, and the agent or subject of
that verb is put in the accusative, called the subject accusative.
Thus,

Caesar rediit, Caesar is returned.

Nuntiant Caesarem rediisse, They bring word that Caesar is re-

turned-f-.

For other remarks on the construction of the accusative and in-
finitive see below.

912. Similarly when a subordinate sentence is attached to a verb
as its accusative, the nominative of that sentence is sometimes picked
out and made the accusative of that verb J : as,

Scis Marcellum quam tardus sit (Ca.es.), You know how slow

Marcellus is.
Istam times ne ilium talem praeripiat tibi (Ter.~), You are afraid

that that girl you speak of will cut you out with that fine

gentleman.

* The use of res in this sense of interest is common : thus we find Mea
res agltfir, My interest is at stake ; in rem meam est, It is to my advan-
tage ; e re mea est, It is suggested by my interest. The explanation above
given applies equally to the use of the genitive of the person, as, Clceronis
refert, Ciceronfs interest; as well as the genitive of the value, as, niagui
refert. The long quantity of the a is proved by Terence Phormio, iv. 5. 1 1,
and v. 8. 47. Similarly, postea, &c., from posteam, lengthen the a when
the m is discarded. See also 409, 787, 802.

f A mathematician might have expressed this by FSrunt (Caesar re-
ditt)em, attaching the symbol of the accusative case to the clause. As the
Romans were afraid to do this, adopting what under the circumstances
was perhaps the best make-shift, they selected for the addition of the suffix
the chief substantive. Again, the passive construction should have been :
(Caesar rediit)s fertur ; but here again, by a similar make-shift, they wrote
Caesar rediisso' fertur, and even in the first person E"go rediisse feror.

J Hence, even in the passive voice, An dea sira dubltor (Ov. Met.}, ' It
is doubted whether I am a goddess.' So Cic. N. D. ii. c. 44 extr. intellSgi
qualia sint non possunt, and c. 59, ex quo scientia intellegltur qualis sit.

ACCUSATIVE. 1 69

Non satis me pernosti et iam qualis sim (Ter.), You do not quite
thoroughly understand even yet what sort of person I am.

Tua me virtus facit ut te audacter moneam (Ter.), Your own
worth makes me boldly warn you.

Fac me ut sciam (Ter.), Mind you let me know.

913. The prepositions in and sub sometimes require the accusa-
tive, and always after a verb of motive : as,

In urbe est, He is in the city ; but, In urbem venit, He came into

the city.
Sub mur5 stat, He stands under the wall ; but, Sab murum venit,

He came up to the wall.

914. The majority of the other prepositions, including all those
which do not imply ' motion from,' also govern the accusative. See
Prepositions*.

915. Extent of place or time or degree are commonly expressed
in the accusative f : as,

A recta conscientia non transvorsum unguem discedit (Cfc.), He
departs not a nail's breadth from a right conscience.

Fossa undecim pedes lata (Caes.), A ditch eleven feet broad.

Decem annos urbs oppugnata est, For ten years was the city be-
sieged.

UndevTginti annos natiis (Ct'e.), Nineteen years old.

Maximam partetn lacte vivunt (Caes.), For the most part they
live on milk.

916. The accusative is occasionally used by the poets in connec-
tion with an adjective, to define the particular point, and is often
called the Greek accusative.

* Those prepositions which require the ablative are included in the first

two of the following lines ; those which are found with both, in the third

line. All others have the accusative alone.

Absque cum sine, ab coramque,
Prae pro de tnus, ec plamqu,
BOTH, super in sub, stibter clamque'.
t Where a point of space is fixed by a distance from another point, the

ablative is used by good writers, and sometimes with the preposition ab.

But Tacitus and later writers often use the ablative even for extent of

time.

170 GENITIVE.

Os humerosque deo similis (Virg.), In face and shoulders like a
God.

917. The accusative substantive vicem* (turn, lot) is often used
in an independent manner : as,

Stupentis et suam jam vicem magis anxios quam illius (Liv.),
Amazed and now more anxious about their own than the other's
position.

918. In sentences of exclamation the accusative often appears,
the word with which it should have been connected being sup-
pressed : as,

Me caecumf qui haec ante non viderim (C'ic.), My blindness, not

to have seen all this before.
Quo mi, inquit, mutam speciemj, si vincor sbno ? (Phaedr.)

What good says she, is dumb beauty to me, if in song I am

worsted ?

Hem Davorn t!bi (Ter.*), Look, here is Davus at your service.
Bene te pater ||, (Or.), A blessing on thee, sire.

GENITIVE.

919. The genitive, like the nominative, denotes 'from.' The dif-
ference between their uses is this, that the nominative denotes the
source of the action expressed by a verb, while the genitive is used
chiefly in connection with substantives. It will often be found that
the preposition de with the ablative may be substituted for the geni-
tive, and sometimes lib or ex^f.

GENITIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES.

920. The genitive is attached to another substantive to denote
tlje origin of an action, and may be translated by ' from,' ' of,' or
the English genitive in s : as,

* The equivalent perhaps in form and meaning of the German wegen.

f Perhaps dico understood.

J Perhaps das understood. Literally thus : To what end do ye give me
beauty ?

Perhaps do understood.

|| Perhaps Di adjuveut understood.

If Hence the substitution of de, or a word like it, in all the European
languages derived from the Latin. In our own language too, ' of appears
to be only a variety of the preposition ' off.'

GKNITIVK. 171

Consults jussu, By an order from the consul, by the consul's order,
by order of the consul.

921. This phrase corresponds to consul jussit, where consul
would be called the subject of the verb jussit. Hence this genitive
is often called the subjective genitive.

922. When of or from a whole a certain part* only is taken, that
whole is expressed by the genitive -K This is often called the par-
titive genitive : as,

Pars militum, A part of the soldiers.

Oratorum praestantissiimi, The most distinguished of orators.

Consulum senior, The elder of the consuls.

Vis auri, A quantity of gold.

Nemo nostrum, Not one of us.

Qui eorum redierunt, Such of them as returned.

Rellquom noctis, The rest of the night.

Delect! militum, Men chosen from among the soldiers, or, A

picked body of soldiers.

Exigtiom campl, A small portion of the plain.
Ultiima Celtiberiae, The farthest parts of CeltFberia.
Quod fuit in portu navium, What there was in the harbour of

ships, t. P. all the ships in the harbour.
Id negotl, That piece of business, or that business.
A'lTquid novl, A something of new matter, or some news.
Quantum ejus facere possum, So much of it as I can effect, t. e.

So far as I can effect it.

923. The same partitive use of the genitive is found with adverbs :
as,

Ubr gentium ? Where among the nations ? in what part of the

whole world ?
Eo arrogantiae processerat, He had gone on to that degree of

assumption.

* When the whole are included, the genitive in Latin cannot be used,
although hi English we still use the word ' of.' Thus, Three hundred of
us have sworn if the three hundred form the whole must be expressed
by TrecentI n5s juravlinus.

f Instead of this partitive genitive, the prepositions of kindred meaning,
such as ex and de, are often used, and even the preposition inter.

I 2

172 GENITIVE.

Turn temporis, At that period of time.

Quoad ejus facere possum, To that extent of it which I can effect,

i. e. So far as I can effect it.
Interea loci (Ter.), In the meanwhile.

924. When a thing is said to belong to a person, it has generally
come from him. Hence the owner to whom anything belongs is in
the genitive, which is then called the possessive genitive : as,

Asia Romanorum facta est, Asia became the property of the

Romans.
Omnia hostium erant (Liv.), The whole country belonged to the

enemy.
Plebs HannTbalis tota erat (Liv.), The commonalty were entirely

at the disposal of Hannibal*.

925. The possessive or partitive f genitive is very common in
speaking of a characteristic, office, part, duty J : as,

Cujusvls homines est errare f, nullius nisi insipientis hi errdre
perseverare (Cic.), It is in the character of every man to make
a mistake, of- none but a fool to persist in a mistake.

Sapientis judfcis-f est, quid lex cogat, cogitare (Cic.), It is the
duty of a wise judge to consider what the law requires*.

92G. The genitive of connection is not unfrequent : as,

Marci films, The son of Marcus.

Mater consults, The mother of the consul.

Rex Galliae, The king of Gallia.

* Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the possessive ad-
jectives are required : as, Tuom est vldere, quid agatur, It belongs to you
to see what is going on ; Nos nostri sumfis, We belong to ourselves, we are
our own masters. So also humanum, alienum, imperatorium, muliebie,
regimn, &c., may be used instead of the genitives of the nouns whence
they are derived.

t The term partitive has been used, because in all these cases the no-
tion of a part is perceptible. To make mistakes is one element in the cha-
racter of man. So again, ' it is one element towards constituting a perfect
judge to ' &c.

J A term for part, duty, &c. is often expressed : as, rnunus, nggotium,
offlcium, proprium, &c. ; but it is idle to talk of an ellipsis when no such
noun is expressed.

GENITIVE. 173

92". The objective genitive is that where the genitive takes the
place of what would be the object after a verb*. In this case the
English often requires the substitution of another preposition f for
'of:' as,

Nimia aestumatio sul, An excessive valuation of himself.

Deslderium oti, Regret for leisure no longer existing.

Injuria miilierum SabmarumJ, The wrong done to the Sabine

women.

Which phrases severally correspond to se aestumare, otium desi-
derare, miilieres injuria afficere.

928. The genitive of the quality or quantity requires an adjective
or participle with it : as,

Vir spectatae virtutis, A man of proved merit.

Sex jugerum ager, A farm of six jugers or four acres.

Fossa quindecim pedum, A ditch of fifteen feet (in width).

Frumentum dierum triginta, Thirty days' corn.

Hannibal, annorum ferine novem (Lit.), Hannibal, a boy of about
nine years 5.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

929- Adjectives and participles are sometimes followed by a geni-
tive of the cause j| in the poets and later writers : as,

Lassus maris (Hor.~), Weary of the sea.

Iiiterritus letl (Or.), Not frightened at death.

Invictus laborls (Tac.), Unconquered by toil.

930. Adjectives or participles which denote removal or separation
may be followed by a genitive in the poets ^[: as,

* Such phrases as amor virtutis, taediuni laboris, can scarcely be con-
sidered as objective phrases, seeing that the virtue and the labour are the
causes or origin of the ' amor' and the ' taedium.'

t This objective genitive is far removed from the true meaning of the
case ; hence it is not surprising that our own language does not follow it.

Sometimes the subjective and objective genitives are at once attached
to the same nonn : as, Helvetiorum injuriae popuH Roman! (Caes.}, The
wrongs done by the Helvetii to the Roman state ; where Helvetiorum is
the subjective, populi the objective genitive.

See also 935.

180 DATIVE.

* yesterday ' ; man! (or mane), . ' in the morning ' ; vesper! (or ves-
pere), ' in the evening' ; liicl, ' in the daylight ' ; quint! or quinto
die, ' on the fifth day ' ; Fdibus Martils, ' on the ides (or 15th) of
March ' ; belli, ' in war ' ; militiae, ' on military service' ; ubi",
' when,' &c.

955. The dative is used with adjectives which denote the rela-
tions of place :

Belgae proximl* sunt Germanls (Cues.), The Belgae are nearest
to the Germans.

Heu quam vlclna est ultima terra mihi (Ov.~), Alas, how near is
the end of the world to me.

Collis adversus hulc et contrarius (Caes.), A hill facing and op-
posite to this.

Intrant! sinum a dextra est, As you enter the bay, it is on your
right.

956. Adjectives of fitness f and necessity]:, equality and likeness,
take a dative : as,

Aptum est tempbri et personae (Cic.), It is adapted to the time

and to the person.
Ejus Falernum mihi semper idoneum vlsum est deversorio (Cic.},

His Falernian always seemed to me the sort of wine for an

inn.

* This adjective as well as its comparative are sometimes found with an
accusative, because of their connexion with the preposition prope.

f The words of this meaning generally in their origin signify a capa-
bility of being brought into contact from equality of parts ; as, conve-
nient!, commodo (of the same measure), apto. Thus, a coat that fits well
is in Latin, toga bene convSniens, i. e. corporl. So again equality and
likeness are tested by contact. Hence the verbs of ' comparing' originally
signify to bring together ; as, confer, compara.

% The idea of necessity is that of an inseparable connexion. The word
necessS is connected with the radical syllable of nect-eYe, to link, much as
vtcissim is connected with the root vie of vlcein, vice 1 , &c. Compare the
nouns necessitudon, vicissitudon. What can be more ridiculous in the
way of etymology than the following from Forcellini : Derivant alii a ' ne'
et ' cesso,' quia ubi est necesse, minime est cessandum, alii a ' nee esse,'
alii per aphaeresin ab

DATIVE. 181

Senator! necessarium est nosse rempublicam (Cic.), In a senator
it is necessary to be acquainted with public business.

Verbum Latlnum par Graeco (Ctc.), A Latin word equal in force
to the Greek one.

Fllius patrl similis (Cic.), A son like his father.

Livius Ennio aequalis full (Cic.), Livius was of the same age
with Ennius.

957. Adjectives compounded with prepositions of rest take a
dative dependent upon that preposition : as,

Qui mihi conscius esse soles (Cic.), Who are wont to share my
knowledge with me.

Mihi conscius sum (CYc.), I share the knowledge with myself;
or, I know, though no one else does.

E'jus mors consentanea vitae fuit (Cic.), His death was in agree-
ment with his life.

Potenti5rl afflnis erat (Sail.), He occupied land near a powerful
neighbour.

Coenisque tribus jam perna siiperstes (Mart.), And a ham that
has already survived three dinners.

958. Verbs which denote nearness take a dative : as,

Xescit equo haerere (Hor.), He knows not how to cling to

steed.
Parere* voluntatl architecti (Cic.), To wait upon the will of the

architect.
Curru junglt Halaesiis equos (f'irg.), To his car Halaeso yokes

the steeds.
FortI miscebat mella Falerno (Hor.), With strong Falernian he

would honey mix.

959. Verbs derived from adjectives which take a dative, do the
same : as,

ETqiiitatus ejus nostrls equitibiis appropinquabat f (Caes.), His
cavaln- was drawing near to our horsemen.

* That ' to be present,' ' to wait upon,' is the true meaning of this
verb, to say nothing of other evidence, appears from the use of appare
with such a dative as magistratibus, and the noun apparitor.

t i. e. appropinquabat se, ' made themselves near.' But for its con-
nection with the adjective, the word would probably have been accom-

182 DATIVE.

O"s cxicurbitxilae corpori aptatur (Cels.), The mouth of the cup-
ping-gourd is brought into close contact with the flesh.

E"go tibi ea narro* (Cic.), I am making these things known to
you.

SSlo aequare dictatiiriis et consulates (Liv.), To level with the
ground the offices of dictator and consul.

960. A dative of the person referred to is often found with ad-
jectivesf and static verbs of nearly every character. Of such
adjectives and verbs, the chief divisions are perhaps the following :

961. A dative of the possessor often accompanies the verb es,
'be,' and the adjectives proprio, communi, sacero.

Quibus opes nullae sunt (Sal.'), Those who have no property.
Is dolor communis vobis mecum est (Cic.), Anger at this you

share with me.
Ejus caput Jovi sacrum esto (Liv.), That man's head shall be

devoted to Jupiter.

962. Many verbs compounded with prepositions of rest may be
accompanied by a dative : as,

Antetiilissem voluntatem tuam commSdo meo (Cic.), I should
have given your wishes the preference over my own advantage.

HI scrlbendo affuerunt (Cic.}, The following were present at the
registration.

Contionanti circumfundebatur multitude (Liv.), As he went on
haranguing, a mob kept pouring around him.

Judices sibi constare et superioribus convenire judiciis debuerunt
(Cic.), The jury ought to have been consistent with them-
selves, and to have agreed with the preceding verdicts.

panied by ad and the accusative, as is the case in some writers. But
Caesar has always the dative, so that Davis was wrong in his conjecture,
Bell. Gall. ii. 19.

* From the adjective gnfiro, ' known,' comes gnarra-rS, 'to make known.'
f As the accusative case naturally connects itself with verbs from the
notion of motion to, and as substanti\-es (which in the earliest state of
language were material objects, the result of past action,) readily connect
themselves with the genitive, the case of origin, or motion from, so ad-
jectives which express a permanent quality, and static verbs which share
this character with them, have a close affinity with the case of rest.

DATIVE. 183

Tu meo infelici errorl solus ill&crimasti (I.ir.) You alone have

wept over my unfortunate mistake.
Campus interjacens Tiberl ac moembus Romanis (Lie.), The

plain that lies between the Tiber and the walls of Rome.
Omnibus ejus consiliis obstiti (Cic.), All his contrivances I have

stood in the way of.
Yds est postponere natis Ausa suls (Oc.), You behind her own

children has she dared to rank.
Brutum copils praefecit (Caes.~), He placed Brutus at the head

of the forces.
CTra ipsa ociilis proponite (Cic.), Place their very faces before

your eyes.

Magnitudine animi potest repugnari fortunae (Cic.), By great-
ness of mind a battle may be maintained against fortune.
A'natum ova galltnis saepe supponimus (Cic.}, We often put

ducks' eggs under 'hens.
Superfuit patrl (Liv.), He survived his father.

963. Hence also such a dative is found with the perfect tenses
of passive verbs occasionally, and almost exclusively with the ge-
rund and imperfect participle passive.

Quicquid mihi susceptum est (Cic.), Whatever I have under-
taken.
Fdem tibi* faciundum est (Cic.), You have to do the same.

964. Nouns which express relationship, or connection of office,
&c., may take a dativef of the person referred to, with es, 'be ;'
or in apposition : as,

Natiira tu illl pater es (Ter.), By nature you are his father.
Mihi quaestor imperatorl fuerat (Cic.'), He had been my quaestor
when I was oommander-m-chief.

965. Many adjectives and verbs of feeling and manner take a
dative of the person referred to : as,

Homines omnibus inlqui (Cic.), Men unfriendly to every one.

* If, however, the verb take a dative in another sense, then, to avoid
ambiguity, ab and the ablative are used : as, Tibi a me consulendum est,
I have to consult for your good.

f The genitive in these phrases is more common, and agrees better with
the English idiom.

184 DATIVE.

Irasci amicis non tSmere soleo (Cic.), I am not wont with light

cause to be angry with friends.
A'dolescentl nihil est quod suscenseam (Cic.~), With the young

man I have no reason to be offended.
Quid Sgo ei non cupio ? Well and for myself are not my wishes

with him ?

966. The person who is liable to be affected, or who is habitually
affected by any state of things, is expressed in the dative : as,

Virtus fructuos;i alils, ipsi laboriosa aut periciilosa aut certe gra-
tuita (Cic.), Energy, full of fruit for others ; for himself full
of suffering or danger, or at least without reward.

967. The relation between two objects is often expressed by es,
' be/ the dative of one object and the ablative with cum of the
other : as,

Quae pbtest pax esse Antonio cum senatii? (Cic.), What peace

can there be between Antony and the senate ?
Mihi cum illo nihil fuerat (Cc.), I had had nothing to do with

him.

968. The person in whose mind or senses any knowledge, thought
or feeling exists, may be expressed in the dative.

Notus mihi nomine tantum (Hor.), Known to me by name

alone.
Hoc in laborfbus vlventi non intellegitur (Czc.), This to one living

(immersed) in labours is not perceptible.
Mihi quidem ita videtiir (C/c.), To me at least it seems so.
Neque adeo tibi vllis vita esset mea (Liv.), Nor would my life

have been so cheap in your eyes.
Id vero militibus fuit pergratum (C'aes.), Tliis indeed was most

acceptable to the soldiers.

969. The party in whose conduct any practice exists may be ex-
pressed in the dative : as,

Barbaris* ex fortiina pendet fides (Liv.), With barbarians fide-
lity depends upon fortune.

970. The person who may avail himself or not of any state of
things is often in the dative : as,

* For this dative may be substituted the preposition apud.

DATIVE. 185

Hoc omnibus patet ; et aeque promptum est, niihi et advorsario
meo (CYc.), This is open to all ; and is equally at the service of
myself and my opponent.

971. Many reflective and a few simple verbs derived from nouns
denote a relation more or less permanent, and are accompanied by
a dative of the person.

E"go possum in hac re medicarl mini (Ter.), I in this matter can

be physician to myself.

Appius mihi blandltiir* (Cic.), Appius is all politeness to me.
Caesarl supplicabof (CVc.), I will go down on my knees to

Caesar.
Alii gloriae serviunt, silii pecuniae (Cic.), Some are slaves to

glory, others to money.
Acastum retine, quo comrnodius tibi ministreturj (Cc.), Keep

Acastus back, that you may be better waited upon.

972. Verbs which denote an act done in the presence of another
concerned therein, take a dative of that person : as,

Potenti adulatus est (Nepos in Attico)[|, He fawned on the

powerful man.
Virgo nupsit Metello (Ctc.), The maiden took the veil IT to Me-

tellus, i. e. married him.

* Literally makes himself ' blando,' soft and smooth ; hence to coax,
wheedle, flatter.

t Literally make myself a ' suppllc ' (N. supplex), in which pile refers
probably to the flat hands joined together in prayer, duplices manus ; and
sub to the holding them up.

% Used impersonally. Mlnistra literally means to act the mlniste'ro or
sen-ant. This verb is most commonly used as an active verb, ' to hand as
a servant would.' The noun magistratu also implies an old verb, magistrari,
to act the magistSro or superior. Thus magistratu means the office rather
than the man, and so even the singular often denotes the whole magi-
stracy.

See 981, note.

|| We should not have quoted as an authority the bad Latin found in
the other lives commonly attributed, but without authority, to this con-
temporary of Cicero.

f The flame-coloured veil flammeolo (n.) was woni in the ceremony of
marriage.

186 DATIVE.

973. Hence verbs of telling and showing take a dative of the
person addressed : as,

Haec tibi tuus parens dixit (Cic.), All this your own father told

you.
Alter! raonstrant viam (Enn.), They show the road to another.

974. Hence also verbs of giving are followed by a dative of the
person, to whom ? as,

Dedi ad te Hberto tuo litteras (Cic.), I gave a letter to your

freedman (to convey) to you.
Reddidit mihi litte'ras (Cic.), He delivered the letter to me.

975. Hence also the verbs of trusting have a dative of the object
in which trust is placed : as,

Se suaque omnia fvlienissimis crediderunt* (Caes.), They trusted

themselves and all their property to perfect strangers.
Credon tibi hoc? (Ter.), Am I to believe this that you tell me?
QuI sibi fidit (Hor.), Who in himself confides.

976. Some verbs of giving are used with a dative of the person
in the sense of doing something out of regard to that person, par-
ticularly in case of forgiveness : as,

Praeterita fratri condonat (Caes.), The past matters he forgives

(out of regard) to the brother.
Peccata liberum parentum misericordiaef concesserunt (Cic.),

They have passed over the offences of sons out of pity to their

parents.
Tii tuas inlrmcitias reipublicae donasti (Cic.), Yon have dropped

your enmities (out of regard) to the public interest.
Memoriam simultatum patriae remittitj (Liv.), He forgets his

private quarrels (out of regard) to his country.

* Cred-o, credid-I is evidently a compound of d-o, 'put' or 'give,' so
that its first meaning is not to believe, but to put anything in a person's
hands as a trust. Hence the person is in the dative, the thing trusted or
deemed safe in the accusative.

t He might have said ' parentibus.' So again, Tusc. i. 45, quantum
consuetudini faniaequi? dandum sit, How far we ought to be influenced
by a consideration of custom and what the world may say.

i Literally ' lets go back,' ' sends back.' The idea of punishment in
the Latin language generally appears in the form of &fine. The offender

DATIVE. 187

977. The dative of the person is used in speaking of acts done to
some part of the body (where the English language prefers a pos-
sessive pronoun or possessive case) : as,

Linguam el praecldam atque ociilos ecfodiam (Plant.), I will cut
his tongue off and dig his eyes out.

978. Similarly the dative of the person concerned is found even
with verbs of taking away, and hence appears to signify ' from' :
as*,

Ingens cul lumen ademptum (Virg.), From whom a huge eye
had been taken away.

Id totum eripere vobls conatus est (Cic.), All this he has endea-
voured to tear from you.

979. The dative of the personal pronoun more particularly is
used to denote an interest of the party, and often ironically. This
is often called by grammarians the dativus ethicna.

Tongilium mihi eduxit (Cie.), Tongilius, he has done me the favour
to take out of Rome with him.

At tibi repent? vemt ad me CanInius(CYe.), But (what think you)
all at once there comes to my house Caninius.

Haec vobis istorum militia fuit (Lit:), Such was the military ser-
vice you have to thank your (petitioners) for.

980. Verbs of motion accompanied by another word or phrase
have often a dative of the person which is really dependent upon
this word or phrase : as,

Equitatum auxilio Caesari miserant (Cats.), They had sent a body

of cavalry as an aid to Caesar.
Mihi obviam venisti (Cic.), You came to meet me.

981. Some verbs accustomed to take a dative of the person, are at
times found with a dative of the thing instead : as,

dat, pendit, solvit poenam ' pays the fine ;' the injured party sumit,
exigit poenam ' takes, exacts the fine' ; or should any common friend suc-
ceed in assuaging his anger, then the offended party remittit poenam in-
tercessori ' returns the fine to the interceding party,' that the offender
receiving it from him may know to whose kind offices he is indebted.

* It must not be supposed however, that ' from ' can in any way be the
signification of the dative.

188

DATIVE.

Hon5ri invlderunt meo (Cic.), They looked with envy on the

office I hold.
Cum morbo alicul mederi vis (Cic.), When you wish to heal any

disease.

Rogo sumtui ne parciis (Cic.), I beg you not to spare expense.
Ignoscas velim huic festlnationl (Cic.), Pray forgive my present

haste*.

982. A dative of a noun often denotes ' in lieu of/ and may be
translated by 'asf : thus,

Quinque cohortis castris praesidio reliqui't (Caes.), He left five

battalions as a garrison for the camp.
NSc earn rem habuit religion! (Cic.), Nor did he look upon this

as a warning from heaven.

Hoc vitio rnihi dant (Cic.), This they set down as a fault in me.
Cul bbno fuit? (Cic.), To whom was it beneficial?
Ut sint reliquls dociimento (Caes.), That they may serve as a

lesson to the rest.

983. Hence the dative is sometimes used to denote a purpose : as,

* Conversely, those verbs which by their original signification would
require a dative, have a tendency to slide into the ordinary construction
of verbs, and so take an accusative. Thus, sgqu(r.), ' follow,' and Imlta(r.),
' keep making oneself like ' to anything, might have been expected to
have a dative, but in fact have always an accusative. It is true that the
former of these words denotes motion, yet there is no relative motion be-
tween that which follows, and that which is followed. Accordingly the
Greek eir-op,at (the same word as seguor) has a dative, and so the German
folg-en. The verbs aemula (r.), ' make myself a rival,' has very naturally
a dative in Cicero, but is found with an accusative in Horace. A"dula(r.),
' wag the tail at,' ' flatter,' is entitled by its meaning to a dative. So Nepos
(in Attico) says, adulari Antonio, and Livy, praesentlbus adulando ; but
Columella has, Canes furem adulantur; and Tacitus, adularl NSronem.
Hence some verbs are found almost indifferently with a dative or accusa-
tive, as, modera (r.) and tempera, ' keep within limits.'

f For this dative may be substituted pro or in loco. Often the nomi-
native or accusative may be used. But the dative softens the phrase.
Sunt rellquis dociimentum is, ' they are a lesson to the rest.' Still, by
way of brevity, the dative is often translated precisely as the nominative
or accusative would have been, i. e. without ' as.'

DATIVE. 189

Hunc sibi domicTlio locum delegerunt (Caes.), This place they

selected as a residence.

Receptui canere (Ctc.), To sound the signal for a retreat.
Hie nuptiis dictus est dies (Ter.), This is the day fixed for the

marriage.
Triumvir rel publicae constT tuendae * (Nepos in Attico), One of

three commissioners for regulating the state f.

984. The dative of a name is often used by attraction J to the
dative of the object named : as,

Cul nunc cognomen liilo Additur (Virg.), Who has now the

surname of lulus added.
Leges quibus tabulis duodecim est nomen (Lit?.), The laws which

have the name of the twelve tables.

985. Verbal adjectives and verbal substantives sometimes take a
dative, if the verb whence they are derived took one : as,

Justitia est obtemperatio scriptis legibus instiftutisque popiilorum
(Cic.), Justice is an obedience to the written laws and institu-
tions of states.

986. The poets often use the dative in the sense of 'with' where
the older prose writers used cum : as,

Luctantem Icariis fluctlbus (flbr.), Wrestling with Icarian waves.

987. The poets often use the dative with verbs of removal or dif-
ference, where the older prose writers used ex or ab : as,

Teque his eripe flammls (Virg.), And rescue thyself from these

flames.
Scurrae distat amicus (Hor.), A friend differs from a buffoon.

988. The poets use the dative (especially in nouns of the o declen-
sion) after verbs of motion : as,

It clamor caelo (Virg.), Rises the shout to heaven.

* Written briefly : III VIR R- P- O

t Solvendo non esse, ' to be insolvent,' is a phrase which it is difficult
to explain, just because it is abbreviated.

J Sometimes the name is in the same case as nom^n. In Cicero, Verr.
iv. 53, fons cul nomen Arethusa est, we should probably read, Arethu-
saest, i. e. Arethusae est.

Probably used after the analogy of quo, eo, &c., and like them a mere
corruption of the old accusative caelom ; or as it was often written, and
perhaps pronounced, caelo.

190 ABLATIVE.

ABLATIVE.

98Q. The ablative is only another form of the dative, and its uses
are therefore very similar.

990. ' At a town ' or ' in a small island ' the poets express by an
ablative when the metre requires it, which can be only in the third
or consonant declension : as,

Dardaniumque diicem Tjria Karthagme* qui nunc Expectat
(Virg.}, And the Dardan chief at Tyrian Carthage who Now
loitereth.

991. The place ' where ' in some other phrases may also be ex-
pressed in the ablative, as, rure, in the country. Not unfrequently
it is better to insert the preposition in. But this may be omitted at
times, particularly if an adjective accompany the substantive. When
that adjective is toto, ' whole/ it would be wrong to use the pre-
position.

992. Time, 'when,' is commonly expressed in the ablative : as,
Bellum eodem tempore mihi qubque indixit (Cic.), He declared

war at the same time against me too.

993. The time within which anything occurs is expressed by the
ablative, whether the whole or any part be meant : as,

Saturn! stella triginta fere annis cursum suom conficTt (Cic.),
The star of Saturn completes its course in about thirty years.

Urbes A'fricae annTsf prope quinquagintii nullum Romanum ex-
ercitum viderant (Liv.), The cities of the Afri, during a space of
nearly fifty years had seen no Roman army.

994. Hence the interval within which one event follows another
may be expressed by ablatives : as,

Mors Rose! quatriduo quoj is occisus est Chrysogono nuntiatur

* See Dative, 951. That the ablative is only a licence is stated by

Servius on this passage : " Carthagine pro Carthagini Sic Horatius :

Romae Tybur amem, ventosus Tybure Romam, pro Tyburi." In Livy the
best MSS., where reported, have Karthagini, &c.

f Hence the ablative is occasionally used when the accusative might
have been expected : as, quinque horis proelium sustlnue'rant (Cues.},
They had kept up the battle for five hours.

t Literally the death of R. is reported to C. in the same four days in
which he was killed, the death occurring near the commencement of that
period, the communication near the end of it.

ABLATIVE. 191

(Cic.), The news of the death of Roscius is brought to Chry-
sogonus within four days after he was killed.

995. Hence,

Hoc biduo. Two days before this, or after this.
Illls panels diebus, A few days before or after that.

996. From the notion of 'where' the ablative is used with the
prepositions in and sub, if there be no motion implied ; and also
with prae, pro, &c. (See 914, note.)

997. 'In, in point of, in respect to,' is often the meaning of the
ablative where it is used to define or limit the sense of any word or
phrase : as,

Ennius fuit maior natii* quam Plautus (Cic.), Ennius was older

than Plautus.
Scelere par est illi, industria inferior (Cic.), In wickedness he is

equal to the other, in industry below him.
Sunt enim quidam homines non re sed n5mine (Cic,), For there

are it must be confessed, some who are human beings not in

reality, but in name.

Lepore omnibus praestitit (Cic.), In wit he excelled all.
Victoria sua gloriantur (Caes.), They pride themselves on their

victory.

998. The ablatives of verbals in tu, called supines passive, are
often so used with adjectives, though the more familiar translation
is by an English infinitive : as,

Pleraque dictu quam re sunt faciliora (Liv.), Most things are
easier in the saying than in the reality, i. e. easier to say than
to do.

Quid est tarn jucundum cogmtu atque auditu? (Cic.), What is so
delightful to see and to hear ?

999. The substantive opes (n), ' work/ and occasionally usu (m),
' advantage,' have an ablative t to express the object which it is ne-
cessjiry to effect : as,

* Literally ' greater in point of birth.'

f The nominative is also found in this construction, more particularly
if it be a neuter pronoun. (See 909.)

192 ABLATIVE.

Cfpus* fuit Hirtio convento (Ctc.), It was necessary to have an

interview with Hirtius.
Prlmum erat nihil, cur properato bpiis esset (Cic.), In the first

place there was nothing which made it necessary to hurry.
Quom saeva orta est tempestas, turn gubernatoret opus est (Cic.),

When rough weather springs up, then there is need of a pilot.

1000. ' By' or ' with/ &c. is frequently the translation of the ab-
lative when it denotes the instrument or means : as,

Cornibus tauri, apri dentibus se tutantiir (Cic.), With horns the

bull, the boar with tusks defends himself.
Patriae ignl ferroquS mmitatur (Cic.), He threatens his country

with fire and sword J.
E'tesiarum flatu mmil temperantur calores (Cic.), By the blowing

of the Etesian winds the excessive heats are moderated.

1001. The ablative of the means accompanies the five reflective
verbs, iit, nit, vesc, fru, pasc : as,

Pellibus utuntiir (Caes.), They use skins.

Pura qui nltitur hasta (Virg.), Who rests him on a simple shaft.

Lacte vescuntiir (Sail.), They live upon milk.

Luce fruimiir (CVc.), We enjoy the light of day.

Frondibus pascuntur (Virg.'), They feed themselves with branches.

1002. The ablative of the means in the same way accompanies
the verbs, vlv, ' live ' ; fid, ' trust ' ; and the participle freto, ' rely-
ing ' : as,

* ' The work to be done consisted in seeing Hirtius,' which accom-
plished, other things might follow. This might have been expressed by a
somewhat similar phrase in Greek : as, epyov t\v avyyeveffQai eis Xoyous
'Ijony.

f Perhaps such a phrase as this had originally its participle also, as, for
instance, invento.

J Fire and steel would be a more precise translation, the latter referring
to the destructive axe, quite as much as to the sword.

The literal translation of these verbs would perhaps be utor, I assist
myself with anything, i. e. I use it ; nltor, I strain myself by acting upon
something, i. e. I lean upon it ; vescor, I feed myself with, or I eat (used
in speaking of human beings exclusive of slaves) ; fruor, I feed myself
with, or I enjoy; pascor, I feed myself with, or eat (used in speaking of
animals and slaves).

ABIATIVE. 193

Lacte vivunt (Caes.), They live upon milk.

Prudentia consilioque fidens (Ctc.), Trusting in foresight and

mental power.
IngSnio freti* (Cic.), Relying upon their talent.

1003. The ablative of the means is used with the verbs fac,
make ' or ' do ; ' and fi f, ' become.'

Nescit quid faciat auro (Plant.}, He knows not what to do with

the gold.
Quid faciatis hoc homme ? (Cic.), What are you to do with this

fellow ?
Tuo quid factuin est pallio ? (Plant.), What is become of your

cloak?
Quid Tulliola mea fiet? (Cic.), What will become of my little

Tullia?

1004. The ablative of the means often accompanies verbs or ad-
jectives, of filling, increasing, mixing, joining, &c. : as,

NavTs colonis pastoribusque complet (Caes.), He fills the ships
with farm-labourers and shepherds.

Macte virtute esto (Liv.), Heaven bless thy noble deeds J.

Villa abundat lacte came melle (Cic.), The farm-house over-
flows with milk and cheese and honey.

Lapidibus || pluvit (Liv.), It rained stones.

1005. The price is the means by which anything is obtained r { in
purchase, and hence the ablative accompanies verbs and adjectives
of buying, selling, bidding and valuing** : as,

* Literally, ' supported by,' freto being in origin a participle of fer,
'bear.'

t In these phrases the preposition de is often used, as, quid de me
flet ?

J Literally : Be increased by thy manliness.

This should perhaps have been referred to 997.

II The accusative also is found.

^ E'm-e're, commonly translated ' to buy,' means properly ' to take,' as
is seen in the compounds dem, exim, sum, &c. See 544.

** Or it would perhaps be more correct to be glided by the English
asition at, denning the point at which the price stands at a given
K

194 ABLATIVE.

E'mere aquae sextarium mina coguntiir (Cic.), They are compelled

to buy a pint of water for a mina.
Multl sanguine Poems victoria stetit (Liv.), The victory cost the

Carthaginians much blood *.
Vile est vlginti minis, It is cheap at twenty minae.

1006. Verbs of sacrificing often take an ablative of the victim,
that is, the means employed : as,

Cum faciam vitiila pro friigibus, ipse venito (Virg.*), When I offer

a calf for my crops, thyself shall come.
Quinquaginta caprls sacrificaruntf (Liv.), They sacrificed fifty

goats.

1007. Verbs signifying, to accustom, take an ablative]: of the
means, though in English the preposition 'to' is prefixed : as,

Homines labore adsiduo et qubtidiano adsuetif (Cic.), Accustomed
as they are to constant and daily labour.

1008. ' The road by which' anything is moved is also a means,
and therefore expressed by the ablative : as,

Frumentum flumine A'rari nimbus subvexerat (Caes.), He had
conveyed corn in ships up the river Arar.

1009. The attending circumstances, manner, feelings are expressed
by the ablative : as,

Summa contention^ dixit (Cic.), He spoke with the exertion of all

his power.
Infestis armis concurrunt (Liv.), They run together with their

arms aimed at each other.
Expedite exercitu iter fed (Cic.), I made the march with my

army prepared for action.
Td aequo ammo|| non feret ci vitas (Cic.), This the citizens will

not bear calmly.

moment. We often talk of prices rising, falling, and being stationary.
' I bought consols at 63 and sold out at 94.'

* Literally : stood them in much blood.

f The accusative is also used.

t The dative also occurs after this word, as well as ad with the accu-
sative.

Literally ' unencumbered.' || With a level or calm mind.

ABLATIVE. 195

1010. The ablative* of quality is the name usually given to that
use of the case which denotes a condition of mind or body, &c. But
it is essential that an adjective accompany this ablative :

Tanta est eloquentia (C/c.), He is so eloquent.

Qua fScie fuTt ? Crassis suns, magno capite, admodum magnls

pedibus (Plant.), How was he made ? He had thick calves, a

great head, and very great feet.
Spelunca inflnlta altitudtne (Cic.}, A cavern of boundless depth.

1011. This ablative is occasionally used when the state is not a
permanent one : as,

Nullo frigore adducitiir, ut capite operto sit (Cic.), No cold

weather ever induces him to go with his head covered.
Magno timore sum (Cic.}, I am in great alarm.

1012. Similar to this is the addition of the ablative of the name
of the tribe or city to which a person belongs : as,

Ser. Sulpicius, Q. F.f, Lemonia* Rufus (Cic.), Servius Sulpi-

cius Rufus, son of Quintus, of the Lemonian tribe.
Cn. Magius Cremona (Caes.), Cneius Magius of Cremona.

1013. Ablative absolute is the name commonly employed when
an ablative of a noun is accompanied by an adjective or participle to
denote 'the time when,' 'the means by which,' or any 'attending
circumstances.' It therefore belongs properly to the heads already
given. There is however this peculiarity of translation, that the
English requires no preposition : as,

Abl. abs. of time when: Is, M[|. Messala, M|j. PIsone coss
conjurationem fecit (Goes.), This man in the consulship^ of
Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso formed a conspiracy.

Abl. abs. of means: Catapultls disposals muros defens5ribus
niidaverat (Liv.), By his catapults placed at different points

* See also genitive of quality, 928. f QuiutI filius.

J Trtbu, understood.

Or the same might have been expressed by an aije:tive, Cremonensls.
|| To be read : Marco, Marco, consulibus.
1f Literally M. Messala, M. Piso (being) consuls.
K 2

196 ABLATIVE.

he had cleared the wall of its defenders, or, He had placed his
catapults at different points and so had cleared, &c.

Abl. abs. of circumstances : Natura duce errari non potest
(Czc.), With nature for our guide, the path cannot be mis-
taken.

Quid dlcam hac juventiite ? (Cic.}, What am I to say with such
young men as we have now-a-days.

Voluntas tacitis nobis* intellegi non poterat (Czc.), Our wish
could not have been understood, had we been silent.

1014. That by which anything is measured is a means of mea-
surement and therefore in the ablative : as,

Vbluptate omnia dirigeref (Cz'c.), To test every thing by plea-
sure.

Non numero haec judicantur, sed pondere (Cic.), It is not by
number that these things are estimated, but by weight.

Discriptus erat populus Romanus censu, ordmibus, aetatfbus
(Cic.), The Roman people had been distributed into different
classes according to income and rank and age.

1015. The comparative takes an ablative of the object with which
the comparison J is made : as,

Vlliiis argentumst auro, virtutibus aurum (Hor.), Silver than gold
is cheaper, gold than virtue.

1016. Similarly the adjectives digno, indigno, and the verbs
formed therefrom, take an ablative of the object with which the
comparison is made : as,

Eum omnes cogmtione et hospitio dignum existumarunt (Cic.),
This (foreigner) all deemed worthy of their acquaintance and
friendship.

* Literally : ' we (being) silent.'

f Literally : to keep in a straight line as a carpenter does by applying
his rule.

J A comparison implies proximity of the things compared. Hence this
use of the ablative flows easily from the original meaning of the Dative.
Observe too that all the verbs denoting comparison signify strictly the
bringing together, as corn-para, con-fSr, con-tend, com-pon. So also the
prepositions of proximity, ad, prae, pro, are used in comparisons.

ABLATIVE. 197

Haud equidem tali me dignor honore (Ftr^.), Not in truth of
such an honour do I deem me worthy.

1017. The amount of distance or difference in time, space, or
quantity, is commonly expressed in the ablative.

Tdem viginti annis ante apud DOS fecerat Coriolanus (Cic.),

Coriolanus had done the same among us twenty years before.
Haec est aetas decem annis minor quam consularis (Cic.), This

age is ten years less than that required for a consul.
Friimenti tribus tantis illl* minus redit quam obseveris (Plant.),

Of corn upon that land the return is three hundred per cent.

lesst than what you sow.
Milibus passuum sex a Caesaris castris consedit (Caes.), He took

a position six miles from Caesar's camp.

1018. The ablatives J of pronouns and adjectives of quantity are
much used in this way with comparatives : as,

Via quanto tutior, tanto fere longior (Lit"), A road longer in
about the same proportion as it was safer.

Quo maior est in ammo praestantia, eo maiore indiget diligentia
(Cic.), The greater the excellence in the soul, the more atten-
tion it needs.

1019. The form of an ablative is sometimes found in inscriptions,
old writers, and certain phrases, where a dative would be expected :
as,

IOVE OPTVMO MAXSVMO (Inscr. Grut. xvi. 8), To Jupiter,

the best, the greatest.

Postquam morte datust Plautus, comoedia luget (P/a/.), Now
that Plautus is given to Death, Comedy is in mourning.

Triumviri auro argento acre flando feriundo, The three commis-
sioners for smelting and stamping gold, silver and bronze.

1020. Hence the poets, to accommodate then- metres, occasionally

* The adverb.

t Literally ' less by three times as much.' Thus the extravagance of the
phrase runs beyond possibility,
t But see 789, note.
1st verse of the epitaph written by Plautus for himself. Cell. iv. 24.

198 ABLATIVE.

substitute the form of the ablative where a dative might have been
expected : as,

At si virgmeum suffuderft ore riiborem,

Ventus erit (Virg.),

But if a maiden's blush she* pour from beneath upon her cheek,
Wind will there be.

Molle Calenum
Porrectura viro miscet sitiente rtibetam (Juv.*),

Mild Calene, about to hand
To her thirsting lord, she mixes therein a toad.

1021. A true ablative ending in the letter df belonged to the old
language, and the loss of this d led to a form very similar to the
weakened dative commonly called the ablative. Hence, ' from a
town' is sometimes expressed by a mere ablative : as,

Corintho fugit (Cic.), He fled from Corinth.

1022. Similarly the ablatives rure and dorno are used : as,
Cibaria sibi quemque domo adferre jubent (Caes.), They bid them

bring food from home, every man for himself.
Pater rure rediit (Ter.), My father is returned from the country.

1023. Verbs and adjectives of removal and separation are fol-
lowed by an ablative : as,

Se loco movere non poterant (Caes.), They could not move from

where they were.

Tuos culpa llbero (Cic.~), I free your people from blame.
Praetura se abdicat J (Cic.), He lays down the office of Praetor.
Defuncti regis imperio (Liv.), Having discharged the king's

order.

* i. e. the moon.

t As, for example, on one of the epitaphs of the Scipios (Orelli 550),
Gnaivod patre prognatus for Cnaeo &c.

J Literally ' he unbinds himself from,' the office being a sort of charge
or burden which for security he had fastened to his person.

The reflective verbs fung-I, defung-I, probably meant originally to
relieve oneself; and the burden, as with abdTco me, will for the same
reason be in the ablative. Hence the word ' discharge,' i. e. ' unload,' will
be literally correct.

WTTMBBB OF SUBSTANTIVES. 199

His aqua et igni interdixerat (Caes.), These he had forbidden fire

and water.
Roma caremus (Ctc.), We are deprived of Rome.

1024. The verbs or participles which denote birth or origin take
an ablative : as,

Mercurius, Jove natiis et Mail (Cic.), Mercury born of Jupiter
and Maia.

1025. The prepositions which signify removal or separation have
an ablative : as, ec, de, ab, sine, absque, clam. See 914 note.

NUMBER OF SUBSTANTIVES.

1026. Some substantives are used in the plural where the English
translation has a singular* : as,

Cassi adipesf (Cic.), The fat of Cassias.
Fnimicitiae cum fratre (Ctc.), A quarrel with the brother.
Cervices]: securi subjecit (Cic.), He presented his neck to the
hatchet.

1027. The terms of weather are sometimes used in the plural
where the English language would almost require the singular : as,
calores, frigora, grandlnes, imbres, nives, pluviae, pruinae. Thus,

Terrere homines fulmmibus nivibus grandinibus (Cic.), To frighten
mankind with thunder, and snow, and hail.

1028. The plural is preferred in general truths, where the English
has commonly a singular : as,

Viri in uxores vitae necisque habent potestatem (Caes.}, The
husband (in that country) has the power of life and death over
the wife.

1029. The singular of some words is found where the English
translation requires a plural : as,

Vita illustrium (Nepos}, The lives of illustrious men.

* See also 152.

t Cic. in Catil. iii. 7., where the English editions have erroneously and
contrary to the MSS., the singular. See Steinmetz.

J Cenric probably meant a single vertebra.

See Servius Aen. i. 372. See also Fischer's Pseudo-Nepos, Preface
near the end.

200 ELLIPSIS OF SUBSTANTIVES.

1030. The singular is preferred with animals and vegetables where
there is an allusion to the table, because they are considered in the
mass, not counted : as,

Villa abundat porco, haedo, agno, gallina (Ctc.), The farm

abounds with pork and kid and lamb* and fowl.
Le'porem et gallinam et anserem gustare fas non putant (Caes.),

Hare and fowl and goose they think it an act of impiety to

taste.
Py'thagoncis interdictum est ne faba vescerentur (Czc.), The

Pythagoreans are forbidden to eat beans.

1031. So also with other words where the mass does not admit
of numeration : as,

Pulvinus rosa fartiis (Cic.~), A pillow stuffed with rose leaves.
In viola aut in rosa (Ctc.), On violets or roses (meaning the
gathered flowers) .

1032. In military language the singular is used at times for a
plural : as,

Quoad insequi pedesf potuit (Liv.), As far as the infantry could
pursue.

E w ques eos ad castra egit (Liv.), The cavalry drove them to their
camp.

Hie miles magis placuit (Liv.), A soldiery of this kind was pre-
ferred.

Romanus Ira odioque pugnabat (Liv.~), The Romans fought under
a feeling of indignation and hatred.

OMISSION, or ELLIPSIS OF SUBSTANTIVES.

1033. The masculine adjective is often used in speaking of men.
the neuter in speaking of things ; but care should be taken that the
gender is distinguished in the termination. See 1044.

* Observe that the omission of the indefinite article in English makes
the distinction between the animal for table and the living animal.

t The singular, however, has its force, drawing attention to the indi-
vidual. Thus, in the last phrase, Each individual soldier has his own feel-
ings of anger ; so again in the first sentence, ' a foot soldier' would have
been an equally good translation, signifying inasmuch as he was a foot
soldier.

ADJECTIVES, ETC. 201

1034. Some adjectives used as substantives may be seen in 210 ;
and to these may be added,

stativa, hiberna, &c., (castra understood).
tertiana, quartana, &c., (febris understood).
Circenses, Saeculares, &c., (ludi understood).
triremis, actuaria, &c., (navis understood).
Siiburbanum, Tusculanum, &c., (praedium understood).
repetundarum, (rerum understood).
centensiirnae, &c., (usurae understood).
Agonalia, Liberalia, &c., (sacra understood).
prlmae, secundae, (partes understood).
tertia, quarta, &c., (pars understood).
in posterum, (diem understood) .

1035. The genitive of a deity is often used with prepositions, the
proper case of aedi ' a temple' being understood.

HaMtabatrex ad Jovis* Statoris (aedem understood) (C/c.), The
king resided near the temple of Jupiter Stator.

A Vestae (aede understood) ducta est (Cic.), She was taken
away from the temple of Vesta.

1036. But the Latin language does not copy the English in the
use of the genitive of a person's name, meaning his house ; but
either inserts the word for house, or uses a preposition with the
name of the person f- : as,

VenistI domum Rose! (Cic.), You came to Roscius's.
Domi Caesaris deprehensus est (Cc.), He was arrested at
Caesar's.

ADJECTIVES, &c.

103". Adjectives and participles are attracted into the same case,
gender and number as the substantive to which they refer.

Thus, from docto or docta ' learned ', and homon ' man ' ; bono
or bona ' good ', mulier ' woman ' ; gravi ' heavy ', onus ' load ', we
have :

* This is like our own phrase, St. Paul's for St. Paul's Church.

t The use of the prepositions is as follows : to Cicero's house, ad Cf-
ceronem, or domum ad Oceronem ; at Cicero's house, apud Clceronem ;
from Cicero's house, a Cicerone, or, a Cfcerone" domo; and this even
though Cicero be known to be absent. See these Prepositions.

K 5

ADJECTIVES, ETC.

SINGULAR.

doctiis homo.

bona mulier.

grSve onus.

docte homo.

bbna mulier.

grave onus.

doctum hommem.

bonam mulierem.

grave oniis.

docti hominis.

bonae mulieris.

gravis oneris.

docto hommi.

bonae mulieri.

gravi 5neri.

docto hbmine.

bona miiliere.

gravi onere.

PLURAL.

docti homines.

bonae miilicres.

gravia onera.

docti homines.

bonae miilieres.

gravia onera.

doctos homines.

bonas miilieres.

gravia onera.

doctorum hominum.

bonarum mulierum.

gravium onerum.

doctis hominibus.

bonis miilieribiis.

gravlfbiis oneribus

202

Ac.

Ab.

N.
V.
Ac.
G.

1038. Sometimes the gender and number of the adjective or par-
ticiple are determined by the sense* rather than the form of the
substantive : as,

Omnis aetas currere obvii (Liv.), Persons of every age kept run-
ning to meet him.

Capita conjurationis virgis caesi ac securi percuss! sunt (Liv.),
The heads of the conspiracy were flogged and beheaded.

Concursus pop till mirantium quid rei esset (Liv.), A running to-
gether of the citizens, who wondered what was the matter.

Ex eo numero est qui semper sancti sunt habit! (Cic.), He is one
of a class who have ever been accounted sacred.

Cetera multitude decimus quisque ad supplicium lecti (Liv.), Of
the great mass remaining, every tenth man was selected for
punishment.

1039. If a relative or other pronoun referring to a word pre-
ceding be the subject of a sentence which itself contains a predi-
cative substantive, the gender and number of the pronoun are com-
monly determined by the latter : as,

Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est (Liv.), Thebes, which is the
capital of Boeotia.

* This is called the coustructio ad synesim.

ADJECTIVES, ETC. 203

Justa gloria, qut est fructus verae virtutis (Cic.), The genuine

glory, which is the fruit of true merit.
Ea* quaterna erant mllia (.Lit?.), These (legions) were each 4000

strong.
Hie labor, h5c opus est (F?r</.)> This is the labour, this the task.

1040. If an adjective or participle refer to several nouns of dif-
ferent gender, the gender and number are commonly determined by
one of the three rules following :

Most commonly the adjective agrees in number and gender with
the noun to which it is nearest;

Or, if the nouns be living beings, the masculine plural may be
used;

Or, if they be things without life, the neuter plural may be
used : as,

Mens et animus et consflium et sententia civitatis posita est in

legibus (Cic.}, The intellect, and soul, and forethought, and

feelings of a state reside in the laws.
Cingetorigi principatus atque imperium est traditum (Caes.),

The chief post and the supreme command were handed over

to Cingetorix.
Pater mihi et mater mortui sunt (Ter.), My father and mother

are dead.
Labor voluptasqne, dissimilia natura, societate quadarn inter se

natural! juncta sunt (Lit-.), Toil and pleasure, unlike as they

are in nature, are still joined together in a sort of natural

partnership.

1041. As a plural adjective may be distributed between two sub-
stantives, so may a plural substantive between two adjectives. Thus,

Quarta et Martia legiones (Cic.), The fourth and the Martian
legions f.

1042. Many words which were originally adjectives or partici-

* Nay, we find in Livy, xxi. 55, Duodeviginti milia Romans erant, The
Romans amounted to 18,000 ; for so all the best MSS.

f Not unlike this is the use of two praenomina with the gens in the
plural: as,

C. et L. Caepasii, t. e. Caius et Lucius Caepasn (Cie.), The two Cae-
pasii, Caius and Lucius.

204- ADJECTIVES, ETC.

pies are at times used as substantives, and as such may have ad-
jectives or genitives attached to them : as,

Natalis meus (Cic.), My birthday.

Vetus viclniis, (Cic.), An old neighbour.

Inlquissiimi mei (Cic.), My greatest enemies.

Paternus mimlciis (Cic.), An hereditary enemy.

Publicum malum (Cic.), A public curse.

Praeclarum responsum (Cic.), A glorious answer.

Summa pectbrfs (Cic.), The highest parts of the breast.

Occulta tempi! (Caes.), The hidden recesses of the temple.

Summum mentis (Caes.), The summit of the mountain.

Medium die! (Liv.), The middle of the day.

1043. The neuter adjective often found in the predicate of a sen-
tence, when the subject is not of that gender, is to be considered as
a substantive. Thus,

Triste lupus stabulls (Firg.), A signal for sorrow is the wolf

unto the stall.
Varium et mutabtle semper femina (Firg.), A thing of motley

hue and ever changeable is woman.

1044. There is greater freedom in using as substantives those
parts of an adjective which show their gender, as, for instance, the
nominative and accusative of neuters. Thus, the genitives of neuters
of the third declension should be avoided in this construction, un-
less some other genitive less ambiguous accompany them. Thus we
may say,

Nil human! (Ter.), Nothing like the conduct of a man, where

humani is a substantive ; or,
Nil humanum, where humanum is an adjective.
But if the adjective be of the i declension, as clvlli, then we have
no choice but nil civile, ' nothing like the conduct of a citizen,' un-
less indeed two adjectives are united, as in Livy :

SI quidquam in vobTs, non dlco clvllis sed humani esser, If there
had been aught in you of the feelings, I do not say of a citi-
zen, but of a man.

1045. When the gender is not at once determined by the ter-
mination of the adjective, it is commonly better to use a substantive
with the adjective : as,

ADJECTIVES, ETC. 205

Multis hSminibus, or multis rebus, rather than multls alone.

1046. The Roman gentile names, that is, the second names in io,
are really adjectives, and hence are at times found with substantives
of various genders attached to them : as,

Sulplcia horrea (Hor.), The Sulpician granaries.
Octavia porticiis, The Octavian portico.
Tullia lex, The Tullian law.
Cornelia castra, The Cornelian camp.

1047. The Romans use possessive adjectives formed from proper
names instead of the genitive : as,

Domus exllis Plut5nla, (flbr.), Pluto's empty house.

Extenditur una
Horrida per latos acies Volcania campus (Virg.),

Spreads unbroken

O'er the wide plain the bristling host of Vulcan.
Herilis filius (Ter.), My master's son.

Pompeiana classis, Pompeianus equitatus (Caes.), Pompey's fleet,
Pompey's cavahy.

1048. Possessive adjectives include the notion of a genitive, and
hence an adjective or participle, with or without a substantive, in
the genitive case, is often attached to them : as,

Tuom hommis erudltissumi judicium gratum est (Cic.'), The
opinion of one so learned as yourself is gratifying.

Ut mea defunctae molliter ossa cubent (0.), That my bones
when I am dead may softly lie.

Mea ipslus caussa (Cic.), For my own sake.

1049. An adjective in agreement with the nominative often ac-
companies a verb where the English has commonly an adverb : as,

Et tibi ob earn rem liibens bene faxim (Ter.), And yourself too,
in return for this, I would gladly serve.

In physicls totus est alieniis (Cic.}, In natural philosophy he is
altogether out of his element.

Lupus gregibus nocturniis obambulat (Virg.), The wolf in pre-
sence of the flocks by night walks to and fro.

Philotimus nullus venit (Cic.), Philotimus has not made his ap-
pearance at all.

206 ADJECTIVES, ETC.

1050. The adjectives prior, prlmo, postremo, princip, solo, &c.,
are used in such a manner that the English translation often requires
the insertion of the verb ' to be* and the relative, or some other pe-
riphrasis : as,

Prima Sicilia provincia est adpellata (Czc.), Sicily was the first
that was called a province.

Hispania postrema omnium provinciarum perdbmita est (Lft?.),
Spain was the last of all the provinces to be thoroughly sub-
dued.

Stoic! soli ex omnibus eloquentiam virtutem esse dixerunt (Ctc.),
The Stoics are the only sect of the whole number who have
declared eloquence to be a virtue.

1051. A neuter adjective is often used as an adverb. Thus,
Hbdie aut summum eras (Cic.), To-day or at farthest tomorrow.
Dulce* ridentem (Hor.), Sweetly-laughing.

1052. When substantives signifying agents have one form for the
masculine, another for the feminine, they so far take the character
of adjectives, that they must agree in number, gender and case with
the word to which they refer : as,

Lex, quasi dux vitae et magistra officiorum (Cic.), The law, which
is as it were the guide of life and the instructress in duty.

Timor, non diuturnus magister offici (Cic.), Fear, no permanent
instructor in duty.

1053. Other words commonly treated as substantives take a
similar liberty between neuters and masculines : as,

Mare O'ceanum (Caes.~), The sea called Oceanus.
Flumen Rhenum (Hor.), The river Rhenus, or Rhine.
E'ridanum ostium, The mouth of the Eridanus.
A^riminus fluviiis, The river Ariminus.
A^riminum oppidum, The town Ariminum.

1054. Although a substantive in Latin has commonly but one
adjective attached to it, except where conjunctions are employed,
this restriction does not apply, a, to pronominal adjectives, 6. to nu-

* This is carried to a great extent by the poets, who use even the plural
neuter in this way. The comparative neuter is the only form for a com-
parative adverb.

COMPARATIVES. 207

merals, c. to adjectives of quantity, d. to those which accompany
verbs as part of the predicate, /. to the possessive adjectives, such as
Plutonia (see 1047), g. to three or more adjectives, with pauses to
supply the place of conjunctions : as,

a. Eadem ilia indlvidua et soli da corpora (Cic.), Those same indi-
visible and solid bodies.

J. Da5decim milia Attica talenta dato (Lit?.), He shall pay 12,000
Attic talents.

c. Omnes rectae res atque laudablles eo referuntiir (Cic.), All

right and praiseworthy things are referred to this standard.

d. Princepsque decima legio ei gratias egit (Coes.), And the tenth

legion was the first to thank him.

e. Et domus exilis Plutonia (Hor.}, And Pluto's empty house.

/. Ea voluptaria, delicata, rnollis habetur disci plma. (Cfc.), This is
accounted a voluptuous, tender, effeminate school of phi-
losophy.

COMPARATIVES.

1055. The various constructions of the comparative may be seen
in the following examples. It should be remarked that the ablative
is substituted for quam &c. for the most part only when the ob-
jects compared are in the nominative or the subject-accusative*.

a. Melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria (Liv.~), A certain peace

is better than a hoped for victory.
I"ta sentio, locupletiorem esse Latinam linguam quam Graecam

(Cic.), My feeling is this, that the Latin language is richer

than the Greek.
Meliorem quam ego sum suppono tibi (Flout.}, I give you as a

substitute a better one than I am.
Pompeius dixit se munltiorem fore quam A'fricanus fuisset

(Cic.), Pompey said that he would do more to protect his

person than Africanus had done.
Tibi multo maj5ri quam A'fricanus fuit, tamen non multo nuno-

rem quam Laelium adjunctum esse patiere(Cic.), Though you

are a much greater man than Africanus, one who still is not

* The poets take greater liberty.

208 COMPARATIVES.

much inferior to Laelius, you will allow to attach himself to
you.

b. E"lephanto beluarum nulla prudentior est (Cic.), Not one among

the great beasts has more foresight than the elephant.
Ex ejus lingua melle dulcior fluebat oratio (Cic.), From his

tongue words flowed sweeter than honey.
Sapiens humana omnia inferiora virtute ducit (Cic.), A wise man

looks upon all human things as inferior to virtue.
Qu5 graviorem inimicum non habui (Curt.), A greater enemy

than whom I never had.
Caesar opinione celerius veniet (Cic.), Caesar will come more

quickly than was expected.

c. A" Caecilio propinqui mmore centensumis* nummummovere non

possunt (Cic.), His own relatives cannot get a sixpence from

Caecilius at less than 12 per cent.
Obsides vlginti dato, ne minores octonumf denum annorum neu

maj5res quinum quadragenum (Liv), Hostages he shall give

twenty in number, not younger than eighteen years of age, nor

older than forty-five.

PlusJ septingenti capti (Liv.), More than 700 were taken.
Constabat non minus ducentos fuisse (Liv.), It was clear that

there had been not less than 200.
Spatium non amplius pedum sescentorum (Cues.), An interval of

not more than 600 feet.
Plus tertia parte interfecta (Caes.), More than a third part

having been slain.

d. Paulli contio fuit verier quam gratior populo (Liv.), The harangue

of Paullus on the other hand was more true than agreeable to
the citizens.

e. Artem juris habebitis magis magnam quam difficilem (Cic.),

You will then have a treatise on law rather bulky than diffi-
cult.

* This ablative would stand without mlnorc.

f This genitive would stand with obsldes alone.

J This omission of quam, without affecting the case, is limited to the
adjectives miiior, minor, and the adverbs plus, minus, amplius, which how
ever may also have the ordinary construction.

COMPARATIVES. 209

. Pulverem maiorem quam pro numero excitabant (Liv.), They
raised a greater cloud of dust than might have been expected
from their number.
g. Majus laetiusque quam quod mente capere possent (Lit), News

too great and too joyful for them to comprehend.
Clarior res erat quam ut tegi posset (-Lit?.), The matter was too

well known to be concealed.
h. Thais quam ego majnscula est (Ter.), Thais is a little older than

I am.
Senectus est natura loquacior (Cic.), Old age is naturally rather

given to chatter.
i. Quo difficiliiis, hoc praeclarius (Cic.), The more difficult, the more

glorious.

Quanto erat indies gravior obpugnario, tant5 crebriores litterae ad
Caesarem mittebantur (Caes.), The more violent the attack be-
came each day, the more frequently were dispatches sent to
Caesar.

Stetit per Trebonium, quo minus oppldo potlrentur (Caes.), It
was owing to Trebonius that they did not make themselves
masters of the town.

Fter multo facflius (Caes.), A route much more easy.
j. E"tiam majores varietates (Cic.), Even greater varieties.

Habitum formamque viri aliquantum* ampliorem augustiorem-
que humana intuetur (Lie.), He fixes his eye upon the ap-
pearance and bearing of the man which he sees are consider-
ably greater and grander than those of a human being.
1056. The adverbs usually employed to mark the degree of ex-
cess are, e5, quo, hoc ; tanto, quanto ; multo, paulo ; alfquanto,
nihilo ; altero-tanto, sesqui-f-, duplo, &c.

* The ase of the accusative adverbs with the comparative is not uu-
commoa in Sallust and Livj-. See Sallust Jug. 85, 22 ; and 789, note.

t This word is probably an ablative whose full form may have been
semi-sequl, the latter part being the ablative of the obsolete positive squi,
whence the comparative squior, in the sense of ' following, second, infe-
rior.' Thus semis-sequls contracted into sesquls would be like the German
anderthalb or 1^ ; just as semis -tertius contracted into sestertius is equal
to the German drittehalb or 2$. See 272. It mav be added that the

210 SUPERLATIVES.

SUPERLATIVES.

1057. The use of the superlative is chiefly in such constructions
as the following :

a. ConsiM sua optumo culque probant* (Cic.), They satisfy all
the best men of the excellence of their measures.

Renuntiarunt liidos lovi prlmof quoque die faciundos (Liv.),
They reported that games should be celebrated in honour of
Jupiter on the earliest possible day.

Multl mortales convenere, maxime proximi quique J,Caeninenses,
Crustumini, Antemnates(Z/w.), A large number of people came
to the meeting, chiefly the inhabitants of the several nearest
states, Caenina and Crustumerium and Antemna.
6. Optiinius quisque maxume posteritati servit (Cic.), The best
men always do the most to serve posterity.

c. Ut quisque optume dlcit, ita maxume dlcendl difficultatem per-

timescit (Cic.), The nearer a man approaches perfection in
speaking, the more he is alarmed at the difficulty of speaking.
Ita, quam quisque pessiime fecit, tarn maxume tutus est (Sail.),
Thus, the worse a man acts, the safer is he.

d. Tarn sum mltis quam qul lenissumus (Cic.), I am as mild as

the gentlest man on earth.

Tarn sum amicus reipublicae quam qui maxume (Cic.), I am as
attached to the country as any one living.

Huic commendation! tantum tribuere quantum cui tribuisti plu-
riime (Cic.), To attach as much weight to this recommenda-
tion as you ever did to any one.

Te sic tuebor ut quern diligentissume (Cic.), I shall watch your
interests with as much care as I ever did those of any friend.

assumed meaning of sequi would account both for its being superseded by
the comparative and also for its having no superlative."

* Literally ' make them to appeal good.'

t This phrase should be contrasted with altero quoque die, tertio quo-
que die, &c., which imply the passing over one, two, &c., days every time.
Primo quoque die therefore signifies 'the first day of all' ; if that be im-
possible then the next , and so on, allowing not a day to pass without an
attempt.

J Plural, because each single state furnished a number.

APPOSITION AND ATTRACTION. 211

Dooms celebratiir ita ut cum maxume (Cic.), My house is
thronged as much as ever it was.

Mater mine cum* maxume filium interfectum ciipit (Cic.), She

desires the death of her son now as much as ever.
e. Quam potui maxumis itinenbus ad A'manum exercitum duxi
(Cic.), I led the army to the Amanus by the greatest possible
marches.

Statue aliquem confectum tantis do!5ribus quanti in hominem
maxumi cadere possunt (Cic.), Picture to yourself any one ex-
hausted by the greatest sufferings man's nature is capable of.

Quantam maximam pctest vastltatem consuli ostendit (Z.iu.),
He exhibits before the consul's eyes the greatest possible devas-
tation.

Ut potui accuratissume te tutatus sum (Cic.), I have protected

your interests with the greatest care in my power.
/. Quam maxiimas, quam primum, quam saepissume gratias aget
(Cic.), He will express his gratitude in the strongest possible
terms, at the first possible opportunity, and as often as pos-
sible.

g. Quern unum nostrae clvitatis praestantissumum audeo dicere
(Cic.), Whom I venture to pronounce of all men in our coun-
try the most excellent.

h. Ex Britannis omnibus longe sunt humanissimi (Cos.), Of all the
Britons they are by far the most civilised.

Multo id maximum fuit (-Ltr.), This was by far the greatest.

In fidibus aures vel minuma sentiunt, In the strings of musical
instruments the ear perceives the very slightest differences of
note.

APPOSITION AND ATTRACTION.

1058. "When one substantive is attached by way of explanation
to another it must agree with it always in case and generally in
number, and when practicable in gender : as,

P. Varius, vir fortissumus atque optiimus cms (Cic.), Publius
Varius, a most gallant gentleman and excellent citizen.

* One might have expected mine ut cum maxume.

212 APPOSITION AND ATTRACTION.

Duae urbes potentissumae, Karthago atque Numantia (Cic.), Two
most powerful cities, Carthage and Numantia.

DelTciae meae Dicaearchus (Cic.), My darling Dicaearchus.

Quis unquam se pbpiili Roman! victoris dommique omnium gen-
tium tutorem dicere ausust? (Cic.), Who ever dared to call
himself the guardian of the Roman people, the conquerors and
lords of all nations ?

CTmitto illas omnium doctrinarum inventrlcis A"thenas (Cic.),
I omit the great inventress of every science, Athens.

Ante me consiilem (Cic.), Before I was consul.

105Q. When the logical connection is lost sight of, and the con-
struction is affected by the proximity of some connected word or
idea, it is called attraction*.

1060. It is thus that the adjective or substantive in the predicate
is made to agree with the substantive in the subject, at least if the
case be other than the genitive : as,

Nora. Volo et esse et haberi gratiis (Cic.), I wish both to be and to
be thought grateful.

Ace. Creditur Pythagorae auditorem fuisse Numam (Liv.), It is
believed that Numa was a pupil of Pythagoras.

Dat. Vobis necesse est fortibus vms esse (Liv.), You have no

choice but to be brave.

Fons aquae dulcis cm n5men A w rethusae'st (Cic.), A sweet spring
of water whose name is Arethusa.

Abl. Illis hostibus judicatis (Cic.), Those men having been ad-
judged public enemies.

Voc. Rufe mihi frustra credite amice (CatuL), Rufus in vain be-
lieved my friend.

1061. An attraction of case and gender is seen at times with the
relative : as,

Raptim quibus quisque poterat elatis, agmen impleverat vias

* Observe that the German is logically correct in giving no termination
to the adjective in the predicate. Still more logical would it have been to
have given the adjective one fixed form under all circumstances. Cases
and number and gender strictly belong to the substantive alone.

NUMERALS. 213

(Lie.), Hastily carrying off what each could, a line of people
in motion had filled the roads.

A w nimal hoc quern vocamus hominem (Cic.), This animal which
we call man.

But the different examples of attraction are also treated in their
several places.

NUMERALS*.

1062. U'no is used in the plural when a plural substantive con-
stitutes a new unitf.

ITni ex transrhenanis legates miserant (Caes.), They were the
only people of those beyond the Rhine who had sent ambas-
sadors.

Ex unls geminas mihi confides nuptias (Ter.), Out of one mar-
riage you will make me a brace of marriages.

1063. Sescento is often used vaguely for a very large number.

In quo multa molesta, discessus noster, belli periculum, militum
improbitas, sescenta praeterea (Cic.), In which there are many
vexatious matters, our leaving the country, the danger of war,
the violence of the soldiery, and a thousand things besides.

1064. Milli in the singular is commonly an adjective, in the
plural perhaps always a substantive.

Mille equites Gallia eodem versa in Punicum bellum habuit (Lit-.),
Gallia lying in the same direction had a thousand horse as a
protection against an attack from the Carthaginians.

Quo in fundo lacfle mille homlnum versabatiir (Cic.), On which
land full a thousand men were engaged.

Decem milia talentum Gablnio sunt promissa (Ctc.), Ten thou-
sand talents were promised to Gabinius.

* Some remarks upon the construction of numerals have been made in
the first part ( 253272).

f Thus, many human beings make up one people ; many letters of the
alphabet go to a single letter or epistle. Sometimes the singular of a word
happens not to be in use, and it may be then difficult to decide what was
its meaning. Thus it is a question, what was that meaning of castro in
the singular which caused its plural to signify a camp.

214 NUMERALS.

1065. If a smaller numeral be added to the thousands, then the
construction of an adjective is preferred : as,

Philippel numml duodecim milia quadringenti vlginti duo (Liv.),

12422 golden Philips.
But the genitive is still found at times : as,

Phflippeorum nummorum sedecim milia trecenti vlginti (LiV.),
Of golden Philips 16320.

1066. The distributive numerals are often used in pairs : as,
Singulos singuli pbpiili lictores dederunt (Liv.), Each of the

(twelve) states provided one lictor.

Quina dena jugera agri data in singulos pedites sunt (Liv.),
Fifteen jugers of land were given to every footsoldier.

1067. The particular distributive bmo, like gemino*, is often used
of but two things when they match one another : as,

Bmos habebat scyphos (Ct'c.), He had a pair of cups.

1068. The distributives bino, trino-f-, &c. are used like the plural
of uno, with plural substantives that have a singular sense : as,

Quims castris oppldum circumdedit (Caes.}, He surrounded the

town with five camps.

Litteras reddidit trinas (Cic.), She delivered three letters.
Trims catenis vinctus trahebatur (Cues.), He was being dragged

along bound with three sets of chains J.

1069. The poets occasionally use a distributive in place of the
simple number, and that both in the plural and singular : as,

Dispar septenis fistula cannis (Ot?.), An unequal pipe of seven

reeds.
Gurgite septeno rapidus mare submovet amnis (Lucari),

With sevenfold flood the rapid river bids the sea withdraw.

* Dttplici in its original sense is used where the two things lie flat
against each other, as dupllces palmae, the joined hands in the act of
prayer, and dupllces tabellae, folded tablets.

f Not terno nor singulo.

J Even in speaking of one person the phrases are inlcere catenas aHcuT,
conicere in catenas, esse" cum catenls, as indeed the English phrase is also
plural.

NUMERALS. 215

1070. The word sestertio, which is strictly only a numeral,
2|, is commonly used in reference to money, and in that sense
signified originally 2j asses or Ibs. of bronze ; but as the weight of
Roman money decreased to a great extent, and silver coin came into
use, sestertio (or sestertio nummo, or numm alone) was even-
tually* the name of a small silver coin worth about 2^f of our
money, and was the ordinary unit of money. It is also used as an
insignificant sum of money.

Pretium constitutum est in modios singulos HS J III (Cic.),
The price fixed was three sesterces the bushel.

Sestertium sescenta quadraginta milia deferri ad se domum jussit
(Ore.), He ordered 640,000 sesterces to be carried down to his
house.

Ecquis est qui bona PostumI nummo sestertio sibi addici velit ?
(Cic.), Is there any one who would be willing to have the
whole property of Postumus knocked down to him for a single
groat ?

1071. A million sesterces fall short of 10,000. Hence the num-
bers required, when the sesterce is the unit, soon became inconve-
niently large, and the only mode the Romans had of expressing
numbers above 100,000 was by means of the numeral adverbs :
thus,

Accepi viciens ducenta triginta quinque milia, quadringentos

septendecim nummos (Cic.), I received 2,235,417 sesterces.
Sestertium viciens centena milia, Two million sesterces.

1072. By way of brevity centena milia was dropped with the
adverbs, causing no ambiguity, because the adverbs could only be
used with Sestertium in this sense : thus,

Sestertium quadringentiens abstulit (Cic.), He carried off forty
million sesterces.

* Towards the close of the republic.

f This would make the Denarius about 9<f, which is slightly above the
usual estimate. But our antiquarians commit the strange error of taking
the average of existing denarii instead of the very largest for the standard,
as though coins could have gained weight by time.

J To be read perhaps sestertii terni; but the MSS. have nearly all the
mere symbols. See 272.

216 NUMERALS.

1073. Although sestertiura as used with milia was in fact age
nitive, it was found convenient to treat it as a neuter- substantive
so that sestertia* was used as a nom. or ace. pi., and signified so
many thousand sesterces.

Capit ille ex suis praedils sescena sestertia, ego centena ex mels
(Cic.), Yonder man takes, let us suppose, 60,000 sesterces per
annum from his estates, I, 10,000 from mine.

1074. Similarly with the adverbs it was found convenient to give
to sestertium a genitive and ablative singular.

Decem pondo auri et argenti ad summam sestertii deciens m
aerarium rettiilit (Liv.) t He paid into the treasury ten pound
weight of gold, and of silver to the amount of a million ses-
terces.

Neque in sestertio vlciens parum se splendide gessit, neque in
sestertio centiens affluentius vixit quam instituerat (Nepos in
Attico), As his establishment was sufficiently handsome when
his income was two million sesterces, so he lived with no
greater luxury than at first, when his income was ten mil-
lions.

1075. The construction of pondof, 'by weight' or 'pound,' and
libra- m, ' pound/ in denoting weight, is very anomalous, the first
having always the same form, the second being always an ace. sin-
gular or plural.

Paterae aureae fuerunt diicentae septuaginta sex libras ferme
omnes pondo, argenti decem et octo milia et trecenta pondo
(Liv.), There were 276 golden bowls all about a pound in
weight, and of silver bullion 18,300lbs.

* The word sestertium (nom.) is sometimes said to have been a coin.
There, in fact, was no such coin and no such word. There is perhaps
something parallel to the anomaly mentioned in the text in the declining
the genitive cuj&s of the relative as though it had been an adjective.

f Pondo would appear to have been originally an ablative ' by weight ;'
libram, libras, seem inexplicable. But in Liv. iv. 20, all the best MSS.
have libra, which would admit a simple explanation ' by the scales,' and
so, like pondo, come in a secondary sense to signify a Ib.

PERSONAL PROXOrXS. 217

PERSONAL PRONOUN.-.

1076. The nominatives of the personal pronouns are not com-
monly used, because the terminations of the verb already express
the notion ; but if there be any emphasis, then they are required.

Quis tu es? (Ter.), Who are you?

Ego istum juvenem domi tenendum censeo (Liv.), I for my part

think that this stripling of yours should be kept at home.
Natura tu illl pater es, consilils ego (Ter.), By nature you are his

father, as guardian /.

1077. Similarly he, she, it, they, if emphatic, must be expressed
by the proper pronoun, i, ho, isto, or illo (.see below) .

1078. These nominatives appear however at times to be required
when there does not seem to be any emphasis upon them. Thus,
in repeating a person's words in surprise, it is usual to insert the
omitted nominative :

M. Quid fecit? D. quid ille fecerit? (Ter.) M. What has he

done ? D. What has he done, ask you ?

Where the words what and done seem to require the special em-
phasis.

1079. So in confirming an assertion or answering a question, the
nominative of the pronoun is required.

Ego vero iitar prorogation*? die! (Cic.), Yes, my friend, you are
right, I shall avail myself of the postponement.

Where the word shall is emphatic, not the pronoun.

1080. So again where quidem, ' it is true,' introduces a word pre-
paratory to a sed, ' but' : as,

Deinde tui municipes, sunt illl quidem splendldissiimi homines,
set tamen pauci (Cic.), Then as to your fellow-townsmen, they
are, I grant, men of the highest station, but still only few in
number.

Orat5rias exercitationes, non tu quidem reliquisti, sed philosc-
phiam illis anteposuisti (Cic.), Your exercises in oratory you,
have not abandoned, it is true, but you have given philosophy
the preference over them.

218 PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

108 1 . The singular tu and plural vos* being commonly translated
by the same word ' you,' it is often useful to insert some plural vo-
cative or other phrase with the latter, so as to prevent ambiguity.

SI quid est quod mea opera opus sit vobis, ut tu plus vides, M5-
nebo (Ter.), If there be anything in which you (and your
young master) have occasion for my assistance, as you (Davus)
understand matters better than I do, I will stay.

1082. It is not the custom of Latin writers to use the plural nos
or vos for the singular, as is so often the case, particularly with the
latter, in modern languages.

SE, Suo, &c.

1083. The reflective pronouns of the third person, both substan-
tive and adjective, are variously translated according to the word
they refer to. This word is commonly the nominative of the sen-
tence : as,

Ea praedia aliis coluit, non sibi (Cic.), These farms he cultivated

for others, not for himself.
Turn ilia rejecit se in eum (Ter.), Then the other threw herself

back into his arms.
Justitia propter se est colenda (Cz'c.), Justice is to be cultivated

for itself.
Non sui conservandi caussa profugerunt (Ct'c.), It was not to

save themselves that they ran off.
Sua quae narrat facinora? (Ter.), What doings of his own does

he recount ?
Haec ignorabat suom patrem (Ter.), This woman did not know

her own father.
Aliena melius dijudicant, quam sua (Ter.), They judge better of

other people's affairs than their own.

1084. Se and suo, in a secondary sentence, may of course refer
to the nominative or subject of that secondary sentence. They
sometimes however refer to the agent of the main sentence, parti-
cularly if the secondary sentence express a something in the mind
of that agent : as,

* The same ambiguity exists between the possessive adjectives tuo and
vostero, and may be removed in the same way.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 219

Vir bonus nihil cuiquam quod in se transferal detrahet (Cic.),

A good man will not force anything from any one to transfer

it to himself.
Sentat animus se vi sua, n5n aliena mover! (Ctc.), The mind

feels that it is acted upon by a force of its own, not one from

without*.

1085. Se and suo sometimes refer to a noun not in the nomina-
tive, if that noun be substantially the subject : as,

A Caesare invitorf, sibi ut legatus sim (Cic.), I am invited by

Caesar to be legate to him.
Faustul5 spes fueratj, regiam stirpem Spud se ediicari (Liv.),

Faustulus had entertained the hope that the royal progeny

would be brought up in his cottage.

1086. Se and suo sometimes refer to nouns not in the nomina-
tive, if placed near them : as,

Furnium per se vldi lubentissume (Cic.), Furnius, so far as he

himself is concerned, I saw with the greatest pleasure.
Ratio et oratio conciliat inter se homines (Cic.), Reason and

speech unite men to one another.
Suas res Syracusanis restituit (Z.ir.), He restored to the Syracu-

sans what belonged to them.
Placet Stoicis suo quamque rem nomine adpellare (Ctc.), It is a

law with the Stoics to call everything by its own name.
Magonem cum classe sua in Hispaniam mittunt (Liv.), They

send Mago with his fleet to Spain.

1087. Inter se is used with active verbs for se inter se : as,
Inter se adspiciebant (Ctc.), They kept looking at one another.

1088. The possessive pronouns often denote what is favourable

* In Caesar, B. G. i. 36. Ad haec Ariovistus respondit &c., which
chapter is all one sentence, there is much freedom in the use of these
pronouns. Thus in the last clause : quod s'tbi Caesar dennntiaret c
Aeduorum uijurias non neglecturnm, neminem secum sine sua pernlcie
contendissS : sfti and secum refer to Ariovistns, se to Caesar, sua to ne-
mlnem.

f Equivalent to : Caesar me invltat.

* Equivalent to : Faustulus spem habuerat.

L 2

220 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

to the party, especially in connexion with nouns signifying time or
place : as,

Moneo ut neque occasion! tuae desis, neque suam occasidnem
hosti des (Liv.~), I advise you neither to be wanting to an op-
portunity favourable to yourself, nor to give to the enemy one
favourable to him.

1089. The possessive pronouns are often omitted in Latin where
they are expressed in English : as,

Non diibiumst quin uxorem nolit flliiis (Ter.)> There is no doubt

that my son is unwilling to marry.
Et erl semper lemtas, verebar quorsum evaderet (Ter.) And my

master's* constant gentleness, I was afraid what it would end

in.

IPSO.

1090. Ipso is used with the personal pronouns and other nouns
to denote emphasis :

Calpurnius custodia militari cinctiis extinguitur ; Priscus se
ipsej interfecit (Tac.), Calpurnius is surrounded by a guard
of soldiers and put to death ; Priscus slew himself.

Fratrem suum, dein se ipsumf interfecit (Tac.), He killed his
brother, and then himself.

Triennio ipso minor quam Antonius (Cic.), Exactly three years
younger than Antonius.

Ipsae defluebant coronae (Cic.), The wreaths kept slipping down
of themselves.

Is, et ipse Alplniis amnis, diflficillimus transitu est (Liv.), This,
itself too an Alpine river, is most difficult to cross J.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

1091. Ho, isto, illo, are called demonstratives, because the speaker
in using them often points to the things he speaks of.

* So in English we say, master, father, &c. for my master, my father,
f Observe the difference between these two phrases.
J Whenever ipso is used, the student should ask himself to what it is
opposed.

DEMONSTRATIVE PROXOUNS. 221

Ho \s the demonstrative of the first person and points to what is
near me.

Isto is the demonstrative of the second person and points to what
is near you.

Illo is the demonstrative of the third person and points to what
is distant from both of us.

1092. Ho, ' this,' has the following uses : First, it points to some-
thing near the speaker : as,

Sed quid hoc : Puer hercle'st. Mulier, tu adposuisti hunc ? (Ter.)
But what is this (at my feet) ? Faith it 's a baby. Woman, was
it you who placed this baby here ?

Hie versus Plauti non est, hie est (Cic.), This verse is not Piau-
tus's, this is.

1093. Hence hie homo" may mean the speaker : as,

Solus hie homo est, qui sciat dfvinitiis (Plaut.), Your humble
servant has not his match as a prophet.

1094. Secondly it refers to present time : as,

Ab illis hbminibus ad hanc hommum liibldmem ac llcentiam me
abduds ? (.Cic.), Do you propose to draw me away from the
men of those days to the self-indulgence and intemperance of
the present race ?

1095. Ho may also be used logically : first, at the beginning of a
sentence referring to something immediately preceding : as,

His paratis rebus, mllites navis conscendere jubet (Goes.), These
things (just mentioned) having been got ready, he orders the
soldiers to embark.

1096. Secondly, as a so-called antecedent to a relative when placed
after it : thus,

Quam quisque norit artem, in hac se exerceat (Cic.'), Whatever
art each knows, in that let him exercise himself.

1097- Thirdly, when referring to what is coming : as.

Quorum operum haec erat ratio (Caes.~), Of these works the fol-
lowing was the plan.

Hoc animo scito omnis san5s ut mortem servituti anteponant

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

(Cic.), You must know that all men in their senses have de-
termined upon this, to prefer death to slavery.

1098. Isto, 'that' (connected with 'you'), has the following uses :
First, it points to something near the person spoken to : as,

Istam quam habes unde habes vestem ? (Ter.), That dress which
you have got on, where did you get it from ?

1099. Secondly, it refers to the second person, though there is
no pointing : as,

S. Hocine agis annon ? D. Ego vero istuc (Ter.), S. Do you
attend to what I am saying or not ? D. Yes, sir, I do attend
to what you say.

1100. Isto signifies in itself neither praise nor blame, neither
love nor hatred. The context may imply one or the other :

Bono ammo fac sis Sostrata ; et istam quod potes fac consolere,

Keep up your spirits, Sostrata ; and do your best to comfort

your poor daughter there.

Istuc est sapere (Ter.), There you show true wisdom, sir.
Video de istis qui se popularis haberi volunt, abesse non neminem

(Czc.), I perceive that of your would-be-thought friends of the

people, a certain gentleman is absent.
Tu tibi istas posthac comprimitS mantis, (Ter.), You, sir, must

keep those hands for the future to yourself.

1101. Illo, 'yonder,' 'distant,' 'former/ 'other,' points to
something comparatively distant : as,

Tolle hanc patinam. Aufer illam offam porcmam (Plant.}, Take
away this dish. Remove yonder rissole de pore.

1 102. Referring to something distant, though without pointing : as,
I'lle suam semper egit vitam in otio, in conviviis (Ter.), My brother

there has always passed his time in idleness, in society.

1103. Illo, like ho, may be used logically; that is, refer to the
words of a sentence. When they are used together, ho refers to
the nearer word, illo to the farther : as,

Melius de quibusdam acerbi inimici merentur quam ii amicl qui
dulces videntur. Illi, saepe verum dicunt ; hi, nunquam (Czc.),
Bitter enemies deserve better of some persons than those friends

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 223

who seem to be all sweetness. The former, often speak the
truth ; the latter, never.

1104. Sometimes not the nearer word but the nearer* thing is
marked by ho, the more distant thing by illo : as,

Melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria. Haec in tua, ilia in
Deorum manu est (Liv.), Certain peace is better than hoped-
for victory. The one (peace) is in your own hands, the other
(victory) in those of the gods.

1105. A change of person is often marked by illo, in which case
the word ' other ' is often the best translation : as,

Vercingetorix obviam Caesari proficiscitiir. Ille oppidum No-
viodunum obpugnare instituerat (Caes.), Vercingetorix sets out
to meet Caesar. The other (viz. Caesar) had begun to besiege
Xoviodunum.

Aeolus luctantis ventos imptfrio premit. Illi indignantes circum
claustra fremunt (Vvrg.), Aeolus the struggling winds with
sovereign sway restrains. They thus restrained around the bar-
riers murmur.

1106. It also introduces something about to be mentioned : as,
Horum ego sermone non movebar. Illud, vere dicam, me movet,

abesse tris cohortis (Cic.), By what these men said to one an-
other I was not annoyed. One thing however (I will be can-
did with you) does annoy me, and that is, that three battalions
are absent.

1107. It expresses distance in time, past or future: first past
time : as,

Quid ille, ubi est MflesYus ? Well, and that gentleman from Mi-
letus you were speaking of, where is he :

Hei mihl qualis erat? quantum mutarus ab illo Hectore qul
redit exuvias indutiis Achilli (Virg.), Alas, what was he like?
How changed from that Hector of other days returning clad in
Achilles' spoils !

Ille Sgo liber, ille ferox, tacui (Oc.), I once so free, so proud, was
silent.

* In this \vay are to be explained all those passages where illo is said to
be referred to the nearer word, and ho to the farther word.

224? LOGICAL PRONOUNS.

1108. Hence it is applied to well-known personages of past
times : as,

C. Sequar, ut institui, divlnum ilium virum.
A. Platonem videlicet dlcis. C. Istum ipsum, Attice (Cic.),
C. I will follow, as I have begun, that heaven-inspired man.
A. You mean Plato, no doubt. C. The very same, Atticus.
110Q. Also to proverbs : as,

Verum illud verbumst, volgo quod dici solet,

Omnls sibi 'sse melius malle quam alteri (Ter.),

Too true 's the old saying in everybody's mouth,

All men wish better to themselves than to their neighbour.

1110. Ho and illo are used together to mark the connection of
something present with something past : as,

Atat hoc illud est ;

Hinc illae lacrumae, haec illast misericordia (Ter.),
Ah, ah ! then this explains that matter ;
Hence all that weeping, hence that sympathy.

1111. Illo is also applied to future time : as,
Hie domus Aeneae cunctis dominabttur oris,

Et nati natorum, et qui nascentur ab illis (Virg.),
Here shall ^Eneas' house o'er every border rule,
His children's children and their children too.

1112. LOGICAL PRONOUNS. 1. I, Eo, &c.

I, eo, &c., ' this,' ' that,' ' the,' ' he,' ' she/ ' it,' ' a,' ' one,' ' such,'
is never a demonstrative, and consequently it never takes the enclitic
ce* ; it always refers to some word or words in the context.
1113. Commonly it refers to a word preceding : as,
Eunti mihi Antium, venit obviam tuos puer. Is mihi litteras abs

te reddidit (Cic.), As I was going to Antium, there came

across me your servant. This servant (or he) gave me a letter

from you.
Unam rem explicabo eamque maxiimam (Cic.), One thing I will

explain, and that the most important.

* The passage in Plautus (Mercator, Prol. 91.) is corrupt. See Bothe's
edition.

LOGICAL PRONOUNS RELATIVE. 225

1114. It also refers to what follows : as,

Id tibi affirmo te in istis molestiis non diutius futurum (Cic.),
This I assure you of, that you will not be long in your present
painful situation there.

1115. It is often used as an antecedent to a relative : thus,
Hoc valde discrepat ab ils epistolis quarum eiempla antea ad te

misT (Cic.), This sounds a very different note from those let-
ters of which I sent you copies before.

1116. When the relative clause contains a reason, the pronoun
should be omitted in the translation, or the words a, one, a nan,
may be used : as,

MTnume convenit ex eo agro qul Caesaris jussu dividatur, eum
mover! qui Caesaris benificio senator sit (Cic.), It is alto-
gether inconsistent, that a man who is a senator by Caesar's
favour should be ejected from land which is in course of distri-
bution under Caesar's order.

111". The relative clause often precedes, in which case this second
pronoun is emphatic :

Hoc qui admiratur, is se qui sit vir bonus nesclre fateatur (Cie.)*
If any one wonder at this, let that man confess that he knows
not what a good man is.

1118. It is used before a relative in such a manner as to denote
the belonging to a class, and is to be translated by ' such,' ' the
sort of person,' ' one of those,' ' the man to ,' 'so as to' :
thus,

Xeque tu is es qui quid sis nescias (Cic.), Nor are you the
person not to know what you are.

1119. In this sense it is often followed by lit : thus,

In eum res rediit jam locum, ut sit necessura (Ter.), Matters are
at last come to such a state that it is necessary.

2. Qui, Quo, &c.

1120. The relative quo or qua and qui agrees like other adjectives
with its noun if expressed : as,

Intellexit diem instare quo die frumentum metiri oporteret (Cue*.),
He saw that the day was close at hand, on which day it was
required that he should measure out the corn.

226 LOGICAL PRONOUNS RELATIVE.

Causam dicit ea lege qua lege senatores soli tenentur (Ctc.), He
is making his defence under a law by which law senators alone
are bound.

1121. In the sentences just given the noun is expressed twice
over. This repetition is unnecessary ; and commonly the noun
which should accompany the relative is omitted, so that the relative
agrees with the antecedent noun in number and gender, but has its
case determined by its own clause : as,

Ab reliquis principibus qui hanc temptandam fortunam non existi-
mabant (Caes.), By the other chiefs who thought that this risk
ought not to be run.

Intromissis eqmtibus, quos arcessendos curaverat (Caes.), Horse-
men having been let into the place, whom he had sent for.

A"deunt per Aeduos quorum antiquitiis erat in fide civitas (Caes.),
They make their approach by means of the Aedui under whose
protection the state had been from of old.

Quid vos hanc miseram sectamini praedam, quibus licet jam esse
fortunatissimis ? (Caes.), Why do you pursue this wretched
booty, you who have it in your power now to be the most for-
tunate of men ?

Adversaries suos a quibus erat paulo ante ejectus (Caes.), His
opponents by whom he had been a little before expelled.

1122. The relative may have a different noun from the sentence
to which it is attached : as,

Erat luna plena, qui dies maritimos aestus maximos eff icere con-
suevit (Caes.), It was full moon, which day usually makes the
sea-tides the greatest.

Cumae, quam Graecl turn urbem tenebant (Liv), Cumae, which
city Greeks then occupied.

1123. Averj 1 common construction consists of the relative and
its so-called antecedent divided by the other words of the relative
clause : as,

Habetis quam petistis facultatem* (Caes.), You have now the
opportunity you sought.

* In sentences such as these it is a common habit in modern printing
to place the relative clause between commas, whereas the connection is as

LOGICAL PHONOTTXS RHLATIVB. 227

Ea quae secuta est hieme (Caes.), In the winter which followed.
Ad eas quas dixlmus munitiones (Caes.), To the fortifications
which we have mentioned.

1124. In the first and last of the phrases jnst quoted the norm
belongs equally to both clauses. In the following it belongs to the
relative clause :

Quos in praesentia tribunes militum circum se habebat, se sequi
jubSt (Caes.), Such tribunes of the soldiers as he had about
him at the moment, he orders to follow him.

1125. Thus sometimes the noun of the main clause, more com-
monly that of the relative clause, is omitted. But if the noun be
separated from the main verb by the relative clause, it sometimes
takes its case from the relative clause, to which it is nearer : as,

Populo ut placerent quas fecisset fabulas (TVr.), That the plays
he might write should please the people.

Urbem quam statuo vestraat* (Virg.), The city which I am set-
ting up is yours.

1126. An antecedent is not always necessary : as,

Nee erat quod scribe'rem (Cic.), Xor was there anything to

write.

Assequere quod vis (Cic.), You will obtain what you wish.
Habebis cui des litte"ras (Cic.), You will have some one to send a

letter by.
Intervenit enim quoi metuistl credo ne salvo capitS negare non

posses (Cic. Phil. ii. 99), For there suddenly stepped forward

one to whom you were afraid, I suppose, you could not say no

without getting your head broken.
Partof quod avebas (Hor.), Having acquired what you longed

for.
Bene est cui Deus obtulit parca quod satis est manu (Hor.),

T is well with him to whom the Deity has offered with frugal

hand what is enough.

close as between an ordinary adjective and its noun. Indeed it is useful
to translate such sentences in the exact order of the words ; thus, In the-
which-followed winter : at the what-he-was-accustomed-to interval.

* For vestra est.

f Here quod avebas may be considered as a noun in the ablative.

228 LOGICAL PRONOUNS RELATIVE.

1127. Such omissions fall for the most part under the three fol-
lowing heads: 1. where the antecedent, if expressed, would be in
the same case as the relative ; 2. where the verb immediately pre-
cedes or follows and thus shows the connection; 3. short relative
phrases where the antecedent would be a nominative or accusative.

1128. The relative in short phrases sometimes adapts its case to
.the main sentence : as,

Quern videbitur praeficies (Cic.), You will place at the head of

the business whom you think proper.
. Eo quo consuerat intervallo hostis sequltiir (Caes.), He follows

the enemy at the interval he was accustomed to*.
Raptim quibus quisque poterat elatis (Liv. i. 29), Each hastily

carrying out what he could.

1129. When a relative referring to the preceding sentence is sepa-
rated from its verb (or other governing word) by a conjunction or
relative, it is convenient in the translation to substitute for the re-
lative some proper form of the pronoun ' he ' or ' this,' with an
English conjunction if need be : as,

Quod cum barbari fieri animadverterunt (Caes.), But when the
barbarians saw that this was being done.

Quod ubi auditum est (Cues.), And when this was heard.

Quorum qui celeriter arma capere potuerunt paulisper nostris
restiterunt (Caes.)> Now such of these as were able quickly to
arm themselves for a short time resisted our men.

1130. When a relative is connected in meaning with two clauses,
it generally adapts its case to the secondary clause, if that precedes
the main clause : as.

Is enim fueram, quoi f quum liceret magnos ex otio fructus capere,
me gravissumis tempestatibus obviam tulerim (Cic.), For I had
been one, who having it in my power to derive great advan-
tages from repose still threw myself in the way of the most
fearful storms.

* The English often omit the relative, which, however, must alwavs be
supplied in translating into Latin.

f Rather than qui cum mihi liceret, &c. Hence probably we should
read in Phil. ii. Hoc vero ne P. quidem Clodius dixit unquam, quoi quia
iure fui inimicus, doleo a te omnibus vitiis jam esse superatum.

LOGICAL PRONOUNS. 229

Is qui* albiis aterne fuerit ignoras (Cic. Phil. ii. 41), One of

whom you cannot say whether he was white or black.
1131. The relative f is often used in parentheses with the sense
of the logical pronoun i or eo : as,

Pater tuos si \iveret, (qua fuit severitate,) tu profecto non viveres

(Cic.), If your father had been alive, (such was his strictness,)

you assuredly would not have been alive.
Quod si facit, qua impudentia est (Cic.), If he does this (and he

has impudence enough to do it), &c.

1132. I- DEM.

I-dem, ' same,' is employed in many constructions, the chief of
which are the following :

Imperi nostri terrarumque idem est extremum (Cic.), Of our

empire and of the earth the boundary is the same.
Quaerltur idemne sit pertinacia et perseverantia (Cic.), The

question is, whether obstinacy and perseverance be the same

thing.
AcademTcus et Idem rhetor (Cic.), An academician and at the

same time a professed speaker.
Animus te erga est Idem ac fuit (Ter.), My feeling towards you

is the same as it was.
Idem abeunt qui venerant (Cic.), They go away the same that

they came J.
Eodem loco res est quasi ea pecunia legata non esset (Cic.), The

matter stands in the same position as if the said money had

never been left.
Idem negas quidquam certl posse reperlrl, Idem comperisse te

dixistl (Cic.), On the one hand you say that nothing certain

* Had the ignoras preceded albiis, the phrase would have been quern
jgnoras, &c.

f So also the relative adverb ut is used for sic or Ita in Terence,
Phorm. v. 2. 9. Haud scio hercle (ut homost) an mulct anlmum, I am
only too much afraid faith (knowing the fellow's character) he may
change his mind. Compare Hecyr. iii. 5. 10 : Sic sum, it is my way.

J With their opinions unaltered.

230 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

can be found by man, and yet on the other hand you also said
that you had discovered so and so.

Neque ego aliter accepi; intellexi tamen idem (Cic.), Nor did I
take it otherwise ; I saw, however, at the same time, &c.

1133. The construction with a dative or with cum belongs to the
poets and the later writers : as,

Eodem mecum patre genitus (Tac.), Sprung from the same father

as myself.
Invitum qui servat, ide'm facit Occident! (Hor."), Who saves a

man against his will, does the same as one who kills him.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

1134. The use of the interrogative pronouns, qui, utero, &c. falls
under the two heads of direct* and indirect questions, the former
having commonly the indicative f, the latter nearly always the sub-
junctive : as,

Direct questions :

Quis tu es ? (Ter.), Who are you?

Quid igitur sibi volt pater ? (Ter.) What does my father mean then ?
Indirect questions :

Quid retineat per te meminit, non quid amiserit (Cic.), He re-
members what he retains through you, not what he has lost.

Qualis sit animus, ipse animus nescit (Cic.), What sort of thing

the soul is, the soul itself knows not.
Both :

Quid facturi fuistis? Quamquam quid facturi fueritis dubitem,

* In the direct question the English language puts the nominative after
the verb or its auxiliary, except indeed when the question is about the
nominative itself and begins with ' who.' Secondly, an interrogative pro-
noun or particle commences the sentence, unless indeed the question be
about the act itself, in which case the verb or its auxiliary comes first.
Thirdly, the mark of interrogation (?) is placed at the end of the sentence.
On the other hand, the indirect interrogative is always attached to some
word or phrase, generally to a verb. Secondly, the nominative, as in ordi-
nary sentences, always precedes its verb. Thirdly, it is not entitled to the
mark of interrogation.

f See below.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 231

quum videam quid f eceritis ? (CYc.), What would you have
done ? And yet am I to doubt what you would have done,
when I see what you actually have done ?
Both:

Quid nunc fiet ? Quid fiat rogis ? (Ter.), What will become of
us now ? What will become of us, ask you ?

1135. A question is sometimes asked with a participle dependent
upon the main verb, in which case it is commonly necessary for the
English translator to substitute a verb for that participle, and at the
same time to insert a relative before the original verb : as,

Unde petitum hoc in me jacis? (Hor.), Whence did you get this
stone (which) you now throw at me ?

Quibus mos unde deductus A'mazonia securi dextras obarmet,
quaere re distuli (Hor.), But whence derived the custom which
with Amazonian axe equips their arm, I ask not now.

Cogitate quantis labonbus fundatum imperium, quanta virtute
stabflltam llbertatem una nox paene delerit (Cic.}, Consider
what labour was employed to found that empire, what valour
to establish that liberty which a single night has almost an-
nihilated.

1136. Occasionally two questions are included in one sentence,
and require lo be separated in the translation : as,

Reliquom est ut nihil jam aliud quaerere debeatis, nisi iiter xitri
insidias fecerit (Cic.), It follows then that you have now
nothing else to inquire into but this, which of the two plotted
against the other's life, which had his life so endangered.

Ceterorum miserabilior oratio fuit commemorantium ex quantis
opibus quo recTdissent Karthagmiensium res (Liv.), The lan-
guage of the rest was still more pitiable, as they dwelt upon
the powerful station from which, and the low depth to which
the state of Carthage was fallen.

1137. It may be observed, that the Latin language emplovs the
indirect interrogation much more frequently than the English, which
often prefers a mere relative with an antecedent substantive, or a
substantive alone : as,

232 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

Nunc quid agendum sit considerate (Cic.), Consider now the

business which you have to transact.
Non sum praedicaturus quanta's ille res doml militiaeque' gesserit

(Cic.), I am not going to dwell upon the greatness of his

achievements at home and abroad.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, &c.

1138. The simple qui, 'any/ is an enclitic*, and cannot occupy
the first place in a sentence.

Omnia semper quae magistrates ille dicet, secundis auribus, quae
ab nostrum quo dicentiir adversls accipietis ? (Liv.), Will you
always receive with favourable ears what those magistrates
say, and with unfavourable ears what is said by any of us ?

1139- The use of this word is frequent in sentences beginning
with the relative or relative adverbs, and after si, nisi, ne, num : as,

lam illis promissis standum non est, quae coactus quis metu pro-
misit (Cic.~), Lastly, there is another class of promises which
are not binding, viz. those which one makes under the compul-
sion of fear.

Quo quis versutibr est, hoc invlsior (Cic.), The more crafty a
man is, the more is he disliked.

ITbi semel quis pejeraverit, el credi postea non oportet (Cic.),
When a man has once forsworn himself, he should not after-
wards be believed.

Num quod elbquentiae vestigium apparet? (Cic.), Is there any
trace of eloquence to be seen ?

Habent legibus sanctum, si quis quid de re publica fama accepS-
rit, ad magistratum deferat, neve cum quo alio communicct
(Caes.~), They have it provided for by law, that if any one hear
anything by report on matters of state, he shall lay it before
the authorities, and not communicate it to any other person.

Si qui graviore volnere accepto deciderat, circumsistebant ( Cues.),
Whenever any one at all severely wounded fell from his horse,
they formed around him.

* This of course does not prevent the compound slqui, ncqui, &c. from
being emphatic.

INDEFINITE PKONOtTNS. 233

1140. In the phrases with sl-qui, the main sentence has no con-
necting pronoun, the sl-qui clause itself performing the office of a
noun : as.

Si quid est pabuli* obruunt nives (Liv.), What fodder there is,
is buried under the snow.

1141. Aliqui, ' some,' ' any,' is always emphatic, and is opposed
to such words as ' all/ ' much,' * none' : as,

U'num aliquem n5minate (Cfc.), Name some one or other.

SI nos ad aliquam alicujus commodi aliquando recuperandi spem
fortuna reservavit, minus est erratum a nobis (Cic.), If fortune
has reserved us for any chance (however small) of recovering
at any time (however distant) anything desirable (in the
slightest degree), then our error has been less.

Est istuc quidem illiquid, sed nequaquam in isto sunt omnia
(Cic.), What you say is, I grant, a something, but it by no
means includes the whole.

SI vis esse aliquidf (Jt-.), If you wish to be a something in the
world.

1142. The substantive + qui-quam and adjective ullo signify ' any'
(if only one, and no matter what that one may be), and are used
in negative, interrogative, conditional and comparative sentences : as,

Sine sociis nemo quidquam tale conatur (Cic.), Without com-
panions no one attempts any such thing.

Idcirco capite et supercilils est rasis, ne ullum pilum viri boni
habere dicatur (Cic.), He goes with his head and his eye-
brows shaved, that he may not be said to have a single hair of
respectability about him.

Et quisquam posthac Junonis numen adoret? (Virg.), And is
any one after this to worship the divinity of Juno ?

Num censes ullum animal, quod sanguinem 'habeat, sine corde
esse posse ? (Cic.), Now do you think that any animal, that has
blood, can exist without a heart ?

* Thus, si quid est pabuli may be considered to be the accusative case
after the verb obruunt.

t So Juvenal, if we may trust the best and the majority of the MSS.
Madvig. Cicero uses both sum aliqius and sum aliquld.

J Qui-quam, however, is at times an adjective, and ullo at times a sub-
stantive.

234 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

Si ulla mea apud te commendatio valuit, haec ut valeat rogo

(Cic.), If any recommendation of mine ever had weight with

you, I beg that this may.
Quamdiu quisquam erit, qui te defendere audeat, vives (Cic.), As

long as there is any living being who dares to defend you, you

shall live.
Cuivis potest accidere, quod cuiquam potest (Syr.), That may

happen to every one, which may happen to any one.
Nihil est exitiosius civitatibus quam quidquam agl per vim (C'fc.),

Nothing is more pernicious to a state than that violence should

be resorted to in anything.

1143. Qui-piam is used like aliqui* :
Quaeret quispiam (Cic.), Some one will ask.

Forsitan aliquis aliquando ejusmodl quidpiam fecerit (Cic.), Per-
haps some one will some time or other do a something of this
kind.

Pecuniam si cuipiam fcrtuna ademit, aut si alicfijus eripuit in-
juria, tamen consolatiir honestas egestatem (Cz'c.), If money
be taken from any one by misfortune, or wrested from him by
the violence of some one, still integrity is a consolation to
poverty.

1144. Qui-vis and qui-libet, ' any you please,' are universal affir-
matives, and may often be translated by ' every onef : as,

Abs quivis homine benificium accipere gaudeas (Ter.), One
would be glad to receive a favour from any one.

Mihi quidvis sat est (Plant.), Anything is enough for me.

Non cuivis hommi contingit adlre Corinthum (fibr.), It is not
every man's lot to visit Corinth.

Quern sequar? Quemlibet, mpdo aliquem (Cic.), Whom am I to
take for my guide ? Anybody you please, provided it be some-
body.

1145. Qui-dam, ' some,' is used both generally and in reference to

* Except that it has never that meaning of ' something important' which
aliqui often has,

t A superlative may often be substituted for them, as for example in
the following sentences : ' the greatest stranger,' ' the least quantity,'
' only the most fortunate.'

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 235

particular objects, which we either cannot or do not choose accu-
rately to define. Hence it is often employed to soften some strong
metaphor or epithet :

Sed sunt quidam* ita voce absoni ut in oratorum numerum ve-
nire non possint (Cic.), But there are in fact some of so un-
musical a voice that they can never be admitted into the num-
ber of orators.
Accurrit quidam, n5tus mihi nomine tantum (flbr.), There runs

up a certain person known to me by name alone.
Neque pugnas narrat, quod quidamf facit (Ter.), Nor does he

talk of his battles, as a certain person does.

Habet enim quendam aculeum contumelia quern pati viri bonl
difficillume possunt (C7c.), For insult has in fact a sort of
sting in it, which a gentleman can with the greatest difficulty
endure.

Fuit enim mirificus quidam in Crasso pudor (Cic.), For there was
in fact in Crassus a bashfulness I had almost called astounding.

1146. Qui-cunque is commonly an adjective and is used in three
ways (of which however the first is by far the most common) : a.
as 'every one who,' in the same way as the ordinary relative is
used ; b. without any antecedent, but so as to admit the insertion
of such words as ' no matter ' before the ' who ' ; c. in the sense of
'some one or other,' ' the best I can.'

Quod erit cumque vlsum, ages (Cic.), Whatever you think pro-
per, you will do.

Quocunque in loco quls est, Idem est ei sensus (Cic.), Wherever
a person is, his feelings are the same.

Quae sanari poterunt, quacunque J ratione sanabo (Cic.), What
parts admit of being healed, I will heal in the best way I can.

1147. Qui-qui is commonly a substantive, and is used chiefly in
the sense of ' no matter who, &c.' ; but at times as a relative in
grammatical connection with the main clause :

* Here Cicero has no particular persons in view,
f Here there is a particular person in view, viz. ihe braggart Thraso.
% Potero might have been inserted.

The use of qui-qui in the sense of qui-que seems very doubtful, at
any rate in the best \vriters.

236 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

Dlcam quod sentio, quoquo ammo me audlturus est (Cic.) t I will
speak my real thoughts, no matter with what feeling he is
likely to hear me.

Quicquid auctoritate possum, lid omne tibi polliceor (Cic.) , What-
ever power I possess in my name, I promise you the whole
of it.

1148. The chief constructions of alio*, 'one,' 'some,' 'other,'
are the following :

Aliiid est maledlcere, aliud accusaie (Czc.), It is one thing to

abuse, one to accuse.
Quae minus tiita erant, alia fossis, alia vallis, alia turribus munie-

bat (Liv.), The parts which were less protected, he was de-
fending, some with ditches, some with palisades, some with

towers.
Ipsi inter se aliis alii prosunt (Ci'c.), They themselves mutually

assist one another.
Me quotidie aliud ex alio impedit (Cic.), For myself, one thing

after another hinders me every day.
Equites alii alia dllapsa sunt (Liv.), The cavalry slipped off, some

by one route, some by another.
Jussit alios alibi fodere (Liv.}, He ordered them to dig, some in

one place, some in another.
Quotannis alium atque alium domlnum sortiuntur (Liv.), They

take the chance of the lot every year, first for one master, then

for another.
Trmeo ne aliud credam atque aliud f nunties (Ter.), I am afraid

that I am giving credit to one thing, and you asserting

another.
Longe alia nobis ac tu scripseras nuntiantur (Czc.), The accounts

brought to us differ widely from what you write.
Non aliiis essem atque nunc sum (Cic.), I should not have been

a different person from what I now am.

* That alio did not originally mean difference is shown by the fact that
aliqui is connected with it, and that its other derivative altero in itself
never signifies difference.

f This shows the way in which atque alone came to be used after alio.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 237

Lux longe alia est, solis et* Iychn5rum (Cic.}, There is a wide

difference in the light of the sun and of a lamp.
Liitatio quae alia res quam celeritas victoriam dedit? (Lit-.), What

else but rapidity gave Lutatius the victory ?
Quid enim aliud quam admonendi essetis ut morem traditum a

patribus servaretis ? (Liv.), What else would there have been

to do but to remind you of the duty of maintaining a custom

handed down by your fathers ?
Quid est aliud dicere, Quia indignos vestra voluntate creaturl non

estis, necessitatem vobis creandi quos non voltis imponam ?

CZ.tr.)> What is this but to say: Since you will not willingly

elect unworthy persons, I will impose on you the necessity of

electing those whom you do not like ?
Rogavit, nuraquid aliud ferret praeter arcam (Cic.}, He asked

whether he was carrying anything else besides a chest.

114Q. Altero is used in the following constructions, being always
limited to one of two, or the second of many :

Quorum alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit (CYc.), Of whom

one has lost, the other has sold an army.
Alter! f dlmicant ; alter! victorem timent (Cic.), The one party

stake all upon war, the other look with terror to the conqueror.
Milvo est quoddam bellum quasi naturale cum corvo ; ergo alter

alterius ova frangit (Cic.}, Between the kite and the crow there

is, as it were, a sort of natural war ; consequently each breaks

the other's eggs.
Alterif alteros aliquantum attriverant (Sail.}, Each nation had

considerably reduced the power of the other.
ITterque numerus pleniis, alter altera de caussa habetiir (C7c.),

Both numbers are accounted full, the one for one reason, the

other for another.
Tii nunc eris alter ab illo (Virg.), Thou shalt now be next after

him.
Ad Briitum nostrum hos Hbros alteros quinque mittemus (Cic.),

* When et or que are used in these phrases, the things compared are
brought together. A pause too should precede. Atque is not so limited,
t See the note to 324.

238 INDICATIVE MOOD.

We shall send to our friend Brutus this second set of five
books.

Alterum tantum equitibus divisit (Liv.), He gave to the several
horse-soldiers as much again.

PRONOMINAL ADVERBS.

1150. The pronominal adverbs* by the old writers were often used
as adjectives in connection with nouns : as,

Teque ibidem pervolvam in liito (Ter.), And I will give you a

good rolling in the same mud.
Quid ego nunc agam nisi in angulum aliquo abeam ? (Ter.),

What am I to do now, but take myself off into some quiet

corner ?
Venit meditatus alicunde ex solo loco (Ter.), He is just come,

after conning his lesson, from some solitary place.
Quo tenditis inquit ; qul geniis ; unde dbmo ? (Virg.), Whither

haste ye, says he, who by race ; from what home ?

1151. The relative adverbs, like the relative itself, are often used
without an antecedent : as,

Pergam quo coepi hoc iter (Ter.), I will continue this journey of

mine to the place I started for.
Si rem servassem, fuit ubi negotiosus essem (Plant.), If I had

saved my money, I should have had a something to employ

myself upon.
Est, dis gratia, unde haec fiant (Ter.), There is, thanks to the

gods, the wherewithal to do this.

VERB.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

1152. The indicative is employed in affirming, denying and ask-
ing questions. The chief uses of this mood and its several tenses
have been already stated f. Moreover, it is evidently sufficient to
point out the cases where the other moods are required. Hence all

* Those forms of course being selected which accord with the relation
of place expressed in the accompanying preposition or the case of the
noun. t See 451-478 and 575-591.

INDICATIVE MOOD. 239

further remark upon the indicative is nearly superfluous. How-
ever, it may still be useful to draw special attention to those cases
where error is not uncommon.

1153. Conditional sentences may be divided into two general
heads: 1. those which put an imaginary case, the non-existence
of which is implied in the very terms, and which are here called
hypothetical, such as ' If he were here, he would tell us/ or ' If I
had been ill, I should have consulted the physician'; in which
cases it is clearly implied that ' the person spoken of is not present,'
that ' I am not ill.' 2. Those suppositions which may be the fact
or not, so far as the speaker professes to know, as ' If I receive the
letter, I will forward it.' This distinction being understood, it may
be stated that conditional sentences of this second class have nearly
always the indicative* in Latin in both clauses, although the En-
glish language may have the subjunctive : thus,

Erras si id credis (Ter.), You are mistaken if you believe that.
Perficietur bellum, si urgemus obsessos (Liv.), The war will be

finished, if we press the besieged.

Si quod erat grande vas, laeti adferebant ; si minus ejusmod!
quippiam venarl pStuerant, ilia quidem certe pro lepusculis
capiebantur, patellae paterae turibula (Oic.), If any great
vessel fell in their way, they brought it to him with joy ; but if
they were unable to run down anything of that sort, then at
any rate they would catch him as a sort of leveret, a plate, a
chalice, a censer.

A w pud me slquid erit ejusmodi, me impriidente erit (Cic.), In my
writings, if anything of the kind exist, it will exist without my
knowledge.

Si qui aut prlvatus aut populus eorum decreto non stetit, sacrf-

ficiis interdicunt (Caes.), If any party, whether an individual

or a state, abide not by their decision, they forbid them the

sacrifices.

Set si tu negaris ducere, ibi culpam in te transferet (Ter.), But if

you refuse to marry, then he will throw the blame on you.
Si senutul non paruerit, populo Romano bellum indixerit (Cic.),

* But see below.

240 INDICATIVE MOOD.

If he refuse obedience to the senate, that refusal will be a de-
claration of war on the Roman people*.

1154. Often the indicative mood is in the clause of condition,
followed by a jussive, an imperative, or a subjunctive used as a jus-
sive : as,

Si me dlligis, postridie kalendarum coena Spud me (Cic.), As
you love me, dine with me on the second.

Si quicquam invenies me mentitum, occldito (Ter.), If you find
that I have told any falsehood, kill me.

Si itast, facturus ut sit officium suom, faciat ; sin aliter de hac re
est ejus sententia, respondent mi (Ter.), If the fact be that he
will do his duty, why let him do it ; but if his purpose in this
matter be otherwise, then let him give me an answer.

1155. The indicative mood may be used without si as a con-
dition or supposition : thus,

Negatquisf, nego ; ait, aio (Ter.), A man says no, I say no ; he
says yes, I say yes.

1156. So also an indicative mood at the beginning of a sentence
often expresses a concession, as introductory to something op-
posed : as,

Triumphavit Sulla de Mithridate, sed ita triumphavit, ut ille pulsus
regniiret (Cic.), True, Sulla did triumph over Mithridates, but
his triumph was of such a nature that the other, though de-
feated, still held royal power.

1157. So also the double sive sive have the indicative mood : as,
Homines nobiles, sive recte seu perperam facere coeperunt, in

titroque excellunt (Cic.), Men of family, whether they com-
mence a course of good or bad conduct, in either career become
distinguished.

1158. The doubled forms of the relative }, and those which have
cumque attached to them, take the indicative : as,

* It will be here seen that the conjunction may be used with every
tense of the indicative ; yet it is a common assertion in English oooks,
that the subjunctive denotes doubt or contingency, and that si takes the
subjunctive.

f A mark of interrogation is often inserted. J See 353358.

INDICATIVE MOOD. 241

Quidquid erit, scribes (Cic.), "Whatever it be, you will write.
Tu quantus-quantu's*, nil nisi sapient ia es (Ter.), You, every

inch of you, are nothing but philosophy.
Quamquam est scelestus, non committet hodie iterum ut vapulet

(Ter.), Be he ever so great a scoundrel, he will not run the

risk of a second thrashing today.
ITtiit erat, mansum oportuit (Ter.), No matter how it was, he

ought to have staid.
Hoc quoquo ibo mecum erit (Plaut.), I wih 1 have this with me

wherever I go.
QuTcunque is est, ei me profiteer mimicum (Cic.), Whoever that

man may be, I declare myself his enemy.
Deiotari copias, quantaecunque sunt, nostras esse duco (Cic.),

The forces of Deiotarus, in their full extent, I look upon as

ours.
Qui ubicunque terrarum sunt, ibi est omne reipublicae praesidium

(Cic.), And wherever in the world they are, there is every-
thing that is to guard the country.

1159. Sentences which express repeated action have the indica-
tive in the secondary clause in the best authors : as,

Quum ver esse coeperat, Verres se laborl dabat (Cic.), At the be-
ginning of every spring, Verres gave himself up to business.

Hostes iibi aliquos singularis ex navi egredienris conspexerant,
inpeditos adoriebantiir (Cues.), The enemy, whenever they
saw any coming out of a ship by themselves, fell upon them
before they could get clear.

Si a persequendo hostis deterrere nequiverant, disjectos a tergo
circumveniebant (Sail.), If they could not deter the enemy
from pursuit, as soon as they were scattered, they kept in-
closing them on the rear.

Ut cujusque sors exciderat, alacer anna capiebat (Z,ir.f), Every
time the lot of any one fell out of the urn, delighted he took
his arms.

* Printed in the editions so that the verb wholly disappears, a common
error in the text of Terence.

t Livy is not consistent in this construction.
M

242 INDICATIVE MOOD.

EPISTOLARY TEXSES.

1160. The use of the tenses in epistolary writing is occasionally
very peculiar. The letters in ancient Italy being sent nearly always
by private hand, and the roads with the facilities for travelling being
very defective, a long time often elapsed between the writing and
the receiving a letter. Hence it was not uncommon for the writer
to make allowance for this interval, and to use those tenses which
were suited to the time when the letter should be read : as,

Etsi nil siine habebam* novi, quod post accidisset quam dedissem
ad te Philogeni litteras, tamen quum Philotlmum Romam re-
mitterem, scrlbendum aliquid ad to fuit, &c. (Cic. ad Att. vi.
3), Although I have indeed nothing new that has occurred, at
least since I put my last in the hands of Philogenes for you,
yet as I am sending Philotimus back to Rome, I am bound to
write a something to you.

Hdbelam acta urbana usque ad Nonas Marti as, e quibus intellege-
bam omnia potius actum In quam de provinces (Cic. ad Att.
vi. 2), I have the proceedings in the city down to the 7th of
March, from which I am disposed to infer that the question of
the provinces will be postponed sine die.

Litterarum exemplum quas ad Pompeium scrips!, nisi tibi (Cic.
ad Att. iii. 8), I inclose you a copy of a letter I have just
written to Pompey.

1161. The terms 'yesterday/ 'today' and 'tomorrow' are
avoided for the same reason. So also, in many instances, the word
'here.' Besides, it was far from the ordinary practice to affix a
date of time and place, so that the words might have been unintel-
ligible.

Piiteolis magniis estf rumor Ptolemaeum esse in regno

Pompeius in Cumanum Parilibus venit. Misit ad me statim
qui salutem nuntiaret. Ad eum postridie mane vadebam quum
haec scripsi (Cic. ad Att. iv. 10), We have a strong report
down here that Ptolemy has been restored to his throne

* Otherwise the tenses should have been, h&beo, acclderit, dederim,
remittam, est.
f The epistolary tense would have been rSt.

JUSSIVE AXD IMPERATIVE. 243

Pompey arrived at his villa yesterday. He forthwith sent one

of his people with his compliments to me. I am going to pay

him a visit this morning.
Puteoli, April* 22.
Triginta dies erani ipsi, quum has dabam litteras, per qoos nnllas

a vobis acceperam (Ctc. ad Att. iii. 21), It is now exactly thirty

days since I heard from you.

1162. Such change of tenses occurs chiefly at the beginning and
end of letters, where the writer has it more forcibly impressed upon
him that he is not in conversation. It is also confined for the most
part to those matters which are likely to be affected by the interval
of time that must elapse before the letter is read.

JUSSIVE A.XD IMPERATIVE.

1163. The chief distinction between these two moods is seen in
592, 593. The imperative is, as its name implies, chiefly used in
laws.

Dms omnibus pontifices, singulis flamines sunt5 (apud Ctc.)>
For the gods in general there shall be a college of pontifices,
each separate god shall have his flam en.

1164. It is also used in the language of wills : as,
Filius mihi heres esto, My son shall be my heir.

1165. The imperative is also used generally in reference to futuref
time, more particularly if that time be fixed by any condition or
otherwise : as,

Ubi nos laverimus, si voles lavato (Ter.), When ice have bathed,
bathe if you will.

Quoquo hie spectabit, eo tu spectato simul ;
Si quo hie gradietur, pariter progrediminoj (Plaut.),

* The Festival of Pales was on the 21st.

t Nay Madvig, who also divides what is commonly called the impera-
tive into two distinct parts, gives the name future imperative to the longer
form, calling the shorter the present imperative.

J So the MSS., not progrediminor, and indeed the passage requires the
singular. Moreover Madvig has proved, what Kvarup already maintained,

244 JUSSIVE AND IMPERATIVE.

Where'er he looks, thither must you look with him ;
Where'er he marches, march you too forward by his side.

1166. The jussive is used in a less authoritative manner, and is
applied both to the immediate occasion and to general directions.

Juno Lucina fer opem (Ter.), Juno Lucina, aid me, I implore

you.

Mihi crede (Cic.), Take my word for it.

JustTtiam cole et pietatem (Cic.), Cultivate justice and affection.
Vide quam rem agas (Ter.), Have a care what you are after.
Cave sis (Ter.), Be on your guard if you please.

1167. The present of the subjunctive mood is often used as a
jussive : as,

Ecferant* quae secum hue attulerunt (Ter.), Let them bring out

what they brought here with them.
Quod bom datur, fruaref dum licet (Ter.), All the good that

offers, enjoy while you may.

1168. The jussives cura and fac and subjunctive velim are often
prefixed to a subjunctive of a verb, with or without ut, and so
express more forcibly what might have been expressed by a simple
jussive of the latter verb : as,

Quare si quod constitutum cum podagra habes, fac ut in alium
diem differas (Cic.), If then you have any engagement with
the gout, mind you put it off to another day.

Fac aput te ut sies (Ter.), Mind you have your wits about you.

Cura ut quam primum venias (Cic.), Take care and come as soon
as you can.

that the form in minor does not exist. That in mino does exist and be-
longs to"<the singular. See Madvig, Opusc. ii. 239.

* This subjunctive is due to an ellipsis of a verb which is occasionally
supplied: as, Trevlros vltes censeo (Cic.), I recommend you to fight shy
of the Treviri.

t Madvig would limit this use of the second person to the cases of a
general nature, where ' you ' means ' any one.' But he admits that there
are some examples where ' you ' is used in its definite sense, and himself
quotes from Terence : Si certum est facere, facias ; verum ne post culpam
conf tfriis in me, If you are resolved to do it, why do it ; but do not after-
wards throw the blame on me.

JUSSIVE AND IMPERATIVE. 245

Tu velim animo sapienti fortique sis (CYc.), Do you meanwhile,
I beg you, act with philosophy and firmness.

1169- An affirmative in the future often expresses a direction with
a confidence that it will be followed : as,

Tu interea non cessabis et ea quae habes instituta perpolies (Cie.)>
You meanwhile will lose no time in giving the last polish to
what you have in hand.

Siquid accident novi, fades ut sciam (Ctc.), If anything new oc-
curs, you will let me know.

1170. The jussive mood is used at times to express a condition :
as,

Tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Ci'c.), Once put an end
to this opinion, and you will have put an end to all mourning
for the dead.

1171. A question may be so asked as to amount to an order : as,

Etiam taces* ? Ego cavebo (Ter. Ad. iv. 2, 1 1), Hold your tongue,

Syrus will be on his guard.
Quin dicisf unde'st, clare? (Ter. Andr. iv. 4, 23), Come, come,

tell me at once where it comes from, out loud.
Quin conscendimusj equ5s? (Lie.), Come, come, let us mount

our horses.
Abin hinc in malam rem cum suspicione istac, scelus ? (Ter.

Andr. ii. 1, 17), Go and be hanged with your suspicions, you

rascal.
Non tu hinc abis ? (Ter.), Be off, sir.

1172. Hence in some phrases, such as those just quoted, the
jussive takes the place of the indicative : as,

Etiam j| tu hoc responde, quid istic tibi negotist. Mihio ? Ita (Ter.
Andr. v. 2, 8), Answer me this at once, what business have

* Literally : Are you yet silent ? with a hint that he will soon be made
so.

t Literally : Why do you not tell me ? &c.

J Literally -. Why do we not mount our horses ?

Literally : Are you going ? ' &c. If not, I 11 help you. Pronounce
abin, ain.

|| Pronounce etyam qu'istic, ti and nun.

246 JUSSIVE AND IMPERATIVE.

you in that cottage (which you have just left) ? What business

have J? Yes, you.
Quin* die, quid est (Ter. Andr. ii. 6, 18), Come, come, sir, tell

me what it is.
Quia tu hoc audi (Ter. Andr. ii. 2, 9), Come, come, listen to

this.

1173. Sentences of forbidding, &c. are variously formed. Ne
with the imperative is used in laws and occasionally elsewhere : as,

Nocturna mulierum sacrif i'cia ne sunto, praeter olla quae pro populo
rite fient ; neve mitianto, nisi ut assolet, Cererl, Graeco sacro
(apud Cic.}, Sacrifices by women at night there shall be none,
save those which are duly made for the state ; nor shall they
celebrate mysteries, except as is wont, to Ceres, according to the
Greek rite.

Bbrea Saute, ne arato, semen ne jacito (apud Plin.), When the
north wind blows, plough not, sow not.

1174. Ne with the jussive is found for the most part only in the
old writers and the poets, and even then but rarely : as,

Ah ne saevi tantopere (Ter.), Oh ! be not in such a passion.
Quaeso animum ne desponde (Plant.), I prythee despond not.
Nimium no crede color! (Firg.), Trust not too much to colour.

1175. The subjunctive mood is used in forbidding, &c., but gene-
rally in the perfect tense. The use of the second person of the pre-
sent subjunctive is rare, except when that person is used indefi-
nitelyf.

Nihil ignoveris, nihil gratiae caussa feceris, misericordia commotus
ne sis (C?'c.), Forgive nothing (they say), do nothing to oblige
a friend, be proof against pity.

Ne transieris Iberum, ne quid rei tibi sit cum Saguntmis (Liv.),
Cross not the Ebro (he says), have nought to do with the
people of Saguntum.

* In this way these two particles, ctiam and quln, practically acquire a
new meaning, just as quidnl, ' why not,' comes to signify ' of course.'
Compare too the secondary meaning of OIKOVV arising from its use in
questions.

t These qualifications are from Madvig.

SCBJUXCTIVE. 247

Ne qnaeriis (T<?r.), Ask no questions.

Isto bono utare dum adsit, quum absit ne requiras (Cic.), Enjoy
that blessing while you have it ; when gone, grieve not for it.

1176. The verbs cave, noli, nolim, are frequently used in negative
requests : as,

C;1ve ne eas (Cic.), Do not go.

Cave te esse tristem sentiat (Ter.), Take care he does not perceive

you are out of spirits.
Cave dixeris (Ter.), Say it not.
Nolite id velle quod fieri non potest (Cic.), Do not wish for

what is impossible.
Hoc nolim me jocari piites (Cic.), Do not, I pray you, suppose

that I am joking in this.

1177. The poets have many other jussives used in negative re-
quests, as fuge, mitte, parce, &c.

Quid sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (Hiw.), What shall be to-
morrow, shun to ask.
Mitte sectarl (Hor.), Cease to search.

SUBJUXCTIVE*.

1173. The subjunctive is used where a proposition is put for-
ward, not as a fact, but as a conception to be spoken of. Hence it
is used in secondary clauses attached to the main clause of a sen-
tence by a conjunction or relative or interrogative : 1st, where an
object is expressed ; 2nd, where the assertions or thoughts of an-
other than the speaker are stated ; 3rd, where that which does not
exist is imagined, &c. But it will be practically more useful to deal
with the separate cases.

1179- The object f or purpose of an action may be expressed by
an imperfect of the subjunctive, and the conjunctions ut, quo, qui,
and the relative ; or if the object be prevention, by ut ne, ne, quo-
miQiis and qum : as,

* The chief uses of the subjunctive have already beeu briefly pointed
out in 487-505 and 594-624.
t See 599,607.

248 SUBJUNCTIVE.

Aliis nbcent, iit in alios liberates sint (Ctc.), They injure some

that they may be generous to others.
Magis mihi iit incommodat quam ut obsequatur gnatu (Ter.),

Rather in order to annoy me than to oblige my son.
Sibi quisque tendebat ut perlculo primus evaderet (Liv.), Every

one for himself was striving to be the first to get out of the

danger.
Obducuntur cortice trunci quo sint a frigoribus tutiores (CVc.),

The trunk of a tree is sheathed with bark, that it may be safer

from the cold.
Verba reperta sunt quae indicarent voluntatem (Cic,), Words

were invented to indicate the will.
Gallinae pullos pennis fovent ne frigore laedantiir (Czc.), Hens

warm their chickens with their wings, that they may not be

hurt with the cold.
Vix me contineo quin involem in ilium (Ter.), I with difficulty

restrain myself from flying at yonder fellow.
Elephantos in prlmam aciem indue! jussit, si quern inicere ea res

tumultum posset (Liv.), He ordered the elephants to be led

into the first line, in hopes that this manoeuvre might cause

some confusion.

1180. Hence also verbs of commanding, advising, begging, wish-
ing, compelling, preventing, permitting, are followed by an imper-
fect of the subjunctive, and ut, or the negatives, ut ne, ne, quo-
minus, quin :

Allobrogibiis imperavit ut iis frumenti copiam facerent (Caes.),
He commanded the Allobroges to supply them with corn.

Monet ut in reliquum tempus omnls suspiciones vitet (Caes.), He
advises him for the future to avoid all suspicion.

Per te ego deos oro ut me adjuves (Ter.), By the gods I beg you
to assist me.

Sinite exorator ut sim (Ter.), Allow me to be an intercessor.

1181. Not unfrequently the ut is omitted before the subjunc-
tive : as,

Sine me expurgem (Ter.), Allow me to clear myself.

Quo die Roma te exiturum piites velim ad me scribas (Czc.), I

SUBJUNCTIVE. , 249

would -wish you to write me word what day you think you shall

leave Rome.

But verbs of wishing, and also prohibe, impera, sin, jiibe, pati (r.),
and veta, are also found with the accusative and infinitive, especially
the passive infinitive ; and indeed the last three of these six verbs
are but rarely found with lit.

1182. The result* is expressed by the subjunctive. This construc-
tion is common after verbs, &c. of accomplishing and happen-
ing : as,

Temperantia ecficit ut appetltiones rectae rati5nl pareant (Cic.),

Self-restraint effects this, that the passions wait upon right

reason.
Acddit ut primus nuntiaret (Cic.), It happened that he was the

first to bring word.
Nunquam accedo quin abs te abeam doctior (Ter.), I never go

near you without leaving you the wiser.
Xon possunt multl rem amittere ut non'f plures secum in eandem

trahant calamitatem (Cic.), It is impossible for many persons

to lose their property without dragging others into the same

calamity.

1183. With phrases which denote hindrance, opposition, avoid-
ing, omission, doubt, the subjunctive is preceded by ne, quomlniis
or quin, but by the last only, in case there be with the main verb
a negative to express the non-existence of the hindrance : as,

Impedior dolore animi ne plura dicam (Cic.), I am prevented

by indignation from saying more.
Per me stetitj quominus hae fierent nuptiae (Ter.), It was my

fault that this marriage did not take place.
Neque abest susplcio quin ipse sibi mortem consclverit (Caes.),

* The form faxo is used only parenthetically, and does not affect the
mood of the verb which accompanies it, which is always the future of the
indicative. Faxo sties, ' you shall know, trust me for that.' This has
been shown by Madvig in the second volume of his Opuscula.

f Non is required where the result is expressed ; ne would be wrong.

t Forcellini is inaccurate in making per me stat equivalent to sum in
causa. The phrase can only be used of hindrances.

M 5

250

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Nor is there wanting a suspicion that he was the author of his

own death.

Prorsus nihil abest quin sim miserrumus (Cic.), Absolutely no-
thing is now wanting to complete my misery.
Numquid* vis quin abeam? (Ter.), Is there anything else I can

do for you before I go ?
Facere non possum quin ad te mittam (Cic.), I cannot but send

to you.
Non diibito quin mirere (Cic.), I do not doubt that you are sur

prised.
Quid est causae quin coloniam possint deducere? (Cic.), What

reason is there to prevent them from founding a colony ?

1184. Impersonal phrases that signify 'we next come to,' &c.
are generally followed by ut and the subjunctive : as,

Reliquom est ut de felicitate pauca dicamus (Cic.), It remains

for us to say a few words on good fortune.
Accessit-f* eo ut milltes ejus conclamarent pacem se vellS (Cic.),

There was added to all this that his soldiery cried out they

wished for peace.

1185. In the same way ut and the subjunctive often follow the
verb est accompanied by a substantive or neuter adjective : as,

Sed est mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere
(Cic.), But it is in fact a habit with the world to be unwilling
that the same person should excel in several things.

Verisimile non est ut moniimentis majorum pecuniam antepone-
ret (Cic.), It is not likely that he valued money above the mo-
numents of his ancestors.

Atque ei ne integrumj quidem erat ut civibus jura redderet
(Cic.), But he had it not even in his power then to restore to
his countrymen their rights .

* A question is often equivalent to a negative. This, or a shorter form,
numquid vis ? was a civil mode of saying ' good bye.'

t Accedlt is often followed by quod, and the indicative, particularly
here the past or present are spoken of. So also adds quod.

J Mihi non est integrum=The thing is no longer entire ; I have taken
a step in it by which I am committed to a continuance in the same di-
rection.

In such phrases as the preceding a notion of futurity is commonly im-

SUBJUNCTIVE. 251

1186. Verbs, &c. of fearing have the subjunctive, with ne if die
object be not desired, with fit if it be desired* : as,

Vereor ne hoc serpat longius (Cte.), I fear that this will creep
farther.

Ornamenta metuo ut possim recipere (Plant.), The ornaments I
am afraid I shall not be able to recover.

Haadt sane periculum est ne non mortem aut optandam aut
certe non timendam piitet (Cic.), There is assuredly no risk of
his escaping from the belief that death is an object to be de-
sired, or at least not to be feared.

1187- The quality or quantity is often expressed by the subjunc-
tive with lit, or the relative, preceded by some word signifying * so '
or 'such.'

Non tarn imperitus est rerum ut non sciret (Cic.), He is not so

inexperienced in the world as not to know.

Res ejusmodi est cujus exitus provider! non possit (C'rc.), The
matter is cf such a kind that the issue of it cannot be foreseen.
Neque enim tu is es qul quid sis nescias (Cic.), Nor indeed are
you the sort of person not to know what is due to you.

1188. Sometimes the pronominal noun or adverb is omitted in
the Latin, but the subjunctive still retained : as,

Pinariiis erat vir acer et qul nihil in fide Siculorum reponeret
(Cic.), Pinarius was a man of energy, and not one to rely at all
on the honour of the Sicilians.

1189. In indefinite expressions the relative preceded by a verb
signifying existence is followed by a subjunctive : as,

Sunt qui cenaeant (Cic.), There are persons who think.

plied, and hence it will generally, perhaps in good writers always, be
found that an imperfect of the subjunctive is alone admissible. Even in
the second sentence the idea is, ' It is not likely we shall find that, &c.' It
should be observed too, that the subjunctive phrase always follows.

* Observe that the Latin inserts a negative where the English has none,
and vice versa.

f This is an example of a practice common in Cicero, the crowding
negatives in a sentence.

252 SUBJUNCTIVE.

Quid habes quod rgprehendas? (Cic.~), What have you to find

fault with ?

Nihil est quod festmes (Cic.), There is no reason for hurrying.
Invent! sunt multi qui etiam vitam profundere pro patria parati

essent (Cic.), There have been found many who were ready to

squander life itself for their fatherland.

Quis est quin cernat ? (Cic,), Who is there who does not see ?
Fult antea tempus quum Germanos Galli virtiite siiperarent

(Caes.), There was formerly a time when the Germans were

surpassed in valour by the Galli.
Est unde haec fiant (Ten), There is the wherewithal to do all

this*.

1190. There are many phrases apparently similar to these where
the indicative is found, but in most of these it will be seen that the
relative clause is the subject, and what precedes it, the predicate :
as,

Nihil est quod dicunt (Varr.), What these people say amounts to

nothing.
Nihil est enim stabile quod infidum est (Cic.), For nothing that

is faithless is lasting.
Quis illic est qui contra me adstat ? Who is the man yonder who

stands facing me ?
Here the person alluded to is altogether definite.

Sunt autem multi qui eripiunt aliis quod aliis largiantur (Cic.),

Moreover those who rob one set of men to lavish what they

thus rob on another set, are indeed a numerous class.

1191. Sometimes est-quT, sunt-qui-f are to be looked upon as
nouns, equivalent to nonnemo, nonnulll, and are then followed by
the indicative : as,

Sunt-quos curriculo pulverem Olympico
Collegisse jiivat (Hor.) t

* In these sentences the English language can always employ the word
there.

f Nay Propertius has est qulbiis for a dative. Compare the Greek

SUBJTJNCTIVB. 253

To some on the Olympic course to have swept the dust is madden-
ing joy.

1192. After digno, idoneo, apto, uno, solo, primo, &c., what is
necessary to complete the predicate is expressed by the relative or
ut with the subjunctive : as,

Idoneus non est qui impetret (Cic.), He is not a fit person to

obtain his request.
Soliis es, Caesar, cujiis in victoria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus

(Cic.), You are the only conqueror, Caesar, in whose victory

no one fell unless armed.

1193. After comparatives, quam qui or quam ut is followed by
the subjunctive : as,

Majus gaudium erat quam quod homines caperent (.Lit?.), The joy

was too great for human beings to contain.
Clarlor res erat quam ut tegi posset (Lie.}, The matter was too

notorious to be concealed.

1194. An assertion is limited and explained by qui and the sub-
junctive * : as,

Peccasse mihi vldeor qui a te discesserim (C'c.), I think I did

wrong in leaving you.
Satin saniis es qui me id rogites ? (Ter.), Are you quite in your

senses to ask me that ?

1195. So also a relative clause with a subjunctivef is often used
parenthetically to limit what is said : as,

Ex oratoribus Atticis antlquissiimi sunt, quorum quidem scripta
constent, Pericles et Alcibiades (Ci'e.), Of Athenian orators,
the oldest, at least among those whose writings are authenti-
cated, are Pericles and Alcibiades.

Non ego te, quod sciam, unquam ante hunc diem vidi (Plant.),
I never saw you, as far as I know, before this moment.

1196. In indirect questions, t. e. where an interrogative pronoun

* Quippe grut, utpute qui, ut qui are also used in this way, but with
greater emphasis. The indicative is also found hi some writers in these
phrases.

f But with quantum the indicative is used : as ( Ter. Andr. ii. 5,12), eras
quantum audio uxore excidit. So also (i. 3, 2) quantum intellexi.

254 SUBJUNCTIVE.

or conjunction and verb are attached to some verb or phrase, the
verb following the interrogative* is in the subjunctive : as,

Natura declarat quid velit (Cic.), Nature tells us in clear lan-
guage what she wishes.
Teneo quid erret, et quid agam htibeo (Ter.}, I twig what his

mistake is, and know what to do.
Ex captivis cognovit quo in loco hostium copiae consedissent

(Caes.), He learnt from the prisoners where the enemy's forces

were posted.
Ignorabat rex uter eorum esset Orestes (Cic.~), The king knew

not which of the two was Orestes.
Ex hoc quantum bom sit In amicitia, judicari p5test (Cic.*), From

this a j udgement may be formed, how much happiness there is

in friendship.
Existit quaestio nura quando amid novl veteribus sint antepo-

nendi (Cic.), There rises the question, whether at any time

new friends are to be preferred to old friends.
Discent quemadmodum haec fiant (Cic.), They will learn how

these things are done.
Erit igitur constituendum, tutoue Romae esse possimus (Cze.),

We shall certainly therefore have to decide, whether we can stay

in Rome with safety.
Diibito an Venvisiam tendam (Cic.), I am at a loss whether to

make for Venusia.
Copias suas, judicione non conduxerit, an equitum adventu pro-

hibitus, diibium est (Caes.), Whether it was from design that

he omitted to collect his forces, or because he was prevented by

the arrival of our cavalry, is doubtful.
Dbleam necne doleam nihil interest (Ctc.), Whether I am hurt

or not hurt, makes no difference.
Id viso, tun an illi insaniant (Ter.), The object of my visit is to

see, whether it be you or they that are mad.
Hanc paludem si nostri transirent, hostes expectabant (Caes.),

* Care must be taken not to confound the relative and interrogative.
Scio quid quaeras means, I know the question you wish to put ; but scio
quod quaeris, I know the answer to it. Compare Ter. Audr. iiL 3, 4. Et
quid ego te vSlim, et tu quod quaeris scies.

255

This morass, the enemy were waiting to see whether our men
would cross*.

Hoc baud sciof an aEquando futuruin sit (C*c.), This I sadly
fear will some time or other be the case.

1197- In the older writers, and occasionally in Horace and Vir-
gil, an indicative is found in indirect questions : as,

Vide ut discldit labrum (Tier.), See how he has cut my lip open.

Adspice ut antruni
Silvestris rilris sparsit labrusca racemis (Jliry.),

See how the cave
The wild labrusca J with scattered grapes has sprinkled.

1198. An interrogative clause sometimes accompanies the phrase
quid ais, or the jussives die, cedo, or the indicative quaeso, but with-
out being dependent on them : as,

Quid ais, ubi intellexeras I'd consilium capere, cur non dixti
extemplo Pamphilo? (Ten), Just tell me this : When you saw
that they were playing that game, why did you not imme-
diately tell Pamphilus ?

Dicjj mihi, placetne tibi edere injussu meo ? (Gtc.), Be so good as
to answer me this : Do you approve of your publishing the
book without my authority ?

Cedo, quid jurgabit tecum? (TVr.), Pray, what quarrel will he
have with you ?

Quaeso, quotiens dlcendum est tibi? (Plant.'), How often must I
tell you, prythee ?

1199. The phrase nescio-quis is to be looked upon as a tri-syUable

* It has been already noticed ( 495) that in these indirect questions
there is often an ambiguity whether the existing time or future time be
meant. Compare 594 and 600.

f This phrase signifies what is just short of certainty.

J A wild vine.

The phrase quid ais is also used in expressing surprise at something
heard, as, ' what do you say ? surely I misunderstand you,' or ' you don't
say so.'

|1 This die mihi, like the conjunction eho, is merely a mode of inviting
a person's special attention. The French in the same way use : Dis moL

256 SUBJUNCTIVE.

word partaking of the nature of a noun. Hence there is no irre-
gularity in the construction with an indicative : as,

A v lii nescio-quo pacto obduruerunt (Czc.), Others somehow or
other have become hardened.

1200. A similar union accounts for the indicative in such phrases as,
Sales in dicendo mlrum* quantum valent (Cic.), Jokes tell

wonderfully in oratory.

REPORTED SPEECH OR THOUGHTS (OBLIQUA ORATIO).

1201. When the words or thoughts of another are reported and
not in the first person, it is called the obliqua oratio, and all se-
condary clauses, that is, clauses dependent upon the relative or
upon conjunctions, are in the subjunctive mood. Compare the fol-
lowing passages :

Senatu relque publicae ego non dero, si audacter sententias dicere
vultis ; sin Caesarem respicitis atque ejus gratiam sequimini, ut
superioribus fecistis temporibiis, ego mihi consilium capiam,
Deque senatus auctoritati obtemperabo\ . I will not be wanting
to the senate and the country if you are willing to express your
opinions boldly; but if you look to Caesar, and make his fa-
vour your object, as you have done on recent occasions, then I
will take my measures for myself and will not be guided by the
authority of the senate.

Senatu relque publicae se non defuturum pollicelur, si audacter
sententias dicere velint ; sin Caesarem respiciant atque ejus gra-
tiam sequantur, ut superioribus fecerint ternporibus, se sibi
consilium capturum neque senatus auctoritati obtemperaturnm.
He promises that he will not be wanting, &c.

1202. Or the tenses might be thrown into past time, (which is
more commonly used,) by writing pollicebatur or pollicitus est, vel-
lent, respicerent, sequerentur, fecissent J.

* Still the original phrase must have been : mlrum est quantum valeant.
t See Caesar, B. C. I. c. 1.

J In the obliqua oratio the main tenses, which are indicatives in the
original speech, are changed to the accusative and infinitive.

Imperatives or jussives are changed to imperfects of the subjunctive.

Subjunctives remain subjunctives.

Direct interrogatives in the indicative are changed to the accusative

SUBJUNCTIVE. 257

1203. Sometimes the obliqua oratio is introduced by a verb of
recommending, &c. with the subjunctive mood, and this is followed
by an infinitive ; before which in the English some word signifying
to say must be inserted : as,

Censebant ut noctu iter facerent ; posse prius ad angustias veniri
quam sentirentur (Caes.), They recommended that they should
march by night, observing, that they might make their way to
the pass before they were perceived.

1204. At other times the obliqua oratio is introduced by a verb
of saying, &c. with the infinitive mood, and this is followed by a
subjunctive ; before which in the English some word signifying to
recommend, &c. must be inserted : as,

Decent sui jiidici rem non esse ; proinde habeat rationem poste-
ritatis (Caes.), They point out that it is not a matter for them
to decide upon, and they recommend him therefore at once to
consider the consequences.

1205. Without a formal use of the obliqua oratio, a verb in a
dependent clause may be in the subjunctive mood when it expresses
the thoughts or words or alleged reasons of another.

Aristldes, nonne ob earn causam expulsiis est patriil, quod praeter
mSdum Justus esset* ? (Cic.), Aristides again, was he not driven

and infinitive, provided the person was either the first or third ; hut if it
was the second person, then the subjunctive is required. (See Madvig's
Opuscula, vol. ii.)

AVith regard to the tenses, imperfects remain imperfects, and perfects
remain perfects ; but which of the imperfects or perfects is to be preferred,
depends upon the tense of the indicative verb to which the whole is sub-
joined.

The pronouns ho (in its original sense) and isto have no place in the
obliqua oratio, any more than ego, tu, nos, vos, &c.

All this, however, does not prevent the use of the indicative mood in
the midst of the obliqua oratio, where the writer chooses to say something
of his own.

* The subjunctive mood may be thus used, when the writer speaks of a
motive of his own which influenced him at a. former tune : as,

Mini academiae consuetude, non ob earn caussam solum placuit, quod....,
sed etiam quod esset ea maxuma dicendi exercltatio (Cic.), For myself the
practice of the academy pleased me, not merely because...., but also be-
cause it afforded the best exercise in speaking. Madvig.

258 SUBJUNCTIVE.

from his country on the very ground that he was just beyond
measure ?

Fabio dicta dies est, quod legiitus in Gallos pugnasset (Liv.),
Notice of trial was given to Fabius, for having fought against
the Galli when ambassador.

1206. In these cases the power of the subjunctive may be ex-
pressed by inserting such words as they said or they thought : for
example, in the last sentence but one the English might have been :
because he was just they said, beyond measure.

1207. Sometimes the verb to say or think is expressed in these
phrases, and unnecessarily put into the subjunctive mood : as,

Ille petere contendit ut relinqueretur, partim quod mare timeret,
partim quod religiombus sese diceret impedlri (Goes."), The
other zealously entreated to be left behind, partly because he
was afraid of the sea, partly because he was prevented, he said,
by religious scruples.

Here impediretur would have expressed the same, though less
forcibly : on the other hand, timeret might have been translated :
he was afraid, he said.

1208. It has been said above that the subjunctive is used in
speaking of that which does not exist. Thus what is denied is in
the subjunctive after a conjunction : as,

Istos tantum abest ut ornem*, ut ecfici non possit quin eos ode-
rim (Cic.~), So far from complimenting those persons you speak
of, I cannot be prevented from hating them.

Tantum aberat lit bmos scriberent, vix singulos confecerunt (Cic.),
So far from copying two sets (of the work) , they with difficulty
completed one.

Pugfles in jactandis caestibus ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed
quia profundenda voce ornne corpus intenditur (Cic.), The
boxer in throwing out the caestus utters a groan, not because
he is in pain, but because by sending out the voice every mus-
cle in the body is strained.

Non eo dico quo mihi veniat in dubiurn tua fides (Ctc.), I do not
say this because your word is doubted by me.

* The rule applies of course to ornem, not to the other subjunctives.

SDBXUXCTTTK. 259

Majores nostri in dominum de servo quaeri noluerunt, non quia
non posset verum inveniri sed quia videbatur indignum esse
(Ci'c.), Our ancestors were unwilling that evidence should be
drawn by torture from a slave against his master, not because
the truth could not be got at, but because (in this case) there
seemed to be something degrading.

Non quin confiderem dlligentiae tuae (Cfc.) Not that I in any
way distrusted your carefulness.

1209. Another example of the subjunctive employed in speaking
of what does not exist, is seen in hypothetical* sentences, both in
the clause of condition and the clause of consequence. These sen-
tences are conveniently divided into present and past.

a. Hoc nee scio, nee si sciam, dicere ausim (Lir.), This in the first

place I do not know, and secondly, if I did know, I should not
venture to say.

Tu si hie sis, aliter sentias (Ter.), If you were in my situation,
you would feel differently.

b. Quid faciam, si furtnm f ecerit ? (//or.), What should I do, were

he to commit a theft ?

c. Nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur, abstulerit cTbum alter! ?

Minume vero (Ctc.), Would not a wise man, if he were himself
on the point of being starved, rob some other of food : Assuredly
not.

d. Id si accident, slmus armati (Cic.), If that were to happen, we

should be ready armed.

e. Si frater esset, qui magis morem gereret? (Ter.), If he had been

a brother, how could he have been more obliging ?
/. Si qois hoc gnato tuo Tuos servos faxet-f, qualem haberes gra-

* See above 1153, and 496, 497, 498.

t Capt. iii. 5, 54. That faxit is inadmissible here, even Madvig would
allow, although he denies the existence of the word faxem. Moreover, the
explanation of the form faxo given hi 566, is confirmed by a fine in the
same scene, Pol si istuc faxis, hand sine poena feceris ; for the law of the
Latin language requires that the two verbs should here be in the same tense,
nd the difference of form is agreeable to a peculiarity of the iambic sena-
rins, which, whDe it admits contracted forms in the middle, prefers the un-
contracted at the close of the line, as, norft and noverit, Ter. And. Prol. 10 :

260 SUBJUNCTIVE.

tiam ? (Plaut.), If any slave of yours had done the same for

your son, what would your gratitude have been like ?
Si has inimicitias cavere potuisset, vlveret (Cic.), If he had been

able to guard against the enmity of this party, he would have

been now alive.
Absque eo esset, recte ego mihi vidissem (Ter.), If it had not been

for him, I should have taken good care of myself.
g. Regnumne hie tu possides ? Si possiderem ornatus esses ex tuis

virtutibus (Ter.), Are you lord paramount here ? If I had

been, you should have had a dressing, such as your special

merits deserve*.
h. Necassem te verberibus, nisi iratxis essem (Cic.), I should have

flogged you to death, if I had not put myself in a passion.
Deletiis exercitus foret, ni fugientls silvae texissent (Liv.), The

army would have been annihilated, had not the woods covered

them in their flight.

1210. It will be seen that in hypothetical sentences with the pre-
sent tenses (whether imperfect or perfect), the condition, though not
fulfilled at the present moment, is not an impossibility, for it may
yet perhaps be fulfilled.

1211. The past tenses in hypothetical sentences (both imperfect
and perfect) allude to past time, or at any rate to an obstacle in
past time affecting the present state of things. In either case it is
now too late to alter matters ; and therefore these tenses often im-
ply not only the non-existence of a state of things, but also impos-
sibility.

sit and sies or slet, Andr. ii. 5, 13; Haut. iii. 1, 47; fac generally, but
face" at the end, Andr. iv. 1, 57; v. 1, 2; besides a large number of
words which are commonly monosyllabic in pronunciation except in the
last place, as, mihi, Andr. iv. 5, 4 ; Haut. iii. 1, 101. Lastly, it may here
be observed that Madvig considers such forms as faxo to have been in
origin the equivalents of the Greek TVI//W, 7rpaw ; and consequently sim-
ple, not perfect futures. See his Opuscula, vol. ii.

* It should be remembered that in the obliqua oratio the subjunctive
will be found after si, even when the construction is not that which we
have called hypothetical, but the ordinary sentence of condition, which
in the directa oratio would be in the indicative.

SUBJUNCTIVE. 261

1212. The tenses in hypothetical sentences are determined in
the usual way. If the imperfect be used in the conditional clause,
the notion of the verb is not completed before that in the clause of
the consequence. On the other hand, a perfect tense in the condi-
tional clause generally* denotes an action completed before what is
expressed in the clause of the consequence. As regards the past
tenses of hypothetical sentences, in the clause of the consequence
the past imperfect is used to denote a continued state of things, or
something not yet completed, but rarely -f a single occurrence,
which is commonly expressed by the past perfect.

1213. Thus the general construction of sentences containing the
word if, is, that the hypothetical, t. e. those which put a case, the
non-existence of which is implied, have the subjunctive in both
clauses, while in other cases the indicative is required in both
clauses.

1214. The apparent exceptions to this rule are for the most part
to be explained by the sentences being elliptical. Thus in hypo-
thetical sentences the participles in txiro and endo are often found
in the clause of consequence ; and, if so, always attended by an
indicative : as,

Si me triumphare prohiberent, testes citaturus* fui rerum a me
gestarum (Lii\), If they had attempted to prevent my triumph-
ing, I should have called up witnesses of my achievements.

Illi ipsi qui remanserant relicturi agros eraut, nisi litteras mlsis-
set (Cic.), Even those who had remained behind, would have
abandoned the lands, if he had not sent the letter .

Quid quod si Andranodoro consflia processissent, Heracleae cum

* This word is inserted with a view to such a sentence as, Id si f ecisses,
per mihi gratum fecisses, where however the real consequence is expressed
in pergratum, ' I should have been greatly your debtor.'

t Madvig says never.

t Literally ' I intended to call them,' for which our translation substi-
tutes, by no very violent inference, ' I should have done so.' The latter
literally translated would have been cltavissem.

That is, they were preparing to leave, and (though the author omits
expressly to say so) no doubt would have done o.

262 SUBJUNCTIVE.

ceteris fuit serviendum*, Nay, if the plans of Andranodorus
had succeeded, Heraclea must have become a slave with the
rest of the people.

Si privatus esset, tamen ad tantum helium is erat deligendus
(Cic.), If he had been in private station, still he was the man
who ought to have been selected.

1215. A similar explanation accounts for the following phrases :

Ni metuam patrem, habeo quod moneam probe (Ter.), If I were
not afraid of my father, I could give him an excellent f hint.

Td ego, si tu neges, certo scioj (Ter.~), Even if you were to deny
this, I know it for certain (and consequently your denial of it
would be fruitless).

Multa me dehortantur a vobis, ni stiidium reipublicae superet
(Sail.), Many considerations dissuade me from troubling you
(and they would probably prevail), if my love for my country
did not outweigh them.

Pons iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset (Liv.}, The
bridge all but offered a passage to the enemy (and would have
done so completely), had it not been for one brave man.

Quod ni propere pernotuisset, haud multum ab exitio legati Sbe-
rant (Tac.), And if this had not speedily become generally
known, (they would have put an end to the lieutenant-general,
for even as it was) they were not far from so doing.

Si per Metellum licitum esset, matres illorum, uxores, sorores
veniebant (Czc.), Their mothers, wives, sisters were coming
(and would actually have come), if Metellus had permitted.

* This passage occurs in Liv. xxiv. 26, with the alterations required
by the oMqua oratio, viz. sibi and fuerit in place of Heracleae and fuit.
Compare a similar change in the same chapter of the phrase, Si effilgium
patuisset in publlcum, impleturae urbem tiimultu fuerunt.

f Literally ' I have an excellent hint to give, and but for the reason as-
signed I would give it.'

% Of course ' my knowledge' is in no way conditional upon ' yonr speak-
ing the truth or not.'

Tacitus abounds in this construction. See in the very same chapter
(Ann. i. 23), ferrum parabant, ni . . . . interjecissct.

SUBJUNCTIVE. 263

1216. Such sentences as the following are mere instances of ordi-
nary exaggeration forthwith corrected* :

Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat, nisi Faunxis ictum deitra
levasset (Hor.), Horace a trunk down gliding on his scnll had
carried off (or at least would have done so), had not Faunus
with his hand lightened the blow.

1217. The verbs of duty and power, already expressing in them-
selves what is less forcibly implied in the subjunctive mood, gene-
rally retain the terminations of the indicative in hypothetical sen-
tences : as,

Hunc patris loco, si ulla in te pietas esset, colere debebas (CYc.),

This man you ought to have respected as a father, if yon had

had any affection in you.
Consul esse qui potui, nisi hunc vitae cursnm tenuissem a pue-

ritia ? (Cic.), How could I have been consul, if I had not kept

this course of life from my boyhood ?

1218. In the same way the verb 'to be' in the indicative is ac-
companied by adjectives -f" and occasionally substantives, when the
hypothetical form of the sentence might have suggested the sub-
junctive : as,

Longum est si tibi narrem quamobrem id faciam (7er.), It would

be tedious, if I were to tell you why I do so.
Aequius erat id voluntate fieri (Cic.'), It would have been better

if it had been done willingly.
Nonne fuit satius tristls AmarylEdls Iras atque superba pati

fastidia ? (Virg.), Had it not better been Amaryllis' bitter wrath

and haughty whims to brook ?
Quanto melius fuerat I in hoc, promissum patris non ess? servii-

tum ? (Cic.), How much better would it have been, if in his

case his father's promise had not been kept ?
121Q. The conjunction in hypothetical sentences is sometimes

* It should be observed, that in sentences of this character the nisi or
si always follows.

t Particularly adjectives of propriety.

J The past perfect tense in place of a simple perfect is common in such
phrases, and also with the. verbs of duty and power.

264 SUBJUNCTIVE.

omitted, as in English; but in this case the verb is commonly
placed first : as,

Roges me, nihil forte respondeam (Cic.), Were you to ask me, I

should perhaps make no answer.

Dares hanc vim Crasso, in for5 saltaret (Cic.), Had you given
this power to Crassus, he would have danced in the forum.

1220. Very frequently the conditional clause is omitted : as,
Nemo istud tibi concedat (Cic.), No one would grant you that

(if you were to ask it).
Reos diceres (Liv.), You would have said they were on their

trial (had you been there).
Hoc confirmaverim, eloquentiam esse rem imam omnium difficil-

liimam (Cic.), This I would maintain (if there were occasion),

that eloquence is the one thing of all most difficult to attain.

1221. Thus, malim, ' I should prefer'; nolim, ' I should be un-
willing'; velim, ' I should wish,' are modest expressions, not par-
taking of the rudeness of malo, ' I prefer ' ; n51o, ' I am unwil-
ling ' ; volo, ' I insist ' ; while mallem, nollem, vellem, signify ' I
should have &c.,' and refer either to past time, or to what is now
impossible. Hence

Nollem* factum (Ter.), I wish it had never been done, i. e. I beg
your pardon.

1222. The consequence also is at times omitted : as,

O si sub rastro crepet argent! mihi seria (Pers.), Oh, if 'neath
the harrow a jar of silver were to chink for me.

1223. The consequence f again is generally omitted in sentences
containing quasi, ' as if,' or equivalent words : as,

Quasi vero consili sit res (Caes.), As if forsooth, it were matter
for deliberation.

Me juvat, velut si ipse in parte laboris fuerim, ad finem belli per-
venisse (Liv.), I am delighted, as though I had myself shared
the toil, to have arrived at the close of the war.

* Literally ' I should have wished it not done.' The suppressed con-
dition may have been, Si optando potuissem quae facta sunt infects red-
dere. Nolim factum would signify, I should be sorry to have it done.

f Thus in the second sentence, the fuller form would have been, I am
as much delighted as I should have been if, &c.

SUBJUNCTIVE. 265

Ejus crudelitatem, velut si coram adesset, horrebant (Caes.*), They

kept shuddering at this man's bloodthirstiness, as though he

had been present.
Sic quaestor est factus quam si esset summo loco natiis (Cic.),

He was made quaestor with the same facility as if he had been

born in the highest station*.

1224. When the second person-f is used to denote generally
' one,' ' a man,' the subjunctive commonly enters into secondary
clauses, whether preceded by a relative or conjunction : as,

In excltando pluriimum valet, si laudes eum quern cohortere
(Cic.), In rousing to action the greatest effect is produced, if
one praises the party whom one is encouraging.

Bonus segnior fit, iibi neglegas (Sail.}, The good man becomes
less active, when you neglect him.

Tantum remanet quod recte factis consecutus sis (Cic.), That
only is left behind which a man has obtained by good deeds.

1225. Secondary clauses which are attached to clauses in the
subjunctive or infinitive mood and form an essential part of the
idea therein expressed, are themselves in the subjunctive mood : as,

SI luce quoque canes latrent, quom Deos salutatum aliqui vene-
rint, crvira iis suffringantur, quod acres sint quom susplcio
nulla sit (Cic.), If even in the light dogs were to bark, when
any persons come to a temple to offer their prayers, they would
have their legs broken, for being so watchful, when there is no
ground for suspicion.

1220. Hence verbs of promising and threatening, inasmuch as
they express in one word ' the saying that something will be done,*
take a subjunctive of the condition : as,

Praemium proposuit elj qui invenisset novam voluptatem (Cic.),

* See 499. In the four examples here given, the tenses in the indi-
cative mood with a negative would have been respectively, consul res nou
est, in parte laboris non fui, non aderat, non Srat summo loco iiatus.
Thus it is only the mood that is here altered by the hypothetical form of
the sentence.

f This remark is from Madvig.

J Orelli omits the word el, without which the Latin would be faulty.
(Tusc. v. 20.)

266 SUBJUNCTIVE.

He promised a reward to the man who should find a new plea-
sure*.

1227. By the omission of the governing verb the subjunctive
appears to carry with it a meaning which really belongs to that
verb.

a. Possibility, fieri potest ut understood : as,
Hoc postulatum ridiculum videatur e! qul rem non perspiciat
(Cic.), This demand may appear ridiculous to one who does not
thoroughly examine the real nature of the thing.

6. Permission and concession, such a verb as sin, 'permit'; or
ced, ' grant,' being understood : as,

Fruatur'f sane hec sulatio (Cic.), Let him enjoy forsooth this
consolation.

UtJ desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas (Ov.~), Though
strength be wanting, praiseworthy still the will.

Fuerit ciipidus, fuerit iratus, fuerit pertmax, sceleris vero crlmine
liceat mortuo carere (CYc.), He may have been ambitious, he
may have been revengeful, he may have been obstinate, but the
charge of impiety at any rate allow him now that he is dead
to be clear of.

Ut enim cetera paria Tuberoni cum Vario fuissent, hoc certe
praecipuom Tuberunls (Cz'c.), For even allowing that every-
thing else had been shared by Tubero with Varius, this at least
was the peculiar qualification of Tubero.

Sit clarus Scipio, ornetiir eximica laude Afncaniis, h;ibeatur vir
egregius Paullus, sit aeterna gloria Marias, anteponatur om-
nibus Pompeius, trit profecto inter horum laudes aliquid loci
nostrae gloriae (Czc.), Let Scipio be renowned, let Africanus
be covered with especial glory, let Paullus be accounted a great
man, let Marius enjoy eternal fame, let Pompey take prece-
dence of all, still there will assuredly be amid the glories of
these men some room for our fame also.

* See 503.

f Observe that the concessive tenses nearly always commence a clause,
unless niodo or dum accompany them.
J Even granting that.

SUBJUNCTIVE. 267

Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (CYc.)> Granting
that pain is not the greatest evil, an evil it certainly is.

Manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat stiidium (Cic.), The
intellect remains with the aged, provided only there still remain
energy.

Id quoque possum ferre, modo si reddat (Ter.), That also I can
put up with, provided only he pay me.

Tu fors quid me fiat parvi pendis, dum illi consulas (Ter.), You
perhaps care little what becomes of me, provided only you
secure your master there.

Homines, quamvis* in turbidis rebus sint, tamen interdum ani-
mis relaxantur (CVc.), Men, allowing that they are in circum-
stances as troubled as you please, still at times unbend.

c. Indirect interrogative, rogas understood : as,

Quid fecit ? Quid ille f ecerit ? What has he done ; What has he
done, ask you ?

d. Wishing, vis, precbr, &c. understood : as,

Quid faciam ? (Ter.), What would you have me do ?

Quid facerem ? (Ter.), What ought I to have done ?

Valeant qui inter nos discidium volunt (Ter.), Farewell to those
who insist upon tearing us asunder.

Ne vivam si id tibi concedo (Cic.), May I die if I grant you
that.

Dispeream nl submosses omnis (Hor.}, May I be utterly de-
stroyed, if you would not have got rid of the whole of them.

Atque ita me di ament ut ego nunc non tarn meapte causa Laetor
quam illlus (Ter.), And so may heaven love me, as I am de-
lighted now not so much on my own account as on his.

e. Demanding, postulant ? &c. understood : as,

Tu lit unquam te corrigas ! (Cic.'), You ever correct yourself!

f. Duty, bportet, &c. understood : as,

Potius diceret non esse aequotn (Cic.), He should rather have said,
it was not right.

* Tacitus and the later writers use quamvis with an indicative, and rice
versa, quanquam with a subjunctive.

N 2

268 SUBJUNCTIVE.

Sumeret alicunde (Ter.), He should have borrowed it from some

one.
Frumentum ne emisses (Cic.), You should not have bought the

corn.

g. The object is often expressed elliptically, more particularly in
a parenthesis, which ought always to be brief: as,
Ut vere dicam* (Cic.), To speak candidly.
Senectus est natura loquacior-f, ne ab omnibus earn vitiis vldear

vindicare (Cic.), Old age is naturally somewhat prone to talk,

so you will not charge me with defending it from every fault.
Vix incedo manis, ne Ire posse cum onere existumes (Plaut.), I

can scarcely walk with nothing about me, so do not suppose

that I can get on with a load.

1228. For the sake of brevity, the verb existumes is often omitted
in such sentences as that just given. Thus Plautus might have
said, Vix incedo manis, ne Ire possim cum onere : as,

Novam earn potestatem eripuere patribus nostris, ne nunc dulce-
dine semel captl desiderium ferant (Liv.), This power, when
yet unknown to them, they wrested from our fathers ; much
less now, having once tasted the sweets of it, will they tolerate
the loss.

Mortalia facta peribunt, nedum sermonum stet honos (Hor.),
Deeds will perish, much less will the glory of words survive.

1229. Quum in clauses signifying a reason for or against anything
is followed by a subjunctive : as,

Quum vita sine zlmicis metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amlcttias
comparare (Cic.), Seeing that life without friends is full of
danger, reason itself suggests the forming friendships.

Quum multae mihi insidiae factae sint, nunquam tamen tantoperg
pertimui ut nunc (Cic.), Although many conspiracies have
been formed against me, yet I was never so thoroughly alarmed
as now.

Quae quum ita sint (Cic.), This being the case.

* Perhaps in this example ' permission' is the notion understood, dabis
vSniam.

t Hoc dico understood, ' I say this that I may not appear, &c.'

IXFIXITIVE. 269

1230. Quum as an adverb of time in the past tenses has the sub-
junctive mood, being translated vrith the imperfect as irhile, with
the past perfect as after : as,

Quum acerrime pugnaretur, subito sunt Aedui visi ab latere
nostrls apertp (Caes.~), As the battle was proceeding with the
greatest spirit, there suddenly appeared a body of Aedui on the
exposed* flank of our men.

Quum dies complures transissent, siibito per exploratores certior
factus est (Caes.), After many days had already passed by, he
was suddenly informed by his scouts.

1231. Quum, followed by turn, in the sense of 'not only/ 'but
also,' has generally the indicative, occasionally the subjunctive : as,

Quum multae res in phflosophia nequaquam satis explicatae sintf,
turn perdifficTlis quaestio est de natura deorum (Ct'c.)f While
there are many things in philosophy which have been by no
means fully explained, one of the most difficult is the inquiry
about the nature of the gods.

INFINITIVB.

1232. The infinitive J is a neuter substantive which denotes gene-
rally the action or state expressed by the verb. Its use as a noun
is for the most part limited to the nominative and accusative cases :
as,

Docto homlm vivere est cogltare' (CYc.), "With an educated man to

live is to think.
Invidere non cadit in sapientem (Cic.), Envy affects not the wise

man.
Stoici Irasci nesciunt (Ctc.), The Stoic knows not anger.

* i. e. The right, which had no shields to protect them.

t The examples of this construction are not numerous, and what there
are seem open to doubt. In some, perhaps, instead of turn, we should
read tamen, and translate the quum by ' although.'

J In the Greek language this is so completely the case, that the article
may be prefixed to it in all its cases. The English also treat their infini-
tive as a substantive, when they place before it the preposition to.

270 INFINITIVE.

1233. Hence the infinitive is occasionally found after prepositions
which govern the accusative : as,

Inter optiime valere et gravissiime aegrotarS nihil dicebant inteY-
esse (Cic.), Between the best health and the severest sickness
there is no difference they said.

Quod crimen dicis praeter Smasse meum ? (Ov.), What charge do
you allege against me, except the having loved ?

1234. Hence also a neuter adjective occasionally accompanies the
infinitive : as,

Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis (Cic.}, Life itself is disgraceful to us.
Totum hoc displicet phtlosSphari (Cic.), All this acting the phi-
losopher offends me.

1235. The most common use of the infinitive is as the object of
active verbs, particularly those which signify wish, power, duty, habit,
knowledge, inclination, intention, commencement, continuance, cessa-
tion : as,

Arteriae micare non desmunt (Cic.), The arteries never leave off

throbbing.
Intuerl solem advorsum nequimiis (Cic.), We cannot gaze directly

upon the sun.

Oblltus sum tibi hoc dicere (Cic.), I forgot to tell you this.
Vincere scls, victoria uti nescis (Liv.), You know how to gain a

victory, you know not how to use a victory.

1236. Some verbs besides an accusative of the person* take a
second accusative of the thing expressed by an infinitive : as, doce-f-,
'teach' ; jiibe, ' bid' ; veta, ' forbid' ; sin, ' permit' ; cog, ' compel ' ;
mbne, 'advise'; horta (r.), 'encourage'; impedi, 'hinder'; prS-
hibe, ' prevent ' ; &c. Thus,

Dbcebo eum posthac tacere (Cic.), I will teach him to be silent

for the future.
Herus me jussit Pamphtlum observare (Ter.), Master has ordered

me to keep an eye upon Pamphilus.

* See Madvig, Gr. 390.

t All these verbs, except the first two or tliree, are also found with a
subjunctive following. See 1180, 1181.

INFINITIVE. 271

Legatus ab opere discedere vetuerat (Caes.}, He had forbidden the
lieutenants to leave the work.

Quid me impedit haec probare: (Cic.), What prevents my ap-
proving of these things ?

1237. After the passive too of many of the verbs given in the pre-
ceding section the infinitive is used, the accusative of the preceding
construction becoming now the nominative : as,

Num sum etiamnum Graece loqul docendus ? (Cic.}, Am I at this
time of life to be taught Greek ?

Consiiles jubentur scrlbere exercitum (Lii-.}, The consuls are di-
rected to enrol an army.

Muros adire vetiti sunt (Liv.*), They were forbidden to approach
the walls.

PrShibiti estis pedem ponere in pruvincia (Cic.}, You were pre-
vented setting foot in the province.

1238. Verbs of saying*, hearing, feeling, thinking, knowing are
followed by an accusative and infinitive -\- : as,

Thales aquam dixit esse mitium rerum (Cze.), Thales said that

water was the beginning of things.

Audivit nos venire (Cic.), He heard that we were coming.
Scribit confectum esse bellum (Cic.}, He writes word that the

war is finished.
Spero nostram amlcitiam non egere testibus (Cic.}, I hope that

our friendship needs not witnesses.
Tibi eos scio obtemperaturos magis (Ter.), I know that they will

See also 879.

INFINITIVE. 275

Confltere ea spe hucvenisse (C7c.), Confess that you came with

this hope.
Id nesclre Mago dixit (-La-.), Mago said that he did not know

this.
Refracturos carcerem minabantiir (Lip.), They kept threatening

that they would break open the prison.

1250. On the other hand, the reflective pronouns are sometimes
used unnecessarily with verbs of wishing : as,

Gratum se viderl stvidet (Czc.), He is anxious to be thought

grateful.
Atticum se dici oriitorem volebat (Ctc.), He insisted on being

called an Attic orator.
Sese student praestare ceteris animalibiis (Sail.), They are eager

to surpass other living beings.

1251. When to the construction of the accusative and infinitive
a short clause is attached by means of a relative or the conjunction
quam, the same construction is at times introduced into this clause
also : as,

AffirmavT, quidvis me pStius perpessurum quam ex Italia exitu-

rum* (Czc.), I solemnly declare that I would suffer anything

rather than leave Italy.
Antoniiis aiebat se tantldern frumentum aestiimasse, quanti Sa-

cerdotemf (C/c.), Antony kept declaring that he had valued

the corn at the same price as Sacerdos.
Susplcor te eisdem rebus quibus me ipsumj commoverl (Cic.\

I suspect that you are moved by the same circumstances as

myself.

1252. There are constructions where the infinitive seems to sup-
ply the place of a genitive : as,

Nisi Ifibldo tenet potentiae pauciJrum libertatem suarn gratif icari
(SaU.), Unless a fancy possesses you for sacrificing your liberty
to gratify the power of a few.

Tempus est abire (CVc.), It is time to go away.

* For quam ex Italia exlrera. f For quauti Sacerdos aestlmasset.

J For quibus ipse commoveor.

276 INFINITIVE.

Summa eludendi occasiost mi mine senes, t Phaedriae curam
adimere* argentariam (Ter.), I have a glorious opportunity
now of dodging the old people, and relieving Phaedria of his
anxiety about the money.

1253. In narrative the infinitive is at times used as the main
verbf with the power of the past imperfect of the indicative (and
when so used is called the Historic Infinitive) : as,

Consulem anceps cura agitarg ; nolle deserere sbcios, nolle mi-
nuere exercitum (Liv.), A twofold anxiety troubled the consul ;
he was unwilling to desert the allies, he was unwilling to di-
minish the army.

Ego instare ut mihi responderet, quis esset (Cic.), I meanwhile
kept pressing him to tell me who he was.

Iste unumquodque vas in manus sumere laudare mirarij (Ct'c.),
Your worthy praetor kept taking into his hands and praising
and admiring every separate vase.

1254. After the words parato, 'ready,' 'prepared/ arid insueto,
' unaccustomed/ an infinitive is at times used by good writers : as,

Omnia perpStl parati, maxime a re frumentaria laborabant (Cces.),
Prepared to endure the worst, they suffered most in the article
of grain.

Id quod parati sunt facer e (Czc.), The which they are prepared
to do.

Insuetus vera audire (Liv.), Unaccustomed to hear the truth.

1255. The poets and later writers use the infinitive in many con-
structions where good prose writers employ a different form of
words : as,

Fruges consumere natl|| (HorJ), Born to consume grain.

* For adimendi.

f In such a phrase as Jamque dies consuraptiis erat, quum tanien
barbari nihil rSmittere, &c., the verb remitte're is still the main verb.

J For a copious use of the Historic infinitive see Caesar, B. G. iii. 4,
where there occur in succession dccurrere, comccre, ropugniire', mittSre',
occurrere, ferre, superiiri.

Cicero more commonly however uses ' Sd ' with the gerund.

|| For ad fruges consumendas.

IXFIXITIVE. 277

Non mihi sunt vires inimicos pellere'* (Ov.~), I have not strength

to drive away my foes.

A'vidus committere pugnam-f (0t?.), Eager to join battle.
Puer ipse fuit cantari digniisj (Virg.), The boy himself was

worthy to be sung of.
Vi'rum tot adire labores impulit (Virg.), She urged the hero to

encounter so many toils.
Pecus egit altos visere|| mentis (flor.), He drove his cattle to

visit the lofty mountains.
Ille suo moriens dat habere*[nepoti (Virg.), He again dying gives

them to his grand-child to keep.
Celerem sequi** Ajacem (/for.), Ajax swift to follow.

1256. The Latin language often admits the perfect infinitive
where the English language uses the simple infinitive, but it will be
seen in such cases that the completion or consequences of the action
are regarded more than the action itself. This distinction applies
especially to phrases of regret or satisfaction in the future tenses,
also to phrases of wishing and prohibition, &c. : as,

Content! slmus id unum dixisse (Veil.), Let us be satisfied with

this one observation.

Quiesse erit melius (Liv.~), You had better be quiet.
Bacchas ne quis adisse velit (laser.'), Let no one wish to approach

the priestesses of Bacchus.
Magnum si pectore possit Excussisse deum (fin/.), In hopes he

may have power to shake from his breast the mighty god.
Sociis maxume lex consultum esse volt (Cic.), The law wishes to

provide for the interests of the allies above all.

1257. On the other hand, while the English express past time by
the perfect infinitive after the auxiliary verbs could, might, ought,

* For ad pellendos Inimicos.
f For committendae pugnae.
J For qiu cantetur.
For fit adirgt.
|| For the supine visnm.
T For habendS or quae habeat.

** For ad sequendum. The use of the adjective with an infinitive is
very common in the lyric poetry of Horace.

278 INFINITIVE.

the Latin writers generally consider it sufficient to express the past
time in the main verb, and to use with it the simple infinitive : as,

Licuit in Hispaniam ire (Liv.}, I might have gone to Spain.
Hoc ego curare non debul (Cic.), This I ought not to have cared

for.
Si mihi quam esse decebat vis in amore foret, Dauno possem in-

coliimem servare parentl (Virg.}, If I had had that power in

thine affection which I ought to have had, I could have saved

him unhurt for his parent Daunus.

1258. Still not unfrequently both the main verb of duty and the
infinitive are in the perfect tense : as,

Tune decuit flesse (Liv.), Then was the time for weeping.
Quod jampridem factum esse bportuit (Cic.), What ought to

have been done long ago.
Adolescent! morem gestum oportuit (Ter.), You ought to have

humoured the youngster.

1259- In the compound tenses of the infinitive, both active and
passive, the verb essS is often omitted: as,

Denegaiat se commissurum mihi gnatam suam uxorem (Ter.),
He had declared that he would not trust his daughter in mar-
riage to me.

Omnis vos oratos volo (Ter.), I must entreat you all.

Haut dices tibi non praedictum (Ter.), You will not say that no
notice was given to you.

1260. The future infinitive, both active and passive, is often ex-
pressed by the circumlocution of fore with ut and an imperfect
subjunctive* (called the periphrastic future) : as,

Spero fore ut contingat id nobls (Cic.'), I trust that we are destined

to have this happiness.
Pompeius dixerat fore uti exercitus Caesaris pelleretur (Caes.),

Pompey had foretold that Caesar's army would be routed.

* This construction is the only one where the verb has no participle in
turo. Observe, however, that the periphrastic future differs from the
simple future by being unlimited in poiut of time.

PABTICirLES A.XD VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES. 279

1261. The participle in fro with fuisse is exclusively used as an
hypothetical tense : as,

Num Pompeium censes tribus suis consulatibus laetaturum fuisse,
si sciret se in s51itudme Aegyptiorum trucldatum iri (CYe.),
Do you think that Pompey would have gloried in his three con-
sulships, if he had known that he was to be butchered in a
desert of Egypt ?

Nisi nuntii de victoria per equites essent allati existimabant, fii-
turura fuisse lit oppidum amitteretur (Cats.), They were of
opinion that if the news of the victory had not been brought
by men on horseback, the town would have been lost.

1262. A future passive maybe expressed by the impersonal pass-
ive infinitive of i, go, and the accusative supine : as,

Arbitrantur se bemficos vlsum Iri (Cic.}, They think they shall
be considered kind*.

1263. A future perfect passive is at times expressed by the infini-
tive fore and the perfect passive participle : as,

Rebantur debellatum mox fore (Liv.'), They thought that the war
would be shortly brought to a close f.

PARTICIPLES AXD VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES.

1264. Participles are partly like adjectives, partly like verbs.
Like adjectives they agree with some noun in case, gender and
number. On the other hand they are derived from verbs, denote
an act, and govern the same case as the verb from which they are
derived. The tense or time of a participle depends upon the verb
which it accompanies.

1265. The participle in enti is an imperfect, and corresponds to
the English participle in ing : as,

Giibernator clavum tenens sedet in puppl (Cic.), The pilot holding
the tiller sits on the stern.

* More literally, that people are going to look upon them as kind.
The beginner should take care not to confound this supine with the per-
fect passive participle.

t For the significations of the tenses see also 509, 511, 512, 513.

280 PARTICIPLES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES.

i. e. The pilot holds the tiller and sits at the stern.
Here ' tenens ' refers to present time, because ' sedet' is present.
Aranti Cincinnato nuntiiitum est eum dictatorem esse" factum
(C/c.), Word was brought to Cincinnatus ploughing that he
had been made dictator.

i. e. As Cincinnatus was ploughing, word was brought to him that
he had been made dictator.

Here 'arantl' refers to past time, because 'nuntiiitum est' is
past.

Croesus Halyn penetrans magnam pervortet opum vim (quoted
by Cic.), Croesus penetrating to the Halys will overturn a
mighty power.

i. e. When Croesus shall penetrate to the Halys, he will overturn
a mighty power.

Here 'penetrans' refers to future time, because 'pervortet' is
future.

The participle in enti is often best translated by the conjunctions
as, whilst, &c., with the proper tense of the indicative mood.

1266. The participle in enti is sometimes used where the act is
completed, but only just completed : as,

Romam veniens comitia edixit (Liv.), Immediately upon his
arrival at Rome he proclaimed the day for the election.

126/. Similarly the participle in enti is sometimes used when the
act has not yet begun but will commence forthwith : as,

Discedens in Italiam legatis imperat ut navls reficiendas curarent
(Caes.), Immediately before setting out for Italy he gives orders
to the lieutenants to have the ships repaired.

1268. The participle in two* is used by the best writers rarely
except in connection with the verbs es, be, and fu, be; with the
former to denote intention or destiny, with the latter to denote what
would have happened under a certain hypothesis.

1269' In Livy and the later writers it is often used at the end of
the main clause of a sentence with the same significations :-as,

Dilabuntur in oppida, moenibus se defensiiri (Liv.), They slip

* See 517 and 702-711.

PARTICIPLES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES. 281

away into different towns, intending to defend themselves by
means of fortifications.

DSdit mihi quantum potuit, daturus amplius si potuisset (PUn.
Ep.}, He gave me as much as he was able ; and would have
given me more, if he had been able.

12/0. The perfect participle in to had probably at first only an
active signification. It still retains this power in those verbs which
are called reflectives or deponents, and traces of it also appear in
the poetical construction : Stratus membra sub arbiito ( 892.).

1271. Still in the ordinary language the participle in to is nearly
always used as a passive, unless the verb whence it is formed be
employed exclusively as a reflective or a deponent*. Thus, with
scrib-ere, to write, we have scripto, written, being written, having
been written ; but with sequ-T, to follow, secuto, having followed.

12T2. At the same time there are not a few perfect participles
from reflective or deponent verbs which are at times used passively :
as,

Senectutem ut adipiscantiir omnes optant, eandem accusant
adeptam (Cic.), All pray that they may attain to old age, yet
abuse it when it is attained.

Virtus expertaf atque perspecta (Cic.), Merit that has been tried
and proved.

PartltoJ exercitu (Caes.~), Having divided his army.

Eversio exsecratae coluninae (Cie.), The overthrow of the ac-
cursed pillar .

1273. A few participles in to from deponents appear at times to
be used as imperfects : as, operate, feriato, uso, secuto, &c. Thus,

* Still there are exceptions. Cocnato is equivalent to quum coenavis-
st, and has nothing of the passive signification. Other exceptions are
pranso, poto, nupta, exoso, jurato, conjurato, adulto, &c. See also
392, 393.

t From experl-ri.

J Literally : His army having been divided.

Others are comltato, confesso, emenso, eme'rlto, pacto, perfuncto,
poptilato, &c.

282 PARTICIPLES AND VEKBAL SUBSTANTIVES.

Vidit se operatum (The.), He saw himself sacrificing (in a

dream) .
Conclamant socii laetam paeanli secuti (Virg.), His comrades

following pour forth the happy paean.

1274. The participle in to is at times used with the verb habe,
have, by which circumlocution a sort of perfect indicative of the
active voice is produced : as,

Habes jam statutum quid tibi agendum putes (Ctc.), You have at
last determined what course you deem it right to pursue.

Romani in Asia pecunias magnas collScatas habent (Cic.),
Romans have invested large sums of money in Asia*.

1275. The participle in to is used with the futures of the verbs
da, give, and redd, give lack, so as to form a future perfect ; but the
phrase further denotes that the act is done for another person :
as,

Sic stratas legiones Latlnorum dabo, quemadmbdum legatum
jacentem vidctis (Liv.~), I will lay the legions of the Latins low
for you, just as you see their ambassador lying on the ground.

Hoc ego tibi ecfectum reddam (Ter.), This I will effect for you.

1276. The participle in to in agreement with a substantive is
largely used, where the English language commonly prefers an abs-
tract noun. Thus :

Barbaras eum ob iram interfecti dSmini obtruncavit (Liv.), A

barbarian cut him down out of revenge for the murder of his

master.
Major ex clvibiis amissis dolor quam fusls hostibus fuit (Liv.~),

There was more sorrow for the loss of their fellow-countrymen

than delight at the rout of the enemy.
Ab condi'ta urbe ad Hberatam (Liv.), From the foundation of the

city to its liberation.
Post natos homines (Cic.), Since the creation of man.

* More literally : They have large sums invested. From this con-
struction arose the formation of the perfect in the languages derived froiu
the Latin.

PARTICIPLES AXD VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES. 283

127". The neuter nominative of the participle in to is occasionally
used as the subject of a verb. Thus :
Audltum oinnem exercitum proficiscl laetitiam ingentem fecit

(Z/if.), The hearing that the whole army were setting out caused

unbounded joy.
Degeneratum in aliis artlbus huic quoque decori offecit (Lir.),

His degeneracy in other qualities stood in the way of his credit

in this respect also.

1278. The ablative of the participle in to is used at times as an
ablative absolute with a whole sentence for its substantive : as,

Exposito quid miquitas loci posset (Cues.), Having explained to

them what consequences unfavourable ground could produce.
Edicto ut quicunque ad vallum tenderet pro hoste haberetiir (Liv.'),

Having proclaimed that whoever made for the entrenchment

would be dealt with as an enemy.
Permisso seu dlcere prius seu audire mallet, ita coepit (Liv.),

Permission having been given him to speak first or to listen, as

he preferred, he began thus.
Audlto Marcium in Ciliciam tendere (SaW.), Having heard that

Marcius was hastening into Cilicia.

1279. The ablative of the participle in to* is occasionally used
absolutely even without a noun : as,

X~n est peccatS mi ignosci aequom (Ter.), I am not entitled to
be forgiven if I offend (more literally : an offence having been
committed).

1280. An ablative of the participle in to, with or without a noun
in agreement, is used with opiis est f : as,

Xihil C-rat cur properato opiis esset (Cic.), There was no reason

why they need make haste.
Prius quam incipias, consulto ; et iibi consulueris mature facto

* Some ablatives of this kind have virtually become adverbs : as auspl-
cato, Ittato, &c.

t Usus est is found with the ablative of the participle in to in the
older writers. The construction is consistent with the use of the same
phrases hi connection with other ablatives. See 999.

284 PARTICIPLES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES.

opus est (Sail.), Before you commence, you must deliberate ;
and when you have deliberated, you must act with due haste.

1281. As the Latin language is for the most part without a par-
ticiple for the perfect active, the following circumlocutions are in
use:

a. The ablative absolute : as,

Hac parte copiarum aucta iterum cum Sablnis confligitur (Liv.),
Having increased this part of his forces, he engages again with
the Sabines.

b. Quum with the past perfect subjunctive, or tibi with the simple
perfect indicative : as,

Quum ab sede sua prosiluisset amoverlque ab altaribus juvenem
jussisset (Liv.~), Having lept down from his seat and ordered
the young man to be moved away from the altars.

Ubi eo venit, prope regium tribunal constitit (Liv.~), Having
arrived there, he posted himself near the king's tribunal.

c. An accusative of the perfect passive participle dependent upon
the main verb : as,

Gallum caesum* torque spbliavit (Liv.~), Having slain the Gaul
he stripped him of his golden collar.

1282. The participle in to is a perfect, and its tense or time de-
pends upon the verb which it accompanies. Thus,

a. Omnia quae dico de Plancio, dico expertus in nobis (Cic.),
All that I say about Plancius, I say having had trial of him in
my own family.

Here expertus is a present perfect, because dico is a present I
have had experience of his great worth, and therefore speak with
certainty.

6. Consecutus id quod ammo proposuerat, receptui cSni jussit
(Caes.), Having obtained what he had proposed to himself, he
ordered the signal for retreat to be sounded.
Here consecutus is a past perfect, because jussit is a past He
had obtained what he wished and so he sounded a retreat.

* Often a better translation is effected by two verbs : as, He slew him
and stripped him, &c.

PABTICIPLES AXD VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES. 285

c. Non admissi Karthaginem protmus Ibunt (Liv.), If not ad-
mitted, they will proceed straightway to Carthage.

Here admissl is a future perfect, because Ibunt is a future ; and
indeed if the conjunction si be used, the phrase will at once become :
si admissl non erunt. Thus the perfect participle which accom-
panies a future tense is far from expressing a fact.

1283. The participle in endo* appears to have been originally an
active imperfect participle like that in enti. Hence secundo, f. e.
sequendo or sequundo, following ; and oriundo, originating. It is
also active in the gerunds f. In all other cases it is passive.

1284. The neuter of this participle is a verbal substantive J ; it is
called a gerund, and is used in the nominative, accusative, genitive,
dative and ablative cases : as,

Norn. Juveni parandum, seni utendum est (Sen.), Earning belongs
to the young, using to the old man.

Ace. Homo ad intellegendum natus est (Cic.), Man is born to
understand.

Gen. Dicendl difflcultatem pertimescit (Cic.'), He dreads the diffi-
culty of speaking.

Deus bovem arandl causa fecit (Cic.}, God made the ox for
the purpose of ploughing.

Dat. Telum fodiendo acummatum (Plin.~), A weapon sharpened
for^digging.

Abl. Virtutes cernuntur in agendo (Cic.), The manly virtues are
seen in action.

1285. The gerund is followed by the same case as the verb to
which it belongs : as,

* Compare the German imperfect participle in end. Thus, if our views
be right, there was originally no passive participle. See 1270. Nay, it
is not improbable that the terminations enti and endo were originally the
same.

t It is not necessary or indeed correct to consider the gerund as pass-
ive in such a sentence as, Censendi causa conveneruut, ' They assembled
on account of the registering.' (Cic. Verr. Act. i. 18.) Compare the use of
the so-called supines.

J Precisely in the same way our own imperfect participle in ing has also
become a substantive, or rice versa.

286 PARTICIPLES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES,

Viam quam nobis quoque ingrediendum est (Cic.), The road

which we also have to travel.
Suo culque jQdicio xitendum est (Cic.), Each must use his own

judgement.
Dialectka est ars vera ac falsa dijudicandl (Cic.), Logic is the

art of distinguishing truth and falsehood.

1286. The gerund being a substantive may also have a genitive
after it (but this usage seems limited to the genitive of the gerund) :
as,

Rejiciundi trium judicum leges Corneliae faciunt potestatem
(Cic.), The Cornelian laws give the power of challenging* three
jurymen.

Ego ejus videndi cupidus (Ter.), I, desirous of seeing* her.

Sui purgandif causa (Cues.), For the sake of clearing* them-
selves.

1287. When a noun in the accusative J would accompany the
gerund, the construction is commonly altered so that this noun
takes the case of the gerund, and the gerund, changed to the parti-
ciple, takes the number and gender of the noun : as,

Diligentia colenda est nobis (Cic.), We must cultivate a habit of
precision.

Conjungo me cum hbmine magis ad vastandam Italiam quam
ad vincendum parato (Cic. ad Att. viii. 16), I am uniting my-
self with a man who is more prepared for devastating Italy than
concluding the war victoriously.

Neque res ullS quae ad placandos deos pertmeret praetermissa
est (Cic. in Cat. iii. 8, 20), Nor was anything omitted which
was thought likely to appease the gods.

* The insertion of the preposition of after these participles would make
the phrases vulgar, but a vulgar phrase is generally an old one.

f The pronominal genitives in i, even when they refer to a plural noun,
require that the gerund should be a genitive singular.

J The same construction is also admissible with the four reflective
verbs : ut, ' use ' ; fru, ' enjoy ' ; fung, ' discharge ' ; and poti, ' make one-
self master.'

All the best MSS. have vastandam and placandos, as Madvig has
pointed out ; not, as our editions, vastandum, placandum.

PARTICIPLES AXD VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES. 287

Inita sunt consilia urbis delendae, clvium triicidandorum, nornmis
Romani extinguendl (d'e.), Plans were formed for destroying
the city, butchering the citizens, extinguishing the Roman
nation.

1288. The two constructions of the neuter gerund with a noun
dependent upon it and the participle in agreement with the noun
are not to be used indifferently. The construction with the gerund
belongs to the older writers*, but still maintained its ground in
certain phrases +. In those which are commonly considered the
best writers, the construction with the participle was for the most
part preferred. Indeed, when the phrase is attached to a preposi-
tion governing the accusative, the participial construction is adopted
almost without exception.

1289- The use of the participle with the accusative is very com-
mon after the verbs loca, conduc, cura, redlm, da, suscip, &c. : as,
Monumentum el marmoreum faciendum locaruut (CYc.), They
placed the making a marble monument in his hands, t. e. They
contracted with him that he should build the monument.
Columnam conduxerat faciendam (C/c.), He had undertaken the

erection of a pillar, cr He had contracted to erect.
Pontem in Arari faciendum curat (Caes.), He has a bridge built

over the Arar.

12QO. The participle is often omitted in these phrases for the sake
of brevity : as,

* Plautus, Terentius, Lucretius, &c.

Madvig has carefully examined this question in his Opuscula, i. 380, &c.
He there points out that in the phrase ad occupandum VSsontionem (Caes.
B. G. L 38) there is no violation of the rule, Yesontionem being mascu-
culinc like Narbo Martius in the same country.

f Thus if the noun be a neuter pronoun or adjective, the accusative is
preferred, to avoid the ambiguity about gender which would exist in the
other cases : as,

Trlbuendo suum cuique (Sail.). By allotting to every man what belongs
to him.

Mori maluit falsnm fStendo (CVe.), He preferred to die through con-
fessing a falsehood.

288 PARTICIPLES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES.

SI Rhodiis turpe non est portorium IScare*, ne Hermacreontl
quidem turpe est conducere (Czc.) (where exigendum must be
understood), If it is not disgraceful in the Rhodians to let the
port dues, neither is it disgraceful in Herraacreon to farm
them.

Anseribus clfbaria locantur (i. e. praebenda understood) (Cic.),
The providing food for the geese is farmed out.

1291. This construction is used with imperare, the participle
being always omitted : as,

Equites imperat civitatibus (t. e. cogendos understood) (Caes.),
He imposes -f- upon the states the providing horse-soldiers, or
He commands them to provide him with cavalry.

12Q2. The genitive of the participle in endo is used with a sub-
stantive J to denote a tendency, fitness or purpose, more particularly
in connection with the verb es, be : as,

Quae diutmae obsidionis tolerandae sunt (Lit'.), Whatever is of
use for supporting a long blockade.

Quae temere agitaverant, ea prodendi imperil Roman!, tradendae
Hannibal! victoriae Grant (Liv.~), The hasty measures they had
taken tended to sacrifice the Roman empire and betray the vic-
tory into the hands of Hannibal.

Cetera in dubdecim tabulis minuend! sunt sumptus (Cz'c.), The
other regulations in the twelve tables have for their object a
diminution of expense.

Arma cepit, non pro sua injfiria, sed legum ac libertatis subver-
tendae (Sail.), He has taken up arms, not to avenge any
wrong done to himself, but to upset our laws and our liberties.

* Hence the connection between the two significations of IScarS, to
place and to let, the latter alone surviving in the French loiter.

t That this is the literal translation of impera is consistent with the
translation of separa, dispara, compara, appiira, put apart, in different
places, together, before a person.

J Particularly by Livy.

This construction is commonly explained, but whether rightly is
doubtful, by an ellipsis of causa. It often occurs in Tacitus.

PARTICIPLES AXD VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES. 289

1293. The dative* also of the participle or gerund in endo is used
with a substantive to denote fitness or purpose : as,

Quasi firmandae valetudmi in Campaniam concessit (The.), He

retired into Campania as if to improve his health.
Qui oneri ferendo erant (Lie.), Such as were capable of bearing

the burden.
Nee solvendo aeri alieno respublica erat (Z,ip.), Nor was the

state in a condition to pay its debts.
Decemviros agro Samniti metiendo dlvldendoque creat (Liv.), He

appoints ten commissioners for the purpose of measuring and

dividing the Samnite territory f.

1294. The simple ablative of the gerund is used at times in such
a manner that the nominative of the ordinary imperfect participle
might be substituted for it : as,

Miscendo* consilium precesque, nunc orabant ne se exulare pa-
teretur, nunc monebant ne morem pellendi reges Tnultum sine-
ret (Lie.), Mixing advice and entreaties together, they one
moment begged him not to suffer them to remain in exile, an-
other warned him not to leave the practice of expelling kings
unpunished.

1295. The construction of the participle in endo with the verb
es, be, in the sense of duty, is only a particular case of what has
been already noticed in 961, and the dative of the person in fact
belongs to the verb es rather than to the participle . Thus,

* Tacitus has even the ablative in this sense : explendii simulfitione.
.Ann. xiv. 4.

t The last three phrases are common. See 983.

J Equivalent to miscentes. It is probably to this use of the gerund
that the Italian and Spanish languages are indebted for their imperfect
participle in ndo.

So in such a phrase as, legionem in Mortnos ducendam Fabio dgdit
the dative Fabio is dependent not upon duceudam, but upon dedit ; and,
again, the accusative after dSdit is not legionem, but legionem ducendam,
the duty of conducting the legion. But although the dative case commonly
accompanies the participle in endo, yet there are occasional examples even
in Cicero where ah and the ablative occur, especially when the verb takes

290 PARTICIPLES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES.

Ut tibi ambiilanduro, ungendum, sic mihi dormiendum (est*)
(Cic.), As you must walk and anoint yourself, so I must sleep,
which would be more literally translated,

As walking and anointing belong to you, so does sleeping to
me.

1296. The frequent use of the participle in endo with es, be, in
the sense of duty or fitness^, led the mind at last to attach the no-
tion of duty to the participle itself, so that the latter is at times
used as an equivalent of an adjective in bili. Thus,

Philosophia laudandarum omnium artium procreatrix (Cic.},
Philosophy the parent of every praiseworthy accomplishment.

1297. These phrases denoting duty at the same time refer com-
monly to the future time % for the performance of the act ; and in-
deed generally, as the participle in endo is strictly an imperfect, the
completion of the act must belong to future time. Hence the idea
of futurity gradually attached itself to the participle, and gramma-
rians have given it, though inaccurately, the name of a future par-
ticiple. That it is truly an imperfect is well seen in such phrases
as,

Inter agendum (Virg.~), While driving.

In patria delenda occupati sunt et fuerunt (Cic.), They are and
have been for some time occupied in blotting out their father-
land from the face of the world.

a dative of its own, and a second dative in the sense of the agent would
cause ambiguity. Tims, Quibus ft vobis consulendum est (Cic.), Whose
interests you must consult.

* Est mihi admits the translation / have, and precisely in the same way,
est mihi ambiilandum may be well translated by / have to walk. Thus the
origin of the dative in this phrase is without difficulty.

f The notion of possibility is sometimes expressed by the participle in
endo, but it occurs in the best writers only with a negative or vix : as,
Vix ferendus dolor (Cic.), A pain scarcely to be endured. For the use of
this participle with fu, be, in hypothetical sentences, see 715, 716, 719,
721.

J Compare also the very common phrases, such as, praefectos frumenti j
petendi causa dlmlsit (Caes.), In clvitates quemquC suas ad sollidtandos ;
popularium animos dimlsit (Liv.).

PARTICIPLES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES. 291

1293. The verbal adjective in bundo is sometimes found with an
accusative as though it were a participle : as,

Vitabuodus castra hostium (Lw.), Carefully avoiding the enemy's
camp.

1299. The verbal substantive in tu is used in the accusative* after
verbs of motion to denote the object : as,

Ad Caesarem gratulatum venerunt (Caes.\ They came to Caesar

to congratulate him.
Quinque cohortis frumentatum raisit (Caes.), He sent five cohorts

to get corn.
Id rescltum iri credit (Ter.), He believes that people are going to

find it out, or He believes that it will be found out.

1300. It governs the same case as the verb from which it is de-
rived : as,

Oratores pacem petltum mittunt (Lir,~), They send ambassadors
to seek peace.

Legatos mittunt rogatum auxflium (Caes.), They send ambassa-
dors to ask aid.

1301. The verbal substantive in tu is used in the ablative with
certain adjectives : as,

Difficile dictu est (Cic.), It is difficult to say (literally, in the

saying) .
Optumum factu est (CYc.), It is the best thing to do.

1302. The verbal in tion sometimes governs the same case as the
verb from which it is derived : as,

Justitia est obtemperatio scriptis legibus (Cic.), Justice is obedi-
ence to written laws.

Domum reditionis spes sublata est (Caes.), The hope of returning
home was taken away.

* This accusative of the verbal in tu is often called the supine active,
and the ablative of the same, the supine passive ; bat there is nothing
passive in the latter, and therefore the distinction is inappropriate. A
similar error exists in our own language in the foolish practice now be-
ginning to prevail of saying, a house to be let, instead of a house to let.

292 PREPOSITIONS.

1303. PREPOSITIONS.

Ab (or a before some consonants) seems to have signified origi-
nally proximity ; and hence it was well suited to denote the quarter
from which an action commenced, and therefore the source and
origin of things. Thus it signifies :

a. The quarter at or near which, expressed by at, in, on, &c. : as,
A fronte et ab sinistra parte nudatis castris (Caes.), The camp

being laid bare in front and on the left.
Gallia ab Sequams et Helvetiis adtingit Rhenum (Ceres.), Gallia

reaches to the Rhine at the parts occupied by the Sequani and

Helvetii.
Duo maria ab occasu et ortii solis flnitlma Isthmus dlrimlt (Liv.~),

The Isthmus divide^ two adjoining seas on the west and the

east.
A miitre Pompeium arctissimo contingebat gradu (Suet.'), He

was very nearly related to Pompey on the mother's side.
Apud socrum tuam prope a meis aedibus sedebas (Cic.), You

were sitting at your mother-in-law's near my house.
6. With the verb sta, stand, &c. by, on the side of, in favour of :
as,

Nemo a senatu et bonorum causa stetit constantius (Cic.}, No

one stood more firmly by the senate and the cause of good

men.
Hoc nihflo magis ab advorsariis quam a nobls facit (Cic.'), This

tells not more for our opponents than for us.
Vide ne hoc totum sit a me (Cic.), Have a care lest the whole of

this argument be in my favour.

c. In, in respect of, in point of, as regards : as,

Siimus enim imparati, cum a niilftibus turn a pecunia (Cic.'), For
we are indeed unprepared, not merely in point of troops, but
even of money.

Ant5niiis ab equitatu firmus dicebatiir (Cic.), Antony was said to
be strong in cavalry.

d. The department in which the services of an officer or servant
are called for, and thus arises a name for the office : as,

AB. 293

Homines habet quds ab epistolls et llbellis et ratiombiis appellat

(Tac.), He has persons whom he calls secretaries, registrars,

accountants.
Phflemonem, a manu servum, simpllci morte puniit (Suet.), His

amanuensis Philemon he punished by simply putting to death.
Antiochus Ti. ClaudI Caesaris a bibliotheca (Inscr.), Antiochus,

librarian to Tiberius Claudius Caesar.

e. At, in reference to time : as,

Summissiis a prlm5, post exsultavit audacius (Cic.), Subdued at
first, he afterwards burst out in a bolder style.

f. From, the point of departure : as,

Maturat ab urb proficisci (Caes.), He hastens to set out from
the city.

Ab Roma legati venerunt (Liv.), Ambassadors came from Rome.

g. With, after verbs signifying commencement : as,

Caedis imtium a me fecisset (C/c.), He would have made a be-
ginning of the massacre with me.

Ab his sermo 8ritur, respondet Laelius (Cic.), With these the
conversation commences, Laelius replies.

h. From, the commencement of time : as,

Ab hora septima ad vesperum pugnatum est (Caes.), The battle
continued from one o'clock until evening.

Tuas epistolas a prlmo lego (Cic.), I am reading your letters from
the beginning.

Quibiis a pueris dediti sumus (Cic.), To which we have been de-
voted from our boyhood*.

i. From, the commencement of a series : as,

Carneades est quartus ab Arcesfla (Cic.), Carneades is fourth in
the line from Arcesilas.

j. Immediate succession of time, translated by with, after : as,

Ab his praeceptis contionem dimisit (Liv.), With these injunc-
tions he dismissed the assembly.

Ab hoc sermone profectus est (Liv.), Immediately after this con-
versation he set out.

* Literally from boys, an idiom which agrees with our own.

294 PREPOSITIONS.

Jc. With verbs signifying to pay, the source whence the money
proceeds : as,

Tibi quod debet, ab Egnatio solvet (Ctc.), What he owes you he

will pay by a draught on Egnatius.
Re'liquam pSciiniam a Faberio repraesentabrmus (Ctc.), The rest

of the money we will pay at once by drawing on Faberius.
I. With personal pronouns and the names of persons, from their
house : as,

Unde est? A vobis (Ter.), Where did it come from? From your

master's.
Ab Andriast ancilla haec (Ter.), This maid servant is from the

Andrian woman's house.
Haec cistella, numnam hinc ab nobls domo est? (Plant.), This

box, pray did it come from our house here ?
m. A motive, from, out of, in consequence of: as,
Tanto ardorS militum est usus ab Tra inter conditiones pacis in-

terfectae stationis (Liv.), He was so warmly supported by his

soldiers, from their anger at the troops on guard having been

killed during a negociation.
Non a cupiditate solum ulciscendi Sgrum nostrum invadent (Liv.~),

Not merely from the desire of revenge will they invade our ter-
ritory.

n. The agent with passive verbs, expressed by the preposition ly.
as,

Ab sociis unice diligebatur (Cic.), He was most highly esteemed

by his colleagues.
Liberis suis a servo interfectis (Czc.), His children having been

killed by a slave.

o. What is considered as an agent, with intransitive verbs : as,
Mare a sole collucet (Ctc.), The sea is made a mass of light by the

sun.
Nihll est valentiiis, a quo intereat (Cic.), There is nothing stronger

than (itself) by which it may be destroyed.
p. Removal, separation, distance, expressed commonly by from:
as,

AB, AD. 295

Ab delectatione omni negotils impedimur (Cic.), We are prevented
from taking any amusement by business.

Proxlmus a tectls ignis defenditur aegre (Or.), An adjoining fire
is warded off from buildings with difficulty.

Ab inimicorum auddcia ttlisque vltam defendere (Cic.), To defend
our lives against the audacity and weapons of our enemies.

Ipse ab horum turpitudine abhorrebat (Cic.), He himself turned
away in horror from the baseness of these men.

MilTa passuum tria ab eorura castris castra ponit (Caes.), He
pitches his camp three miles from their camp.

q. Ab is sometimes placed before the measure of the distance, in-
stead of the place measured from : as,

Ab milfbus passuum octo vento tenebantur (Caes.), They were
detained by the wind three miles off.

Pusitis castris a miKbus passuum quindeciia auxilia expectare
constltuunt (Caes.), Having encamped at a distance of fifteen
miles they resolve to wait for the allied troops*.

1304. In composition with verbs ab denotes removal, disappear-
ance, absence: as, aufer, ' carry away '; abut (r.), 'use up'; abes,
' be absent.'

In composition with adjectives ab denotes absence, difference : as,
amenti or ament, ' without mind, mad * ; absono, ' out of tune or
time.'

1305. Ad signifies a. Motion to (i.e. up to, not into): as,
Exercitum ad Casflinum ducit (iir.), He leads his army to (the

walls of) Casilinum.
Munitionem ad flumen perduxerat (Caes.), He had carried the

fortification to the (bank of the) river.
6. To what time : as,
Ad Id dubios servarant animos (Lit-.), Up to that time they had

kept their minds in a state of doubt,
c. To what extent : as,
Omnes ad unum idem sentiunt (Cic.), They have all to a man the

same feeling.

* See Matthiae's Greek Grammar, Trausl. ii. 878, OTTO oraciuv rer-
TapaKovra. -Fjs QaXarri}?.

296 PREPOSITIONS.

Servi ad quattuor milia hominum Capitolium occupiivere (Liv.~),
The slaves to the number of 4000 men seized the Capitol.

Incautos ad satietatem triicidabitis (Liv.), Unprepared as they
will be, you will butcher them till you are tired.

Ad* viginti matronis per viatorem accitis (Liv.), As many as
twenty ladies having been summoned by the messengers.

d. Direction, to, towards : as,

Via ad Casilinum obsessa (Liv.), The road to Casilinum being

occupied by the enemy.
Vergit ad septemtriones (Caes.), It inclines to the north.

e. Purpose, for : as,

Multa sunt animadversa herbarum genera ad morsus bestiarum
(Cic.), Many kinds of herbs have been discovered for the bites
of beasts.

Pe'cuniae ad ludos decernuntur (Cic.), Money is voted for the
games.

Palus Romanos ad insequendum tardabat (Cae.), The marsh
made the Romans slow to pursue.

/. To, in reply : as,

Ad ilia quae me magis moverunt respondebo (Cic.~), 1 will reply
to those other points which moved me more.

g. In respect of, looking to : as,

Vir ad usum peritus, ad fortunam felix (Cic.), A man of experi-
ence as regards the world, and favoured in respect to fortune.

h. In addition to : as,

Ad cetera vulnera haric quoque plagam inflixerat (Liv.), In addi-
tion to the other wounds he had inflicted this blow also.

Ad hoc promissa barba et capilli efferiiverant speciem oris (Liv.~),
In addition to this a long beard and long hair had given a
savage character to his face.

i. By, of future time : as,

Nos hie te ad mensem Januarium expectamiis (Cic.), We expect
to see you here by the month of January.

* In this usage the numeral alone depends upon the preposition, the
substantive adapting its case to the rest of the sentence.

AD. 297

Nescio quid intersit iitrum nunc veniam, an ad decem annos (Cic.),
I know not what it matters, whether I come now or ten years
hence.

j. Near, before, off, to, over (all in the sense of nearness) : as,
Ad Geronium constiterat helium (Lie.), Before Geronium the war

had come to a standstill.
Classi ad Ostiam stanti praeerat (Lit;.), He commanded the fleet

stationed off Ostia.
Canunt ad tlbiam clarorum virorum laudes (Cic.), They sing the

praises of great men to the flute.
Nonnunquam ad vlnum dlserti sunt (Cic.), They are sometimes

eloquent over their wine.

i. In comparison to, by the side of: as,

Nihfl ad nostram hanc (Ter.), Nothing to this one of ours.

Terra ad unlversl caell complexum quasi puncti instarhabet (Cic.),
The earth, compared to what the whole heavens embrace, is as
it were but a point*.

/. In accordance with, after : as,

Cato vltam ad certain rationis nonnam dmgit (Cic.), Cato shapes
his life by the strict square of reason.

Vixlt ad aliorum arbltrium, non ad suom (Cic.), He has lived ac-
cording to the pleasure of others, not his own.

m. Among, before (in the same sense as apud) : as,

Minus cladis, ceterum non plus animorum ad hostis erat (Ltr.),

There was less loss, but not more confidence among the enemy.
SSnatorum siiperbiam ad plebem crimmantur (Lit-.), They attack

the tyranny of the senators before the commonalty.

n. Immediately upon, in consequence of, at : as,

Ad famam obsidionis delectus haberi coeptiis est (Lir.), At the
report of a siege, a levy of troops was commenced.

Xec ad diicis casum perculsa magis quam irritata est multitude
(Lie.), And the great mass of the men were not so much panic-
struck as roused at the accident to their chief.

* Literally, holds the similarity of a point.
o 5

298 PREPOSITIONS.

o. Before a personal pronoun or proper name, to the house of the
person : as,

Magni domum concursus ad Afriinium* flebant (Caes.), Great

crowds kept flocking to the house of Afranius.
Neque domum unquam ad me litteras mittam quin adjungam eas

quas tibi reddl velim (Cic.), Nor shall I ever send letters to my

own house, without adding to the packet a letter for you.
Devertit Clodiiis ad se (Cic.), Clodius turns out of the road to

his own house.

p. With a noun denoting the department in which a servant's
offices are looked for, whence arises a name for the office (see ab,
1303d.): as,

Licmum servom sibi habuit ad manum (Cic.), He had a slave

Licinus for his amanuensis.
Puer quis ex aula capillis ad cySthum statuetur unctis (Hor.),

What youth from the palace with perfumed locks shall be

stationed beside the wine-ladle.

1306. Ad in composition with verbs denotes a. motion to : as,
acced, step up to ; ascend, climb after. b. addition : as, acced, be
added ; ascrib, enroll with. c. nearness -. as, asside, sit near ; adjace,
lie near. d. assent, favour : as, annu, nod assent ; arride, smile on ;
acclama, express assent by acclamation, cheer, e. near completion :
as, accid, cut all but through ; atter, rub nearly through ; adur, burn
nearly up ; aded, eat nearly up ; afflci, almost exhaust, f. at, in con-
sequence of: as, arrig, raise (on hearing or seeing anything).

1307. Adversus or -urn (old form advorsus or -um) is the literal
translation of our to-wards. It denotes :

a. Motion towards : as,

Quis est haec quae me advorsum incedit ? (Plaut.), Who is this

woman, that is coming towards me ?
Impetum adversus montem in cohortis faciunt (Caes.~), They

make a charge upf the mountain upon the cohorts.

* And this phrase is used although Afranius himself was in Spain at the
time. See 1303 1.

f He who goes up a mountain goes/<zem$r it. Compare the use of the
ablative absolute adverso monte ire, and 1320*.

AD, ADVERSUS, AM. 299

b. Opposite, facing, before (without motion) : as,

Lero et Lerlna adversus Antipolim, Lero and Lerina opposite

Antipolis.
Egone ut te advorsum mentiar, mater mea ! (Plant.), I tell a

falsehood before you, mother !

c. Conduct towards (good or bad, friendly or unfriendly) r as,
Quomodo me geram adversus Caesarem ? (Cic.), How am I to

bear myself before Caesar ?

Id gratum fuisse advorsum te, habeo gratiam (Ter.), That this
was pleasing to you, I feel grateful.

d. To counteract, against : as,

Sunt tamen quaedam remedia propria adversus quaedam venena
(Cels.~), There are however certain specific remedies against
certain poisons.

e. At variance with, in opposition to : as,

Pecuniae conciliatae adversus leges, adversus rempublTcam (Cic.),
Money obtained in opposition to the law, in opposition to the
interests of the country.

/. Advorsum is used adverbially with i, go, &c. and a dative of
the person : as,

Cesso hero meo advorsum Ire? (Plant.), Why do I not at once
go to meet my master ?

1308. Am, rarely if ever used except in composition, when it
signifies, a. with verbs, round : as, anqulr, look round for ; amplect,
come into contact all round, embrace ; am-bur, burn round, singe ;
amb-ed, eat round; amputa, cut round, b. in adjectives, on both
sides: as, ancip or ancipit, two-headed; ampora (a jar), with two
ears or handles.

1309. Ante. a. Before in place : as,

Immolabat ante praetorium (Cic.), He was sacrificing before his
tent.

Ante tribunal tuom M. Fanni, ante pedes vostros judices, caedes
erunt (Cic.), Before your tribunal, Marcus Fannius, before
your feet, gentlemen of the jury, will murders be committed.

6. The same without a case : as,

Fliivius ab tergo, ante circaque velut ripa praeceps, oram tumuli

300 PREPOSITIONS.

omnem cingebat (Liv.), A river in the rear, in front and on the
sides, a sort of precipitous bank shut in the whole circuit of the
eminence.

c. Before a person (rare) : as,

Dlcere causam ante judicera (Cic.), To defend a cause before a
judge.

d. Motion forward (without a noun) : as,

Ut si aut manibus ingrediatur quis, aut non ante sed retro (Cic.),
As if a person were to walk upon his hands, or to walk, not
forwards, but backwards.

e. Before in order : as,

Quern ante me dlligo (Cic.), Whom I esteem above myself.

/. Before in time (which is the ordinary meaning of the word) :
as,

Multo ante noctem copias reduxit (Liv.), Long before night he

led the forces back.

g. Before in time without a noun : as,
Et feci ante et facio nunc (Cic.), I have done so before, and I do

so now.
Faucis ante diebiis oppidura obpugnarant (Liv.), A few days

before they had assaulted the town.
Anno ante quam mortuus est (Cic.), The year before he died.

h. The preposition often causes this ablative to be changed for an
accusative, as if it depended upon the preposition. Thus,

Chalcidem dies ante paucos prodiderat (Liv.), He had betrayed

Chalcis a few days before.
Sulci ante annum flunt quam vmeta conseruntiir (Colum.), The

furrows are made a year before the vines are planted.
Latlnae feriae fuere ante diem tertium nonas Maias (Liv.), The

Latin festival was two days before the. nones of May, t. e. the

5th of May.

t. Hence another preposition may be placed before ante : as,
Caedem contiilit in ante diem quintum kalendas Novembrls (Cic.),

He fixed the massacre for the fifth day before the kalends of

November, i. e. October the 28th.

ANTE, APCD.

301

Supplicatio indicta est ex ante diem quintum Idus Octobrls cum
eo die in quinque dies (Liv.), A thanksgiving was proclaimed
to continue from the fifth day before the ides of October inclu-
sive for five days, t. e. from the llth to the 15th of October.

1310. Ante in composition with verbs signifies before, in place,
time and excellence : as, ante-i, walk before, live before, surpass ;
ante-ced, precede in place, in time, in quality.

1311. Apiid (aput) is for the most part limited to persons. It
denotes

a. Near, with places (rarely) : as,

Apiid oppidum Cybistra castra feel (Cic.), I encamped near the

town Cybistra.
Apud forum modo e Davo audlvi (Ter.), I heard it just now from

Davus near the forum.
Civicam coronam apud Britanniam meritiis Srat (Tac.*), He had

earned a civic crown in Britain.

b. Near, with persons : as,

In lecto Crassus erat, e"t apud eum Sulplcius sedebat (Cic.),
Crassus was on the couch, and near him Sulpicius was sitting.

Apud exerdtum est (Cic.), He is with the army.

AVet animus apud illud conslliurn dicere (Cfc.), My soul longs
to speak before that bench of judges.

c. At the house of & person f, even though he be away : as,
Brutum apud me fuisse gaudeo (Cic.), I rejoice (to hear) that

Brutus has been at my house.

Domi esse apud sese archlplratas dixit duos (Cic.), There were
at his house, he said, two of the chief pirates.

d . Metaphorically ' i one's senses ' : as,

Non sum apud me (Ter.), I am all abroad, am lost, am out of my

senses.
Proin tii fac apud te ut sies (Ter.}, Do you then at once take care

you have all your wits about you.

* This use of apud with the names of countries is almost peculiar to
Tacitus.

t See 1303 /, 1305 o.

302

PREPOSITIONS.

e. In the time of: as,

Apud patres nostros (Cic.), Among our fathers, i. e. in the times

of our fathers.

Apud saeclum prixis (Ter.), In the preceding generation.
/. In the mind : as,

Praemia apud me mmumum valent (Cic.), Rewards with me have
very little weight.

Apud viros bonos gratiam consecuti sumus (Cic.), We have ob-
tained influence with good men.

g. In authors : as,

Ut ille apud Terentium (Cic.), Like the old man in Terence.

De sepulcris nihil est apud Solonem amplius quam.... (Cic.), On
the subject of sepulchres there is nothing in the laws of Solon
more than ....

1312. Ar (of the same meaning as ad), rarely if ever used except
in composition*, and then it signifies a. to: as, arcess and arci,
call to (you), send for ; arvbca, call to ; arvola, fly to ; arvena, one
lately arrived, a stranger. b. presence : as, arbitero, a person present,
a witness, umpire, judge ; arfu, be present-^ (whence arfuit).

1313. Circa, a. About, round, in reference to place : as,
Custodes circa omnis portas missl ne quis urbe egrederetur (Liv.),

Guards were sent round to all the gates to prevent any one from
leaving the city.
Canes circa se habebat (Cic.), He had dogs about him.

b. The same without a noun : as,

Liipa sitiens ex montibus qui circa sunt ad puerilem vagitum
cursum flexit (Liv.), A thirsty wolf out of the mountains which
lie around, upon hearing the crying of a child changed its
course.

c. About, as to time : as,

Postero die circa eandem horam copias admovit (Liv.), The next
day about the same hour he brought up his troops.

* But see Plaut. True. ii. 2, 7.

f The same preposition appears to exist in the Gallic term Ar-mor-ica,
near the sea.

APUD, AB, CIECA, CIS. 303

d. About, as to number : as,

Deinde per insequentis dies circa singiilas hemmas emittendum
(Cefo.), Then during the following days about an hemina is to
be drawn off each day.

e. Abou t, concerning, in reference to (chiefly in the later writers) : as,
Hi circa consilium eligendi successorls in duas facti5nes scinde-

bantur (Tac.), These were divided into two parties upon the
question of electing a successor.

1314. Circiter. a. About, as regards place (rare) : as,

Ut opinor, haec loca circiter excidit mihi (Plant.'), It fell out of

my hands, as I think, somewhere about this spot,
i. About, as to time : as,
Circiter idus Sextllis puto me ad Ic5nium fore (Cic.), I calculate

that I shall be in the neighbourhood of Iconium about the ides

of Sextilis, i. e. August 13th.

c. About, as to number (the chief use of the word) : as,
Dies circiter quindecim iter fecerant (Coe*.), They marched for

about fifteen days.

1315. Circum, round, whether in rest, or circular or other mo-
tion : as,

Terra circum axem se convertit (Cic.), The earth turns round its

axis.
Ex ea turn quae circum essent opera tueri se posse confisi sunt

(Caes.), From this tower they felt confident that they should

be able to defend the works which lay around.
Pueros circum amlcos dimittit (Cic.), He sends the sen-ants

round to his friends.
Paucae, quae circum illam essent, manent (Ter.), A few women

remain to wait upon that lady.

1316. Cis. a. On this side of, within, as regards place : as,
Saepe ab his cis Padum ultraque legiones fusae erant (Lie.), The

legions had been often routed by them on this side of the Pad us
and beyond it.

b. Within, in regard to time (only in Plautus) : as,
Nulla, faxim, cis dies paucos siet (Plaut.), I would make it dis-
appear within a few days.

304 PREPOSITIONS.

1317. Cis in the composition of adjectives signifies on this side of:
as, Cisalpino, cisrhenano, cispadano, on this side the Alps, the Rhine,
the Po.

1318. Citra. a. Chi this side of, within, as regards place : as,
Erat enim cum suis navlbus citra Veliam milia passuum tria

(Cic.), For he was in fact with his fleet three miles on this
side Velia.

b. The same without a noun : as,

Tela hostium citra cadebant (The.), The missiles of the enemy
fell short.

c. Within, as to time : as,

L5cTs ullgmosis citra kalendas Octobris semmare convenit
(Colum.), On wet lands it is right to sow before the 1st of
October.

d. Short of, in degree : as,

Peccavl citra scelus (Ov.), My guilt is short of impiety.

1319. Clam and the diminutive clarciilum are used only before
persons, in the sense of without their knowledge :

a. With an accusative : as,

Sibi mine uterque contra legiones parat
Paterque filiusque clam alter alterum (Plant.),
Against each other now are they preparing armies,
Both sire and son, each unknown to each.

Alii clanciilum patres quae faciunt (Ter.), What others do with-
out their fathers' knowledge.

ft. With an ablative : as,

Empta est clam uxore et filio (Plaut.), She has been purchased
unknown to his wife and son.

c. They are often used adverbially without a substantive.

1320. Contra, a. Overagainst , facing : as,

Quinctius trans Tiberim contra eum locum libi nunc mlvalia sunt,
quattuor jiige'rum colebc y it agrum (Liv.), Quinctius was culti-
vating a farm of but four jugers on the other side of the Tiber,
opposite the spot where the dockyard now is.

Aspice dum contra me (Plant.), Just look me in the face.

CIS, CITRA, CLAM, CONTRA, COKAM, CUM. 305

5. Up*: as,

Ducenaria duo hiimeris contra scalas ferebat (Plin.), He would
carry two two-hundred weights up stairs on his shoulders.

c. Metaphorically, opposition, against : as,

Res Romana contra spem votaque ejus resurgebat (Lit.), The
power of Rome was rising again contrary to his hope and his
prayers.

d. Towards, of the feelings or behaviour : as,

Elephant! tanta narratur dementia contra minus val!d5s ut, &c.
(Plin.), The kindness of the elephant towards the weak is said
to be so great that, &c.

e. The reverse (with or without a case) : as,

In stultitia contra est (Cic.), In folly it is just the reverse.
Quod contra in plerisque fit (Cic.), Whereas the contrary of this

takes place with most people.

/. Weighed against (and with a dative case apparently) : as,
Non carus est auro contra (Plaut.), He is not dear at his weight

in gold.

1321. Coram. a. In the presence of, only before persons : as,
Mihi ipsi coram genero meo quae dicere ausus es ? (Cic.), Even

to me, in the presence of my son-in-law, what language did
you dare to use :

Preces ad vos converto, disque et patriti coram obtestor (The.),
I turn my prayers to you, and before the gods and my country
implore you.

6. Frequently without a substantive : as,

Quasi tecum coram loquerer (Cic.), As if I had been talking with
you face to face.

1322. Cum. a. With, chiefly in the case of persons : as,
Vagamiir egentes cum conjiigibus et liberis ( Cic.), We wander

about in poverty with our wives and children.
Tecum esse vehementer velim (Cic.), I should be most delighted
to be with you.

* Because he who moves facing the stairs ascends them. See advor-
um, 1307 a.

306 PREPOSITIONS.

i. A relation between two parties is expressed by the dative of
the chief party and ' cum ' with the other : as,

Tecum mihi res est (Cic.), My dealings are with you.
Intercedunt mihi inimicitiae cum istius mulieris viro (Cz'c.),

There is a disagreement existing between me and the husband

of that woman.

c. With or in, in the sense of wearing : as,

Coenavit cum toga pulla (Cic.), He dined in a black toga.
Ipse esse cum telo (Sail.), He himself went about armed.

d. Two nouns are at times united by cum, so as to l^ ? e a com-
mon predicate attached to them : as,

CTmTni cum monte lacum (Fm/.)> The lake and mountain of

Ciminus.
Ipse dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntiir (Liv.), The general

himself with a considerable number of the leading men are

taken.
Pedem cum voce repressit (Fire/.), He checked his foot, and

checked his voice.
Induit albos cum vitta crlnls (Virg.), She puts on locks and fillet

white alike.
A'bin hinc in malam rem cum suspicione istac scelus (Ter.), Go

and be hanged you and your suspicions, you scoundrel.

e. With, denoting coincidence of time : as,

Summi puerorum saepe una cum praetexta ponuntiir (Cic.), The
strongest attachments of boys are often laid aside together with
(at the same time as) the praetexta.

Pariter cum ortu solis castra metabatur (Sail.), Precisely as the
sun was rising he was measuring out a camp.

/. With, in, &c., to express accompanying feelings, circum-
stances : as,

Athenienses cum silentio auditl sunt (Liv.), The Athenians were

heard in silence.
Flammil corpus magnii cum cura inquisltura non invenit (Liv.),

The body of Flaminius he made search after with the greatest

care, but did not find it.

CUM, COM. 307

g. The immediate consequences, expressed by to : as,

Venit Lampsacura cum magna calamitate et prope pernlcie cm-
tatis (Cic.}, He came to Lampsacum* to the great damage and
all but ruin of the citizens.

h. With, in comparisons : as,

Conferte hanc pacem cum illo bello (Cic.), Compare this peace
with that war.

Cum meum factum cum tu5 compare (Cic.), When I compare my
conduct with yours.

i. With, in the sense of against, with verbs denoting contest : as,

Cum omnibus salutis meas defensoribus bella gerunt (Cic.), They
wage war with all who defend my life and fortunes.

Hannibal de imperio cuin populo Romano certavit (Cic.), Han-
nibal contended for empire with the Roman people.

j. Cum eo, followed by ut and a subjunctive, is employed to ex-
press an addition or qualification : as,

Lanuvinis sacra sua reddita, cum eo lit aedes Junonis communis
Lanuvlnis cum populo Romano esset (Liv.), To the people of
Lanuvium their sacred property was restored, on the condition
that the temple of Juno should be in common between the
burgesses of Lanuvium and the people of Rome.

Unum gaudium affulserat, cum eo lit appareret haud prSctil exitio
fuisse classem (Liv.), One joy had shone upon them, together
with the certainty that the fleet had been at one time on the
verge of destruction.

1323. Cum or com in composition with verbs signifies a. union :
as, concurr, run together ; co-i, meet ; consul (sit together), delibe-
rate, b. completeness (in the way of destruction) : as, corned, eat
up ; corn-bur, burn up ; contund, hammer to pieces ; confici, dispatch ;
concld, cut to pieces, c. completeness (in the way of success) : as,
confici, make up ; consequ (r.), overtake, obtain ; consecta (r.), hunt
down. d. with a great effort : as, conic or conjic, hurl ; conclama, cry
out loudly ; colloca, place icith care ; concuti, shake violently com-

* Lampsacum, not Lampsacus, is the nominative in Cicero. See Verr
L24.

308 PREPOSITIONS.

prebend, seize firmly, e. in harmony : as, concm and consona, ac-
cord, harmonize ; consent!, agree (in feeling) . f. the same as be in
English, changing the construction of the verb : as, constern, be-
strew or pave; collin, besmear. (See 905.)

1324. Cum or con in adjectives denotes union : as, conscio, sharing
knowledge ; communi, shared in common ; commode, having the same
measure, fitting ; conjiig, yoked together.

1325. Cum or con with substantives denotes fellow : as, con-
servo, fellow-slave ; commiliton, fellow -soldiei' ; consocero, one of
two fathers-in-law.

1326. De. a. Down, down from: as,

Ruunt de montibiis amnes (Virg.), The rivers rush down the

mountains.
Clipea de cblumnls demsit (Liv.), He took the shields down from

the pillars.
Atque haec agebantur in conventu palam de sella* (Cic.), And

these remarks were made in court openly from the chair.

b. The source from Avhich : as,

Hoc audivi de patre (Cic.), This I heard from my father.

Mille jugerum de Pilio emit (Cic.), He bought a thousand jugers

(of land) of Pilius.
Pecuniam numeravit de suo (Cic.), He paid the money down out

of his own pocket.
Virtus, quam tu ne de facie quidem nosti (Cic.), Virtue, whom

you know not even by sight.

c. Part of, one or more of . as,

De tuis innumerabilibiis in me oflficiis, eVit hoc gratissiimum
(Cic.), Of your innumerable kindnesses to me, this will be the
most welcome.

Habeatur sane orator sed de mmonbus (Cic.), Let him be ac-
counted indeed an orator, but one of an inferior class.

d. The material of which anything is made : as,

Sibi fecit pocxila de liito (Tibul.), He made himself cups of clay.
De fratre quid fietf ? (Ter.), What will become of my brother?

* Which was on elevated ground. t Literally, will be made.

CUM, DE. 309

e. Motives, causes, suggestions, variously translated, as by under,
for, on, &c. : as,

Justls de causis rationes deferre properavi (Cic.), For good rea-
sons I made haste to give in my accounts.

Quorum de sententia tota res gesta est (Cic.'), Under whose ad-
vice the whole matter was conducted.

/. Of, concerning, about, over : as,

Nihil dico de meo ingenio (Cic.), I say nothing of my own abi-
lities.

Regulus de captivis coramutandis Romam missus est (Cic.), Re-
gulus was sent to Rome about an exchange of prisoners.

De me autem suscipe paulisper meas partis (C7c.;, On the other
hand, as regards myself, put yourself in my position for a mo-
ment.

Africanus de Xumantlnis triumphaverat (Ctc.), Africanus had
triumphed over the people of Xumantia.

g. With words of time the meaning is somewhat doubtful. It
would seem however that here also the notion of a part (See sub-
division c.) prevails, and that the determination as to what part is
only to be inferred from the context. Thus the best translation
perhaps is our preposition by, or i the course of: as,

Ut jugiilent hommem, surgunt de nocte latrones (//or.), To
murder man, rises by night the robber.

Coeperunt epiilari de die (Lz'c.), They began the banqueting by
daylight.

De tertia vigilia exercltum reduxit (Caes.'), In the course of the
third watch he led back the army.

A. At times de is used with a noun to denote immediate succes-
sion of time, directly after -. as,

Xon bonus somnus est de prandio (Plant.'), Sleep directly after
breakfast is not good.

Jamque aderit mult5 Priami de sanguine P\-rrhus (Virg.), And
soon will Pyrrhus be here, fresh from the streaming blood of
Priam.

132". De in composition with verbs denotes a. down: as,dem(for
de-im), take doicn ; demitt, let down. b. removal: as, detonde, shear ;

310 PREPOSITIONS.

decortica, strip off the baric, c. absence : as, des or dees, be wanting ;
debe (for dehibe), owe ; defici, fail. d. prevention : as, dehorta (r.),
dissuade ; depreca, pray a thing may not be. e. unfriendly feeling -.
as, despici, despise ; deride, laugh at. f. intensity (?) : as, depopiila,
lay thoroughly waste; deama, love to distraction*.

1328. De with adjectives denotes a. down: as, declivi, sloping
downwards, b. absence : as, dementi, without mind, mad.

1329. Di or dis (dir) is used only in composition. With verbs it
denotes a. division : as, dlvid, divide ; did, distribute ; discrib, dis-
tribute by writing ; dilab, slip away in different directions, b. differ-
ence : as, discrepa, sound a different note ; dissenti, disagree, c. the
reverse of the simple notion : as, displice, displease ; diffld, distrust ;
discing, ungird. d. intensity : as, dilauda, bepraise ; discupi, desire
to distraction.

1330. Di in the composition of adjectives denotes a. difference :
as, discolor, of different colour or colours ; discord, sounding a differ-
ent note. b. negation : as, dissimili, unlike ; dispar, unequal.

1331. EC (e, ex) may be looked upon as the opposite to in, just
as ab in its ordinary senses is to ad ; and an attention to this di-
stinction is often a useful guide in the translation of the English
preposition from. It denotes a. out of (with motion) : as,

Telum e corpore extraxit (Cic.) t He drew the weapon out of the

body.
Eum exturbasti ex aedtbus (Plaut.), This man you bundled out

of the house.
Novum exercitum in Italiam ex Africa mlserunt (Liv.), They sent

a new army from Africa into Italy.

b. Off, i. e.from on (and it may be observed that In signified on
as well as in) : as,

Ex equis desiliunt et pedibus proeliantiir (Caes.), They leap off

their horses and fight on foot.
E campo in cavam hanc viam demittemus equos (LivJ, We will

take our horses off the plain down into this hollow road.

* In this last sense the prefix was perhaps originally the preposition di
or dis. Indeed in some of the words to which this sense is given, the hest
writers (Cicero, Caesar, &c.) seem to use the compound with the notion
of a part : as, deperi, perish in part; deperd, lose in part.

DE, DIS, EC, El. 311

c. On, from, when a person is in or on a place and directs his
efforts thence : as,

Castor et Pollux ex equis pugnare visl (Cic.), Castor and Pollux

were seen fighting on horseback.
Contionari ex alta turn solebat (Cic.), He was wont to harangue

the people from a high tower.

d. The material of which anything is made, of: as,

Exponit multum argentum, non pauca pocula ex auro (Cic.}, He

displays much silver, and not a few cups of gold.
Statua ex acre facta (Cic.), A statue made of bronze.

e. A change from one character to another, from : as,

Quaero ex te sisne ex pauperrumo dives factus (Cic.), I ask you
whether or no from being very poor you have become rich.

Sic homines saepe ex fucosis firml suffragat5res evadunt (Q. Cic.),
In this way men often turn out firm from having been deceit-
ful supporters.

/. The preceding construction is also used to denote an interme-
diate condition : as,

Pallldum e viridi et molle folium habet (Plin.), It has a palish
green and soft leaf.

g. Of, signifying part of, preceding the whole : as,

Nemo e dScem sana mente est (Cic.), Not a man of the ten is of
sound mind.

Fiifius, tiniis ex mels intiimis (Cic.'), Fufius, one of my most in-
timate friends.

h. The commencing point of time whence measurement proceeds,
expressed by from : as,

Ex kalendis Januarils ad hanc horam invTgnavi relpubKcae (Cic.},
From the first of January to the present hour I have kept a
close watch upon the interests of the country.

Ex ea die septentriones venti fuere (Cic.}, From that day the wind
continued in the north.

t. Immediate succession of time, offer : as,
Ex consulatu est profectus in Galliam (Cic.), Immediately after
his consulship he set out for Gallia.

312 PREPOSITIONS.

Diem ex die expectabam (Cic.}, I was waiting day after day.
j. Source of information with verbs of asking, hearing, &c. : as,
Sed aliquld ex Pompeio sciam (Czc.), But I shall learn something

from Pompey.
Hoc te ex aliis audlrS malo (Cic.}, This I prefer your hearing

from others.
Quaeslvi ex Phania, quam in partem provinciae piitiiret te velle

ut venirem (Cic.'), I asked Phania into what part of the pro-
vince he supposed you to wish me to come.
Ic. Cause : as,
Graviter claudicabat ex volnere ob rempublicam accepto (Cic.),

He was very lame from a wound received in his country's

service.
Arctius ex lassitudme dormiebant (Cic.), They were sleeping

somewhat soundly from fatigue.

I. That on which anything depends physically or morally : as,
VIdetis pendere alios ex* arbore, pulsari autem alios et verberfirl

(Cic.~), You see some hanging from a tree, others again beaten

and flogged.
Ex quo verbo tota ilia causa pendebat (Ci'c.), On which word

the whole of that cause depended.
m. The authority upon which a person acts : as,
Quaecunque administnlvi, ex vestra auctoritate et patrum volun-

tate feel (Cic.}, In all that I have executed, I have acted on

your authority and the wishes of the senate.
Ex legibus optume administriltur respublica (Ctc.), Laws are the

best foundation for the government of a free country.
. The standard by which anything is measured: as.
Fides ex fortuna ponderanda non est (Ctc.), Fidelity is not to be

measured^ by success.
Ex eventu homines de tuo consilio existiimabunt (Cic.), The world

will judge of your prudence by the result.
o. As suggested by, in accordance with : as,
Statues fit ex fide famfi reque mea videbltur (Cic.), You will de-

* Very frequently ab is used with this verb.
f Literally: weighed.

EC, E, EX. 313

cide as shall appear to be in accordance with my honour, cha-
racter and interest.
Te ex sententia navigasse gaudeo (Cic.), I am delighted that your

voyage has been satisfactory *.
Piscis nactus sum ex sententia (T<?r.) I have fallen in with a

dish of fish to my heart's contentf.
p. In proportion : as,
Facit haeredem ex deunce Caeclnam (Cic.), He makes Caecina

heir to eleven-twelfths of his property.
Magna ex parte tlbi assentior (Cic.), I agree with you in a great

measure.

q. The quarter on or a t which : as,
Una ex parte Rheno continentur (Cats.), On one side they are

shut in by the Rhine.

r. The liquid in which anything more solid is dissolved, is pre-
ceded by ex : as,

Resinam exmelle Aegy'ptiam vorato, salvom feceris (Plant.), Let

him freely eat Egyptian gum dissolved in honey, and you will

make him well.
Cucumeris interior pars ex lacte diluatur (Cels.), Let the inner

part of a cucumber be dissolved in milk.

1332. EC (e, ex) in composition with verbs denotes a. out : as,
exim, take out ; excipi, receive a thing as it comes out (and hence wait
for and receive something expected) ; exi, go out. b. removal by the
act expressed in the simple verb : as, excanta, remove by charms ;
edormi, sleep off- exterre, frighten away. c. escaping by means of
the act expressed in the simple verb : as, evita, escape by moving on
one side ; elucta (r.), get away by wrestling ; ecfugi, escape by flight.
d. obtaining an end by the act of the simple verb : as, extund, hammer
out ; evestiga, trace out ; elabora, work out. e. publicity : as, edic,

* Literally : that you have sailed according to your wishes or feeling.

t The phrase, ex mei animi sententia, is ambiguous, meaning either to
my heart's content, or on my word of honour (literally, according to the
feeling of my heart). Hence the pun in Cicero (de Orat. ii. 64) : Nasica
censori, quum ille Ex tui animi sententia tu uxorem habes ? Non her-
cule, inquit, ex animi sententia.

314 PREPOSITIONS.

proclaim ; enuntia, divulge, f. ascent : as, emerg, emerge ; eveh,
carry up, or raise ; exsist, stand up. g. completeness : as, edisc,
learn by heart; exur, burn up; emere (r.), complete one's service,
h. change of character with verbs formed from adjectives and nouns :
as, expia, make clean, atone for ; ecfera, make savage ; ecfemma,
convert into a woman, i. removal of what is expressed by the noun
whence the verb is formed : as, exossa, bone (as a fish) ; enoda,
make smooth by removal of knots, j. the reverse : as, explica, unfold ;
exaugura, deprive of a religious character ; exauctora, discharge
(i. e. relieve a soldier of the obligation expressed by the Latin auc-
toramento). k. distance: as, exaudi, hear in the distance.

1333. In adjectives formed from substantives this preposition
denotes absence : as, enervi, without muscle ; exsomni, sleepless ;
extorri (for exterri), banished.

1334. Erga*. a. Facing (very rare) : as,

Suram novisti, nostras quae nunc erga aedls habet (Plant.),
You know Sura, who lives now facing our house.

b. Towards (of friendly feeling) : as,

Eodem modo erga amicos affect! siimus quo erga nosmet ipsos
(Cic.), We are disposed in the same way towards friends as
towards ourselves.

c. Against (of unfriendly feeling, rare) : as,

Quasi quid filius meus deliquisset me erga (Plant.), As if my
son had committed any offence against me.

1335. Extra, a. Without (no motion) : as,

Hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum prlmi (Caes.), These
are the first people without the province on the other side of
the Rhone.

b. The same without a noun : as,

Extra et intus hostem habebant (Caes.~), They had an enemy
without and within.

c. Metaphorically: as,

Extra causam id est (Ct'c.), That is foreign to the question before
us.

* For the preposition ex, e, see 1331.

EC, ERGA, EXTRA,

315

DIco omnis extra culpam fuisse (Ct'c.), I affirm tliat all were

blameless.
Sed mehercules extra jocum homo bellus est (Cc.), But really

without joking he is a pleasant fellow.
d. Except -. as,
Extra diicem paucosque praeterea, reliqui in bello rapaces, in

oratione crudeles (Ct'c.), Except the chief and a few besides,

the rest were rapacious in the field, bloodthirsty in language.
Neve navlgato cltra Calicadnum extra quam si qua navis legates

portabit (Liv.), Neither shall he navigate the sea on this side

of Calicadnus, always excepting the case of a ship carrying

ambassadors.

1336. In is used with the ablative and accusative ; with the
former when there is no motion *, with the accusative when there is
motion.

In with the ablative denotes a. In, in reference to place : as.
In eo conclavi el cubandum fuisset (Cic.), In that chamber he

would have had to sleep.
Attulit in cavea pullos (Ctc.), He brought the chickens in a

cage.
In hortis cum vicmo suo ambulabat (Cic.'), He was walking in

the park with his neighbour.
5. On, or over : as,
Nemo earn unquam m equo sedentem vidit (Cic.), No one ever

saw him on horseback.

Equitare in arundine longa (flbr.), To ride on a long reed.
Pons in Ibero prope eflfectiis erat (Caes.), The bridge over the

Ebro was nearly finished.

c. Among : as,

Caesaris inbarbaris erat obscurius nomen (Coe*.), Caesar's name

was not well known among the barbarians.
Exercitum m Aulercis collocavit (Coes.), He quartered the army

in the country of the Aulerci.

: * That is, no motion hi relation to the noun ; or rather, no motion from
[ he interior of it to its exterior.

316 PREPOSITIONS.

d. Part of: as,

Dolor in maxumis mails ducitur (CYc.), Pain is deemed one of

the greatest evils.
Ciipito in decem legatis erat (Cic.), Capito was one of the ten

ambassadors.

e. In, in the sense of within the range o/, but only in certain
phrases : as,

Quum in sole ambulo, cblorbr (Cic.), When I walk in the sun, I
get browned.

Ista mbderatio Snirni in oculis clarissiimae provinciae atque in
auribus omnium gentium est posita (Czc.), That power of self-
control you possess lies under the eyes of a most distinguished
province, and within the hearing of all nations.

/. In, denoting the position en which a person is, as regards the
feelings of others : as,

Difficile est dictu, quanto in 5di5 simus apud exteras niitiones

(Cic.), It is difficult to say in what detestation we are held

among foreign nations.
Ea civitas tibi una in amore fuit (Cic.), That state was the special

object of your affection.
Apud eum sunt in honore et pretio (Cic.), They are respected and

valued by him.

g. In, before persons, signifying in the case of, in what concerns
them : as,

Rspondit se id quod in Nerviis fecisset facturum (Caes.)> He
replied that he would do the same as he had done in the case
of the Nervii.

Idem in bbno servo did sblet (Ctc.), The same is commonly said
of a good slave.

h. Dressed in, wearing, armed with : as,

Patibulo adfixiis in isdem aniilis quos gestabat (The.), Fixed to
the gallows with the same rings on which he wore (when
alive).

Trifida Neptuniis in hasta (Val. Fl.), Neptune armed with a
three-fanged spear.

ix. 317

i. In respect of, in reference to : as,

Meque in eo ipso nimium gratum esse concedam (CJe.), And I
will confess that I was too grateful in that very point.

Vexatur ab omnibus in eo libro quern scripsit de vita beata (Cte.),
He is attacked by all in reference to the book which he wrote
on a happy life.

j. A period of time in the course of which a thing happens is
often preceded by in : as,

Vix ter in anno nuntium audire possunt (Cte.), They can receive

news scarcely three times in the year.
Hae res contra nos faciunt in hoc tempore (Ctc.), These things

make against us under present circumstances.
Fere in diebus paucis quibus haec acta sunt Vicina Chrysis

moritur (Ter.), Within a few days or so after this occurred,

my neighbour Chrysis dies.

it. The simple verbs of placing, such as pon, ' put,' loca, ' place,'
statu, ' set up ' (even though motion be implied in them), take in
with an ablative in the best writers, and that whether used in their
simple sense or metaphorically : as,

Tabulae testament! Romam erant adlatae, fit In aerario p5nerentur
(Cces.) His will had been carried to Rome, that it might be
deposited in the treasury.

Omnem curam in siderum cognitiong pSsuerunt (Ctc.), They em-
ployed all their thoughts in the study of the stars.

Apud Patronem te in maxuma gratia posui (C/c.), I have caused
you to be in very high favour with Patro.

1337. In with an accusative denotes a. Into : as,

Gladium hosti in pectus infixit (Ctc.), He drove the sword into
the enemy's breast.

Paene in fbveam decidl (Phut.), 1 all but fell into a ditch.

Inde erat brevissimus in Britanniam trajectiis (Caes.), From
thence was the shortest passage to Britain.

6. On to : as,

Fllium in humeros suos extulit (Ctc.), He lifted his son on to his
shoulders.

318 PREPOSITIONS.

Deiotarum in equom sustiilerunt (Cic.), They lifted (the aged)
Deiotarus on to his horse.

c. Among (with motion) : as,

. Cohortis quinque in Eburones misit (Cues.), He sent five cohorts
into the country of the Eburones.

d. The new form or character into which anything is changed has
in before it : as,

Ex homine se convertit in beluam (Cic.), He changes himself

from a man into a beast.
Aqua marina in dimidiam partem decoquenda est (Cefe.), The sea-

water must be boiled down to one-half.

e. The object on which anything is spent or employed : as,
Nullus teruncitis insumitur* in quemquam (Cic.), Not a farthing

is spent on any one.

Majorem sumptum in prandium fecerunt (Cic.), They spent a
larger sum on a breakfast.

/. Direction of sight or thoughts on or to an object : as,

In omnium fortunes oculos deflgit (Cic.), He fixes his eyes on

the property of all.
In te unum se totS convertet clvitas (Cic.), The whole body of

citizens will turn their thoughts to you alone.
g. Direction of power towards or over an object : as,
Viri in uxores vitae necisque habent pbtestatem (Caes.), The

husband has power of life and death over the wife.
Ne tamdiii qutdem dommus Snt in suos ? (Ctc.), Shall he not

even for this little time be master over his own people ?

7t. Feeling towards, whether friendly or hostile (though more
frequently the latter) : as,

Ad impietatem in deos, in homines adjunxit injuriam (Cic.), To
impiety towards the gods he added outrage to man.

Si ferae partus suos diligunt, qua nos in llberos nostros indul-
gentia esse debemus ? (Cic.), If wild beasts love their offspring,
what ought to be our kindness towards our children ?

* Yet with pon and consum the best writers prefer In with the ablative.

ix. 319

. Purpose* (even though not attained), for, to : as,

Nulla pecuniii nisi in rem militarem est data (Ctc.), No money

was given except for military purposes*.
In hanc rem testem SIciliam citabo (Cic.), I will call Sicily itself

as a witness to prove this fact.
j. Tendency, sense of words, &c., for, to, as : as,
Ego quae in rem tuam esse possint, ea velim facias (Ter.), As for

me, whatever course may be for your interest, that I should

wish you to adopt.
In earn sententiam multa dixit (CYc.), He said much to this

effect.
Haec in suam contumeliam vertit (Cfc.)> All this he interpreted

as an insult to himself.

k. Resemblance (resulting from an act), manner, form, after : as,

Peditum agmen in modum fugientium agebatur (Liv.), Theinfantry
was hurrying along so as to look like a body of runaways.

1. In distributions the unit is expressed by In and an accusative
plural with or without the adjective singtilo, while the English is
expressed by every, each, the, &c. : as,

lam ad denarios quinquaginta in singiilos modios pervenerat

annona (Caes.~), The price of corn had now reached to fifty

denaries the bushel.
Quingenos denarios pretium in capitS statuerant (Lit?.), They

had fixed 500 denaries as the price per head.
Tempora In horas commutari vides (Cic.), The state of things

changes you see every hour.
Vitium in dies crescit (Cic.), Vice increases every day.

TO. The future in phrases of time expressed by for, until, &c. :
as,

Ad coenam me in posterum diem invitavit (Ctc.), He asked me
to dinner for the next day.

* This usage was carried to a great extent by the later writers, but is
more limited in Cicero, who instead of such a phrase as, In honorem
aBcujus, would have said : honoris allcujus causa. (See Madvie, Opusc.
p. 167.)

320 PREPOSITIONS.

Sermonem in multam noctem produximiis (Cic.), We kept up
the conversation until late at night.

n. In some phrases denoting the position of a party, the verb es,
' be,' is used with ' in ' and an accusative, although no motion or
change is expressed : as,

Pulcerriimum ducebant ab exteris nationibus quae in amlcitiam
populi Roman! ditionetnque essent, injurias propulsare (Cic.),
They deemed it a most glorious duty to ward off outrage from
foreign nations who stood in the relation of friends and vassals
to the Roman people.

Quum vostros portus in praedonum fuisse potestatem sciatis
(Cic.), When your own harbours have been, you are aware,
in the possession of pirates.

1338. In, when compounded with verbs*, denotes a. into : as,
ini, enter ; indue, lead in. b. upon : as, injung, place (as a yoke)
upon ; indu, put on ; indue, draw on ; impera, impose, c. against :
as, infer, carry against ; illid, dash against ; invide, look with envy at.
d. at, over : as, ingem, groan at ; illacruma, weep over. e. privacy :
as, inaiidi, hear as a secret.

1339. Infra denotes below a. In regard to place, with or with-
out a noun : as,

Argentum ad mare infra oppidum exspectabat (Cic.), He was
waiting for the silver by the sea-side below the town.

Infra nihfl est nisi mortale; supra liinam sunt omnia aeterna
(Cic.}, Below there is nothing but what is mortal; above the
moon everything is eternal.

b. Of time : as,

Hbmerus non infra superiorem Lycurgum fuit (Cic.), Homer was
not of a later date than the elder Lycurgus.

* In, in the composition of adjectives, signifies not, but has no connec-
tion with the preposition. On the other hand, verbs are never compounded
with the negative In. Ignora-re, ' to be ignorant,' seems to be an excep-
tion, but only seems, for it is formed from the adjective ignaro, which as
an adjective was entitled to the negative prefix before the simple adjective
gnaro.

IX, IXFBA, IXTEB. 321

c. Of number : as,

Hieme pauciora ova subjicito, non tamen infra novenS (JPlin.), In
winter you must place fewer eggs under them, not a smaller
number however than nine at a time.

d. Of magnitude : as,

Uri sunt magnitudine paulo infra elefantos (Coes.), The Urus in
size is a little below the elephant.

e. Of worth : as,

Infra se omnia humana ducet (Cc.), He will deem everything
human below him, i. e. unworthy his attention.

1340. Inter denotes between or among :

a. Of place: as,

Mons Jura est inter Sequanos et Helvetica (Goes.), Mount Jura

lies between the Sequani and the Helvetii.
Inter sobrios bacchari videtur (Cc.), He seems to be acting

Bacchus among sober people.

b. Of time, between, during : as,

Quinquaginta dies inter blnos ludos tollentur (Ci'c.), The fifty
days between the two festivals shall be struck out.

Haec inter coenam dictavi (Cic.), I have dictated this during
dinner.

c. Mutuality : as,

Inter se aspiciunt (Cc.), They look at one another.
Pueri Cicerones inter se amant (Cic.), The young Ciceros love
one another.

1341. Inter in composition with verbs denotes a. between : as,
interpon, place between, b. during, and hence interruption, preven-
tion: as, interced, step between and stop ; interdic, forbi d. c. violent
death: as, interi, die before one's time; interfic and interim, kill,
cutoff.

1342. Inter is compounded with nouns forming both substantives
and adjectives a. with the sense between : as, intervallo (n.), the
space between two stakes in a palisade, an interval ; intertignio (n.),
the space between two beams ; internuntio, a messenger who goes back'

P 5

322 PREPOSITIONS.

wards and forwards between two people. b. within: as, intercut,
within the skin, c. between, as regards time : as, interlunium, the
interval when no moon is visible.

1343. Intra denotes within :

a. Of place without motion : as,

Intra parietes meos de mea pernicie consilia ineuntur (Ctc.),
Plans are entered into within the walls of my house for my
own destruction.

Antiochum intra Taurum montem regnare jusserunt (Ci'c.), They
decreed that Antiochus should rule within Mount Taurus.

b. Of place with motion : as,

Intra portas compelluntur (Liv.}, They are driven within the
gates.

c. Metaphorically : as,

Epulamur una non mcdo non contra legem sed etiam intra legem
(Cic.), We feast together not only not against the law, but
even within it.

Quidam phrenetici intra verba desipiunt (Cels.~), Some lunatics
show the disease only in words.

d. Of number (particularly in regard to time), during, within :
as,

Intra annos quattuordecim tectum non subierant (Caes.), For
fourteen years they had not passed under a roof.

Intra paucos dies oppidum capitur (Liv.), Within a few days the
town is taken.

1344. Intro, in, is used in composition with verbs of motion or
direction : as, introi, enter ; introduc, lead in ; intro-spic, look in.

1345. Juxta* (root, jug or Jung, ' yoke, ' 'join ') denotes

a. Proximity of place, close by : as,

Juxta murum castra posuit (Caes.), He pitched his camp near a
wall.

b. The same with motion, nearly to : as,

Juxta seditionem ventum (Tac.), Matters came nearly to a sedi-
tion.

* This word is scarcely to be met with in Cicero. In Tacitus it is very
common.

IXTER, INTRA, JUXTA, OB. 323

c. Proximity of time, immediately after : as,

Neque enim convenit juxta inediam protinus satietatem esse
(Cels.), Nor indeed is it reasonable that immediately after
fasting there should be a full meal.

d. Nearness in quality, akin to : as,

Velocftas juxta formidinem est (Tac.), Speed is akin to fear.
Eorum ?gS \itam mortemque juxta aestumo (Sail.), The life and
death of such men I look upon as much the same.

e. Equality without a noun, equally : as.

Solo caeloque juxta* gravl (Tac.), The soil and atmosphere being
equally unhealthy.

1346. Ob denotes a. Towards, with motion (but only in vary
old writers) : as,

Ob Romam noctu legiones ducere coepit (Enn.), He began to
lead the legions by night towards Rome.

6. Agai/ist, before, with or without motion : as,

Follem sibi obstringit ob gulam (Plaut.), He binds a bladder be-
fore his mouth,

Lanam ob oculum habet (Plant.), He has a piece of wool over
his eye.

Mors ei ob oculos saepe versata est (Cic.), Death often passed to
and fro before his eyes.

c. Against, for, in accounts, where money is set against the thing
purchased, pledged, &c. ; or the thing purchased, &c., against the
money : as,

A'ger obpositust pigneri Ob decem mnas (Ter.), My land has
been put as a pledge against ten minae, i. e. has been mortgaged
for that sum.

A'rrabonem a me accepisti ob mulierem (Plant.'), You have re-
ceived from me the earnest-money for the woman.

Ait se ob astnos ferre argentum (Plaut.), He says that he has
brought the money to pay for the asses.

Est flagitiosum ob rem judicandam pecuniam accipere (Cic.), It

* In this sense a dative is found : as, Res parva ac juxta magnis duflcllis
(lit.) i A little matter, but equally difficult with great matters.

324 PREPOSITIONS.

is indeed an outrageous thing to take money for giving a

verdict.

d. A reason or purpose, for, on account of: as,
Ob earn rem tibi haec scrips! (Cic.), It is on this account I have

said all this to you.
Verum id frustra an ob remfaciam, in vestra manu situm (Sail.),

But whether I am doing this in vain or to some purpose, is in

your hands, my friends.

1347. Ob in composition with verbs signifies a. to, towards:
as, obi, go to ostend, hold out to ; occurr, run to meet. b. before :
as, obambula, walk before ; obvolita, keep flying before ; obversa (r.),
pass to and fro before, c. shutting, obstructing : as, ob-d, put to ;
obstru, build up ; obside, blockade, d. against (physically) : as, ob-
lucta (r.), struggle against ; offend, strike against, e. against (mo-
rally) : as, obnuntia, bring an unfavourable report ; obtrecta, depre-
ciate ; obes, be injurious, f. upon : as, occulca, tread upon ; opprim,
crush ; obter, trample upon. g. covering, affecting the surface : as,
obdiic, draw over ; operi, cover ; offund, pour over ; occalle, grow
hard on the surface.

1348. Palam, openly, publicly, in the presence of many :

a. With an ablative : as,

Indg rem creditorl palam pbpiilo solvit (Liv.), Upon this he paid
the money to the creditors in the presence of the people.

b. The same without a case : as,

Arma in templum* luce et palam comportabantiir (Ctc.), People

were carrying arms into the temple in daylight and openly.
134Q. Penes denotes a. In the house of, in the possession of, in a
material sense : as,

Istaec penes vos psaltria est ? (Ter.), Is that singing-girl at your

master's house ?
Servl centum dies penes accusatorem fuere (Cic.), The slaves

for a hundred days were in the custody of the accuser.
b. The same metaphorically : as,
Penes eum omnis est potestas (Cic.), The whole power resides

with him.

* Al. templo.

OB, PALAM, PENES, PEH. 325

Penes te culpa est (Ter.), The fault lies with you.

Penes te ?s* ? (Hor.), Are you in your senses :

1350. Per denotes a. Through, with motion : as,

It hasta Tag5 per tempus utrumque (Firg.~), Passes the spear
through Tago's either temple.

Per angustias copias transduxerat (Cae*.), He had led the forces
through the defile.

6. Through, as seen through : thus,

Natiira membranas ocu!5rum perlucidas fecit ut per eas cernl
posset (Cic.), Nature made the membranes of the eye transpa-
rent, that they might be seen through.

Quod videbam equidem, sed quasi per callgmem (Cic.), Which I
saw all the time, it is true, but only through a cloud as it were.

c. When a similar thing occurs at consecutive points of a line :
as,

Invitatl sunt per domos Ifberaliter (Liv.), They were generously
invited to all the houses, f . e. some to one, some to another.

Quid hoc negotist quod omnes homines fabulantur per vias ?
(Plant.), What is this business which all the world is talking
about from one end of even- street to the other ?

d. Of time, during, through, for : as,

TenuisrJ provinciam per decem annos (C/c.), You have clung to

the province during ten years.
Rogo te ne te viae per hiemem committas (Ci'c.), I beg you not

to expose yourself to the danger of travelling during the

winter.

e. The means by which a thing is done, through, by, by means of :
as,

Quod per scelus adeptus est, per luxuriam ecfundit (Cic.), What
he has obtained through impiety, he is squandering through
luxury.

Per te factum est quo minus pax fieret (Cic.), It was through
you that peace was not made.

/. When the means employed are deceitful, pt-r may be translated

* Compare this with a similar use of apud above.

326 PREPOSITIONS.

by under. In this case the nouns employed are such as specie, ' ap-
pearance,' nomen, ' name/ causa, &c. : thus,

Per speciem alienae fungendae vicis suas opes firmavit (Liv.~),

Under pretence of acting for another, he strengthened his own

power.
Aemulationis suspectos per nomen obsidum ambvebat (Tac.),

Those suspected of rivalry he was endeavouring to get rid of

under the name of hostages.

g. When the agent does not act through any intermediate means,
he is said (though incorrectly) to act through himself: as,

Ignis per se mbvetur (Cic.), Fire moves through its own agency,

i. e. of itself.
Ipsa per se multum prodest (Cic.), It does much good of itself, or

in itself.

h. With phrases denoting hindrance, &c., the point where the
hindrance exists is expressed by per, through : as,

Utrisque adparuit nihil per alteros stare quo minus inceptS per-

sequerentur (Liv.~), To each nation it was evident that there

was no obstacle on the part of the other to prevent them from

carrying out their intentions.
Per duces steterat, non per milites, ne vincerent (Lt'r.), It had

been the fault of the generals, not the soldiers, that they had

not conquered.

i. With verbs denoting permission, the person who might have
stood in the way is expressed by per : as,

Digladienttir illi per me licet (Cic.), They may fight it out for me,

i. e. as far as I am concerned.
Quum et per valetudinem et per anm tempus navigare poteris,

ad nos vem (Cic.), When both your health and the season of

the year permit, come to us.

.;. By, in entreaties to express the person or object in considera-
tion of which the favour is asked* : as,

* This in fact is only another example of the means noticed in e. A
weak party approaches an offended superior through some third party, as
for instance in Csesar, B. G. vi. 4, the Senones in applying for his mercy
adeunt per Aeduos.

PER, PONE. 327

Per* ego te deos oro (Ter.), I entreat you by the gods.

Per ego te fill quaecunque juraliberos jungunt parentibus precor

quaesoque (Ltr.), By all the ties, my son, which bind a child

to a parent, I pray and entreat thee.
Ic. Hence in oaths, by : as,
Jurarem per Jovem Deosque Penatis me ea sentire quae dicerem

(Cj'c.), I would have sworn by Jupiter and the Household

Gods that I really felt what I said.

1351. Perf i Q composition with verbs denotes a. through: as,
perdue, lead through ; perflu, flow through, b. completion : as, per-
fic, complete ; permitt, let go altogether, abandon (to others) ; perora,
conclude a speech, c. destruction : as, peri, perish ; perd, destroy ;
perim, kill I .

1352. Per in composition with adjectives denotes a. through:
as, pernoct, lasting all night ; pemgil, awake all night ; perenni,
lasting through endless years, b. rery : as, perlevi, very light;
permagno, very great, c. destruction : as, perjuro, violating an oath ;
perfido, breaking faith.

1353. Pone (closely connected with post||) signifies behind a.
with a noun : as,

Pone nos recede (Plant.}, Step back behind us.
Vinctae pone tergum manus (Tac.), His hands were bound be-
hind his back.
b. Without a noun : as,
Et ante et pone, et ad laevam et ad dextram, et sursum et deorsum

* Observe how the preposition is separated from its noun in these ex-
amples.

t In expergisc (r.), icate up, the preposition is por or pro, the old
form being exporgisc, i. e. exporrigisc. Again in perhibe, the old form uas
probably praehibe. Compare pSrindS, a corruption of proinde.

J The per signifying destruction is perhaps of a different origin. At
any rate it is the same as the German prefix ver seen hi verthun, destroy,
and as our English for seen in the obsolete fordo, i. e. destroy, forswear,
forget, &c.

The prefix per, ' very,' is often separated from the simple adjective :
as, Per mihi mirum vfsumst (Cic.), It seemed very wonderful to me.

|| Compare the verb pon and the participle poslto.

328 PREPOSITIONS.

[movebatur] (Cic.), [It moved] forward and backward, to the
left and to the right, upward and downward.
Pone sequens (Virg.), Following behind.

1354. Post denotes behind, after a. of place: as,

Flume'n erat post castra (Caes.), There was a river in the rear of

the camp.
Sed magnum metuens se post cratera tegebat (Virg.), But behind

a vast bowl in his fear he hid him.

b. The same without a noun : as,

Caedere incipiunt servos qui post erant (Cic.), They begin to cut
down the slaves who were in the rear.

c. Of time, after, since : as,

Post tuom discessum blnas litteras accepi (Cic.), Since your de-
parture I have received two letters.

Hoc sexennio post Veios captos factum est (Cic.), This occurred
six years after the capture of Veii.

Paucos post dies obsides adducti sunt (Liv.), After a few days
(or a few days after) the hostages were brought.

d. The same without a noun : as,

Initio mea sponte, post invltatu tuo feel (Cic.), I did so at first
of my own motion, afterwards at your invitation.

Post paucis diebus* alios decem legiitos adduxerunt (Liv.), A
few days after they brought other ten ambassadors.

Senatus post paulo* de his rebus habitus est (Liv.), A senate
was held soon after on this subject.

e. Metaphorically: as,

Ubi periculum advenit, invidia et superbiS post fuerS (Sail.),
When danger approached, envy and pride fell into the rear.

1355. Post in composition with verbs signifies a. after, of place :
as, postscrib (Tac.), write after, b. after, of time : as, postfacto, done
afterwards ; postgenito, born afterwards, c. after, in importance :
as, postpon and posthabe, deem of secondary importance.

135G. Prae denotes before, a. Of place: as,

* Or these may possibly be datives dependent upoupost, as in postlbi.
Compare 962 and the use of contra with auro.

POXE, POST, PBAE. 329

TTberim prae se armentum agens nando trajecit (Ltp.), He swam
across the Tiber, driving the herd before him.

Stillantem prae se pugionem tulit (Cic.), He carried the dripping
dagger before him.

b. The same metaphorically : as,

Ceteri tecti5res; ego semper me didicisse prae me tiili (Cic.),
The others are more reserved ; I ever avowed the fact that I
once studied the subject.

c. The cause (but chiefly in negative sentences), for : as,
Solem prae jaculorum multitudme non videbitis (Cic.), You will

not see the sun for the number of darts.
Nee loqui prae maerore potuit (Cic.), And he could not speak for

grief.
Prae lassltudine opus est ut lavem (Flout.) , I am so fatigued I

must take a bath.

d. In comparison with, by the side of: as,

Romam prae sua Capua Lnridebunt (Cic.), They will laugh at
Rome compared with their own Capua.

1357- Prae in composition with verbs denotes a. before: as,
praemitt, send in advance ; praebe (i. e. praehibe), hold before, pre-
sent; praesta, place or stand before. 6. before, in the sense of pass-
ing by : as, praeflu, flow by ; praenaviga, sail by. c. at the head of,
in command : as, praees, be in command ; praefic, place in command.
d. at the extremity : as, praerod, gnaw at the end; praeclud, close at
the end. e. superiority : as, praesta and praeced, surpass, f. before,
in time : as, praecerp, gather too soon ; praedlc, say beforehand ;
praesagi, feel beforehand. </. the doing a thing first for others to do
after : as, praei-re verba, to tell a person what he is to say ; praeclp,
teach ; praescrib, enjoin by writing.

1358. Prae in the composition of adjectives denotes a. before, of
place : as, praecip or praecipit, head-first, b. before, of time : as,
praescio, knowing beforehand, c. at the extremity : as, praeusto,
burnt at the end ; praeacuto, sharp at the end. d. very : as, prae-
alto, very deep ; praeclaro, most glorious*.

* This formation is scarcely if at all found in Cicero, for praecelso (in
Verr.) has been altered into perexcelso by Zumpt on the authority of MSS.

330 PREPOSITIONS.

1359- Praeter denotes a, Passing by: as,

Praeter castra Caesaris suas copias transduxit (Caes.), He led

his own troops past Caesar's camp.
Servi praeter oculos Lolli haec omnia ferebant (Cic.), The slaves

kept carrying all these things along before the eyes of Lollius.

6. Beyond, in amount or degree : as,

Lacus praeter mbdum creverat (Cic.), The lake had risen above

its usual level.
Hoc mihi praecipuom st praeter ceteros (Cic.), This belongs

especially to me above all the others.

c. Besides, i. e. in addition to : as,

Praeter se denos ad conloquium adducunt (Caes.), They bring to
the conference ten men each besides themselves.

Praeter auctoritatem vires qubque ad coercendum habebat (Caes.),
Besides the authority of a name, he had the physical means also
for compulsion.

d. Except *, excluding : as,

Omnibus sententiis praeter unam condempnatus est (Cic.), He

was found guilty by all the votes except one.
Frumentum omna praeter quod secum portatiiri erant comburunt

(Caes.), They burn up all the grain except what they purposed

to carry with them-f.

e. Contrary to : as,

Nihil el praeter ipslus voluntatem accidit (Cz'c.), Nothing hap-
pened to him contrary to his own wish.

Multa impend ere videbantur praeter nfituram (Ctc.), Many things
seemed likely to happen out of the usual course of nature.

1360. Praeter in composition with verbs signifies passing by:
as, praeteri, go by ; praetermitt, let go by.

* This signification and the last are not so opposite as may at first seem.
Thus, in Neque vestitus praeter pellis habent quicquam (Cz'c.), either
translation is admissible without any difference of meaning,
t In the sense of except, praeter is used adverbially : as,
Ceterae multltudlnl diem statuit praeter rerum capttalium condemniitis
(Sail.), He fixed a day for all the rest except those convicted of ca-
pital crimes.

PRAETEB, PKO. 331

1361. Pro denotes a. Before, of place : as,

Praesidia pro tempils omnibus cernitis (Ctc.), You see troops be-
fore all the temples.

Laudati pro contione omnes sunt (Liv.), They were all com-
mended in front of the assembled army.

&. Before, with the notion of defending, in defence of: as,

Pro nudata moenibus patria corpora opponunt (Z.f.), In defence
of their native city, now stripped of its walls, they present their
bodies to the enemy.

Ego pro sodali et pro mea omni fama decerno (Ctc.), I am fight-
ing the last battle for my friend and for my own character
altogether.

Haec contra legem proque lege dicta sunt (Cic.), Such were the
arguments urged against and in favour of the law.

c. In place of: as,

Lubenter verba jungebant,ut sodes pro si audes, sis pro si vis (Cic.),
They were fond of joining words, as sodes for si audes, sis for *
vis.

Cui legatus et pro praetore fuit (Ctc.), Under whom he was lieu-
tenant and propraetor, t. e. deputy-praetor.

d. Equivalent to, as good as, as, for : as,

Pro occiso relicttis est (Cic.). He was left for dead.
Confessionem cedentis hostis pro victoria habeo (Liv.), The con-
fession of a retreating enemy I look upon as a victory.
Id sumunt pro certo (Cie.), This they assume as certain.

e. In payment for, in return for, for : as,

Misimus qui pro vectura solveret (Cic.), We have sent a person
to pay for the freight.

/. In consideration of, for : as,

Hunc amare pro ejus suavitate debemiis (Cic.}, This man we
ought to love for his own sweetness of character.

Te pro istis factis ulciscar (Ter.), I '11 punish you for those doings.

g. In proportion to, considering : as,

Proelium atrScius quam pro numero pugnantium fuit (Liv.), The
battle was fiercer than could have been expected from the num-
ber of the combatants.

332 PREPOSITIONS.

Pro multitudme hominum et pro gloria belli angustos habent finis
(Caes.), Considering the number of inhabitants and their mili-
tary reputation, their territories are confined.

Decet, quidqui'd agas, agere pro vlribiis (Cic.), It is right that
whatever you do, you should do to the best of your power.

His raptim pro tempore instructls (Liv.), These men being hastily
drawn up as well as the circumstances admitted.

1362. Pro in composition with verbs signifies a. forward: as,
progredi (r.), advance; porrig, stretch out ; procurr, run forward, b.
out : as, prodi, come forth ; prosili, leap out. c. to a distance : as, pro-
fugi, fly to a distance ; proterre, frighten off; prosequ (r.), follow
for some distance ; prohibe, keep off. d. downwards : as, profliga,
knock down ; proter, trample down. e. extension : as, promitt, allow
to grow long. f. publicity : as, profite (r.), declare publicly ; pro-
mulga, advertise (a law); proscrib, offer a reward for the life of;
pronuntia, announce publicly, g. progress, profit : as, profic, make
progress, advance; prodes, be of service, h. in place of: as, pro-
cilra, take care of in place of another, i. before, in time : as, pro-
lud, rehearse beforehand, j. postponement or continuation : as, pro-
die, name a future day ; profer, postpone ; proroga, continue for a
longer period (by enactment) .

13G3. Pro in the composition of adjectives denotes downward:
as, proclivi, downhill.

1364. Pro in composition with nouns of relationship denotes
greater distance, expressed in English by great : as, pronepot, great-
grandson ; proavo, great-grandfather ; prosocero, wife's grand-
father.

1365. Pr ope* denotes near. a. Of place: as,

Ipsius copiae prbpe hostium castra visae sunt (Caes.~), His own

forces were seen near the enemies' camp.
6. The same without a case, or with ab and a noun : as,
Quis hie loquitur prope ? (Plaut.), Who is talking close by here ?
Bellum tarn prope a Sicilia, tamen in Sicilia non fuit (Cz'c.), The

war though so near Sicily, yet was not in Sicily.
c. The same metaphorically : as,

* See also 908.

PRO, PROPE, PROPTER, RE. 333

Prope secessionem plebis res venit (Lit.), Matters came almost

to a secession of the commonalty.
d. Near, of time : as,
Prope kalendas Sextilis piito me Laodiceae fore (Cic.), About the

first of August I calculate I shall be at Laodicea.

1366. Propter (from prope) denotes a. Near, with or without a
case : as,

Propter Platonis statuam consedimus (Cic.), We took our seats

near a statue of Plato.
Duo filii propter cubantes ne senserunt qmdem (Cic.), His two

sons sleeping close by were not even aware of it.
6. On account of, for, through : as,
Tlr5nem propter huraanitatem et modestiam malo salvom, quam

propter usum meum (Cic.), I wish Tiro to recover more on

account of his excellent heart and his correct conduct than for

any benefit to myself.
Nam non est aequom me propter vos decipi (Ter.), For it is not

reasonable that I should be a loser through you.

1367. Re (or red) in composition with verbs signifies a. backicard :
as, retrah, drag back ; renuntia, carry word back ; repet, go back ;
reformida, draw back in fear. b. hence reflection of light or sound :
as, resona,re-ec/to ; refulge, shine brilliantly, c. in return : as, repend,
repay ; re"feri, strike in return ; red-d, repay, d. opposing an effort
in the other direction : as, retine, hold back ; revinci, bind back ;
retice, keep back (a secret), e. refusal: as, renu, refuse by a shake
of the head ; recusa, make some excuse and so decline, f. reversing
some former act : as, rescind, cut down ayain (that which has been
erected) ; remitt, let go again (that which has been stretched) ; re-
quiesc, repose (after labour) ; rescisc, discover (that which it has been
attempted to conceal) ; recalesc, grow warm again, g. reversing the
act expressed in the simple verb* : as, refig, unfix resigna, unseal ;
reclud, open; reteg, uncover; resera, unbolt, h. putting away from
sight, concealing, sheltering : as, relega (leave behind), banish far

* Hence the adjective recldivo, ' rising agaiu,' shows that r^cld once sig-
nified ' rising again after falling or being felled,' as the new branches from
the stump of a chestnut- or oak-tree.

334 PREPOSITIONS.

away ; recond, put away into some secret place ; recipi, receive and
shelter, i. Remaining behind when the greater part is gone : as, re-
mane, remain behind ; reside, remain still at the bottom, j. change
of state: as, redd, render, make; redig, reduce to some state*, k.
repetition : as, refloresc, blossom a second time.

1368. Retro, by the later writers, is compounded with verbs of
motion and signifies backwards : as, retrogradi (r.), march back-
wards (Plin.).

136Q. Se in the old writers is used as a preposition with the ab-
lative, and signifies separation or without : as,

SI plus minus secuerunt, se fraude esto (Laws of the XII. Tables),
If they cut more or less, it shall be without detriment to them.

1370. Se (or sed) in composition signifies a. with verbs, sepa-
ration : as, seced, withdraw ; sepon, put aside, b. in adjectives,
absence : as, secure, free from care ; secord or socord, senseless,

1371. Secundum (i.e. sequendum, from sequ (r.), follow) de-
notes o. Following : as,

I tu secundum (Plant.), Do you come after me.

b. Along : as,

Legiones iter secundum mare superum faciunt (Cic.), The legions
are marching along the upper sea.

c. Behind, without motion : as,

Vulmis accepit in capite secundum aurem (Sulpic. ad Cic.), He
received a wound in the head behind the ear.

d. After, of time : as,

Spem ostendis secundum cbmitia (Cic.), You hold out a hope of

improvement after the elections.
Secundum vindemiam (Cato), After the vintage.

e. Second in order, next to : as,

9
Secundum te nihil est mihi amicius solitudtne (Cic.), Next to you

I have no better friend than solitude.
/. In accordance with \ as,

* To this head belongs the use of redi in such phrases as : Res in eum
rSdiit locum (Ter.), Matters are come to this state: Ad eum summa im-
pe'ril redlblt (Caes.), The chief command will devolve on him.

RE, RETHO, SB, SECTTXDUM, SIXE, SUB. 335

Omnia quae secnndum naturam fiunt sunt habenda in bonls
(Cc.), Even-thing that happens in accordance with nature is
to be reckoned among blessings.

g. In favour of: as,

Pontifices secundum eum decreverunt (Cic.), The pontifical col-
lege decreed in his favour.

1372. Sine denotes without -. as,

Homo sine re, sine fide, sine spe (Cic.), A man without money,

without credit, without hope.
Infero marl nobis navigandum st, age jam cum fratre an sine ?

(Cic.), We must sail along the lower sea. True ; but just tell

me, with my brother or without him ?

1373. Sub has for its original meaning up, as is seen in its deri-
vatives the adjectives supero, above ; summo, highest ; the prepo-
sitions super, upon ; supra, above ; and above all the use of siib
itself in the composition of verbs *. It is found with both accusa-
tive and ablative.

1374. Sub with the accusative denotes a. up tof: as,

Sub primam nostram aciem successerunt (Caes.~), They came up
to our first line.

b. Under, with motion : as,

Exercitus sub jGgum missus est (Caes.), The army was sent

under the yoke.
Totamque sub anna coactam Hesperiam(77r0.), And all Hespe-

ria to arms compelled J.

c. IVithin reach of things from above (with motion): as,

Ut sub ictum venerunt, tel5rum vis ingens effusa est in eos (-Lit-.),
The moment they came within throw, an enormous quantity of
missiles was showered upon them.
Quod siib ociilos venit (Sen.), "What comes within the range of

the eye.

* See 1376. Indeed our own word up is the very same word as siib ;
and the Greek vtraro, highest, the title usually given to the Roman consul,
is a superlative from the same root.

t The sense of to belongs to the accusative termination and not to the
preposition.

J Compare the common phrase without motion : siib annis essS.

336 PREPOSITIONS.

Ea quae sub senstis subjects sunt (Cic.), Those things which are
brought within reach of the senses.

d. Subjection to dominion, under (with action) : as,

Sub populi Romani imperium ceclderunt (Cic.~), They fell under
the dominion of the Roman people.

e. In phrases of time, immediately, after : as,

Sub eas litteras statim recitatae sunt tuae (Cic.), Immediately
after these dispatches, yours were read out.

Africum bellum sub recentem Romanam paeem fuit (Liv.), The
war with the Afri followed close upon the peace with Rome.

Siib haec dicta omnes mantis ad Consules tendentes prociibuerunt
(Liv.), Immediately after these words they all prostrated
themselves, stretching out their hands to the consuls*.

13/5. Sub with the ablative signifies a. Under (without mo-
tion)-^ as,

Sub terra semper habftaverant (Cic.), They had always lived
underground.

Hostes sub monte consederant (Caes.), The enemy were en-
camped under a mountain.

b. Within reach of things above (without motion) : as,
Adpropinquare non ausae naves, ne sub ictti superstantium in ru-

pibus plratarum essent (Cic.), The ships did not dare to ap-
proach, lest they should be within shot of the pirates stationed
above on the cliffs.

Jam lucescebat, omniaque sub ociilis erant (Liv.), It was now
getting light, and all that was passing below was visible.

c. Inferiority, subjection (without action), under : as,
Matris sub imperiost (Ter.), She is under her mother's rule.

* There are passages where just before would seem to be the sense, but
some of these admit of easy explanation. Thus, Siib adventum regls (Liv.),
means upon the approach of the king, as soon as it was announced.

t Under with motion is at times expressed by the ablative, for instance,
when the mind dwells upon the state that follows rather than the act, or
when other prepositions are added to signify the precise motion. Thus,
Sub terra vivi demissl sunt in locum saxo conseptum (Liv.), They were
let down into a stone chamber underground.

SUB, SCBTER. 337

Vir impiger et sub HannTbale magistro omnis belli artis edoctus
(Liv.), A man of energy, and who had been thoroughly in-
structed in the art of war under Hannibal.

d. In conditions, under : as,

Jussit ei praemium tribui sub ea conditione ne quid postea sen-
beret (Cic.), He ordered a reward to be given him, under the
condition that he should never write again.

e. In phrases of time during, in, just at : as,

Ne sub ipsa profectione mflites oppidum irrumperent, portas ob-
struit (Caes.}, That the soldiers might not burst into the town
during the very embarkation, he builds up the gates*.

1376. Sub in composition with verbs denotes a. up : as, subveh,
carry up (as a river) ; sum (i. e. siibim), take up ; surg (i. e. surrig),
rise ; subdue, draw up ; sustine, hold up. b. under : as, subes, be
under; subjace, lie under ; submerg, sink. c. assistance : as, subve-
ni, come to assist ; succurr, run to assist, d. succession : as, succin,
ting after; succlama, cry out after, e. in place of: as, suffic, ap-
point in place of; subp5n, put in place of; substitu, set up in place
of. f. near : as, subes, be at hand ; subsequ, follow close after,
g. underhand, secretly : as, sump, snatch away secretly ; suborna,
equip secretly ; subdue, withdraw quietly, h. in a slight degree : as,
subride, smile ; subaccusa, accuse in a manner, i. abundance-^: as,
suffic, suppet, be abundant.

1377. Sub in the composition of adjectives denotes f a slight
degree : as, subobscuro, rather dark ; subfusco, a light brown.

1378. Subter is used generally with an accusative, rarely with
an ablative, often without a noun. It signifies a. Under : as,

Irani in pectore, cupiditatem subter praecordia locavit (Cic.),
Anger he placed in the breast, desire under the midriff.

Ferre juvat subter densa testudine casus (l"irg.), They gloiy be-
neath the close array of shields to bear each chance.

Omnia haec, quae supra subterque, unum esse diserunt (Ctc.),

* Compare the use of sub with an accusative in phrases of time,
f This sense is connected with that of sub, up. Compare the opposite :
deflc-re, to be low, wanting.

338 PREPOSITIONS.

All these bodies, which are above and below, form one whole
they said.

b. Metaphorically, in subjection, under : as,
Virtus omnia subter se habet (Cic.), Virtue holds everything in

subjection to her.

1379- Subter in composition with verbs signifies a. under: as,
subterlab, glide underneath, b. secretly : as, subterduc, withdraw
secretly.

1380. Super is followed both by an ablative and an accusative.
With an ablative it signifies a. Over (without motion) : fis,

Destrictiis ensis cul super impia Cervice pendet (//or.), O'er
whose unholy neck a drawn sword hangs.

b. Upon (without motion) : as,

Poteras requiesce're mecum Fronde super vmdi (Viry.), Thou
mightest have reposed with me upon green leaves.

c. Concerning : as,

Velim cogites quid agendum nobis sit super legatione (Cie.), I
wish you would consider what we must do concerning the em-
bassy.

1381. Super with an accusative denotes a. Upon (with mo-
tion) : as,

Imprudens super aspidem assldit (Ct'c.), Unwittingly he sits
down upon an asp.

Alii super vallum praecipitantiir (Sail.), Others are thrown head-
foremost upon the stakes.

b. Above in order (as at table) : thus,

Nomentanus erat super ipsum (Hor.), Nomentanus occupied the
seat above him.

c. Beyond (but with a notion of greater height*): as,
Proxime Hispaniam Mauri sunt, super NumWiam Gaetuli (Sail.),

Next to Spain are the Moors, beyond Numidia the Gaetuli.

* For example, in the instance quoted Sallust used the word because
they were farther from the sea, and therefore probably higher.

SUBTEB, SUPER, SUPRA.

d . More, in amount : as,

Satis siiperque dictum est (Cic.), Enough and more than enough
has been said.

e. Jie&iaes : as,

Punicum exercitum super morbum etiam fames affecit (Lie.),

The Punic army, besides sickness, suffered severely also from

famine.

1382. Super in composition with verbs signifies a. over: as,
superveni, pass over ; superemine, project above ; superfond, pour
over. b. abundance : as, superes, abound, c. remaining over, sur-
vival : as, superes, remain over, survive, d. in addition : as, super-
adduc, bring in addition,

1383. Supra denotes a. Upon, with motion : as,

Sub terra habitabant neque exierant unquam supra terrain (Cic.),
They lived under ground and had never come out above the
ground.

Et saltii supra venabula fertur (Firg.), And with a bound he
flies upon the spears.

b. Upon, in contact with : as,

Nereides supra delphmos sSdentes (Pliii. H. N.j, Nereids seated
upon dolphins.

c. Over, at some distance above : as,

Ecce supra capiit* homo levis ac sordidus, sed tamen equestrl
censu, Catienus ; etiam is leniettir (Cic.), See, there is ready to
pounce down upon my head a fellow devoid of principle and
honour, but yet of equestrian station, I mean Catienus. Even
he shall be appeased.

d. Above, in order (as at table) : thus,

Acciibueram apud eum et quidern siipra me Atticus, infra Verrius
(Cic.), I had just set down to dinner at his house, and by the
way Atticus sat next above me, Verrius below.

* Dr. Butler (Latin Prepositions, p. 121) has given this passage to prove
that supra caput means exceedingly. He connects it with levis, though
the words are separated by homo.

340 PREPOSITIONS.

c. Above, in amount : as,

Caesa eo die supra mllia vigintl (Liv.), There were slain on that

day above twenty thousand.
Etsi haec commemoratio vereor ne supra homi'nis fortunam esse

videatiir (Cic.), And yet what I am going to mention will be

thought, I fear, to exceed the lot of man.

/. In addition to, over and above, besides : as,
Supra belli Sablnl metum id quoque accesserat (Liv.~), Besides
the fear of a Sabine war, there was this further trouble.

jr. In reference to former times, before : as,

Paulo supra hanc memoriam servi una cremabantur (Caes.), A
little before the times which those now living can recollect, the
slaves (of the deceased) used to be burnt with him.

A. In referring to a preceding part of a book or letter, above : as,
Ut supra demonstravimiis (Caes.), As we have shown above.

1384. Tenus signifies reaching to, and is used . With an accu-
sative (very rarely) : as,

Regio quae virglnls aequor ad Helles
Et Tanain tenus immense descendit ab Euro ( Vol. Ft.),

The region which to the maiden Helle's sea
And far as the Don from the vast East descends.

b. With an ablative of the singular, particularly with words in a
or o : as,

Antiochus Tauro tenus regnare jussiis est (Cic.), It was ordained
that Antiochus should rule only as far as the Taurus.

c. With an ablative of the plural (very rarely) : as,

Pectbribusque tenus molles erectus in auras
Naribiis et patiilo partem mans evomi't ore (Ov.),
Chest-high upraised into the moving air
From wide-spread mouth and nostrils vomits out
One half the sea.

d. With a genitive of the plural, particularly in the consonant
declension : as,

SCPRA, TENTS, TRAXS, VORSUS, fLS, ULTRA. 341

Et criirum teniis a mento palearia pendent (Virg.),
And leg-deep from the chin the dewlap hangs*.

1385. Trans signifies a. On the other aide of: as,

Cogito interdum trans Tiberim hortos aliquos parare (CYc.), I
think at times of purchasing some park on the other side of the
Tiber.

b. To the other side of: as,

Trans Alpis transfertur (Cic.), He is carried to the other side of
the Alps.

1386. Trans in composition signifies across : as, transmitt or tra-
mitt, send across ; transi, go across.

1387- Versus (vorsum, versus, versum) signifies direction : as,
Brundiisium versus ibas (Cic.), You were going in the direction
of (or towards) Brundusiumf.

1388. Vorsiis is also used in conjunction with the prepositions
ad and in : as,

Ad oceanum versus proficisci jiibet (Caes.), He orders him to set

out in the direction of the ocean.
In Italiam versus navigaturiis erat (SuJpic. ad Cic.), He was

about to sail towards Italy.

1389. Uls, on the other side of, with an accusative (but rarely
used): as,

Sacra et uls et cis Tiberim fiunt (Farr.), Sacrifices are offered
both on yonder and on this side of the Tiber.

13QO. Ultra denotes a. On the other side of, beyond: as,

Ultra Silianam villara est villula sordida et valde piisilla (Cic.),

On the other side of Silius' country-house is another of mean

appearance and very small.

b. To the other side of, beyond : as,

Paulo ultra eum locum castra transtulit (Caes.), He moved the
camp to a spot a little beyond that place.

* See also 803. t See also 798.

>4J PREPOSITIONS.

c. Metaphorically : as,

Sunt cert! denfque fines
Quos ultra citraque nequit consistere rectum (Hor.},

There are in short fixed limits
Beyond and short of which truth cannot halt.

Non ultra heminam aquae assurait (Cels.}, He takes not more
than a pint and a half of water.

d. The same without a noun : as,

Estne aliquid ultra, quo progredi crudelitas possit ? (Cie.), Is there
anything beyond this to which bloodthirstiness can go ?

1391. In the examples already given, it has been seen that pre-
positions are at times placed after their nouns, although their name
implies the contrary*. In the old language this appears to have
been the case with perhaps every preposition, and the practice pre-
vailed to the last in some legal phrases. It may further be ob-
served that a. The preposition cum is always placed after the abla-
tives of the personal pronouns : as, mecum, tecum, secum, nobis-
cum, vobiscum, and for the most part after the ablatives of the sim-
ple relative : as, quocum, quacum, quicum, quibuscum. b. The
prepositions tenus and vorsus always follow their case. c. The di-
syllabic prepositions generally are more apt to occupy the second
place than those which are monosyllabic, d. The relativef and the
pronoun ho ' this/ when it occurs at the beginning of a sentence,
have a tendency to throw the preposition behind them. e. When

* It may be useful to compare the meaning of the term case with that
of the term preposition. They both denote primarily the relations of place.
They are both so intimately connected with the noun as to be pronounced
with it, and even written with it, although printers have in this respect aban-
doned the authority of the best inscriptions and manuscripts. Thirdly, as
the case ending is always added as a suffix, so also in the old language was
the preposition. Hence there is no original distinction, either in essence or
form, between a case-ending and a preposition. These considerations may
perhaps tend to create in the mind a clearer notion of what a case is.

f This explains the form quoad, as compared to adeo, and also quam-
obrem, quemadmodum, quocirca.

PRBPOS1TIOKS. 343

an emphatic adjective or genitive accompanies a noun, this empha-
tic word commonly comes first, and is immediately followed by the
preposition, which must then be considered as an enclitic attached
to it, and should be pronounced accordingly.

1392. The preposition is occasionally separated from its noun.
The words which may come between are included for the most part
under the following heads : a. an adjective belonging to the noun ;
4. a genitive belonging to it ; c. an adverb or case attached to that
noun when it is a gerund or participle ; d. the enclitics ne, que, ve,
although in the case of the monosyllabic pronouns, the noun as well
as the preposition commonly precede these enclitics * ; e. the con-
junctions which commonly occupy the second place in a sentence :
as, autem, enim, quldem, tamen, vero.

1393. The preposition may attach itself to the adjective in place
of the substantive, or even to a genitive which depends upon the
substantive, and the substantive itself be removed to a distance ; or,
lastly, the preposition occasionally is found before the verbf.

1394. Whether a preposition is to be repeated or not before each
of two nouns, is to be decided by the intimacy of the connexion be-
tween them. When that intimacy is close, the nouns may be con-
sidered as one, and a single preposition will be sufficient. Thus, the
Aulerci and Lexovii being close neighbours in the map of Gallia,
one preposition is enough in :

Exercltum in Aulercis Lexoviisque conlocavit (Caes.), He posted
the army in the country of the Anlerci and Lexovii.

1395. On the other hand, if the nouns bs looked upon as very
distinct, two prepositions are requisite : as.

Satis et ad laudem et ad utflltatem profectum arbitrator ( Caes.),
He thinks that sufficient progress has been made both for glory
and for utility:.

1396. When the antecedent and relative are dependent upon the

* See 836, 837.

f As, Dum longus inter saevlat Ilion Romamque pontus (Hor.).
% Hence the preposition inter is often repeated : as, Interest inter caussas
fortulto antegressas t inter caussas naturaiis (Cic.).

344 ADVERBS.

same preposition, the preposition may for brevity's sake be omitted
in the relative clause, if the verb be not expressed : as,

Me tuae litterae nunquam in tantam spem induxerunt, quantam
aliorum (Cic.), As for myself, your letters have never led me to
entertain so strong a hope as those of other friends.
1397- If two prepositions have a common noun, that noun must
be repeated in Latin (except in the case of those disyllabic preposi-
tions which are used adverbially) : as,

Hoc non modo non pro me, sed contra me est potius (Cic.), This,
so far from being for, is rather against me.

ADVERBS.

13Q8. An adverb, as its name implies, is commonly attached to a
verb, and usually precedes it ; but if the adverb is emphatic, it may
commence or end the whole sentence ; or if unemphatic, it may oc-
cupy the non-emphatic, that is, the second place* in a clause.

1399- An adverb may of course be used with participles, and this
usage is sometimes retained by them, even when they have become
virtually substantives : as, facto (n.), dicto (n.), response (n.), &c.
Thus,

In odium adducentiir advorsaril, si quod eorum siiperbe, criideli-
ter, malitiose factum profereturf (Cic.), The opposite parties
will be brought into discredit, if any tyrannical, cruel, or spite-
ful act of theirs be brought forward.

1400. An adverb often accompanies adjectives and adverbs, but
is rarely found with substantives, and perhaps only under one of the
two conditions : a. that the substantive shall be in apposition ; 6.
that it shall be interposed between a substantive and its adjective
or dependent genitive : as,

a. Marius septiimum consul domi suae est mortuos (Cic.), Marius

in his seventh consulate died at his own house.
Popiilus, late rex (Virg.), A city that ruleth far and wide.
E't heri semper lenitas verebar quorsum evaderet (Ter.), And

* See below : The order of words.

t Observe that if factuin had not been a substantive, the pronoun must
have been quid, not quod. See 306.

NE, WON. 345

master's constant gentleness, I was afraid what it would end
in*.
b. Omnes circa popull (Liv.), All the states around.

1401. Adverbs are used in some phrases with the verb es, 'be/
when an adjective or participle might have been expected : as,

Uti neque vos capiammi et ill! frustra sint (Sail.), That you
may not be deceived, and that the other party may be disap-
pointed.

Aput veteres dicta impune erant (Cic.), Among our ancestors
mere words were unpunished.

Veliae fui sane liibenter apud Talnam nostrum (Cic.), At Velia
I was indeed most comfortable at our friend Talna's.

NEGATIVE PARTICLES.

1402. The simplest form of the Latin negative is nef. On the
other hand, non has some other element added to the simple nega-
tive, and is therefore more emphatic. Hence nonj is used with
the indicative, and with the subjunctive when a result is expressed,
in which case the subjunctive evidently assumes the meaning of the
indicative .

1403. When non affects a single word in a sentence, it precedes
it ; when it affects a whole sentence, it commonly precedes the verb.

* Even here it is far from certain that semper does not belong to vg-
rebar.

f The same is the form of the English negative as it appears in our old
writers. It also enters into the formation of never from ever. The par-
ticle enters into the formation of many Latin words : as, neque, neve, ne-
mon (ne-hemon or ne-homon), nefas, nunquam, nutlquam, neqnaquam.
See also 761.

J Non may possibly be formed from ne and unum, just as our English
no is a corruption of none, i. e. ne one. Compare the German nein, from
ne ein. Indeed the old Latin writers use the form nenfi, which seems
more clearly to be a contraction of ne unum.

In the same way the French use the strengthened negatives ne..pas,
ne..point, ne..rien,in such phrases &sjen'iraipas,je n'irai point, je ne vois
rien, &c., where the particles pas, point, rien, severally represent the Latin
nouns possum, punctum, rent. On the other hand their subjunctive mood
commonly takes a simple ne.

346

ADVERBS.

Occasionally, in order that it may have great emphasis, non is placed

at the beginning of a sentence, or at the beginning of the predicative

part of a sentence, and in these cases it often becomes difficult to give

a translation which shall not greatly alter the order of words* : as,

Non hos palus, non silvae morantur (Caes.), No marsh, no woods

restrain them.

1404. In sentences containing a main verb of thinking or saying,
the negative, which really belongs to the infinitive mood, is at times
for emphasis placed before these main verbs : as,

Non existumavit suis similibus probari ppsse se esse hostem pa-
triae, nisi mihi esset inimlcus (Cic.), He thought that the men
of his own stamp could never be satisfied he was a public
enemy to his country, unless he was a private enemy of minef.

1405. Between ne J and quidem the word (or words, if intimately
connected) on which the emphasis lies is always interposed : as,

Ego ne utileai quidem arbitror esse nobis futurarum rerum scien-
tiam (Cic.), For my part I do not think it even expedient for
us to know the future.

Ne si ciipiam quidem (Cic.), Not even if I desired it.

1406. Where in English the conjunction and is followed by a
negative pronoun or adverb, the Latin language commonly prefers
neque accompanied by an affirmative pronoun or adverb : as,

Neque ex castris quisquam discesserat (Cic.), And not a man

had left the camp.
Neque ullam sbcietatem confirmarl posse credidl (Cic.~), And I

thought that no alliance could be ratified.
Neque usquam est consilio locus (Cic.~), And there is nowhere

room for deliberation.

* In the commencement of Horace's Satire (I. 6), Non quia Maecenas,
&c. niiso suspendis adunco Ignotos, the negative is separated from the verb
to which it belongs by nearly five lines.

f In the same way the Greeks use the order: OVK ftyi], although the
negative belongs to the following infinitive. In Latin also nega probabl
owes its formation to the same principle, the negative in this word too be-
longing always to the accompanying infinitive.

J As quidem is itself a word of strong affirmation, it was enough to use
the simple negative ne.

NE, KON.

347

14OT. Similarly an intention to prevent anything is expressed in
Latin bv ne and an affirmative pronoun or adverb, although the
English often uses the conjunction that, followed by a negative pro-
noun or adverb : as,

Opera dabatur ne quod iis colloquium inter se esset (Lie.), Pains
were taken that they should have no conference with each
other.

Dispositls exploratoribus neciibi Roman! capias transducerent
(Cues.}, Scouts being placed at different points that the Romans
might not lead their forces over at any point.
Tii tamen eas epistolas concerpito nequando quid emanet (Ctc.),
You however will tear up those letters that nothing may ever
ooze out.

1403. On the other hand where a result is desired, the conjunc-
tion tit is employed with the negative pronouns, &c. : as,

Tantis impedior occupationibus ut scribendi facultas nulla detur
(.Cic.), I am hindered by so many engagements, that I have no
opportunity of writing.

Obviam mihi sic est proditum, ut nihil posset fieri ornatius (Cic.),
They came out to meet me in such a manner, that nothing
could be more complimentary*.

1409. But when a negative affects a single word or clause, nonf
is still used even in the cases spoken of in 1406, 1407 : as,
IllI judices, si judlces et non parncidae patriae nommandl sunt
(C/c.), Those jurymen, if indeed they are to be called jurymen,
and not rather parricides of their native land.
Vetus et non ignobllis dicendi magister (Cic.), An old and not

unknown professor of oratory.
Non dicerem, si pueri esse culpam, ac non patris existumarem

* Thus in the following tables the words in the first column belong to
clauses of purpose, those in the second to clauses of result :

ne ............... at DOB.

ne qnisquam J

at nemo.

lutnihfl.
ne quidquam j

f So also nemon, nullo, &c.

ne qnando 1 t uam
ne unquam J

ne-cubi ut nusquam.

ne ullos ......at nallus.

348

ADVERBS.

(Ctc.), I should not have said so, if I had thought it was the
boy's and not the father's fault.

1410. The adjective nullo and the indeclinable noun nthil are oc-
casionally used emphatically for non and ne : as,

Nihil necesse est ad omnis tuas litteras rescribere (Cie.), There

is no necessity to reply to all your letters.
Sextiis ab armis nullus discedit (Czc.), Sextus has not a thought

of laying down the sword.

1411. An accumulation of negatives is common in Latin, so a
to produce a strong emphasis (but attention must be paid to the po-
sition of non in such phrases*) : as,

a. Non nihil ut in tantis malls est profectum (Cic.), Some pro-
gress has been made, considering the very unhappy position
we are in.

Non ignoro quam sint incerti ammi hominum (Cic.), I am not
ignorant how very fickle the feelings of the world are.

PSpulus solet non nunquam dignos praeterire (Cic.), The citizens
are wont at times to pass by the worthy.

Se non nolle dixit (Ctc.), He said he was no way unwilling.

&. Tuom consilium nemo potest non laudare (Ct'c.), The course
you are pursuing no one can avoid praising.

Aperte adulantem nemo non videt (Ct'c.), A man who openly
flatters, every one sees through.

Nihil non aggredientiir homines (Liv.), Men will attempt any-
thing.

1412. After a general negative, a second negative may be intro-
duced under either of the following circumstances a. when some
word or phrase is made emphatic by being placed between ne and

Thus,

non nihil = aliquld.

non nemo

non nullus

non nunquam = allquando.

non nusquam = aUcubi.

L =attquls.

nihil non = omnia.
nemo non = omnes.
nullus non=omnls.
nunquam non = sempr.
nusquam n6n = ubique.

Similarly non modo , non tantum , mean ' so much and more besides' ;
whereas modo non , tantum non ,'meaii ' something just short of.'

NE, NON. 349

quidem ; and b. when the main clause is divided into two or more,
of which each has its own negative* : as,

a. Adventus noster nemini ne minumo quidem fuit sumptul

(Cic.), Our arrival was not even the least expense to any one.

4. Sic habeas nihil te mihi nee carius esse nee suavius (Cic.), Be

assured that there is nothing either dearer or sweeter to ma

than yourself.

1413. After clauses containing words compounded with ne, a
second clause is sometimes introduced which requires that the affir-
mative notion f, instead of the negative, should be supplied : as,

Negant Caesarem in condltione mansurum, posttilataque haec ab
eo interposlta esse, quominiis a nobis pararetur (Cic.), They
say that Caesar will not abide by the terms, and that these de-
mands have been put forward by him to prevent our making
preparations.

Nemo extiilit eum verbis qui ita dixisset ut qui adessent iutelle-
gerent quid diceret, sed contempsit eum qui minus id facere
potuisset (Cic.), No one ever extolled a man for speaking so as
to make himself intelligible to those present, but all despise
one who is unable to do so}.

1414. A negative will often extend its influence over a second
clause attached to the first by out or ve : as,

Neque consistendi aut ex essedis desiliendl facultatem dederunt
(Caes.), Nor did they give (them) an opportunity of halting or
leaping down from their war-chariots. ,

Non ubivis coramve quibuslibet (Hor.), Not anywhere or before
any people.

1415. The negative in ne quidem, when followed by a common

* Occasionally a double negative with the power of a single negative
occurs through carelessness : as, Quos non mlseret nemlnls (apud Pest.),
Who don't pity no one.

f i.e. for nega, ' deny,' die, ' say'; for nol, ' be unwilling,' vol, ' wish'; for
nemo, ' no one,' omues, ' all.' As regards nega, see 1404. Compare too
Horace, Senn. i. 1 3, Nemo...vivat, laudet (i.e. omnes laudent).

J Observe that nemo extullt has caused contempsit to be an aorist as
well as a singular, though the present is required by the sense.

350 INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES.

predicate, often extends its influence over a preceding clause be-
ginning with non modo : as,

Assentatio non modo amico sed ne libero quidem digna est (Cie.),
Flattery is unworthy not merely of a friend, but even of a free-
man.

Senatui non solum juvare rempublicam, sed ne lugere quidem
licuit (Cic.), The senate were forbidden not merely to assist,
but even to mourn over their country*.

1416. In jussive and imperative sentences, and in subjunctive
clauses dependent upon ut or ne, neve is used rather than neqve or
et ne : as,

Suis praedixerat ut Caesaris impetum excTperent neve se loco m8-
verent (Caes.~), He had told his men beforehand to wait for
Caesar's attack and not move from their ground.

Hominem mortuom in urbe neve sepelito neve unto (apud Cic."),
Neither bury nor burn a corpse in the city.

INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES.

1417. The simplest interrogative particle is the enclitic ne, which
is affixed to that particular word on which the question turns,
whether verb, substantive, adjective or particle : as,

Potestne Crasse, virtus servire ? (Cic.) t Is it possible, Crassus,

that virtue should be a slave ?
Apollinemne tii Delium spoliare ausus es ? Illlne tu templo tarn

sancto maaus impias afferre conutus es ? (Cic.), Was Apollo

of Delos the god whom you dared to despoil ? Was that the

temple with all its sanctity on which you attempted to lay

your unholy hand ?
Nullon ego Chremetis pacto adfinitatem ecfugere potero ? (Ter.),

Is there no way in which I shall be able to escape a marriage

into Chremes' family ?
Quid coeptas Thraso ? Egone ? (Ter.), What are you after,

Thraso ? What am I after ?

* It is in such passages as these that non modo is said to be used for
non modo non.

NE, NTM, AX. 351

Siclne agis? (Ter.), Is this the way you act?
I'licone credere ea quae dixi oportuit te? (Ter.), If you must
needs believe what I said, ought you to have done so at once ?

1418. A question is often asked without any interrogative parti-
cle : as,

Rogas? Nonvides? (Ter.), Do you ask? Don't you see?
Ne'queo te exorare ut maneas triduom hoc ? (Ter.), Can I not

prevail upon you to wait the next three days ?
Clodius insidias fecit Miloni ? (C7c.), Did Clodius waylay Milo ?*

1419. In direct f questions the particle num commonly implies
the expectation of an answer in the negative, and nonne one in the
affirmative : as,

Num facti Pamphilum piget? Num ejus color pudoris signum
usquam indicat ? (Ter.), Is he sorry for his conduct? No.
Does his colour show any sign of shame ? No.

Quid canis, nonne similis Iiipo? (Cic.), Well and the dog, is he
not like the wolf? Of course he is.

1420. In simple indirect questions (not commencing with an in-
terrogative pronoun J) ne is commonly employed, sometimes num :
as,

Videamus primum, deorumne pr5videntia mundus regiitur, de-
inde consiilantne rebus humanls (Cfc.), Let us consider first
whether the universe is governed by the foresight of the gods,
secondly, whether they provide for the welfare of man.

Specular! jussi sunt, num sollicitati animl sociorum a rege essent
(La-.), They were directed to be on the look-out to find whe-
ther the king had been tampering with the allies.

1421. The particle an is not used in the simple direct question ;
and in the simple indirect the best writers seldom use it except in
the phrases nescio an, haud scio an, diibito an, incertum an : as,

Est id quidem magnum atque haud scio an maxiimum, sed tJbi

* In many of these cases it would be perhaps better to consider the
words as an assertion either put ironically or in the name of the other
party. Thus : Clodius waylaid Milo, you say.

f See 1134 and note.

$ Such as qui-s, ubi, undc, quo, quando, &c.

352 INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES.

commune cum multis (Cic.~), True, that is an important mat-
ter, and I would almost venture to say the most important of
all, but still it is common to you with many.

Hoc dijiidicarl nescio an numquam*, sed hoc sermone certe non
potest (Cic.), The decision of this point I am strongly inclined
to think can never take place, but certainly not through the
present conversation.

Moriendum certe est, et id incertum an hoc ipso die (Ctc.), Die
we must, some time or other, and possibly this very day.

1422. The use of si (and si forte) in indirect questions is very
rare, except in phrases where hope or expectation is expressed or
implied (if perchance) : as,

Expectabam si quid de ed consilio ad me scrlberes (Cic.), I was
waiting to see whether you would write anything to me about
this plan.

Hostes circumfunduntiir ex omnibus partibus si quern aditum
reperire possint (Caes.), The enemy pour round on every side
in hopes they may find some place to enter at.

1423. The term disjunctive question is used to denote those cases
where one or more alternatives are added (which in English are
preceded by the word or). The forms used, alike for direct and in-
direct questions, are the four which follow: a, utrumf ,

anj ; 5. ne, an ; c. , an ; d. , ne :

as,

* In many of the ordinary editions the negative in these phrases has
been deprived of its first letter. Thus Ramshorn, p. 710, quotes nescio
an ulli from Cic. ad Fam. ix. 9, though the best MSS. have nulli. See
Orelli's edition.

t Num is limited in its use to the simple question. Yet at times it ap-
pears to be used in disjunctive questions, because at the close of that sim-
ple question which alone was intended at starting, it suddenly occurs to
the writer (see 1426) to draw attent.^ \ . the absurdity of some alter-
native which he attaches as usual by the particle an. See Madvig's Opusc.
ii. 230.

J Care must be taken not to confound with disjunctive questions those
in which, although the English language uses the same particle, there is
really no opposition between the parts, but all may be equally denied or
affirmed, so that ant and not an must be interposed : as, Quid ergo, solem

AX, SI, UTRUM, XE. 353

0. Utrum nescis quam alte escenderis, an id pro nihilo habes ?
(CYe.), Which is the right explanation of your conduct; that
you do not know to what a high station you have risen, or
that you set no value upon it :

Id agitur utrum hac petltione an proxuma praetor flas (Cie.),
The question is this, whether you are to be prartor this election
or next.

1. DIcamne huic, an non dicam ? (Ter.), Shall I tell this person,
or shall I not tell him ?

Quaero eum. Brutme similem malis, an Anton! (Ore.), I ask
whether you would wish him to be like Brutus or Antony.

c. Sortiettir, an n5n ? (Ct'c.), Shall he cast lots or not :
Incertum erat, bellum an pax cum Celtiberls esset (Liv.), It was

uncertain whether they were in a state of war or peace with
the Celtiberians.

d. Sunt haec tua verba, necne*? (Ctc.) Are these your words
or not ?

Xihfl interesse piitant, valeamus aegrine simus (Ci'c.), It makes
no difference they think, whether we are well or ill.

1424. The forms: ne, ne ; an , an ; are

found in the poets (and but rarely elsewhere) : as,

QuT teneant oras, hominesne feraene,
Quaerere constituit (Fir^.),

Who occupy the borders, men or beasts,
He resolves to ask.

Saepe manus open tentantes admovet, an sit Corpus an illiid ebur
(Oc.), Oft his hands he moveth to the work, trying whether
that before him be flesh or ivory.

1425. The old construction with utrum has after it ne,

an : as,

Utrum erat utflius, suisne servlre an populo Romano obtempe-

dlcam aut lunam aut caelum deum ? (Cic.*), What then, shall I apply the
name of a god to the sun, or to the moon, or to the sky ?

* Xe in the second part of a direct question is rare, and perhaps limited

in the best writers to the form necne. So utrum , necue occurs in an

indirect question. The Psendo-Nepos has utrum , matremne, &c.

354 INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES.

rare ? (CVc.) , Which was the more expedient course, to be slaves
to countrymen of their own, or to meet the wishes of the Ro-
man people ?

Utrum, studione id sibi habet an laudi putat Fore si perdiderit
gnatum? (Ter.), Does he look upon this as an amusement, or
does he think it will be a credit to him if he ruin his son* ?
1426. It has been seen that an is the particle ordinarily used be-
fore the second part of a question. Hence an (or an vero) is well
adapted for those cases where a statement is immediately followed
by the alternative put in the form of a question : as,

Necessest quod pronuntiiis, id aut esse aut n5n esse. An tu
dialecticis ne imbutus quidem es? (Cic.), What you put for-
ward must needs either be or not be. Or are you not ac-
quainted with even the first elements of logic f ?
Ad mortem te Catilma duel jampridem bportebat an vero Sclpio
Gracchum privatus interfecit, Catilinam nos consules perfere-
miis ? (Cic.), Death, Catiline, ought long ago to have been your
fate or does any one really pretend, that when Scipio, though
a private man, slew Gracchus, the consules of Rome are to
tolerate Catiline ?

Nos hie te exspectiimus ex qucdam rumore, an ex litteris tuis ad
alios missis (Cic.), We meanwhile are expecting you here on
the authority of some rumour, or (am I right ?) letters of yours
to some other people J.

* The particle ne is at times added to the interrogative pronouns and
also to the particles num. and an: as, quine, quone, quantane, Sterne,
utrumne, numne, anne. But care must be taken to distinguish those ellip-
tical phrases where the relative and not the interrogative pronoun precedes
ne. Thus, Ter. Phorm. v. 8. 29. : Chr. Argentum jube rescribi. Ph.
Quodne ego discripsi porro illis quibus debui ? Ch. Order the money to
be repaid. Ph. What, the money which I paid away forthwith to those
creditors I spoke of ? And again, Ter. Andr. iv. 4. 29 : Quemne ego heri
vidi ad vos adferri vesperi ? "What, the child w r hich I myself saw being
carried to your house yesterday evening ?

f Which must be the case if you deny my proposition.

J Hence in Tacitus an is used almost with the sense of vel : as, Finem
vltae sponte an fato implevit, He ended his life by an act of his own, or
it may be, by a natural though sudden death.

ADVERBS. 355

1427. An answer in the affirmative may be expressed by etiam,
Ita or Ita est, sic or sic est, verum, vero, factum, sane, maxume,
quidni ?, admodum, oppido, plane, &c., by a personal pronoun with
ver5, or lastly by the verb of the preceding sentence repeated* : as,

Haecme tua domus est ? Ita (Plaut.}, Is this your house ? Yes.

Novl tfbi quidnam scribam ? quid? etiam (Cic.), Hare I any
news to write to you ? Any news? Yes.

P. Itane patris ais conspectum veritum hinc abiisse ? G. admo-
dum. P. Phanium relictam solam ? G. Sic-f. P. Et iratum
senem ? G. Oppido. (Ter.), P. Do you really mean that, afraid
to face his father, he is gone off? G. Precisely. P. That
Phanium has been left by herself? G. Just so. P. And that
the old man is in a passion ? G. Exactly.

A. Dasne hoc? B. Do very (Cic.), A. Do you admit this? B.
Yes, I do admit it.

1428. An answer in the negative may be expressed by non, mi-
nume, nihil minus, &c. : as,

Cognitorem adscribit Sthenio. Quern ? Cognatum aliquem ? Non.
Thennitanom aliquem ? Ne id quidem. At STciilum ? Minume.
(Cic.}, He appoints an attorney to act for Sthenius. Whom,
think you? Some relative? No. Some inhabitant of Ther-
mae ? Not even that. Still a Sicilian of course .' By no means.

1429. Imo seems to haTe signified properly an assent with an
important qualification, (but from carelessness it is used at tunes
where the correction amounts to a total denial) : as,

Vivit? Imo etiam in, senatum venit (C/c.), Is he alive? Yes
indeed he is, and more than that, comes into the senate.

Causa igitur non bona est ? Imo optuma, sed agetur foedissume
(Cic.), The cause then is not a good one ? A good one, nay, the
best of causes, but it will be supported most disgracefully.

A. Sic hunc decipis ? D. I'mo enimvero hie A'ntipho me decipit

* At times the affirmation is understood without a formal expression :
as when a reply begins with : at, ' true but ' ; at enim, ' true but beyond a
doubt ' ; et quidem, ' true and no less truly.'

f Just as si, ' so ', ' yes ', is used in French, &c.

356 COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

(Ter.), A. Is this the way you cheat this poor fellow? D. Not
exactly so ; it is this poor fellow, Antipho, who is cheating

me *.

COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

1430. Of the three copulative conjunctions, te, que, atque (ac),
the enclitic que is more particularly employed to attach something
subordinate to what precedes and unites two things more closely
together into one : as,

Soils et lunae reliquorumque slderum ortus (Cic.~), The rising of

the sun and moon and the other stars.
Senatus populusque Romanus, The senate and people of Rome.

1431. Long phrases are connected commonly by et, sometimes
by que, rarely by atque ; whereas all three are employed to connect
words or short phrases, except that que is never attached to those
demonstrative pronouns or adverbs which end in c.

1432. When two words or phrases are to be united, a still
stronger union is effected by employing a pair of conjunctions.

Thus a. et et is employed either with single words or long

phrases, b. que, que is used in the connection of rela-
tive clauses, and sometimes with a pair of words the first of which

is a pronoun ; and also generally in the poets, c. que, et -f

is limited to single words, of which again the first is often a pro-
noun : as,

a. Nihil est enim simul et inventum et perfectum (Cic.~), For
nothing was ever both invented and perfected at once.

&. Quique Romav, qulque in exercltu erant (Lie.}, Both those at
Rome and those in the army.

Meque regnumque meum (Sail.), Both myself and my sceptre.

Alii fontemque ignemque ferebant (Virg.), Others the limpid
stream and fire were bearing.

* A friend and colleague has suggested that Imo is merely a contraction
of in mod5, ' in a manner,' and refers to the arguments I have put forward
elsewhere ('Alphabet,' p. 141), to show that modo when used as an adverb
had a monosyllabic pronunciation.

t This form occurs in Sallust, not in Cicero.

KT, QUE, ATQUE. 357

1433. When more than two things are to be united, of which no
one is to be more closely united to one than to another, the follow-
ing forms are admissible :

a. et , et , et

b. , et , et

d. , que, que* : as,

a. Is et in custodiam civis dedit, et supplicationem mihi decrevit,
et indices praemiis affecit (Cic.), This person has ordered citi-
zens into custody, has voted a public thanksgiving in my name,
has rewarded the informers.

b. Admlrarl soleo gravitatem et justitiarn et sapientiam Caesarls
(Ctc.), I always admire the high principle, and justice and
wisdom of Caesar.

c. Urbem pulcerriimam florentissiimam potentissumamque esse
voluerunt (Cic.), They wished Rome to stand foremost in
splendour, prosperity, and power.

d. A cultii provinciae longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mer-
catores saepe commeant, proximique sunt Germanls (Caes.),
They are farthest from the civilization of the province, are
visited very rarely by merchants, and lie nearest to Germany f.

1434. When of the words or phrases to be united, the union is
to be closer between some than others, more than one of the con-
junctions et, que, atque must be used ; and thus the Latin lan-
guage has great power in grouping together the different parts of a
sentence according to their importance + : as,

Caedes atque incendia, et legum interltum, et bellum civile ac
domesticum, et totlus urbls atque imperi occasum appropin-
quare dixerunt (Ctc.), Massacres and conflagrations, the anni-

* Yen* rarely , atque (ac) , atque (ac) .

t The poets often attach a que to the first, as well as all the following
members of a series : as, ObBtus regisque ducumque meique (Oc.), Forget-
ful of prince, of chiefs, of me.

* Cicero at times in his orations purposely uses et alone throughout a
long period to connect all the single words and phrases and clauses, whether
long or short, his object being rather to deluge his hearer's mind with a
superfluity of ideas, than to place them in due subordination before him.

358 COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

hilation of law, civil and domestic war, the downfall of the
city and the empire, all these were approaching they said.

Illud signum soils ortum, et forum curiamque conspicit (Czc.),
Yonder statue looks upon the rising sun, and the forum and
senate-house*.

Navigantes inde pugnatum ad Lflybaeum fusasque etf captas
hostium navls accepere (Liv.}, As they were sailing thence
they received the news that a battle had been fought off Lily-
baeum, and that the enemies' ships had been all put to flight orf
taken.

Itaque productis copiis ante oppldum considunt ; et proximam
fossam cratibus integunt atque f aggere explent, seque ad erup-
tionem atque omnls casiis comparant (Coes.), Accordingly
having led out their forces they take a position before the town ;
and the first ditch which presented itself they bridge over with
hurdles, orf fill up with earth, at the same time that they pre-
pare against a sally and every other mischance J.

1435. There are three modes by which an enumeration is made
so as to be highly impressive : a. that already mentioned (in 1433.)
with the prefixed and repeated et (called Polysyndeton) ; b. a simple
enumeration without conjunctions (called Asyndeton) ; c. a repeti-
tion of some word at the beginning of each clause (called Anaphora) :
thus,

b. Semper audax, petiilans, liibldinosus (Cic.~), Always daring,

mischievous, sensual.

Quid voluerit, cogitarit, admlserit, non ex crimme est ponderan-
dum (Cic.), His criminal wishes, intentions, actions, are not
to be measured by the charges of his accuser.

* The omission of the word the before senate-house has the same effect
of bringing the latter pair of nouns nearer together, as the change of con-
junction has in Latin.

f This disjunctive use of et and atque is not uncommon.

J If every one of the three conjunctions he translated by and, the repeti-
tion at once offends the ear and confuses the mind. The variety of stops in
our modern printing enables us to make that distinction visible to the eye,
which the Romans made sensible to the ear also by a variety of conjunc-
tions. See Journal of Education, iv. 135.

ET, QUE, ATQTJE. 359

c. Erepti estis sine caede, sine sanguine, sine exerdtu, sine dimi-
cationS (Cic.), You have been rescued without a massacre,
without bloodshed, without an army, without a struggle.

1436. An omission of a conjunction between two words is
a. common in the old lanaruage and public formulae ; b. the regular
construction with words or phrases opposed to one another ; and c.*
occasionally used in a light and lively style for the sake of brevity :
as,

a. Rogationem promulgavit, vellent juberentf Phflipp5 regi bellum
indicl (Liv.), He put up a public notice of his intention to take
the pleasure and order of the people for declaring war against
king Philip.

Lex Aelia Sentia (Gains), The law passed by Aelius and Sentius.

Usus fructusj est jus alienis rebus utendl fruendi salva rerum

substantia (Paul, in Dig.), The usufruct is the right to the

use and produce of property belonging to others, -without de-

triment to the property itself.

ft. Ne cursem hue illuc via deterruma (Cic.), That I may not
keep running first to this place and then to that along the
worst possible road.

Omnia, minuma maxiirna, ad te mitti sciebam (Cic.'), All the
news, from the most unimportant to the most important, I
knew was regularly sent you.

Quum diu anceps fuisset certamen, et Saguntinis quia praeter
spem resisterent crevissent animi, Poenus quiS non vicisset
pro victo esset, clamorem repente oppTdam tollunt (Z,ir.),
the contest had been for a long time doubtful, and the

* See Madvig's Gramm., p. 405.

f More literally : He advertised a bill asking whether they wished and
ordered that war should be declared against king Philip.

J Thus what was originally two independent words became almost one ;
still the accusative is usum fructum.

In the passages where long clauses are opposed, the writer takes care
to place opposed words at the beginning of each clause, as here : Sagun-
tinls..., Poenus... "Where the phrase is a short one, this is not necessary,
as in Cic. in Cat. ii. 11. Qiiibus nos suppeditamus, eget ille, Of which
we have abundance, while he has none.

360 COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

spirit of the Saguntines was increased because they had up to
this time made a resistance beyond their hopes, while* the
Carthaginian was as good as defeated because he was not
already victorious, the townspeople suddenly set up a shoutf.

c. Aderant amlci, propinqui (Czc.), His friends, connections were
present.

In feris inesse fortitudinem saepe dicimus, ut in equls, in leonibus
(Ci'c.), We often attribute courage to a beast, as the horse, the
lion.

1437. When clauses follow one another without any conjunc-
tions to connect them, the same order is used in each (except that
an inversion is admissible in the last clause) : as,

Ad hoc praeusti artus, nive rigentes nervl, quassiita fractaque
arma, claudi ac debiles equij (Liv. xxi. 40), In addition to this
their limbs are frostbitten, their muscles stiffened by the snow,
their arms shattered and broken, their horses lame and ex-
hausted.

Is motus terrae multarum urbium magnas partis prostrfivit, mare
flumimbus invexit, montls lapsu ingenti proruit (Liv. xxii. 5),
This earthquake threw down a great portion of many cities,
carried the sea up rivers, caused fearful avalanches .

1438. With adjectives and adverbs of comparison ||, the conjunc-
tions et and que are used in such a manner that the two things
compared are brought together and under a common construction,
while the adjective or adverb of comparison either precedes or fol-

* This conjunction is almost necessary in the English translation, when
two opposed clauses are attached by a conjunction to another sentence.

t Compare also the use of such opposed clauses after an in 1426;
and see ' Journal of Education,' iv. p. 140, &c.

i After nervl, the editions have : membra torrida gelu which, to say
nothing of the substantive preceding the epithet, is evidently a mere mar-
ginal interpretation of praeusti artus.

Here again our editions insert after prostriivit, avertitque cursu ra-
pldos amnes, which is evidently an interpolation.

|| This word is here used in a wide sense, so as to include such adjec-
tives as aequo, par, stafli, disslmlli, idem, uno, duo, duplic, &c. and the
adverbs aeque, parltSr, sltnul, una, &c.

ET, QUE, ATQUB. 361

lows the things compared ; but the adverb is sometimes interposed
after the first of the things compared, as a sort of enclitic. Thus,
if we include the double and single use of each conjunction, there
are six varieties :

a. Strenui milMs et boni imperatoris offlcia, simul exsequebatur
(Sail.), He was performing the parts at once of a zealous sol-
dier and a good general.

b. Cui-simul et Volcatio pecunia numerate est (Cic.), The money
ha\ing been paid to him and Volcatius at the same time.

c. Nlhfl est enim, simul, et inventum et perfectum (Cic.), For
nothing was ever invented and brought to perfection both at
the same time.

d. Alienata mente, simul, luctu metuque (-Lit.), Their minds
distracted by the double feeling, of sorrow (for their mother's
death) and fear (for themselves) .

e. Hoc, principium-simul omenque belli (.Lit?.), This, at once a
commencement and an omen of the war.

f. Pariter, comitlque onerique timentem (Firg.), Fearful alike
for his companion and for the load upon his back.

1439- The use of atque with adjectives and adverbs of comparison
is much more free, as neither an identity of construction nor the
close union of the things compared is essential. Thus,

Me collt et observat aeque atque ilium (Cic.), He pays as much

respect and attention to me as to him.

Si qui dlcatur alium occidisse ac voluerit (Cic.), If a person were
charged with having killed a different person from what he had
intended.

Par desiderium sul reliquit ac Ti. Gracchus reliquerat (Cic.), He
died as much regretted as Tiberius Gracchus had done.

1440. Et is occasionally used in the sense of ' also,' ' too,' even
in the best writers *, but for the most part only in certain combina-
tions : as, sed et, simul et, sic et.

1441. Que in the poets is sometimes placed, not after the second
of the two words compared, but after a word which is the common
predicate of both clauses : as,

* See Allen's ' Doctrina Copularum,' p. 52.
a

362 DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

Insanum te omnes pueri clament*que puellae (Hor.), The mad-
man! all would exclaim, both boys and girlsf.

1442. The poets take the liberty of placing que behind a later
word than the first of its clause, particularly in a pentameter line:
as,

Quum maestus ab alto
Ilion, ardentes respiceretque deos (Tib.),

As in sadness from the deep
He looked behind on Ilion and his burning gods.

1443. The construction neque et , and also that of

et neque deserve attention, because they differ from the

English idiom. Thus,

Patebat via et certa nee longa (Cic.), A road lay open to them
which had the double advantage of being certain and not long.

Voluptates agncolarum nee ulla impediuntur sonectute, et mihi
ad sapientis vitam proxume videntiir accedere (Cic.), The
pleasures of the farmer (have a twofold recommendation :
they)J are never obstructed by old age, however advanced,
and they seem to me to approach most nearly to the life a
wise man would lead.

DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

1444. The difference between aut and vel, though commonly
translated by the same word in English, is marked. Aut divides
two notions essentially different, while vel marks a distinction either
not essential in itself or unimportant in the mind of the speaker, so
that it is often used to correct a mere expression. When they are
repeated, the distinction becomes still more marked. In the con-
struction aut aut , the denial of one clause is an affir-
mation of the other. Whereas in the construction vel vel

all the clauses may coexist or not, the speaker merely expressing

* A construction that probably began with a repetition of the predicate :
puSri clament clamentque puellae.

t See Allen's ' Doctrina Copularum,' p. 120.

J Or the words within brackets might have been omitted, and the word
and exchanged for at the same time that.

See 840j note .

VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS. 363

his indifference as to a choice between them. Lastly, vel is used
with superlatives and in other phrases with the sense of ' even,' or
perhaps more precisely ' if you like*.'

a. Audendum est aliquld universis, aut omnia singulis patienda
(Liv.~), We must make a bold effort in a body, or else every
individual must suffer the worst.

Aut occiibuissem honeste, aut victores hodie viveremus (Ctc.),
Either I should have fallen honourably, or else we should have
been now living as conquerors.

b. Magnus homo, vel potius summus (Cic.), A great man, or
rather the greatest of men.

Una atque altera aestas vel metu vel spe vel poena vel praemiis
vel armis vel legibus potest totara Galliam sempiternis vinculis
adstringere (Cfc.), One or two summers, by the influence of
fear or hope or punishment or rewards or arms or laws (I care
not which), may bind all Gallia in chains to eternity.

c. VTdetur vel mbri satius fuisse quam esse cum his (Ctc.), It
seems to me that even death would have been better than to
live in the company of these people.

Vestra causa me loqui quae loquor, vel ea fides sit (Liv.), That

it is for your sake that I say what I do say, let even this be

a security to you.
Ciijus eo tempore vel maxuma apud regem auctoritas erat (Liv.),

^Yhose influence with the king at this time was the very

greatest -f.

VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

1445. At denotes rather addition than opposition. It is com-
monly employed after a concession, especially,

* It will be seen that all the meanings here given to vel are consistent
with its being in origin a jussive of vol, ' wish,' in the sense of ' make your
own choice.' See 840, note .

f The use of ve agrees nearly with that of vel, from which it is pro-
bably formed ; but it is always an enclitic, and occurs more frequently in
poetry than hi prose.

H 2

364 CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

a. after si, in the sense of yet, still . as,

SI minus supplicio affici, at custSdiri oportebat (Cic.), If it was
not right they should be severely punished, still they ought to
have been guarded.

Si non bonam, at aliquam rationem afferre solent (Czc.), They
usually bring forward, if not a good reason, yet some reason.

6. In a reply, when a proposition of the other party is assented
to, but at the same time rendered useless for his purpose by some
addition : as,

Nunquam nisi hon5rificentissume Pompeium appellat. At in
ejus persona multa fecit asperius (Ct'c.), He never speaks of
Pompey except in the most complimentary terms. Precisely
so, but in dealing with him he acted on many occasions some-
what roughly.

c. Hence it is employed to anticipate an opponent's objection, in
which case the verb inquies or dices is commonly omitted, and not
unfrequently the particle enim or vero added : as,

At sunt morosi et difficiles senes (Cic.), But you will tell me, old

men are cross and difficult to please.
At enim Q. Catuliis ab hac ratione dissentit (Cic.), True, I shall

be told, but Quintus Catulus dissents from this view.

d. It denotes a sudden emotion of the mind, and is employed in
sudden transitions in a speech : as,

Exi foras sceleste. At etiam restitas? (Ter.~), Get out of the
house, you scoundrel. What ! do you still resist ?

Narrabat se hunc neclegere cognatum suom. At quern virum ?
(Ten), He often told me that this kinsman took no notice of
him. And yet what a noble creature he was !

e. Hence the repeated form attat, i. e. atatat *, is used to mark a
sudden discovery : as,

Attat hoc illud est (Ter.), Ah, ah, I see it then, this explains that
business.

1446. Autem strictly denotes again, and is never used in the
sense of opposition, but real addition. It never occupies the first
place in a clause. Its significations are

* See 24.

AT, AUTEM, DEMUM. 365

a. Again : as,

Turn autera hoc timet (Ter.), Then again she is afraid of this.
Sed quid ego haec autem nequiquam ingrata revolvo (Vlrg."],

But why do I again in vain turn over these unwelcome

thoughts ?
Porro autem alio (Ter.), And ere long with another again.

&. On the other hand : as,

Neque enim tu is es qui quid sis nescias ; neque autem ego sum
ita demens at, &c. (O'c.), Nor indeed are you the person not
to know what is due to you, nor on the other hand am I so
mad as, &c.

c. And (especially in a parenthesis) : as,

Diogenem adulescens, post autem Panaetium audierat (Cte.),
He had attended the lectures of Diogenes when a young man,
and afterwards those of Panaetius.

Neminem convent (convenio autem quotidie plururaos) quin
omnes mihi gratias agant (Ci'e.), I have met no one (and I
daily meet very many), but they all thank me.

d. But, especially in adding the new propositions of a syllogism :
as,

Si amitti vita beata potest, beata esse non potest. Quis ?nim
confidit sibi semper id stabile pennansurum quod fragile sit ?
Qui autem diffidat perpetuitati bonorum suorum, timeat ne-
cessest, ne aliquando, amissis illis sit miser. Beatus autem
esse in maxtimarum rerum timore nemo potest. Nemo igitur
beatiis esse potest (Cic.) If happiness can be lost, it cannot
be happiness. For who feels sure that that will always remain
stable to him which is in itself frail ? But if a man feels no
security in the continuance of his blessings, he must needs be
afraid of some time or other losing them and so becoming mi-
serable. But no one can be happy when in fear about matters
of the greatest importance. Consequently no one can be happy.

1447. Demum is strictly an adverb of time, and signifies a. At
last, a very long time having preceded : as,

Ego novos maritus anno demum quinto et sexagensumo Fiam !

3G6 CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

(Ter.), I become a bridegroom now for the first time in my

five and sixtieth year !
Nunc demum venis ? Curpassu's? (Ter.), Are you come now

for the first time ? Why did you put up with it so long ?
Quarta vix demum expommur hora (Hor.), At last at ten o'clock

(and then with difficulty) we land.

I. Nothing short of*, especially with the pronoun i or eo : as,
Sic enim sentio, id demum esse miserum quod turpe sit (Cic.), For

I feel that that, and that alone is wretched which is base.
Idem velle et idem nolle, ea demum firma amlcitia est (Sail.), An

identity of desires and dislikes, that and nothing short of that

constitutes lasting friendship.

1448. Dum is strictly an adverb of time and signifies
a. While, as long as (nearly always with the indicative) :
Dum haec in Venetis gerunturf, Titurius in finis Unellorum

pervenit (Caes.), While these things were going on among the

Veneti, Titurius arrives in the territories of the Unelli.
Dum Latlne loquentur litterae, quercus huic loco non dent (Cic.),

So long as literature shall talk Latin, this spot will not be

without its oak.
Die insequenti quievere milites, dura praefectus urbis vires inspt-

ceret J (Liv.), The next day the soldiers rested, that the gene-
ral might in the interval examine the strength of the city.
6. Until (nearly always with the indicative mood, unless a pur-
pose be intended) : as,

Expecto dum ille vemt (Ter.), I am waiting until that person

comes.
Expecta amabo, dum Atticum conveniam (Cic.), Wait, I pray

you, until I can see Atticus.

c. Provided that (always with the subjunctive) : as,

Oderint, dum metuant (Cic.), Let them hate, provided they fear.

Omni a honesta neclegunt, dum modS potentiam consequantur

* Denlque is sometimes used in this sense. \ See 458.

J The subjunctive, to denote a purpose.
The subjunctive of the purpose.

DEMUM, DCH, E.VIM, JAM. 367

(Cic.), They neglect all that is honourable, if they can but at-
tain political power.

d. Yet, a while, as an enclitic after negatives (including cix) or
the jussive mood : as,

Vixdum epistolam tuam legeram cum Curtius venlt (Cic.), I
had scarcely yet read your letter, when Curtius called.

Legatione decreta necdum missa (Lie.), When the embassy had
been decreed, but not yet sent.

Adesdum, paucis te volo (Ter.), Here a moment, I want a few
words with you.

1449. Enim must commonly be translated by the English con-
junction for, but at times retains what was probably its earlier
signification indeed, as in enimvero, indeed, indeed; neque enim,
nor indeed; etenim, and indeed ; atenim*, true you trill say, but in
fact ; sed enim, but indeed, &c. : as,

Enimvero Dave, nil locist segnitiae nee socordiae (Ter.), Indeed,
indeed, Davus, there is no room for sloth or stupidity.

Quid tute tecum ? Nihil enim (Flout.), What are you saying to
yourself? Nothing, I assure you.

1450. Jam is an adverb of time, and often differs from nunc just
as eo tempore differs from hoe tempore. It commonly denotes some-
thing extreme in point of time : as,

a. Already (sooner than might have been expected) : as,
Hermae rul Pentelici jam nunc me delectant (Cic.), Your Mer-
curies of Pentelic marble already now charm me (before I
have seen them).

Haec jam turn cum aderas offendere ejus animum intellegebam
(Cic.), This, already when you were with us, I perceived an-
noyed him.

b. At last (later than might have been expected) : as,

Postulo ut redeat jam in viam (Ter.), I expect him to return at
last into the right path. (He has gone astray long enough.)

c. Presently -. as,

De quibus jam dicendi locus erit (Cic.), Of which I shall pre-
sently have an opportunity of speaking.

* See 1445 c.

368 CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

d. Then again, lastly (to denote a transition from one subject to
another) : as,

Jam quantum dlcendi gravitate valeat, vos saepe cognostis (Cic.),
Then again how impressive he is as a speaker, you yourselves
have often witnessed.

e. Jam jamque, of what is expected every moment : as,
Quanquam ipse jam jamque adero (Cic,), And yet I myself shall

be with you forthwith.

1451. Ita* 'so' differs from sic ' so ' as the logical i or eo 'this'
from the demonstrative ho ' this.'

a. So (so exceedingly), pointing to a coming ut 'that' : as,
Inclusum in curia senatum habuerunt ita multos dies ut interiS-
rint nonnulll fame (Cic.), They kept the senate shut up in
their house so many days that some died of hunger.
6. So (so little'), with the same construction: as,
Hoc tibi Ita mando ut dubitem an te rogem (Cic.), I give you
this commission, but with so faint a heart that I doubt whether
I ought to ask the favour : or, Though I give..,, yet I doubt, &c.

c. So, referring to the preceding sentence : as,

Ita sunt omnia debilitata (Ctc.), To such an extent is everything

exhausted.
Ita est (Ter.), Yes, it is so.

d. So, corresponding to a preceding or following ' as ' (ut, &c.) :
as,

Ut quisque optume Graece scit, ita est nequissumus (Cic.), As
each man is better acquainted with Greek, so is he a greater
rogue.

e. So f, in expressing a prayer : as,

Ita me Di bene adjiivent, nonnihil timeo (Ter.'), So may the gods

protect me, I am somewhat frightened.
/. Ut...ita, although. .. yet : as,
Ut a proeliis quietem habuerant, ita non nocte, non die unquam

* The oldest form of the neuter pronoun id. Compare the Gothic
neuter thata, \vhence our that.
f Sic is used in the same way : Sic te Diva potens Cypri...ri;gat.

JAM, ITA, NAM, QTTIDEST.

cessaverant ab opere (Ltr.), Although they had had rest from
fighting, yet they had never ceased either by day or by night
from working.

g. Ita.*... si, on the one condition... that : as,

Pads Ita aliqua spes est, si earn ut victi audietis (Z/i.), Of peace
there is not the slightest hope, except on the condition that
you listen to the terms offered as men who are conquered.

h. This, referring to an accusative and infinitive following f : as,

Ita constitul, fortiter esse agendum (Cic.), I resolved upon this,
that I must act with firmness.

i. So (so very}, with the words by which the degree is to be mea-
sured, not expressed (especially after negatives) : as.

Simulacra praeclara sed non ita antiqua (Cic.), Figures of great
repute, but not so very old.

1452. Nam, while it commonly signifies for, has two other
meanings which deserve attention :

a. Thus, for example (introducing a particular instance after a
general proposition) J. b. It often assigns a reason why a par-
ticular name or fact which might have been expected is not in-
cluded in a series or argument just preceding. Thus,

Nam quod negas te dubitare quin magna In offensa sim Spud
Pompeium hoc tempore, non video causam cur ita sit (Cic. ad
Alt. ix. 2), I purposely pass over your statement that you
have no doubt of my having given great offence to Pompev, for
this simple reason, that I do not see any reason why it should
be so.

1453. Quidem. gives emphasis to the word or words before it,
and its meanings deserve great attention. They are

* So also sic is used in Horace : Sic ign5visse piitato Me tib:, si mecum
cenas. Indeed sic is only si with the demonstrative suffix added. Com-
pare the use of so in English for if: So you dine with me, I'll forgive you.

f- Sic is used in the same way.

J See Caesar, B. G. iii. 28.

The same in meaning and perhaps in form as the Greek ye. See
' Alphabet,' p. 141.

370 CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

a. At least : as,

Mini quidem pergratum fecisti (Cic.)> On me at any rate you

have conferred a great obligation.
Mea quidem sententia paci semper est consiilendum (Ctc.), In

my opinion at least (whatever others may think) peace ought

ever to be the object of our counsels.

b. Ne. .. quidem *, not even: as,

Id ne ferae quidem faciunt (Cic.), This even the wild beast does

not do.
Ne id quidem exploratum est (Cz'c.), Even that is not certain.

c. Et quidem, and indeed, nay : as,

Me cum Gablnio sententiam dicere et quidem ilium rogarl prius
(Ci'c.), That I should give my opinion in the same room with
Gabinius, and indeed he be asked his first !

d. Et quidem, and qui quidem (in replies), assenting to what is
said, and at the same time ironically adding what renders it use-
less : as,

Torquem detraxit host!. Et quidem se texit ne internet. At
magnum perlciilum adiit. In Sciilis quidem hostium (Czc.),
He tore the collar from his enemy's neck. Yes, and (excuse
my adding) covered himself with his shield, that he might not
be killed. But still he incurred great danger. Certainly, in
the eyes of the enemy.

At erat mecum senatus et quidem veste mutata. At tota Italia
convenerat cui quidem vastitatis metus inferebatur (Ctc.),
But the senate, you say, were with me. They were, and (you
have forgotten to add) dressed in mourning. But all the in-
habitants of Italy had assembled to support me. They had,
and (by way of encouragement I suppose) were daily threatened
"with the devastation of their property.

e. Qui quidem, which by the way : as,

Quo quidem in bello virtus enituit egregia M. Catonis proavi tui
(Cic. pro Mur. 14), In which war by the way, the valour and
abilities of your great-grandfather, M. Cato, shone conspicuous.

De triumpho tibi assentior, quern quidem totum facile abjecero

* See 1405, 1412, 1415.

QUID EM, QUOD. 371

(Cte.), About the triumph I agree with you, and by the way I
shall readily abandon the whole thought of it.
/. It is true, certainly (a concession commonly followed by sed) : as,
Facls amice tu* quidem sed mihi videris aliiid honestum judlcare
atque ego existiimem (Cic.), You act like a friend I grant, but
still you seem to me to hold a different opinion of what is right
and proper from that which I entertain.
Ignosco equidem f tibi, sed tu quoque mihi velim ignoscas (Cic.),

I forgive you certainly, but I must beg you too to forgive me.
g. Similarly in a transition from one subject to another, the last
clause of the preceding matter has a qvidem, while the new matter
is introduced with an autem. Thus,

Ac de prim5 quidem officl fonte diximus. De tribus aatem re-
Iiquis latissume patet ea ratio qua societas hominum conti-
netur (Cic. de Off. i. 6, 7), And we have now said enough of
the first source of duty. Of the three which remain, the most
extensive in its operations J is the principle by which society is
held together.

1454. Quod (the neuter of the relative) is translated by the words
that, because, &c. In the older constructions it is generally pre-
ceded by some part of a logical pronoun. The difference in use
between quod and ut in the sense of that, lies chiefly in this, that
quod commonly precedes a statement of facts past or present in
the indicative, ut commonly introduces purposes or results expressed
in the subjunctive. The uses of quod belong for the most part to
the following heads :

a. That, the fact that after a logical pronoun (see 301 &c.,
1112&C.) : as,

Eo ipso quod necesse erat solvl, facultas solvendi impediebatiir

(Lit?.), By the very fact that it was necessary payment should

be made, the means of making that payment were obstructed.

Horum fortisslml stint Belgae, propterea quod a cultu provinciae

longisslme absunt (Cae.), Of these the bravest are the Belgae,

* See 1080.

f i. e. ego quidem, and perhaps pronotmced ekem or eke.

J Literally, extends most widely.

372

CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

for the reason that they are furthest removed from the civiliza-
tion of the province.

Praeterquara quod admissi audltlque sunt, ea qubque vana legatio
fuit (Liv.), Beyond the fact that they were admitted and heard,
this embassy also was without effect.

b. As quid, why, is used for propter quid, so quod is commonly
used for propter quod, that is, because. Thus,

Gratias agimus diicibus vestris, quod oculis magis quam auribus

crediderunt (Liv.), We thank your generals for that they gave

credit to their eyes rather than to their ears.
In viam quod te des* hoc tempore, nihtl est (Cic.), There is no

reason why you should expose yourself to travelling at this

season.
Laudat Africanum quod fueritf abstmens (Cic.), He praises

Africanus for having been temperate.

c. In that, where quum or the relative itself might have been
used (see 1455 h.) : as,

Bene facitis quod abominamfni (Liv.), You do well in rejecting
it as something impious.

FecistI mihi pergratum quod Serapionis librum ad me mlsistl
(Cic.), You have done what is most agreeable to me, in send-
ing me Serapion's book.

d. Quod often introduces a clause which serves as the nominative
or accusative to the main verb, or stands in apposition to a noun.
Thus,

Accedit quod mlrifice ingeniis excellentlbus delectatur (Cic.),

There is added the fact, that he is wonderfully charmed with

men of extraordinary genius.
Mitto quod omnis meas tempestates stibieris (Cic.), I pass over

the fact, that you have encountered all the storms to which I

have been exposed.
Me una consolatio sustentat, quod tibi nullum a me pietatis offi-

cium defuit (Cic.), For myself but one consolation supports

me, I mean the fact, that no duty demanded of me by affection

has been wanting to you.

* See 1189. t See 1205.

QUOD. 373

e. Quod often introduces a sentence, which is to be the subject
of remark, when the English may be expressed by in'M regard to the
fact that, or more simply : as,

Quod scribis* te si velim ad me venturam, ?go vero te istlc ess?
volo (Cic.), As to your offer to come to me if I wish it, I do
not wish it (my dear Terentia) ; on the contrary, I wish you to
remain where you are.

Quod me vetas quidquam suspicari...., ge"ram tlbi morem (Lit.),
You forbid me to harbour any suspicion I will oblige you.

Quod ad crimma attlnet, quibus raoti bellum indmstis, vel fateri
ea tutum censemus (Lit.), As regards the charges which in-
duced you to declare war, we think it safe for us even to con-
fess them.

f. Non quod, not because, not that (or more commonly non qu5),
with a subjunctive, is used to deny a reason, or to guard against an
inference : as,

Laudabiliora videntur omnia quae sine popiilo teste fiunt, non
quod fugiendus sit, sed tamen nullum theatrum virtuti consci-
entia majus est (Cic.), Everything seems more praiseworthy
that is done without the people being witnesses, not that the
people ought to be avoided ; but still no theatre is grander
for virtue than one's own conscience.

g. Quod, like quum (see 1455 g.), is used to denote duration of
time : as,

Jam diu est quod victum non datls (Plaut.'), It is now a long

time since you gave out any food.

h. Quid quod often introduces a new and striking fact when the
literal translation would perhaps be : what would you say to the fact

that ? but the idea may often be more simply expressed by

nay. Thus,

Quid quod senatiis eos vomit praeesse provinciis, qul non prae-
fuissent (Cic. ad Att. vi. 6), Nay the senate decreed that those
should preside over the provinces, who had not already done
so.

* Similarly in Plautus and Terence, quod dicas is nsed in speaking of
the future, 'As to your telling me, as you perhaps may.'

374 CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

f. Quod followed by a conjunction, as si, nisi, utmam, xibi, &c.,
is often used to connect a new sentence with what precedes ; in
which case it often admits such a translation as but, whereas, and.
Thus,

Quod si tii valeres, jam mini quaedam explorata essent (Cic. ad
Att. vii. 2, 6), Whereas if you had been in health, some points
would have been cleared up for me before this.
1455. Of quom, quum, or cum*, the chief uses are as follow :
a. To denote time, with the past-imperfect subjunctive, while,
i. e. at some point of time in a long period. Thus,

Ad Hannibalem, quum ad lacum Averm esset, quinque nobiles
juvenes ab TarentS venerunt (Liv.), There came to Hannibal,
while he was near the lake of Avernus, five young men of high
family from Tarentum.

&. Time with the past-perfect subjunctive, after-\-, when: as,
Quum saepe acta res esset magnis certamimbus, postremo pacem
fieri placuit (Liv.\ After the matter had been repeatedly dis-
cussed with great violence, at last a resolution was adopted
that peace should be made.

c. In indefinite expressions!, quum, when preceded by a verb
signifying existence, is followed by a subjunctive : as,

Erit illud profecto tempus quum gravissiimi hominis f idem desi-
deres (Cic.~), There assuredly will come the time when you will
feel the loss of so high-principled a man.

d. When a time is precisely defined, as for instance by the two
particles, turn cum, the indicative is used even with the past tenses,
both perfect and imperfect : as,

Turn quum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant, sclmus Romae
fidem concidisse (Cic.'), At the time when very many lost vast
properties in Asia, we know that at Rome credit received a
violent blow.

* In form an old accusative of the relative. Compare the English when,
the old accusative of who, as then is of the.

f Yet after postquam, ubi, and ut, in a sense nearly the same, the indi-
cative aorist is used.

} See 1189.

QUOD, QCT7M. 375

Quid quum dabas his literas, non eos ad me ventures arbitrabare ?
(Ctc.)j Well, and when you were handing the letter to them,
did you not think that they would come to me ?

e. When, used with the perfect and the other tenses in a manner
not included under the heads a, b, c, and requiring commonly the
indicative : as,

Quum se biter equitum turmas insinuaverunt*, ex essedis desi-
liunt (Cues.), When they have worked their way among the
squadrons of cavalry, they leap down from their chariots.

Quum Caesar in Galliam venit, alterius facti5nis principes erant
Aedui, alterius Sequani (Caes.~), When Caesar first came into
Gallia, the ^Edui were at the head of one party, the Sequani of
the other.

Longum illud tempus, quum non ero, magis me movet quam hoc
exiguom (CJc.), That long period, when I shall no longer exist,
has more influence with me than the present short span.

/. WTnen, where the time or circumstances are first defined, and
then follows cum with an indicative verb, which is in substance
the main verb of the sentence : as,

Legebam tuas litteras quum mini epistola affertur a Lepta, cir-
cumvallatum esse Pompeium (Cic.), I was in the act of read-
ing your letter, when behold dispatches are brought me from
Lepta, stating that Pompey was blockaded.

Commodum ad te dederam litteras, quum apud me Dionysius
fuit (Cic.), I had only that moment sent off a letter to you,
when Dionysius made his appearance heref.

g. In expressing a long period down to the present inclusive : as,
Hanc domum jam multos annos est quom possideo (Plant.),

This house, it is now many years since I first occupied.
Mnlti annl sunt cum ille in acre meo est (Ctc.), It is now many

years that that man has been in my debt.

* This reading, not intmuanerint, is justified by the MSS. and required
by the idiom of the language. It is one of many such passages corrupted
by editors. See Madvig ad Cic. de Fill. v. 15.

t Literally, ' at my house.' See 1161.

376 CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

h. With two indicative verbs in the same tense, to express iden-
tity of action as well as identity of time (when the best translation
is by the preposition in) : as,

Quae quum taces, nulla esse concedis (Cic.), In the very fact
that you say nothing about these matters, you acknowledge
that they amount to nothing.

Praeclare facis quum puerum dlligis (Cic.), You act a most no-
ble part in thus loving the child.

Loco ille motus est quum est ex urbe depulsus (Cic.), In driving
him out of Rome, we dislodged him from his (military) posi-
tion.

i. When used as an equivalent for quod, it has an indicative : as,

Gratulor tibi quum tantum vales apiid eum (Cic.), I congratulate
you on your having such influence with him.

j. Quum, since, as, although, used to denote a reason* for or
against, requires the subjunctive. Thus,

QuT cum una domo jam capl non possint, In alias domos exeunt
(Cic.), And as at last they cannot all be contained in one
house, they move off into other houses.

Druentia quum aquae vim vehat ingentem, non tamen navium
patiens est (Liv.), The Durance, although it carries with it a
tremendous volume of water, still is not able to float ships.
k. Quum followed by tum\ unites two clauses, the first of which
deals with what is general, or common, or old, while the latter op-
poses to it that which is special, or strange, or new. Hence the
turn is often accompanied by emphatic adverbs, such as maxiime,
imprimis, vero, &c. In this construction sometimes the subjunc-
tive mood, more commonly the indicative, follows quum. Not un-
frequently the quum is used without any verb of its own. Thus,

Quum pluriimas commoditates amlcitia contineat, turn ilia prae-

* The text of Cicero, particularly in the miscellaneous letters in the 6th
and following books, has often quum or quando, where the best MSS. have
the more correct reading quoniam, viz. where a reason is given and an in-
dicative mood follows. See Wunder's V. L. ex codice Erfurtensi. Praef.
p. 97, &c. See 1229.

t See 1231.

QTTOM, TERO. 377

stat omnibus (Ctc.), Among the very many advantages which
friendship possesses, the most important of all is this.

Quum ipsam cognitionem juris augiiril consequi cupio, turn me-
herciile tuls studils erga me delector (Ctc.), At the same time
that I am eager to acquire a knowledge of the augural law for
its own sake, I am upon my word charmed with your zeal in
my favour.

De republica ex tuis cum praesentia rum futura etiam magis ex-
specto (Ctc.). As to public matters, I -look to your friends for
an account not merely of what is, but still more of what is to
be.

1456. Vero always gives great emphasis to the word before it.
Its chief uses are as follows :

a. Added to enim, indeed, giving it greater power : as,
Enimuero Dave nil locist segnitiae nee socordiae (Ter.) f Indeed,

indeed, master Davus, there is no room now for sloth or stu-
pidity.

b. In answering questions* emphatically, in which case it com-
monly follows either the verb or a personal pronoun which stands
first in a sentence. Thus,

Ego vero Apuliam probo (Ctc.), Yes, my friend, you are right ; I
do approve of Apulia (as the place for you to go to) .

c. It is particularly used after the pronoun t or eo, as also after
the particles of time, turn, ubi, ut, to introduce th eend of a climax,
then beyond all mistake, then with a vengeance : as,

Hoc senatui ciiram injecit ne tnm vero sustmerl seditio non posset
(Liv. v. 7), This filled the senate with alarm lest their last
hope should now be destroyed and the sedition should be in-
deed past resistance.

Ut vero-f Numidas insequentes aquam ingressl sunt, turn rigere
omnibus corpora (Liv. xxi. 54), But the moment that, in pur-

* See 578, 586, 1079, 1427.

f Observe that the full translation of rero, after ut or ubi, is not given
until the apodosis as it is called of the sentence. To understand the force
of rero in this passage, it should be known that the Roman troops had
come out of their camp without sufficient clothing, without breakfast, in a
winter day, amid snow and wind.

378

CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS,

suit of the Numidians, they entered the water, then beyond all
mistake, the bodies of all the men became numbed with cold.
Id vero ita accendit animos ut per omne fas atque nefas secuturi
vindicem libertiitis viderentur (Liv. vi. 14), This indeed com-
pleted their indignation, enraging them to such a degree that
they seemed ready to follow the assertor of their liberties even
to the violation of every divine and human law.
d. As a connecting particle it may be translated by but, but some
words should always be inserted to express the importance of the
matter added : as,

Certior factiis est trls jam copiarum partis Helvetios transduxisse,
quartarn vero partem citra flumen reliquam esse (Caes.) He
received information that the Helvetii had conveyed over three
parts of their forces, but that the fourth part fortunately was
still on his side of the river.

1457. Ut* is translated by that or to, as, how, when, &c. Its con-
structions are as follows :

a. That, to, to express an object (always with an imperfect sub-
junctive) f: as,

Ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Cic.),
They took Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dic-
tator.

(Ut quemadmbdum sentio loquar) (Cic.), (To talk with you as
I really feel J) .

Ut te omnes di deaeque perdu int (Te?-.), Oh that all the gods and
goddesses would destroy thee !

Hos labores timeo ut sus tineas (Cic.), These labours I am afraid
you will not support.

b. That, so that, to, so as to, to express a result (always with a
subjunctive) : as,

Sol ecficit ut omnia floreant (Cz'c.), The sun causes everything to
blossom.

* Ut is in origin only another form of quod. The difference iu form is
explained by the several changes which have occurred in illud and illu
in quditis and cuiiis, in cubf and ubf.

t See 1179. J See 1227 a. See 1182, 1187.

TKHO, TIT. 379

Siciliam ita vexavit ut ea restitui in antiquom statum nullo modo
possit (Cic.), He has harassed Sicily to such a degree that it
cannot by any means be restored to its former condition.

e. That, in the sense of granting that, even allowing that, although*,
in which case it commonly begins the sentence (still with a subjunc-
tive) : as,

Sed iit fueris dignior, non competitor in culpa est (Cic.), But
even allowing you were the more worthy of the two, it is not
your competitor who is in fault.

Verum ut hoc non sit, praeclarum spectaciilum mihi propono
(Cic.), But even supposing this is not so, I promise myself a
glorious sight.

d. That, to think that, the idea of /, in elliptical phrases of

indignation or ridicule -f : as,

Pater ut obesse fflio debeat ! (Cte.), The idea of a father being
bound to damage his son !

e. In explanation of some preceding word, namely (still with a
subjunctive) : as,

Quod ipsl diebus viginti aegerrime confecerant, ut flumen trans-
Irent, ille uno die fecerat (Goes.). "What they themselves had
completed with the greatest difficulty in twenty days, the other
had done in a single day.

/. How (with an indicative in direct, a subjunctive commonly in
indirect sentences) : as,

Ut vales ? (Plant.'), How do you do ?

Audisti ut me circumsteterint (Cic.}, You heard how they planted
themselves round me.

g. As, to express similarity, often with sic or ita, so, to corre-
spond with it. An indicative is required in this and all the follow-
ing constructions. Thus,

Ita est, ut scriblsj (Cic.), It is as you say.

Ipse rex, sic ut somno excltus erat, seminudus fugit (Lit.'), The
king himself, just as he was when roused from sleep, with
but half his clothes on, runs off.

See 1227 b. f See 1227 e.

J Literally, ' write,' the extract being from a letter in answer to one
from Atticus.

380 CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.

Homo lit* erat furiosus respondit (Czc.), The fellow with his

usual madness replied.

Illi, ut* est hominum genus suspiciosum, hoc arbitrantiir (Cic.),
Those (Sicilians), with that readiness to suspect which charac-
terizes their nation, hold this opinion.

h. As, to judge from what . Thus,

Ut istam rem video, obsaturabere (Ter.), To judge from what I
see of that business of yours, you will have your fill of it.

i. As, so far as is possible, making allowance for (in elliptical

phrases, no verb following the conjunction f). Thus,

Multum ut illis temporibus vaiuit dicendo (Cic.), He had great

power in oratory, making allowance for those times.
j. To express contrast, rather than similarity, when the lit and Ita
may be translated by though, yet. Thus,

Ut locus procul muro satis aequfis agendis vmeis fuit, ita haud-
quaquam prospere, postquam ad effectum opeYis ventum est,
coeptis succedebat (Liv.), Although the ground at a distance
from the wall was sufficiently level for bringing up the vinese,
yet when they came to the actual employment of them, no suc-
cess whatever attended their efforts.

&. As applied to time, fit commonly signifies immediate succes-
sion, the instant that, and is most frequently followed by the aorist
of the indicative : as,

Fuga satellitum, ut jacentem videre regem, facta est (LivJ, A
flight among the guards took place the moment they saw the
king lying on the ground.

I. It is also used to denote the point from which a period of time
commences, but with the same notion of immediate succession, from
the very moment that : as,

* Probably an elliptical construction for: sic eo tempore furiosus fit
erat semper furiosus. Observe too that in such constructions the verb
comes immediately after the conjunction.

t Some such phrase as fieri potest understood. This construction
must be carefully distinguished from another elliptical use of ut with fieri
solet understood, ' as naturally happens.' See Heindorf ad Herat. Serm.
i. 6. 80.

ORDER OF WORDS. 281

Ut Catflma erupit ex urbe, semper vigTlavi (Ctc.), From the very
moment that Catiline sallied from Rome, I have ever been on
the watch.

1458. ORDER OF WORDS.

In the simplest form of sentence, viz. one which denotes an ac-
tion, the common order is the nominative, the accusative, the verb ;
. e. first the quarter whence the action proceeds, then the direction
of that action, lastly the action itself. Any words belonging to the
nominative and accusative commonly follow them, while those be-
longing to the verb commonly precede it. The latter consist of ad-
verbs or adverbial phrases which express the time, manner, means,
and generally the attending circumstances.

1459- But as the grammatical connection between Latin words
is expressed in the terminations of those words, a greater freedom
of position is admissible than would be practicable without ambi-
guity in English. Hence the words of a Latin sentence are com-
monly placed with a view to marking their relative importance and
emphasis*, and on this principle must the arrangement of the Latin
sentence be studied.

1460. The most conspicuous place in a sentence or clause of a
sentence is the first. Hence this place is allotted to an emphatic
word. Thus, Caesar's Gallic war properly begins with the word
'Gallia.' Again, in the seventh chapter there occurs a sentence
beginning with Caesar f, because the preceding paragraph spoke
only of what the other party, the Helvetii, were doing. Hence a
sentence thus beginning with the nominative of a proper name
should have some such words as on the other hand, meanwhile, &c.
inserted after the nominative, to give it a sufficient prominence in
English.

1461. A still greater emphasis is given to other words J when

* Emphasis always implies an opposition to some other word expressed
or understood, and the student would do well in each case to ask himself
what the opposed word or notion is.

t See also the sentences beginning with Dumnorix, c. 9 ; Helvetii, c. 1 1 ;
Caesar, c. 18 ; or Liv. xxi. c. 3. Hauno ; c. 5. Hannibal ; c. 7. Hannibal ;
c. 11. Sagumini.

J See the examples in interrogative sentences, 1417. See also the

382 ORDER OF WORDS.

placed at the commencement of a sentence, because the very inver-
sion of the ordinary order draws the greater attention to them : as,
Susceptum* cum Saguntlnis bellum, habendum cum Romania
est (Z/iw.), We began the war with Saguntum, we must con-
duct it against Rome.

1462. The word estff, commonly the most unimportant word in
a sentence, acquires a strong accent when placed first in a sentence
or clause (see 1080, 1st example ; 997, 3rd example) ; but est
and erat are also found in the first place when a formal narrative or
description commences J : as,

Erant in ea legion e fortissimi vm centuriones qui &c. (Cues.
B. G. v. 44), Now there happened to be in that legion two very
brave officers, with the rank of centurions, who, &c.

Est in secessu longo locus &c. (Virg. Aen. i. 160), There is in a
deep recess a place, &c.

1463. Relatives and conjunctions naturally occupy the first place
in their several clauses. If they give up this place to another word,
the strangeness || of the transposition gives unusual emphasis to the
word thus occupying the first place : as,

position of the verb in cases of concession, 1156, 1227 b, and ia hypo-
thetical conditions, 1219 ; also 1436 b, third example.

* Still susceptum in the Latin is only a participle ; but the English
translation would lose its force if the sentence began with ' the war.'

t Thus in Greek, COTJ, generally an enclitic, has an accent when it com-
mences a sentence.

J The monosyllabic verbs dat,fit, it, seem at times to occupy the first
place when not emphatic. Possibly their very brevity is a reason for
giving them this advantage lest they be wholly overlooked.

See also i. 6. Erant ; iii. 12. Erant, &c. ; v. 6. Erat ; v. 25. Erat, &c. ;
vi. 38. Erat. See also Virgil, Aen. ii. 21.

|| This doctrine of emphasis growing out of a strange position is well
exemplified in the heroic verse. The most natural place for a sentence to
begin is at the beginning of a verse. But there occur passages where a
sentence begins in the sixth foot ; and in such cases the isolated word is
always specially emphatic in good writers. See Bentley ad Lucan. i. 231,
and Journal of Education, iv. 356. Perhaps too, when a sentence termi-
nates with a word in the first foot of a line, that equally isolated word
should be one of importance.

ORDER OF \VOBDS. 383

Nos tua progenies, caeli quibus adnuisarcem (T'irg.)*, We, thine
own progeny, to whom thou promisest the height of heaven.

Adeon rem redisse, patrem tit extimescam (Ter.), To think that
matters should be come to this, that a father should be the ob-
ject of my dread !

Posthac si quisquam, nil precor (Ter.), If ought occur hereafter,
I offer no prayer (for him).

Non satis est tuom te officium facere, fama si id non adprobat
(Ter.), It is not enough to do your duty, but the world too
must approve it.

1464. It should be recollected that there are many actual pauses
in a sentence where the printer inserts not even a comma. The
word which follows such a pause must, for the purposes of em-
phasis, be considered a commencing word-f.

1465. It must be recollected too that many little words, as ut, si,
et, nee, sed, ne, non, an, and the prepositions, are at times proclitics J,
that is, pronounced with the word which follows them, so that they
must not be deemed to be first words to the exclusion of the follow-
ing word.

1466. The last place in a sentence is often an emphatic one : as,
Qui hones post conditam hanc urbem habitus est togato ante me

nemTnl (C/c.), An honour which since the foundation of this

city was never paid to any one wearing a toga before me.
AKiid iter habebant nallum (Caes.), Other road they had none.
Apiid Helvetios longe ditissimus fuit Orgetorrx (Caes.), Among

the Helvetii by far the richest man was Orgetorix.
Nam ex his praediis talenta argenti bina Capielwit statim (Tfr.),

For from these farms he received two talents of silver every

year invariably.

* Compare also v. 1. Trojae qui, &c. ; 88. Tyriam qui, &c. ; and iii. 658.
ingens cm, &c.

f Thus, in the ordinary hexameter, there is frequently a pause after
the first two feet and a half, which is followed by an emphatic word, as
in Virg. Eel. x. :

Gallo, cujus amor | tantiim mihi crescit in horas,
Quantum vere novo | riridis se suhicit amus.
} See 28.

do4 ORDER OF WORDS.

Animos vestros tentabunt semper, vires non experientiir (Liv.),
Your courage and your feelings they will attempt to master,
aye without intermission ; of your actual strength they will
make no trial.

1467. It has been stated that the ordinary place of a verb is at
the end, and that it is emphatic at the beginning of a sentence.
When placed elsewhere it has the power of making the preceding
word or words emphatic* : as,

Saguntum vestri circumsident exercitus : mox Karthaginem cir-
cumsidebunt Romanae legiones (Liv.), Saguntum is besieged
by your armies : ere long Carthage will be besieged by the le-
gions of Rome.

Utmam pro decore tantum et non pro salute esset certamen
(Liv.), Oh that the struggle had been one for glory only and
not for existence.

Ut servemim deest vobis animus ? Quid si moiiendum pro pa-
tria esset faceretis ? (Liv.), When the object is to save your-
selves, does your courage run low ? What then would you
have done, if you had had to die for your country?

Prius Sempronio per clvium agmen quani per hostiumf fuit erum-
pendum (Liv. xxii. 60), Sempronius had to force a passage
through the ranks of his own countrymen before he forced one
through those of the enemy.

1468. Sometimes the word thus placed before the verb is not
itself so emphatic as the word with which it is intimately con-
nected, and which then stands at the end of the sentence : as,

O Geta, Provinciam cepisti duram (Ter.), Oh Geta, the duty you
undertook was a hard one.

Maecenas atavis edite regibus (Hor.),
Maecenas sprung of royal line.

* The reason of this appears to be that the predicate of a sentence is
commonly the more emphatic part, and that the verb is commonly the
chief part of the predicate. Observe too that a participle in its own claus
has the same influence.

t The comma usually inserted after hostium is inadmissible, as the.,
should be pronounced almost as though it were attached to it like
enclitic.

ORDER OF \VORDS. 385

1460. An adjective*, if emphatic, commonly precedes its sub-
stantive ; whereas, when not emphatic, it commonly follows -f-.
Thus,

Saepe et contemptus hostis cruentum certamen edldit, et incliti
populi regesque perlevi moment5 victi sunt (Liv.), If a despised
foe has often maintained a bloody contest, not less often have
renoicned states and monarchs been conquered by the slightest
blow.

Pulchrum erit CampanI, Romanum imperium vestra fide, vestris
vinbus retentum esse (Lie.), It will be a proud thing, men of
Capua, to reflect that the empire of Rome herself was saved
from falling by your fidelity, by your power.

1470. A still stronger emphasis belongs to the adjective when it
throws I as it were its substantive to the end of the sentence : as,

De quo quum disputarem, tuam mihi dari vellem Cotta eluquen-
tiam (Ci'c.), In discussing which I should have wished your
eloquence, Cotta, to have been given to me.

Hoc tlbi jiiventus Rom ana indiclmus bellum (Lit.), Such the
war which we, the youth of Rome, declare against yon.

Bonds me absente hie confecistis nuptias (Ter.), Apretfy mar-
riage you have knocked up here in my absence.

1471. The demonstrative pronouns, commonly occupying the
place before the substantive, appear to acquire an emphasis whea
placed after it : as,

* In the phrase tuum officium facer e, 'to do your duty,' it would at first
seem that tuum has no title to the emphatic position ; but the answer is,
that officium ( = opificium) originally meant not duty, hut work, so that
the phrase literally translated is, 'to do your own work, not another
person's.'

t When a substantive is very short compared to its adjective, the for-
mer commonly precedes, as aes alienum, ret familiaris.

This wide separation of the adjective and substantive would cause
confusion, but that the great emphasis of the adjective causes it still to b
ringing in the ear when we come to the substantive.

Compare Virgil, Aen.i. 643, patrius amor, rapidum Achaten ; v. 657,
nova consilia; v. 669, nostro dolore; v. 671, Junonia hospitia; v. 675,
magno amore ; v. 676, nostram mentem ; v. 684, notos voltus.

386 ORDER OF WORDS.

Te AppI tuumque caput sanguine hoc consecro (Liv.), Thee
Appius, and thy head with this blood I devote.

1472. Nouns in apposition and the genitive commonly follow the
substantive to which they belong, and therefore have an emphasis
when prefixed to the substantive : as,

Um consul! Servilio jus fuit dicendi dictatoris (Liv.~), To Servi-
lius alone, as consul, belonged the power to name a dictator.

Sed ita forsitan decuit cum foederum ruptore diice ac pbpiilo
deos ipsos committere ac profllgare bellum, nos qui secundum
deos violati sumus, commissum ac profllgatum conficere (Liv.
xxi. 40), But perhaps it was fitting that, with a general and a
people who habitually violate treaties, the gods themselves
should commence the war and break the neck of it *, and that
we who next to the gods have been injured should then come
in and finish it.

Fabius potens vir, quum inter sui corporis homines, turn etiam ad
plebem (Liv.}, Fabius, a man of influence not merely among
the men of his own bodyf, but also with the commonalty.

1473. As an emphatic word demands a large share of the atten-
tion, it tends to prevent the mind from dwelling on the word or
words which follow. Hence as the first place in a sentence or
clause is allotted to emphatic words, so the second place is adapted
to unimportant words J, which are inserted here although uncon-
nected with the adjoining words : as,

Janua se ac parietibus texit (Czc.), He protected himself behind
the gate and the walls of his house.

An hujus ille legis mentionem facere ausiis esset? (Cic. pro JMil.
c. 12), Or would he have dared to make mention of this law ?

Hunc illi e navi egressum comprehenderunt atque in vinciihl
conjecerunt (Caes.), This man had no sooner disembarke
than they seized him and threw him into prison.

Magnus ibi numerus pccoris repertus est (Caes.), A great quan-
tity of sheep was found there.

* Literally: to give the knock-down blow which all but finishes.

} t. e. class or order.

Such words should be read most faintly, so as not to attract attention

ORDER OF WORDS. 387

Magnam haec res Caesari difficultatem adferebat (Caes.\ No
little difficulty did this occasion to Caesar.

Resistes autem si satis firmus steteris, si te Deque collegae vana
gloria Deque tua falsa fama moverit (Lit.), And resist him you

will, if you stand firm enough, ii nor your colleague's

empty boasting, nor your own ill-founded disgrace affect you.

Uno die intermisso Galli, atque hoc spatio magno cratium nii-
mero effecto, media nocte ad munitiones accedunt (Co**.),
Having allowed one day to pass (without any attack), and
having in this interval made up a great quantity of hurdles, at
midnight the Gauls quietly advance to the lines*.

Quos sibi Caesar -f- ublatos gavlsus retinerl jussit (Cae.), De-
lighted that these men should be thrown in his way, Caesar
ordered them to be detained J.

1474. It is because of their enclitic character that autem, quidem,
quoque, &c. never occupy the first place in a clause or sentence.
Igifur, enim, vero, are occasionally found at the beginning, and then
have more importance than when they occupy their more ordinary
place after the first word.

1475. In short[| sentences, words which are opposed to one an-
other are either brought close together, or placed as far apart as
possible, in the latter case occupying the two emphatic positions
of first and last.

Hostis hostem occldere volui (Liv.), I wished to slay the enemy
of my country.

* Many editors would place a comma before Galli, thus giving it an
importance it does not deserve. It is in fact a sort of enclitic, and should
appear in the English translation in the least prominent place. Similarly
a comma should follow, not precede the word Caesar or Galba, in the first
line of the following chapters : B. G. ii. 2 ; ii. 7 : iii. 3 ; iii. 28 : iv. 6 ; IT.
13 ; iv. 20 : v. 7 ; v. 11.

f Here both sibi and Caesar have the nature of enclitics.

J For the enclitkal position of a word which refers equally to two words
or to two clauses, see 1438 b. and e.

The vocative when in the first place is of course emphatic. Otherwise
it is commonly an enclitic, and should be thrown in after an emphatic
word.

[] See 1436 b. note, and 1437.

388 ORDER OF WORDS.

Cum hanc sibi videbit praesens praesentem eripi (Ter.), When he
shall see her torn from him before his very face.

Ratio nostra consentit, pugnat oratio (Czc.), Our principles agree,
our language is at variance.

Nee ad mortem minus animi est, quam fuit ad caedem (Lic.) t
Nor have I less courage to die myself than I had but now to
slay another.

1476. When two clauses opposed to one another contain the
same word in different cases or tenses, that common word usually
precedes the words opposed.

SI clvis vester, sicut ad pacem petendam venit, Tta pads condiliones
rettulisset, siipervacaneum hoc mihi fuisset iter (Liv. xxi. 13),
If your countryman, who came to ask for peace, had in the
same patriotic spirit reported the terms of that peace, this visit
would have been superfluous for me.

389

GENERAL INDEX.

N.B. The numerals refer to the sections, not to the pages. The letter n. means mott.

A-COXJUGATIOX. 519. 522,
523.

A-declension, 89-99.

Ab in composition, 1304.

Ablative, 50, 51, 989; absolute,
1013; for dative, 1019; ind, 1021
n.; 'in point of,' 997; of cir-
cumstances, 1009; of distance,
1017 ; of gerund, 1294 ; of time,
992, &c.; of means, 1000, &c.;
of participle in endo, 1293 n.; of
quality, 1010; of road, 1008; of
verbals in tu, 998; of 'where,'
991 ; with comparative, 1015,
1055 b.; with fac, fi, 1003; with
verbs of buying, 1005; with verbs
of removal, 1023 ; with verbs of
sacrificing, 1006.

Accent, 22-28.

Accusative, 45, 46, 884 ; after ac -
tiveverb,S88; after adj. in bundo,
1298; after deponents, 891; after
intransitives, 893 ; after partici-
ple in to, 892; after quo, 918;
after substantives, 907 ; cognate,
894; and infinitive, 911; facti-
tive, 896; for nominative, 912;
of time, &c. &c., 915 ; two toge-
ther, 896-902; with verbs of call-
ing, 897 ; with verbs of feeling,
889.

Accusing, verbs of, 944.

Active verb, 367; conjugated, 575.

Acu, conjugation of, 556.

Ad in composition, 1306.

Adjectives, 211-239; concord of,
1037; differ from participles,

934 n. ; emphatic, 1391 e n 1469,
&-c.; for adverbs, 1049, 1051 ; for
substantives, 210, 1034, 1042;
gender of, 1038, &c. ; in bundo,
1298; in predicate, 1060; of
comparison, 1438; of fitness, &C.,
956; place of, 1469. 1470; pos-
sessive, 1047, S; suffixes of, 225-
234; united, 1054.

Adjunctive conjunctions, 846.

Adverbs. 767, 1398, &c.; in a, 366,
793; in am, 782, 791; in bi,
366, 785 ; in e, 768 ; in 1m, 790;
in inde, 366, 790, 800; in is,
783 ; in iter, 773 ; in Itus, 777 ;
in 5, 366, 771, 789, 1056; in per,
778 ; in secfis, 801 ; in tenus,
803 ; in tim, 779, 780 ; in tro,
788; in um, 792; in us, 781, &c.;
in vorsum, 798 ; of comparison,
143S, 1439 ; place of, 1398 ; pro-
nominal, 366, 1150.

Ad-vorsus. 1307.

Ae, 12.

Affirmative answer, 1427.

Alphabet, 2.

Ante in composition, 1310.

Antecedent omitted, 1126, 7; 1151.

Aorist, 445, 446, 585, 586.

Aorist subj., 614.

Apposition, 1052, 1058, 1472.

Ara, conjugation of, 556, 561.

Attraction, 1059.

Audi, conjugation of, 656.

Audi (r.\ conjugation of, 570.

Autem, place of. 1474.

Buying, verbs of, 946, 1005.

390

GENERAL INDEX.

C, 11.

Cardinal numbers, 247, 252, 253.

Case, 42.

Ce never affixed to logical pro-
nouns, 1112.

Centena milia, 1072.

Clsin composition, 1317.

Coeptus est, 1244.

Comma often omitted by editors,
1464.

Commanding, subjunctive in, 488.

Comparatives, 1015, 1193, 240-
246, 1055.

Comparatives from prepositions,
838.

Composition, 35.

Composition of verbs, 758.

Con in composition, 1323-5.

Conditional sentences, 1153, &c.

Conjugation, 518.

Conjugation, a, 519, 522, 523,

, e, 386, 519, 524, 525.

,i, 519, 528, 529.

, o, 519, 520.

, M, 519, 526,527.

Conjugation of verb active, 575,
&c. ; deponent, 685 ; imper-
sonal, 699 ; participle in turo
with es and fu, 702, &c. ; passive
verb, G55; passive impersonal,
701 ; reflective, 570, 636, &c.

Conjunctions, 839.

Conjunction omitted, 1436; post-
poned, 1463.

Consonant and i conjugation,
mixed, 557.

Consonant conjugation, 518, 521.

Consonant declension, 55-87.

Construction ad Synesim, 1038.

Contracted perfects, 563-7.

Copula, 874.

Copulative conjunctions, 840, 1430,
&c.

Crudeform, 40, 41.

Cum in composition, 1323-5.

Cum maxiime, 1057 d.

Dabo with participle in to, 1275.

Dative, 49, 950 ; ethic, 979 ; in i,
110 n. ; 'in lieu of,' 982; in
poets, 986-988 ; of name, 984 ;

of participle in endo, 1293 ; of
person affected, 977 ; of purpose,
983; with adjectives, 955, 960,
&c. ; with compound verbs, 962 ;
with participle in endo, 1295;
with passive verbs, 963 ; with
prepositions of rest, 962; with
verbs, 958 n. ; with static verbs,
960; with verbs of forgiving, 976;
with verbs of giving, 974 ; with
verbs of taking away, 978; with
verbs of telling, 973; with verbs
of trusting, 975.

De in composition, 1327-8.

Declension, first or a, 89-99.
second or o, 100-124.
third or i, 125-139.
third or consonant, 55-87.
fourth or u, 140-144.
fifth or e, 145-148.
vowel, 88.

Defective nouns, 149, &c.

Demonstrativepronouns,286, 1091.

Deponent verb conjugated, 685.

Derivation, 34.

Derivation of verbs, 740, &c.

Derivations from prepositions, 838.

Desiderative verbs, 755.

Desltus est, 1244.

Diminutives, 198-209.

Diminutive verbs, 750.

Diphthong, 17.

Direct interrogative, 308.

Disjunctive question, 1423.

Distributive numerals, 249, 252,
262, 1066, &c.

Doce, conjugation of, 556.

Doce (r. ), conjugation of, 570.

Double construction of some verbs,
404.

Double form of relative, 353-358.

E-conjugation, 386.

E-declension, 145-148.

EC in composition, 1332.

Elision, 29.

Ellipsis of substantive,1033; of verb
of requesting, 1204 ; of yerb of
saying, 1203.

Emphasis decides order of words,
1459.

GEXERAL INDEX.

391

Enclitics, 27, 1473.

Epistolary tenses, 1160.

Es abbreviated, 1158n.

Esse omitted, 1259.

Est first in a sentence, 1462.

Fearing, verbs of, 1186.

Feeling, verbs of, 393, 938, 939,
1245.

Feminine suffixes, 193.

First place in a sentence or clause,
1460, 1461.

Forbidding, sentences of, 1173, 7.

Fore fit, 1260.

Fore with participle in to, 1263.

Fractions, 268-272.

Frequentative verbs, 745.

Fugi, conjugation of, 558.

Future, 466-469; indicative, 583;
indicative for jussive, 1170; per-
fect, 474, 590-1; perfect sub-
junctive, 503, 505, 1226 ; simple,
447, 448.

Gender, 183-199.

Gender of nouns in i, 197.

Genitive, 47, 919; emphatic, 1391 e.\
after gerund, 1286; after neuter
pronoun, 922; in ifis, llOw. ;
' in respect to,' 935 n, ; objective,
927 ; of participle in endo, 1292 ;
of quality, 928 ; partitive, 922 ;
possessive, 924 ; subjective, 921 ;
with adjectives, 929 ; with ad-
verbs, 923; with possessive ad-
jectives, 1048; with substantives,
920 ; with verbs, 938.

Gentile name, 1046.

Gerund, 435, 634, 1284-1297.

Greek proper names, 166-182.

Haud scio an, 1196n., 1421.

House, 1036.

Historic present, 449 it., 455.

Hypothetical sentences, 496-9, 705,
1153, 1209-1223.

I-conjugation, 519, 528, 529.

I-declension, 125-139; gender of,
197.

Imperative mood, 424, 593, 1163-
5, 1173.

Imperfect, 439, &c.; infinitive, 509,
512,513; past, 459-465.

Impersonal verb, 371, 872; con-
jugated, 699; passive, 701.

In in composition, 1337; with ab-
lative, 1336; with accusative,
1337.

Inceptive verbs, 752.

Indefinite pronouns, 1138, &c.

Indicative mood, 1152; of con-
cession, 1156.

Indirect oration, 492.

Indirect interrogative, 318, 494,
495. 1196,1197.

Infinitive, 430-432, 506-5 13, 1232,
&c.; a substantive, 1232; and ac-
cusative, 123S-1 240 .1 245-1 247 ;
as a genitive, 1252 ; u=ed by
poets, 1255 ; imperfect, 509, 512,
513 ; after adjectives, 1254 ; after
relative or conjunction, 1251 ;
historic, 1253; imperfect, 625 ; of
indignation, 1247 ; perfect, 510,
511,628; with prepositions, 1233.

Interjections, 860.

Interrogative, direct, 308; double,
1136; indirect, 318, 494, 495,
1196, 1197; particles, 1417; pro-
nouns, 1 T34, &c.

Inter in composition, 1341, 2; re-
peated. 1395 n.

Intransitive verb, 373, 378; used
transitively, 401-403.

Irregular nouns, 149, &c.

Irregular verbs, 392, &c.

Island, to an, 884 ; in an, 951, 990.

J.9.

Jussive mood, 425, 592, 1 163, &c.

K,6.

Last place in a sentence, 1466.

Last word in an hexameter begin-
ning a clause, 1463 n. |.

Liquids, 4.

Logical pronouns, 301, 1112.

Madvig, 1141 n., 1165 ., 1167 .,
1175., 1182n., 1205n., 1209/1 .
1212n.

Masculine suffixes, 191, 2.

Meat, 1030.

Memory, verbs of, 943.

Mento/suffix, 530.

Meto (r.), conjugation of, 570.

392

GENERAL INDEX.

Mirum-quantum, 1200.

Mixed conjugations, 557.

Moods, 423.

Mori (r.), conjugation of, 571.

Necesse est, 1246.

Negative, 1402 ; answer, 1428 ;

purpose, 1407; repeated, 1411,

1412; result, 1408.
Nemo non, 1411 n.
Nepos, 972 n.
Nescio an, 1421.
Neuter of pronouns, 909 ; passive,

392 ; suffixes, 194.
Nominative, 44, 867, &c. ; in the

predicate, 875, 878, 879 ; for the

vocative, 880 ; with passive, 870,

877.

Non emphatic, 1403. 1404.
Non modo for non modo n5n?

1415.

Non nemo, 1411 n.
Non nullus, 1411 n.
Non quo, &c., 1208.
Non with subjunctive of result,

1182 n.
Non-emphatic words, place of,

1473.
Nouns, plural suffixes of, 52; in

apposition, place of, 1472.
Number of substantives, 1026.
Numerals, 247-272, 1062.
Numeral adverbs, 1071 ; cardinal,

247, 252, 253 ; distributive, 249,

252, 262; ordinal, 248, 252, 261 ;

table of, 252.
Nullus non, 1411 n.
O-conjugation, 519, 520.
O-declension, 100-124.
Ob in composition, 1347.
Objective genitive, 927.
Obliqua oratio, 492, 1201, &c.
Oe, 12.

Opposed words, how placed, 1475.
Opus est, 1280.
Order of words, 1437, 1458.
Ordinal numbers, 248, 252, 261.
Orna (r.), conjugation of, 570, 574.
Participle, 436, 5 14-5 17, 1264, &c.;

for abstract substantive, 1276 ;

in endo, 712, 1283-1297; in

endo in hypothetical sentences,
1214 ; in endo with es and fu,
1214; in end, 1265, 6; in to,
1270-1282; in turo, 702, 1268,
9 ; in tiiro in hypothetical sen-
tences, 1214 ; in turo with es and
fu, 1214 ; in turo with fuisse,
1261 ; perfect, circumlocution
for, 1281 ; question in, 1135.

Particles, 764.

Passive verb, 380, &c. ; conjugated,
655 ; impersonal, 1240 ; imper-
sonal conjugated, 701 ; of saying
and thinking, 1241.

Past imperfect, 459-465.

Past imperfect indicative, 580-2.

Past perfect, 473 ; indicative, 588--
9 ; subjunctive, 621-4.

Past subjunctive, 603-612.

Pause in hexameter, 1464 n. -f.

Per in composition, 1351, 2.

Permestat, 1183n.

Perfect, 439, &c., 442, 443, 478,
533, &c. ; formation of, 470,
471 ; conjugation of, 561 ; con-
tracted, 563-7 ; present, 472; in-
finitive, 510, 511, 1256-1258;
of intransitives, 477.

Permission, subjunctive in, 489.

Personal pronouns, 274, 1076.

Personal suffixes, 406, &c.

Personal verb, 370.

Plural suffixes, of nouns, 52; of
verbs, 414, &c.

Possessive adjective, 1047, 8; geni-
tive, 924 ; pronouns, 359.

Post in composition, 1355.

Potes with superlative, 1057 e.

Prae in composition, 1357-8.

Praeter in composition, 1360.

Predicate, 874.

Predicative substantive, 1060.

Prefix, 35.

Prepositions, 808, 1303-1397; case
after, 914 n.; change of form in,
809, &c. ; Latin compared with
Greek, 830 n., 834 n. ; meaning
of term, 1391 n. ; omitted, 1396 ;
place of, 1391-3.

Present, 449, 452-458 ; indicative,

GENERAL IXDEX.

393

575-9; historic, 449 n., 455; per-
fect, 4/2; subjunctive, 594-602;
perfect indicative, 584, 587 ; per-
fect subjunctive, 613-620.

Price, 1005.

Pro in composition, 1362-4.

Proclitics, 28. 1465.

Proper names, Greek, 166-182.

Principal parts, 531, &c.

Pronominal adjectives, 317, &c. ;
adverbs, 366, 1150.

Pronouns, 273. &c. ; demonstrative,
286, 1091 ; place of demonstra-
tive, 1471 ; gender of, 1039; in-
definite, 1 138, &c. ; interrogative,
1134, &c. ; logical, 301, 1112;
neuters of, 909; personal, 274,
1076 ; possessive, 359 ; reflective,
278-285.

Purposes, subjunctive in, 490.

Q,6.

Quam with comparative, 1055 a.,c.;
with superlative, 1057y.

Quanquatn, 1227 6. n.*.

Quldais, 1198.

Quid quod, 1454 /;.

Quippe qui, 1194n.

Quutn,' after,' 'while,' 1230; 'as,'
' although,' 1229; withtum,1231.

Ramshorn, 742 n.

Reciprocal verbs, 398.

Reflective pronoun, 278-285 ;
omitted, 1249.

Reflective verb, 374, &c., 398-400;
conjugated, 636.

Relative, 307, 1120-1131 ; attrac-
tion of, 1061 ; double form of,
353-8, 1158 . postponed, 1463.

Repeated action, 1159.

Results, subjunctive in, 491.

Road, ablative of, 1008.

Sacri6cing, verbs of, 1006.

Scrlb, conjugation of, 556.

Second person in the sense of 'one,'
1175, 1224.

Second place in n clause adapted to
non-emphatic words, 1473.

Secondary clauses, 1225.

SI, omitted, 1219.

Static verb, 385-391.

s 5

Sub in composition, 1376-7 ; with
ablative, 1375 ; with accusative,
1374.

Subject, 874.

Subject-accusative, 91 1,1248-1250.

Subjective genitive, 921.

Subjunctive, 427-429, 481-505,
1178, &c. ; as a future, 500-505,

1226 ; for jussive, 1167 ; in com-
mands, 488, 1180; in conces-
sions, 1227 h. in elliptical sen-
tences, 1227; in hypothesis, 496-
499, 1209 ; in indirect interroga-
tives, 494, 495, 1196; in indirect
oration, 1201, 6; in parenthesis,
1227g. ; in permission, 489, 1180;
in purposes, 490, 1179; in re-
sults. 491, 1182; of indignation,

1227 e.; of object, 490, 1179; of
result, 491, 1182; second person,
1175, 1224; translated as indi-
cative, 491, 493, 494.

Substantive, number of, 1026; in
predicate, 1060; intion, 1302.

Subter in composition, 1379.

Suffix, 32 ; of adjectives, 225-234;
of nouns masculine, 191, 192;
of nouns feminine, 193; of
nouns neuter, 194 ; personal,
406, &C.

Super, with ablative, 1380 ; with
accusative, 1381; in composition,
1382.

Superlatives, 240-246, 1057 ; from
prepositions, 838.

Supines, 433 ? 434, 1299-1301 ; ac-
tive or accusative, 887 ; passive
or ablative, 998.

Syllable, long by nature, 14; long
by position, 15 ; short, 13.

Syntax, 866.

Tense, 437, &c.

Tenses of Latin verb, 451, &c.

Time, difference of, 1017 ; how
long, 915 ; within which, 993
995 ; when, 992.

Town, in a, 951, 990; to a, 884.

Transitive verb, 372 ; used reflec-
tively, 394-397.

U-conjugation, 519, 526, 527.

394

GENERAL INDEX.

U-declension, 140-144.

Ususest, 1280.

Ut omitted, 1181.

Ut nemo, 1408 n.

Ut non, 1408 n.

Utpote qui, 1194n.

Utqui, 1194n.

UtsI, 1225.

V, 10.

Vel with superlative, 1057 h.

Vegetables, 1030.

Verb, 367, 1152; active, 367; com-
pounded with trans, 900, 901;
derivation of, 740; diminutive,
750 ; frequentative, 745 ; imper-
sonal, 371 ; in clna, 745 n. ; in
ess, 754; in issa, 751; in tiiri,
755; inceptive, 752; intransitive,
373-8; irregular, 392, &c.-, of
accusing, 944; of buy ing, 946; of
commanding, &c., 1180; of com-
paring, 956 n.; of duty, 1217; of

fearing, 1 186 ; of feeling, 393,
889, 938, 9; of hindrance, 1183 ;
of memory, 943 ; of requesting
omitted, 1204; of saying omitted,
1203; of smelling, 895; passive,
380, &c.; personal, 370; place
of, 1437, &c., 1467, 8; plural
suffixes of, 414, &c. ; reciprocal,
398 ; reflective, 374, &c., 398-
400 ; static, 385-391 ; transitive,
372.

Vocative, 43 n., 882; for nomina-
tive, 883; place of, 1474n. .

Vort (r.), conjugation of, 570.

Vowels, 3.

Vowel changes in composition of
verbs, 758.

Vowel declension, 88, &c, ; vowel
followed by vowel, short, 18.

Weather, substantives of, 1027.

Word-building, 30.

X, 5, 813 n.

395

INDEX II.

SINGLE LATIN WORDS.

Numerals within brackets denote the place which avert occupies in the section referred to.

AB, 810, 816, 1303. alio, 110, 111,327-329,

ar, 1312.

abd, 542 (1).

1148.

ara, 556, 561.

abes, 1183,1208.

alio, 366.

arasso, 567.

abiet, 71 n.

allqua, 366.

arce, 553 (10).

abln. 1171.

allqui, 1141.

arcess, 547 (6), 754.

abole, 553 (48).

allquo,366, 1150.

arde, 553 (23).

abs, 810 n.

allter, 327, 775 n.

argu, 548 (7).

abut (r.), 1304.

aliubi, 366.

ariet, 71 n.

ac, 1430,&c.

uliunde, 366.

arma (r.), 636.

accld, 1306.

alterius, 330.

asperna (r.), 742.

aceri, 218.

altero, 110, 111, 330-

aspero, 215.

Achille, 175.

332, 1149.

at, 1445.

acu, tb^ 548 (4), 556.

alterutero, 333.

atero, 214.

acu, tubtt-, 88. altrinsecus, 366 n.
ad, 815 n., 1305. ' altro, 366.

Atbo, 171.
atque, 1430, 4c^ 1439.

add, 542 (2). i altrovorsus, 366 n.

atter, 1306.

adeo. 799.

am, 834, 1308.

Aty, 182.

adep, 1026 n.

ambo,99, 117, 120, and

aude, 553 (25).

adhuc, 799.

Addenda to 255, page

audi, 556.

adig, 900.

402.

audi (r.),570.

admodum, 797.

amid, 554 (3).

auge, 553 (38).

adperg,906.

amor, 71 n.

aut,840n-, 1444.

adula(r.),981.

amplius, 1055 c.

autem, 1446, 1474.

aemula (r.), 981 n.

an, 1421, 1423-1426.

aversa (r.), 904.

Aenea, 166.

Anchisa, 167.

avi, 88.

aer, 71 n.

ang, 535 (17).

avo,88.

aeterno. 225.

animT, 935 n.

axilla, 203.

afflci, 1306.

anncna, 210.

Baccitnali, 139.

Africa, 210.

ante, 1309.

bello, 88.

ai, r&. 739.

antea, 802.

Bellona, 210.

al, 543 (1).

antid, 815 n.

bene, 770.

ala, 88.

antique, 825.

bib, 533 (4).

alge, 553 (30).

anu, 142.

blno, 252, 262, 1067.

ali, prefix, 320.

ap, 533 (9).

bis, 252, 783.

alia, 366.

aperi, 554 (15).

blandi (r.), 971.

alibi, 327, 366.

! appropinqua, 959 n.

bono, 213.

alicubi. 323, 366. 1 apud, 815 n, 1311.

bov, 157.

alicunde,323^{66,1150. aqua (r.), 744.

bu, 548 (2).

396

INDEX II.

bur, 546 (16).

commodo, 956 n.

di or dts, 812, 814,

busto (n.), 546 n.

con.'ped, 210.

1329-1330.

cad, 540 (1).

comperi, 554 (18).

die, 534 (14).

caed, 540 (7).

compesc, 534 (18).

die, 1 198.

caellttis, 777.

cond, 542 (4).

did, 542 (6).

caelo, 155.

conduc, 1289.

Dido, 172.

cale, 553 (44).

connive, 533 (79).

die, 146, 155.

calor, 540 n.

conscio, 957.

digno, 1192.

can, 545 (1).

consperg, 905.

dllu, 548 (10).

cand, 540 (16).

conspu, 905 n.

discrlb, 1329.

cam", 137.

consterna, 742.

dlslc, 812.

cap, 533 (10).

consue, 389.

doce,553(9),556, 898,

capess, 547 (7).

consul, 543 (12).

9, 1236, 7.

caput, 55.

contra, 838 n., 1320.

doce (r.), 570.

care, 553 (61).

coqu, 537 (3).

dodrant, 270.

caron, 75.

coram, 782.

dole, 553 (50).

carp, 533 (18).

cornu, 88.

doma, 550 (7).

castro, 151.

corona, 210.

doml, 952, 1036.

cave, 533 (76).

corpusculo, 198.

domo, 157.

cave, 1176.

ere, 553 (63).

domum, 886, 1036.

ce, 289-300, 792.

cred, 542 (17), 975 n.

dona, 976 n.

ced, 540 (9).

crepa, 550 (10).

du, 548 (5).

ced, 731, 1198.

creto, 546 n.

due, 534 (20).

cela, 898, 9.

cribro, 194.

dum, 1448.

celeri, 218.

cub, 533 (6).

duo, 117, 118, 120,

cell, 543 (4).

cuba, 550(1).

255. and Addenda to

cense, 533 (70).

cud, 540 (30).

255, page 402.

cer, 546 (4).

culculmodi, 311.

dtiplic, 1 067 w.

Ceres, 71 n.

cum, prep., 820, 1322.

dupllca, 550 n.

cern, 546 (4).

cum, conj., 1455.

e, 1331.

cervlc, 1026n.

cumb, 533.

ea, 304, 366.

ci, 554 (2).

cunquc, 1158.

eadem, 366.

cie, 553 (40).

ciip, 533 (20).

eateniis, 803.

cing, 535 (18).

cur, 316.

ec, 811,813,817, 1331.

circa, 1313.

ciira, 1168.

ecastor, 861.

circiter, 1314.

curr, 546(17).

ecce, 862.

circum, 1315.

da, 549, 732.

ecfer, 81 In.

circumda, 906.

dat, 1462 n. J.

ed, 540 (5).

cis, 1316.

de, 1326.

ed t 542 (7).

cltra, 1318.

dece, 890.

educa, 742.

citiimo, 823.

ded, 542 (5).

ego, 274.

clam, 1319.

deinde, 800.

eho, 862.

claud, 540 (28).

dem, 544 (1).

em, 544 (1), 1005.

clep, 533 (13).

demum, 1447.

emollmento, 530.

co, 173.

denario, 1070 n.

emolumento, 530 n.

coi, vb. 904.

denique, 1447 n. *.

enim, 1449, 1474.

col, 543 (9).

denuo, 797.

eo, 304, 366.

com, 544 (1).

Deo, 157.

eodem, 366.

cSmlniis, 781.

deterior, 824.

epol, 861.

commln, 545 (3).

dextant, 270.

equa, 99.

INDEX II.

397

equldem, 335.

foras, 886.

i or ec, 302, 11 12-1 119.

erga, 1334.

f oris, 952.

i, vb., 554 (1), 737.

es, 547 (2), 722.

f ove, 533 (80).

Ibi, 304, 366.

es (eat), 540 (6).

frag, 535 (3).

ibidem, 1150.

est-qui, 1189, 1191.

frem, 544 (3).

ic, 534(12).

et, 1430, &-c., 1440.

frend, 540 (22).

idem, 342, 1132.

etiam, 1171 (2).

freto, 546 TJ., 1002.

Igltur, 1474.

ex, 1331.

frlca, 550 (6).

ignora, 1338 M.

exciipi, 1332.

frig, 535 (13).

ignosc, 761 n.

edepol, 861.

frige, 553 (29).

nicet, 807.

evlta, 1332.

frigos, 55.

ilico, 797.

exaudi, 1332.

fru or fifig (r.), 539

Ilioneu, 177.

exim.t'o., 544(1).

(3), 1001.

ilia, 298, 366.

exim, adv., 304, 790.

firumenta (r.), 744.

iliac, 298, 366.

exole, 553 (48).

fu, 548 (6\ 725.

ill!, 298, 366.

expergisc, 1351 n.f

fud, 540(31).

illim, 298, 366.

experi (r.), 554 (19).

fug, 535 (27).

illinc, 298, 366.

extra, 1335.

fiige, 1177.

illo, 287-294, 1101-

exttimo, 823.

fulci, 554 (4).

1111.

exu, 548 (5), 906.

fulg, 535 (16).

illo, adv., 298, 366.

fac, 534 (1), 1168.

fulge, 553 (32).

illcc, 298, 366.

facess, 547 (5).

fund, 540 (31).

illtic, 298, 366.

facie, 193.

fung (r.), 535 (21).

imbu, 548 (2).

facinos, 194.

Gallia, 193 n.

imita (*-.), 748, 981 n.

fall, 543 (2). gaude, 553 (26).
fama, 193. gem, 544 (2).

Imo, adj., 110, 823.
Imo, adv., 1429.

fame, 126. gen, 545 (2).

impedi, 1236, 7.

familia, 96. ger, 546 (6).

impera, 1243, 1291.

farci, 554 (7). gign, 541 n.

In, 913, 1336, 7,8.

fas, 149. 1 glub,533(7).

inde, 304, 366.

fat, 541 (1\

Glycerio, 208.

indldem, 366.

fate (r.), 533 (71).

gno, 389.

inaudi, 1338.

f ave, 533 (77). grad (r.), 540 (3).

ind, 542 (8).

faxem, 1209/. n. gru, 140.
faxo, 1182 n, 1209/.n. gusta, 748.
fend, 540 (20). habe, 553 (1).

indu, 548 (5), 906.
indulge, 553 (31).
infesto, 546 n.

f er, 546 (5), 729. hac, 300, 366.

infra, 822, 1339.

ferae, 225.' ; haere, 553 (64).

ingem, 1338.

feroc, 225. haudquaquam, 366 n.

inqu, 730.

ferve, 533 (83). : heri, 954.

inser, 906.

fi, 736. hero, 100.

inter, 822, 1087, 1340.

fid, 540 (12), 1002. hie, adv., 300, 366.

interim, 797.

fig, 535 (10).

hine, 300, 366.

interest, 910.

fig, 535 (9).

ho, 295-300, 1091-7.

intra, 1343.

find, 540(11).

hoclne, 293.

intro, 1344.

fit, 1462 71. J.

hodie, 804.

ipso, 105,110,325,326,

fle, 553 (47).

homunctilo, 206.

1090.

flee, 534 (7).

horsum, 366 n.

in, 1262.

flu or flue, 539 (2).

hue, 300, 366.

ista, 299, 366.

f od, 540 (26).

humi, 952.

istac, 299, 366.

398

INDEX II.

isti, 299, 366.

lu,548 (10).

narra, 959.

istic, 299, 366.

luce, 553 (13).

ne, vb., 553 (54).

istim, 299, 366.

liid, 540 (33).

ne, 1174, 5, 1402.

istinc, 299, 366.

luge, 553 (39).

no, 1417, 1420, 1423,

isto, 288, 1091, 1098,

macto, 1004.

1424, 1425.

1100.

maere, 553 (65).

n2c, 534 (10).

isto, 299, 366.

mal, 735.

nuca, 550 (2).

istoc, 298, 366.

male, 770.

necesse, 956 .

istuc, 298, 366.

malim, 1221.

neciibi, 366.

fta, 1451.

mallem, 1221.

necunde, 366.

Iter,154, 194.

mand, 540 (18).

nedum, 1228.

jace, 553 (4).

mane, 553 (55).

nega, 1404 w.

jam, 1450.

mari, 88.

neglcg, 535 (6), 834 n.

joco, 155.

maleria (r.), 744.

nequa, 366.

Jov, 157.

medlca (r.), 971.

nequam, 149.

jube, 553 (3), 1236,

medius fidius, 861.

nequaquam, 366.

1237, 1243.

mehercule, 861.

neque, 1443.

jug, 535 (28).

memln, 390.

nequi, 738.

Jung, 535 (28).

men, 545 (3).

nequo, 366.

jus-jurando, 157.

Menanduro, 169.

nescio-qui, 1199.

juva, 550(13), 890.

meo, 107.

neu, 1416.

juveni, 137.

mure, 533 (66).

neutcro, 110.

juxtii, 1345.

merg, 535 (24).

neutro, 366.

lab, 533 (2).

met, 541 (4).

neve, 1416.

lab ( r .), 533 (3).

meti (r.), 554 (22).

nig, 535 (11).

lac, 534 (3).

mgtu, 548 (28).

nihll, 149, 1410.

lacess, 547 (4), 754.

metu (r.), 570.

nit (r.), 541 (7), 1001.

laed, 540 (8).

mica, 550 (5).

nite, 533 (73).

late, 533 (72).

Miletl, 951 n.

niv, 157.

lapillo, 205.

milli, 1064.

nol, 734,

lato, 543 n.

mtnistra, 971 n.

noli, 1576.

lav, 548 (1).

minu,548 (16).

n51im,1221.

lava, 550 (12).

minus, 1055 c.

nollem, 1221.

langue, 553 (34).

misce,553(ll).

nomen, 55.

le, 553 (43).

misere, 533 (67).

non, 1402 n.\

leg, 535 (5).

mitt, 541 (6).

nonne, 1419.

libero, 101.

mitte, 1177.

nostrati, 364.

libra, 1075.

modern, 742 n.

nu,548(15).

lice, 553 (7).

modo, 794.

nub, 533 (8), 972 n.

lice (r.}, 553 (8).

mol, 543 (10).

nudiustertius, 805.

lig, 537 (2).

mone,553(57),1236.7.

nullo, 110, 1410.

ligna (r.), 744.

mor, mori(r.), 546 (14),

num, 1419, 1423 n.

tin, 545 (4).

571.

numcubi, 366.

linteri, 127, 129.

morde, 553 (24).

numquo, 366.

linqu, 537 (2).

move, 533 (81).

nunc, 7i2.

ttque, 553 (58).

mulce, 553(12).

nutlquam, 796.

loca, 1289.

mulge, 553 (33).

6b, 1346.

loco, 155.

mung,535 (22).

obd, wfe., 542 (10).

loqu (r.), 537 (4).

nac (r.), 534 (4).

obllv (r.), Addenda to

lu, 548 (9).

nam, 1452.

539,j) g e402.

IXDEX II.

399

obsole, 553 (48).
6d, 540 (25).
odi, 390.
offlcio, 1469, *.
ole, 553 (48).
ole, 553 (49).
olim, 298.
open, 554 (16).
opes, 55, 999.
opltula(r.),742n.
oportet, 1246.
opperi (r.), 554 (20).
ordi(r.),554(10).
ordon, 55.
Oreste, 168.
6ri (r.), 554 (21).
orna (r.), 570, 5/4.
Orpheu, 176.
ostend, 810.
pa, *., 547(1).
pabula (r.), 744.
pac, 534 (5).
paenlte. 533 (74), 938.
pag, 535 (3).
palaro, 540 ru, 782,

1348.

pand, 540 (19).
Pantboo, 1/0.
par, pan, 546 (1).
pare, 534 (17).
pare, 553 (62), 958 n.
Pan, 174.
pariet, 71 *.
pas, t*., 547(1).
pasc (r.), 1001.
p5t (r.), 541 (2).
pater, 55, /I n.
pave, 533 (78).
pec, 534 (6).
pell, 543 (6).
pend, 540 (21).
pende, 553 (20).
penes, 1349.
pens!, 947 n.
per, 1350.
perd, 542 (9).
perhlbe, 1351 .f
peri, 13ol H. :
peri (r.}, 554 (19) *.
Perfcle, 180.

perinde, 800 .

permitt, 1351.

Perseu, 178.

pet, 541(5), 902 n.

petess, 547 (8), 754.

pig, 535 (12).

plge, 553 (28).

place, 553 (5).

plag, 535(1).

plaud,540(29).

pie, 553 (Si).

plec, 534 (8).

plec, 534 (9).

plica, 550 (4).

plu, 548 (14), 699,

1004.

plQs, 245 n, 1055 c.
pondo, 1075.
pone, 1353.
pose, 534 (19), 902.
post, 1354.
postea, 802.
posad, 815 n.
postilli, 802.
postquam, 848.
postumo, 823.
pota.748.
pot-es,

poti (r.), 942.
poto, 519.
prae, 1356.
praed,542(ll).
praeter, 1359.
praesent. 219.
prande, 553 (19).
prebend, 540 (23).
prem, 544 (4).
prem (r.), 655.
prime, 823, 1050.
prior, 823.
pro, 818, 823, 1361.
prod, 542 (12).
prod-es, 7-7.
prohibe, 1236, 1237,

1243.

prom, 544 (1).
prono, 825.
prope, 1365.
propior, 908, 955.
propter, 1366.

proxumo, 90S, 955.
pfide, 553 (27), 700,

pug, 535 (30).

pulris, 71, 74.

pute, 533 (75).

qua, 315, 366.

quaer, 546 (2), 902 n.

quaes, 546 (3).

quali, 225, 317.

qualubt-t, 366.

quamvis, 352, 79 1,1227
&.*.*.

quando,795, 1455J.W.*.

quandoquidem, 857 *.

quanquam, 791.

qoanti, 946 n.

quanto, 317.

quantum, 1200.

quaqua, 366.

quiquam, 366.

quare, 316.

quasi, 499, 1223.
1(3).

qua vis, 366.

quer(r.),546(12).

que, 840 *., 1430, &c.,

1441, 2.

qui, 554 (24), 738.
qui or quo, 305, 1120-

1131.

qui-cunqu?, 1146,1158.
qui-dam, 343, 1145.
quidem, 1080, 1405,

1415, 1453, 1474.
quie, 553 (42).
qui-lubet, 1144.
qum, 1171,2,1183.
qui-nam, 346.
qui-piam, 345, 1143.
qui-quam, 344, 1142.
qui-que, 347-350.
qui-qui, 353, 1147.
qui-vls,351, 1144,
quo, 315, 366.
quoad, 799.
quod, 1454.
quoliibet, 366.
quonam, 366.
quondam, 792.

400

INDEX II.

quoquam, 366.
quoque, 1474.
quoquo, 366.
quot, 149.
quotannls, 783 n.
quotldie, 804.
quo to, 248.
quovls, 366.
qiuini, 1455.
rad, 540 (2).
rap, 533(11).
ration, 55.
rauci, 554 (9).
re, subst., 88.
re (r.), vb., 553 (60).
re, part., 1367.
reapse, 326.
recidivo, 1367w.
redd, 542 (13).
refell, 543 (5).
refert, 910.
reg, 55.
reg, 535 (7).
remane, 1367.
remitt, 976 n.
rep, 533 (14).
reperi, 554 (17).
re-publica, 157.
rescind, 1367.
resclsc, 1367.
resist (r.}, 701.
retice, 1367.
retro, 1368.
ride, 553_(16).
robor, 55.
rod, 540 (27).
roga, 902, 3.
rosa, 1031.
ru, 548(23).
riip, 533 (21).
ruri, 952.
rus, 886.
riisum, 798.
saepi, 554 (14).
sali, 554 (4).
sail, 543 (3).
sanci, 554 (5).
sanguln, 71 n.
sap, 533 (12).
sarci, 554 (8).

scab, 533 (1).
scala, 540 //.
scalp, 533 (16).
scand, 540 (17).
scld, 540 (10).
scilicet, 807.
scind, 540 (10).
scrib, 99, 533 (5), 556.
sculp, 533 (17).
se, 815 n., 1083-8.
se, sed, 834, 834 n.,

1369, 1370.
seca. 550 (3).
secundum, 1371.
sed, 834, 834 n., 1369,

1370.

sede, 553 (15).
sedition, 815 n.
semper, 778 n.
sen, 157.

senti, vb., 554 (23).
sepeli, 554 (12).
seq or sequ (r.), 537 (1),

685, 891 n., 981 n.
ser, 546 (8), 546 (9).
sero, 771 n.
serp, 533 (19).
servi, 971.
sescento, 1063.
sesqui, 1056 n.
sestertio, 1056n., 1070,

3,4.
si, 496-99, 1153, 1209,

1422.

sic, 300, 1451 71. f-
siciibi, 366.
sicunde, 366.
sld, 540 (14).
sile, 553 (46).
slmili, 936.
simplic, 264 n.
sin, 545 (5), 1236, 7.
slqua, 366.
slqui, 1139, 40.
slquo, 366.
sist, 541 (11).
sive, 1157.
Socrates, 179.
sole, 553(51).
solo, 110, 1050, 1192.

solv, 548 (12).
sona, 550 (8).
sonlped, 71 n.
sorbe, 553 (2).
sorti, 125.
sparg, 535 (23).
spec, 534 (11).
spur, 546 (7).
spern, 546 (7).
sponde, 553 (21).
spu, 548(18).
sta, 549.
statu, 548 (27).
ster,546(ll).
stern, 546 (11).
sternu, 548 (17).
stert, 541 (8).
stig, 535 (15).
strangula, 750 n.
strep, 533 (15).
strld, 540 (13).
stride, 553 (17).
strlg, 535 (14).
stru or struc, 539 (4).
su, subst., 140.
su, vb., 548 (26).
suade, Addenda to 553,

page 402.
sub, 913, 1373-6.
subd, vb., 542 (14).
subter, 1378.
sue, 533 (84).
sfig, 535 (30).
sum, 544(1), 823 n.
summo, 823.
suo, 361, 1083-8.
super, 822.
supplies, 550 n.
supra, 822, 1383.
siiprad, 815 n.
susum, 798.
Syrisco, 209.
tace, 553 (6).
taede, 553 (14).
tag, 535 (4).
tali, 318.
tang, 535 (4).
tanquam, 499, 1223.
tanti, 946 n.
tanto, 318.

INDEX II.

401

teg, 535 (8).

ubivls, 366.

vel, 840 n., 1444.

tern, 544 (6).

ulc, 534 (16).

velim, 1221.

temn, 544(6).

ullo,110,334, 1142.

veil, 543 (7).

tend, 540 (24).

unde,366, 1150.

vellem, 1221.

tene, 553 (56).

undelubet, 366.

vend, 542 (16).

tenus, 1384.

undeunde, 366.

veni, 554 (13).

ter, i-b., 546 (10).

undevis, 366.

veni, 542 n.

ter, adv., 783 .

undlque, 366.

vere (r.), 533 (68),

terg, 535 (25).

ung, 535 (20).

872 n.

terge, 553 (35).

uno, 1062, 1192.

verg, 535 (26).

tex, 538.

unquam, 344, 792.

vero, 771 n., 1079,1427,

Thalet, 181.

uls, 1388.

1456, 1474.

time, 553 (53).

ultra, 1389.

verr, 546 (13).

ting, 535 (19).

ultro, 788 n.

vert, 541 (10).

toll, 543 (8).

ultiimo, 823.

vesc (r.), 1001.

tona, 550 (9).

ur, 546 (15).

veta, 550 (11), 1236,

tonde, 553 (22).

urgue, 553 (36).

1237, 1243.

torque, 553 (59).

usquam. 344.

vetes, 221.

torre, 533 (69).

usque, 347.

vexillo. 203.

tot, 149.

usu, 999.

vi, 157.

toto, 248.

ut, 316, 796.

vie, 534 (15).

toto, 110, 991.

ut (r.), 541 (11), 1001,

vlcem, 917.

trad, 542 (15).

1457.

vtd,540(15).

trah, 536 (1).

iitero, 110, 324.

vide, 553 (18), 1197.

tralc, 900, 1.

utero-que, 347.

videlicet, 807.

trans, 1385, 6.

uti, 796.

vie, t*., 553 (41).

transduc, 900, 1.

utlnam, 796.

villo, 202.

trem, 544 (5).

litique, 796.

vine, 534 (15).

tribu, 548 (3).

iitra, 366.

vinci, 554 (6).

tristi, 217-

utraque, 366.

vis, 547 (3).

tristior, 222.

utrinde, 366.

vita, vb., 553 M.

Tro. 100.

utrinque, 366.

vita, subst., 1029.

trud, 540 (33).

utro, 366.

viv, 539(1).

tu, '275.

iitrobi, 366.

vocifera(r.), 742 n.

tud, 540 (34).

utrobique, 366.

vol, 543(11), 733.

tue (r.), 533 (35).

utr5que, 366.

volgo, 154.

tund, 540 (34).

utrum, 1423.

volv, 548(13).

turgue, 553 (37).

utut, 796.

vorsus, 1387.

ubi, 315, 366, 953, 4.

vad, 540 (4).

vort. 541 (9).

ubiliibet, 366.

vale, 553 (45).

vort (r.), 570.

iibinam, 366.

ve, 1444 n.

vos 1081.

ublque, 347, 366.

veh, 536 (2).

vove, 533 (82).

ibiubi, 366.

vehement, 834.

402

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.

i 29, line 6, for ingens, cui, read ingens cui*.
55, line 6, for ratio, read ratio'.
65, line 2, for ass .... as (which belongs to 64), read mell, honey, N. mel ;

farr, spelt, N. far ; cord, heart, N. cor.
110, line 6, for ali, read alii.
117, line 2, for duo, duo, read duo, duo.
117, lines 2, 3, for ambo ambo, read ambo ambo.
157, line 2, for bourn, razdbovum or bourn.
191, line 5, for meaning, read meaning
201, line 3. Add: Also a few nouns in o and form a diminutive in fee,

as from equo or eco a horse, acu a point, eciileo, aculeo.
206, line 3. Add : If the noun end in any of the five terminations, os, or,

6s, or, es, this syllable becomes us. Thus from rumos or rumor /.

report ; arbor f. a tree ; opes n. work, are derived rumusculo m. t

arbusciila/., opuscfilo n.
225, line 63, for diuturno, read diuturno.
252, line 24, for vicien, read viciens.
255, line 1, 2, for duo, duo, read duo, duo.
255, line 4. ^M? : except that ambo in the best writers has a long o

(see Prof. Ramsay's Latin Prosody).
278, line 9, for reflexive, read reflective.
344, line 5, for nequicquam, read nequiquam.
359, line 6, for vostero, read vostero or vestero.
366, line 24, for quaqua, read quiiquam.
366, line 25, insert in last column: quanam.
379, n. *, line 4, for s, read is.
384, n. *, line I, for se dice, read si dice.
399, line 3, for reflexive, read reflective.
498, line 5, insert below scriberet : scripserit, he would write.
507, line I, for esse, read ese.

533, line 4, for ambi, read Iambi.

534, line 28, for compesco, read compesc.

535, line 7, for peplgi, read peplgi.

539, line 2, insert : obliv (r.), obllvisci, obliviscor, oblitus.

540, line 4, for recidi, read reccldi.

553, insert after luce .... luxit : suade (sweeten), give advice, suadere,

suadeo, suasi, suasum.
557, line 4, for jaci, read jaci.

570, line 32, dele : 2 ornaminor .... audimmorf.

571, line II, for moriminl, read moriminl.
577, line 3, for pluma, read pinna.

* The suggestion of a friend, so that ingens is the epithet of lumen,
t See 1165 note.

ADDEXDA ET CORRIGENDA. 403

577, line 6, for plumis, read pinnis.

581, tines 3. 6, for plumis, read pinnis.

632, line 3, for hen, read eras.

644, line 4, dele : armammor, you nmgt arm yourselves.

662, line 2, dele: premlmlnor, you shall depressed.

693, line 2, dele : sequlminor, ye shall follow.

709, line 8, for tha, read that.

724, line 5, for es, reades.

729, /in* 8, a'/werf a//er fertor: Subj. Past.-Imp. ferrer, &c.

731, line 3, for cede, read cette.

734, line 8, for Fut. Perf., read Past Perf.

737, /ine* 8, 9, for ussem, usse, read iissem, iisse.

761, line 3, for nescio, read nesci.

772, line 1. Even cito has a long o in Ter. Andr. iii. 1. 16, and elsewhere.

779, line 3, for a time, read at a time.

815, n.f, line 4, for se-A,put apart, read se-d, put apart.

817, line '2, for educ, read educ.

878, line 7, insert: (Hor.)

880, line 3, for quibus, read qulbus.

899, line o,for nos ne, read nosne.

905, n. ||, line I, for sper, consper, read spn, conspu.

908, line 4, for quern, read quam.

913, line 2, for motive, read motion.

914, line 1, dele: including all those.
917, line 3, for stupentls, read stupentls.
922, line 18, dele: A.

946, line 2, dele after genitives the mark: f.

947, line 2, insert after plurumi the mark: f.
947, n. , line 3, for 909, read 922.

976, line 6, for parentum, read parentum.

981, n. *, line 9, for verbs, read verb.

982, line 3,/or cohortis, read cohort Is.
995, line 3, for dlebiis, read diebus.
999, line 8, for (Cic.), read (Lh>.).

1005, line 6, for multi, read multo.

1007, line 1, dele after ablative the mart: J.

1007, line 3, for adsuetif, read adsueti^.

1009, line 3, for contentions, read contention?.

1013, line 2, for by an adjective, read by a substantive, adjective.

1013, line 18, for now-a-days, read novr-a-days ?

1026, line 4, for Inlmicltiae, read Inlmlcltiae.

1037, line 4, for onus, read ones.

1052, line 7, for diiiturnus, read diiiturnus.

1055 a. line 3, for locupletiorem, read locupletiorem.

1055 c, n. J, line 2, for minus, read minus.

1055 e, line 4, prefix : f.

1057 e, line 5, for maxumi, read maxumi.

1057A, line 4, insert : (Cic.)

1068, line 6, for trahebatur, read trahebatur.

1070, line o,for numm, read nummo.

4LH ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.

1073, line I, for ge, read ge-.

1090, line 4, for J, read f.

1100, /2e 3, inser/ a//er consolere : (Ter.)

1 105, Zme 9, omit : indignantes in Me Latin or insert indignantly in the

English.

1136, line 8, for recidissent, rearf reccfdissent.

1141, lines 10, 12, de/e: a.

1148, line 13, /or dilapsa, razrf dilapsl.

1148, fine 32, /or What, read For what.

1151, ft'we 3, for hoc, ra*<? hoc.

1160, line U, dele: a.

1168, /mes 1,5, 8, for fac, read fac.

11 73, line 3, for sacrificia, read sacrificia.

1175, line 5, for commotus, read commotus.

1179, line 7, for incomraodat, read incoraraodet.

1184, n. f , line 2, for here, read where.

1188, line 4, for (Cic.), read (Liv.}.

1196, line 4, for declarat, read declarat.

1198, line 8, for edere, read edere.

1199, line I, for nescio-quis, tri-syllable, read nescio-qui, trisyllable.
1214, line 17, for still he, read still for so serious a war he.

1218, line 12, for in hoc, read in hoc.

1241, line 2, for accusative, read nominative.

1251, line 6, for declare, read declared.

1255, n. ti/or cantetur, read cantaretiir.

1273, line 2, for feriiito, read feriiito.

1284, line 12, for sharpened, read pointed.

1291, line I, for imperare, read impera.

1322, n. *,/or Verr i. 24, read Verr. i. 24.

1326/, line 4, for captivis, read captivls.

1330, line I, for Di, read Dis.

1331 n, line 5, for your, read your.

1336, n. *, transpose interior and exterior.

1350 i, line 7, for permit, read permit your sailing.

1376, line 6, for succlama, read succlama.

1406, n. t,/or probabl, read probably.

1411, line 1 , for a, read as.

14116, line 2, for you, read you.

1428, n. f, line 4, read attention to.

1430, line I, for to, read St.

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