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A 


LATIN   GRAMMAR 


TfHEWITT  KEY,  M.A.  F.R.S. 


LATE   PROFESSOR  OF   LATIN   IN    UNIVERSITY   COLLEGE,    LONDON, 

NOW  PBOFESSOR  OF  COMPARATIVE  GRAMMAR,    AND 

HEAD-MASTER  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 


,  tott!)  Xtto  (Corrections  anK  'atJotttons. 


LONDON : 

BELL  &   DALDY,   YORK   ST.,   COVENT   GARDEN. 

CAMBRIDGE :  DEIGHTON,  BELL,  AND  CO. 

1871. 

[The  right  of  Translation  is  reserved.'] 


PREFACE. 


THE  chief  changes  which  have  been  made  in  the  present 
edition  are  as  follows  : 

1.  The  principle  involved  in  the   new  section,  marked 
451. 1,  has  led  to  the  introduction  of  forms  which  without 
explanation  might  offend  the  eye  of  the  scholar,  viz.  dic- 
1  say/  due-  <draw,'/£d-  « trust,'  ntib-  'veil,'  8d-  or  ddi-  'take 
an  aversion  to.'     Yet  these  forms  are  as  legitimate  for  the 
Latin  language,  as  AITT-  (eXnrov)  *  leave,'  0vy-  (e^vyov)  '  fly,' 
in  Greek  grammars.     Precisely  as  from  these  bases  are  de- 
duced the  imperfect  tenses  XCITT-W,  Xenr-etv ;  0evyw,  0e vy-f.iv  j 
so  we  may  likewise  deduce  in  the  sister  language  from  the 
short  bases  the  imperfect  tenses  dic-o,  duc-o,  fld-o,  nub-o,  and 
a  perfect  ddi, — forms  which  are  no  longer  inconsistent  with 
malidfcus,  fatidwus ;  dux  duds,  redux  reduds,  educare  ;  fides 
perfidus  ;  conntibium,  pronuba  ;  or  ddium. 

2.  It  has  been  thought  desirable  to  attach  references  to 
the  quotations  employed  in  the  Syntax. 

3.  Some  difference  of  arrangement  has  been  made  in  the 
'  principal  parts'  of  the  verbs,  and  in  the  syntax  of  the  dative. 

4.  Attention  has  been  drawn  to  some  inseparable  prepo- 
sitions which  represent  the  Greek  ava  in  form  and  power,  as 
well  as  to  an  inseparable  preposition  int&r,  of  like  origin  and 
no  way  related  to  the  ordinary  preposition  inter  '  between' 
(§§  834  b.  and  d.9  1308. 1, 1342. 1).    It  may  here  be  noticed, 
that  in  order  to  retain  as  far  as  may  be  the  original  numerical 
headings  of  the  paragraphs,  such  new  paragraphs  as  were  re- 
quired have  been  distinguished  by  added  digits,  which  havo 
the  appearance  of  a  decimal  notation.     Instances  have  just 
been  given. 


IV  PREFACE. 

5.  To  the  crude  forms  a  hyphen  has  been  affixed  (as  in 
the  Smaller  Grammar),  so  as  to  imply  that  an  addition  to  the 
word  must  be  made  before  it  is  entitled  to  take  a  place  in  a 
Latin  sentence. 

6.  The  defence  of  the  crude-form  system,  which  appeared 
in  the  Preface  of  the  first  edition,  has  been  enlarged  and  trans- 
ferred to  an  Appendix. 

7.  A  second  Appendix  touches  on  some  new  views,  which 
were  thought  to  be  not  sufficiently  mature  for  admission  into 
the  body  of  the  Grammar. 

It  will  still  be  found  that  much  which  is  important  to 
the  Latin  scholar  is  wanting  in  these  pages.  But  in  reply  to 
some  objections  on  this  head,  it  may  truly  be  urged  that  a 
grammar  is  not  the  proper  receptacle  for  the  notice  of  pecu- 
liarities, which  should  find  a  place  in  the  dictionary  alone. 
The  special  office  of  grammar  is  to  deal  with  general  laws ; 
and  it  was  with  justice  that  Caesar  gave  to  his  work  on  this 
subject  the  title  of  Analogia  Latino,.  There  has  therefore 
been  an  error  on  the  side  of  excess  in  the  admission  of  much 
matter  relating  to  the  prepositions,  the  excuse  for  which  is 
the  very  unsatisfactory  condition  of  our  dictionaries  in  this 
department. 

Lastly,  the  writer  has  to  express  his  acknowledgments  to 
Mr.  John  Power  Hicks,  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  and  to 
his  son  Mr.  Thomas  Key,  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  for  much  valuable 
assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  edition. 


UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  LONDON, 
Feb.  15,  1858. 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


ALPHABET. 

1  THE  Latin  language  was  spoken  in  Rome  and  Latium,  and  after- 
wards spread  with  the  Roman  conquests  over  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
the  greater  part  of  France  and  Spain. 

2  The  alphabet  consisted,  as  Cicero  tells  us  (Nat.  Deor.  n.  37, 93), 
^  of  twenty-one  letters.     These  must  have  been:  abcdefghikl 

m  no  p  q  r  stu  and  x, — without  any  j  v  w  y  z.  That  the  alpha- 
bet ended  with  x  is  implied  in  Suetonius  (Aug.  c.  88).  J'and  z 
were  introduced  at  a  late  period  from  Greece,  and  for  a  long  time 
limited  to  Greek  or  foreign  words. 

3  The  vowels  were  i  e  a  o  ut  to  follow  the  natural*  order  of 
their  sounds. 

4  The  liquid  consonants,  following  the  natural  order  of  their 
formation  from  the  back  of  the  mouth  towards  the  lips,  were 
r  I  n  m. 

5  X  is  a  double  consonant,  sounding  as  Jcs. 

6  K  is  only  used  before  «,  as  its  modern  name  implies  ;  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  proper  names  Kaeso,  Volkanus ;  and  in  kalendae, 
dedikare. 

Q  is  used  only  before  u,  as  its  modern  name  implies ;  for  ex- 
ample, in  sequor  ;  and  in  old  inscriptions,  pequuia,  <fec. 
Ph,  ch,  th,  rh  were  not  used  in  old  Latin  (Cic.  Or.  48). 

*  See  Professor  Willis's  experiments  as  detailed  in  the  Cambridge 
Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  i.  for  Nov.  24,  1828  and  March  16, 1829. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

7  The  true  proutmciation  of  the  Latin  language  is  no  longer 
known.  The  vowels  were  probably  pronounced  as  they  now  are 
in  Italian. 

x  In  England  the  words  are  commonly  pronounced  nearly  as  they 
would  be  in  English. 

!)  When  i  before  a  vowel  commenced  a  syllable,  it  was  called  by 
the  Romans  i  consonans;  but  was  in  fact  a  vowel  i  very  shortly 
pronounced,  like  our  y  in  you.  But  the  English  in  such  cases 
change  it  into  a  /.  Thus  i  u  n  i  o  r  (yunior)  yourger  is  commonly 
written  and  pronounced  'junior/ 

10  When  u  before  a  vowel  commenced  a  syllable,  it  was  called 
u  consonans  ;  but  was  in  fact  a  vowel  u  very  shortly  pronounced, 
like  our  w  in  we.     But  the  English  change  it  into  a  v.     Thus, 
u  i  n  u  m  (winum)  wine  is   commonly   written   and  pronounced 
'  vinum.' 

11  C  and  g  were  probably  always  pronounced  as  in  cat  and  j?0o«e, 
even  before  i  and  e.    But  the  English  follow  their  own  rule.    Thus 
Cioero,  the  Roman  orator,  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  called 
himself  Sisero. 

1  -2        The  diphthongs,  ae,  oe,  are  generally  pronounced  as  e. 

13  A   short    syllable   is  pronounced   rapidly,   and   is   sometimes 
marked  by  a  crescent  (")  over  the  vowel,  as  the  i  in  dominus 
master. 

14  A  syllable  or  vowel  is  said  to  be  long  by  nature,  when  the  voice 
dwells  upon  the  vowel,  as  verus  true. 

15  A  syllable  or  vowel  is  said  to  be  long  by  position,  when  the 
vowel  is  followed  by  two  consonants  which  do  not  both  belong  to 
the  next  syllable,  as  mfignus  great,  sunt  they  are,  et  mater  and 
the  mother. 

If;  A  straight  line  (~)  over  the  vowel  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
a  long  syllable,  as  verus  true,  mugnus  great. 

\  ~  A  diphthong  is  nearly  always  long  by  nature,  as  aurum  gold, 
aes  bronze,  proelium  battle.  The  few  exceptions  consist  of  words 
in  which  the  diphthong  is  immediately  followed  by  a  vowel,  as 
praeustus  burnt  at  the  end. 

18  A  vowel  followed  by  a  vowel  in  the  next  syllable  is  nearly 
always  short,  as  fillus  son,  filla  daughter,  aureus  golden.  The  ex- 
ceptions consist  of  words  in  which  the  long  vowel  has  taken  the 


PRONUNCIATION.  3 

place  of  a  diphthong,  or  of  two  vowels,  as  f  10  (for  faio)  1  become, 
nulllus  (for  nulloius)  of  no  one,  alms  (for  aliius)  another's :  so 
especially  with  foreign  names,  as  Darius  (for  Dareius),  Medea 
(for  Medela). 

19        A  short  vowel  followed  by  a  consonant  should  generally  be 
pronounced  with  that  consonant,  as  pat-er  father. 

A  long  vowel  followed  by  a  consonant  should  generally  be  pro- 
nounced separately  from  the  consonant,  as  ma-ter  mother. 

21  If  a  vowel,  itself  short,  be  followed  by  two  consonants  which 
can  be  pronounced  at  the  beginning  of  a  syllable, — as  jt?r,  cr,  tr ; 
br,gr,  dr ;  andjp£, — there  are  often  two  ways  of  dividing  the  word. 
Thus  fiinebris   connected  with  a  corpse  is  pronounced  in  prose 
fu-nS-bris ;  but  in  verse  it  may  be  pronounced  fu-neb-ris.     In  the 
comic  writers,  however,  such  a  syllable  is  always  short. 

A  syllable  which  is  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short  is 
said  to  be  common,  and  is  marked  ( "u)  or  (~ )  over  the  vowel,  as 
funebris  or  funebris. 

22  If  the  last  syllable  but  one  be  long,  it  has  the  accent,  as  uinum 
wine,  arcus  low,  regina  queen,  sagitta  arrow. 

23  If  the  last  syllable  but  one  be  short  and  the  last  syllable  but 
two  be  long,  this  long  syllable  has  the  accent,  as  filia  daughter, 
auonculus  a  mother's  brother. 

24  If  two  or  more  short  syllables,  exclusive  of  the  last  syllable, 
come  together,  the  second  of  them  (counting  from  the  beginning 
of  the  word)  has  its  vowel  nearly  dropped*  in  pronunciation.    Thus 
6p8ra  work  should  be  pronounced  almost  as  op'ra;  mlsSrla 
wretchedness,  as  mis'ria;  exISrat  he  had  gone  out,  as  exi'rat ; 
1  £  c  r  ii  m  a  tear,  probably  as  la'r'ma.f 

25  If  the  syllable  to  be  so  dropped  be  an  i  (or  e)  or  u,  pronounce 
the  i  (or  e)  like  y,  the  u  like  w.     Thus  m  u  1 1  e  r  woman  should  be 
pronounced  mulyer ;  arle'tis  of  a  ram,  arye'tis ;  perllmus  we 
are  ruined,  perylmus ;  fluuI5rum0/ rivers,  fluuy6rum ;  P u t S- 
5 1  i  name  of  a  town,  Piity 61i ;  r  e  s  1 1 1  u  6  r  e  to  set  up  again,  restit- 
wSre. 

26  A  long  word  has  sometimes  more  than  one  accent :  as,  immor- 
talis  immortal ;  re'ctipe'rare  (rec'perare),  to  recover,  to  get  back. 


*  See  Bentley's  Terence  ad  Eun.  ii.  2.  36 ;   Hermann  de  Re  Me- 
trica,  speaking  ofmiserum,  p.  206. 
t  Compare  the  French  larme. 


WORD-BUILDING. 

Enclitics  are  little  words  pronounced  and  sometimes  even 
written  with  the  word  preceding  :  as,  quS  and,  mater-que  and 
the  mother;  u6  or,  mat4r-uo  or  the  mother ;  nS  in  asking  ques- 
tions, as  inater-ne  abiit  ?  is  the  mother  gone  away  ?  Prepositions 
placed  after  a  noun  are  of  this  kind  :  as,  altis-de  montibus  down 
from  the  high  mountains. 

Proclitics  are  words  pronounced  and  sometimes  even  written 
with  the  word  following.  Prepositions  are  of  this  kind  :  as,  in- 
ter-nos  between  us,  inter-se  between  them,  in-primis  among  the  first, 
a-me  from  me. 

Elision.  When  one  word  ends  with  a  vowel  or  a  vowel  and  an 
m,  and  the  next  begins  with  a  vowel  or  an  h,  the  final  vowel  and 
m  of  the  first  word  are  not  pronounced  in  poetry  :  thus, 

Monstrwwi  horrendwm  informs  ingens  cti!  lumen  Sdempttim 
should  be  read, 

Monstr',  horrend',  inform',  ingens  cul  lumen  adSmptum. 
Unearthly,  ghastly,  shapeless  ;  reft  of  an  eye  immense. 


WORD-BUILDING. 

30        The  simplest  words  consist  of  one  syllable  :  as  the  verbs  dtic- 

draw,  &g-  drive  or  put  in  motion  ;  or  the  substantives  pSd-  foot, 

6X1-  salt. 

These  are  called  roots. 
3*2        A  suffix  is  a  syllable  which  is  added  to  the  end  of  a  word  and 

adds  to  or  alters  its  meaning  :  as,  due-*  draw,  duc-to-  drawn; 

&g-  drive,  ag-mSn-  a  drove. 

33  A  short  vowel,  generally  £,  seems  sometimes  to  be  inserted 
before  the  suffix  :  as  in  a>-Mi-  c>i*i!>/  put  in  motion,  active. 

34  Several  suffixes  may  be  added  one  after  another  to  the  same 
root  :  as,  £g-  put  in  motion,  S.g-1-li-  active,  aglll-tat-  activity,  S-gl- 
Utat-fs  of  activity. 

Words  formed  by  suffixes  are  said  to  be  derived. 

35  A  prefix  is  a  syllable  which  is  placed  before  a  root,  and  adds  to 
or  alters  its  meaning  :   as,  due-  draw,  dS-duc-  draw  down ;  S,g- 
drive,  ex-Tg-  drive  out. 

*  For  the  quantity  see  $  451.  1. 


NOUNS. 


Words  formed  by  prefixes  are  said  to  be  compounded. 
36        In  the  derivation  and  composition  of  words  the  letters  are 
sometimes  slightly  altered  :   as,  &g-  drive,  ac-to-  driven,  ex-Ig- 
drive  out ;  opgs-  work,  tfper-is  of  work. 


NOUNS. 
i.  e.  SUBSTANTIVES  AND  ADJECTIVES. 

37  The  Latin  language  has  no  article,  so  that  a  Latin  substantive 
may  be  translated  in  three  ways  :  1.  without  an  article,  as  mulier, 
woman  ;  2.  with  the  indefinite  article,  as  mulier,  a  woman ;  3. 
with  the  definite  article,  as  muligr,  the  woman. 

38  With  Latin  substantives  there  are  three  questions  to  be  asked : 
What  is  the  gender  ?    What  is  the  case  ?    What  is  the  number  ? 

39  The  genders  are  two,  masculine  and  feminine.    If  a  noun  be  of 
neither  gender,  it  is  called  neuter. 

•<  See  tables  of  genders,  §§  191,  &c. 

40  Little  suffixes  with  the  meaning  of  prepositions  are  added  to 
nouns.     Thus  Sulmon-  was  the  name  of  a  town  in  Italy.    Add 
the  suffix  em  to  it,  and  e-o  Sulmon-em  means  /  am  going  to  Sul- 
mon.   Add  the  suffix  i,  and  Sulmon-l  hSblt  o  means  /  reside  at 
Sulmon. 

41  A  noun,  before  these  suffixes  are  added,  is  said  to  be  in  the 
crude  form.     A  crude  form  is  here  printed  with  a  final,  hyphen. 

42  The  word  made  up  of  a  noun  and  one  of  these  suffixes  is  called 
a  case. 

43  There  are  five  suffixes,  which  being  added  to  a  crude  form 
make  five  cases  :  the  nominative,  accusative,  genitive,  dative,  and 
ablative.     To  these  is  generally  added  the  vocative.* 

44  The  nominative  is  commonly  formed  by  the  suffix  s  :  as,  tr&b- 
a  beam,  nom.  trabs. 

The  nominative  marks  the  quarter  from  which  an  action  pro- 
ceeds, i.  e.  the  agent.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  'the  master  strikes 
the  slave,'  the  blow  comes  from  the  master  :  this  word  master  in 
Latin  would  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

*  The  case  so  called  is  in  reality,  so  far  as  the  Latin  language  is  con- 
cerned, a  nominative ;  except  perhaps  in  the  singular  of  the  o  declension, 
viz.  au&.  But  even  with  this  compare  the  nominatives  iste,  HIS,  ips2. 


BfOTTNS. 

The  nominative  is  called  the  subject  in  English  grammar. 
The  vocative  is  used  in  addressing  people. 

45  The  accusative  is  formed  by  the  suffix  em  :  as,  trab-  a  beam, 
ace.  tr&b-em. 

46  The  accusative  answers  to  the  question  whither?  or  marks  the 
quarter  to  which  an  action  is  directed  :  as,  eo  Sulmonem,  I  am 
going  to  Sulmon.     Or  again  in  the  sentence,  '  the  master  strikes 
the  slave,'  the  blow  goes  to  the  slave  :  this  word  slave  in  Latin 
would  be  in  the  accusative  case.        * 

The  accusative  is  often  used  with  prepositions  :  as,  In  urbem 
venit,  he  came  into  the  city. 

The  accusative  is  called  the  object  in  English  grammar.* 

47  The  genitive  is  formed  by  the  suffix  ius  or  is  :  as,  quo-  who, 
gen.  quo-iiis ;  trab-  beam,  gen.  trab-ls. 

The  genitive  answers  to  the  question  whence  ?  or  signifies  /rowi : 
as,  cSlor  sol-is,  the  heat  from  the  sun.  It  is  commonly  translated 
by  of:  as,  calor  soils,  the  heat  of  the  sun;  or  by  the  English  suffix 
's :  as,  calor  soils,  the  sun's  heat."^ 

48  The  nominative  and  genitive  both  signify  from :  but  they  differ 
in  this ;  the  nominative  belongs  to  a  verb,  the  genitive  to  a  noun. 

49  The  dative  is  formed  by  the  suffix  bi  or  I :  as,  i-  this,  I-bi  in 
this  place  ;  trab-  beam,  dat.  trab-i. 

The  dative  answers  to  the  question  where  ?  and  is  translated 
by  at  or  in :  as,  Sulmon-i,  at  Sulmon  ;  £ll-bi,  in  another  place.  It 
is  used  also  for  to,  if  there  is  no  motion  :  as,  haeret  tibi,  it  clings 
to  you. 

/>(.)  The  ablative  has  two  very  different  meanings,  and  perhaps  two 
different  origins.  Sometimes  it  answers  to  the  question  whence  ? 
sometimes,  like  the  dative,  to  the  question  where  ?  In  the  former 
sense  it  had  originally  a  final  d,  as,  from  Gnaivo-,  the  old  form  of 
the  praenomen  Cneio-  (Cneius),  abl.  Gnaivod.  This  form  became 
quite  obsolete.  In  the  classical  writers  the  ablative  in  form,  what- 
ever be  its  sense,  is  very  like  to  or  identical  with  the  dative  ;  but 
the  I  is  often  changed  into  an  & :  as,  trab-  beam,  abl.  trS,b-6  ;  or 
lost  altogether,  leaving  the  preceding  vowel  long :  as,  ala-  wing, 
abl.  ala. 


*  The  English  language  has  the  accusatival  suffix  in  him,  the  accusa- 
tive of  he  ;  and  in  whom,  the  accusative  of  who. 

•f*  The  English  language  has  the  genitival  suffix  in  his,  the  genitive 
of  he ;  and  in  whose,  the  genitive  of  who. 


CONSONANT  DECLENSION. 


The  ablative  sometimes  signifies  from,  as,  CdYintho-  Corinth, 
abl.  Corintho  from  Corinth  :  sometimes  it  agrees  ill  meaning  with 
the  dative,  as,  riis-  country,  D.  rtir-1,  or  Ab.  rur-e',  in  the  country  ; 
D.  Sulmou-i,  or  Ab.  Sulm5n-e,  at  Sulmon. 

51  The  ablative  is  often  used  with  prepositions  :  as,  ex  urbS,  out 
of  the  city  ;  cum  reg-e",  with  the  king  ;  In  urb-e,  in  the  city. 

52  Number. — The  plural  is  generally  marked  in  English  by  s  or 
en,  as,  dogs,  oxen;  in  Latin  sometimes  by  s,  sometimes  by  um. 
These  suffixes  are  added  to  the  case-suffixes  ;  as  in  the  genitives 
servo-r-um  for  servo-'s-um,  of  slaves ;  re-r*-um  for  re-'s-um,  of 
things  ;  or  in  the  datives,  vo-bl-s,  re-bii-s. 

53  In  adding  these  case-suffixes  and  plural-suffixes  to  the  crude 
forms,  some  changes  take  place,  particularly  if  the  crude  form  end 
in  a  vowel. 

54  These  changes  depend  chiefly  upon  the  last  letter  of  the  noun. 
Nouns  are  therefore  divided,  according  to  the  last  letter,  into 
classes  called  declensions. 

55  CONSONANT  (or  THIRD)t  DECLENSION. 

MASCULINE  AND  FEMININE  NOUNS. 


Latin  C.F. 
Gender. 
English. 

Trab- 
fem. 
tree,  beam. 

Princep- 
masc  or  fern. 
first,  chief. 

Aucep- 
masc-.  or  fern. 
bird-catcher. 

Reg- 
masc. 
king. 

Ntic- 
fem. 
nut. 

Singular. 
Nom. 

VOG. 

Acc. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

trabs 
trabs 
trabem 
trabis 
trabl 
trabg 

princeps 
princeps 
principem 
principis 
principi 
principe 

auceps 
auceps 
aucupem 
aucupis 
aucupi 
aucupe 

rex 
rex 

regem 
regis 
regi 
regg 

nux 
nux 
niicem 
nucis 
nuci 
nticS 

Plural. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
Acc. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

trabes 
trabcs 
trabes 
trabura 
trabibus 
trabibus 

principes 
principes 
principes 
principum 
principibus 
princlplbus 

aucupes 
auciipes 
aucupes 
aucupum 
aucupibus 
aucupibus 

reges 
reges 
reges 
regum 
regibus 
regibus 

| 

nuces 
niices 
niices 
micum 
niicibus 
nucibiis 

*  The  r  for  *  in  the  genitive  is  seen  in  the  English  genitives  her  and 
their. 

f  The  numbers  of  the  declensions  are  given,  because  they  are  so 
arranged  in  nearly  all  grammars  and  dictionaries. 


CONSONANT  DECLENSION. 


MASCULINE  AND  FEMININE  NOUNS — (continued). 


Latin  C.F. 

Lapid- 

Custod- 

Ariet- 

Corn-Tt- 

Aetat- 

Gender. 

masc. 

masc.  or  fern. 

masc. 

masc.  or  fern. 

fem. 

English. 

a  stone. 

guard. 

ram. 

companion. 

age. 

Singular. 

Nom. 

lapis 

custos 

aries 

cSmes 

aetas 

Voc. 

lapis 

custos 

aries 

c5mSs 

aetas 

Ace. 

lapidem 

custodem 

arietem 

cSmitem 

aetatem 

Gen. 

lapldls 

custodis 

arietis 

c5raitis 

aetatis 

Dat. 

lapidi 

custodl 

arieti 

cSmiti 

aetati 

Abl 

lapidg 

custodg 

ariStg 

cSmlte 

aetatg 

Plural. 

Nom. 

lapides 

custodes 

arigtes 

cSmites 

aetates 

Voc. 

lapides 

custodes 

arietes 

cSmltes 

aetates 

Ace. 

lapides 

custodes 

arigtes 

c5mites 

aetates 

Gen. 

lapidum 

custodum 

ariStum 

c5mitura 

aetatum 

Dat. 

lapidibus 

custodibus 

arietibiis 

c6mitibus 

aetatibiis 

Abl. 

lapidibus 

custodibus 

arietibus 

c3mitibus 

aetatibus 

Latin  C.F. 
Gender. 
English. 

Mos- 
masc. 
custom. 

Pulvls- 
masc. 
dust. 

Pater- 
masc. 
father. 

CUlmor- 
masc. 
shout. 

Hiem- 
fem. 
winter. 

Singular. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

mos 
mog 
mofl;m 
morts 
mori 
morS 

pulvis 
pulvls 
pulvgrem 
pulvSris 
pulvgri 
pulvgrg 

patgr 
patgr 
patrem 
patrls 
patri 
patre 

clam5r 
clam5r 
clarnorem 
clamoris 
clamor! 
clamorS 

hiemps 
hiemps 
hiemem 
hiemis 
higml 
higmS 

Plural. 

Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

mores 
mores 
mores 
morum 
moribus 
morlbus 

S 

2 

1 
'* 

patres 
pfitres 
patres 
patrum 
patrlbus 
patribus 

clamores 
clamores 
clamores 
clamorum 
clamoribiis 
clamoribus 

hiSmes 
hiSmes 
higmes 
higmum 
higmlbus 
higmibus 

*  An  ace.  pulveres  in  Horace. 


CONSONANT  DECLENSION. 


MASCULINE  AND  FEMININE  NOUNS— (continued}. 


Latin  c  F. 
Gender. 
English. 

851- 

masc. 
sun. 

Consvil- 
masc. 
consul. 

Ration- 
fern. 
account. 

Ordon- 

masc. 
rank. 

Sanguin- 
masc. 
blood. 

Singular. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

sol 
sol 
solem 

solis 
soli 
sole 

consul 
consul 
consulem 
consults 
consul! 
consiile 

ratio 
ratio 
rationem 
rationis 
ration! 
ration^ 

ord5 
ordo 
ordinem 
ordinis 
ordm! 
ordm§ 

sanguis 
sanguls 
sanguinem 
saugumis 
sanguln! 
sanguine 

Plural. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dot. 
Abl. 

soles 
soles 

soles 
* 

consules 
consules 
consules 
consulum 
consullbiis 
consulibiis 

rationes 
rationes 
rationes 
rationum 
rationibus 
ratiombus 

ordmes 
ordines 
ordmes 
ordinum 
ordmibus 
ordmibus 

g" 

2 
1 

solibus 
solibus 

56  NEUTER  NOUNS. 

Neuter  nouns  differ  from  others  only  in  the  N.  V\  and  Ace., 
which  are  always  alike.  In  the  singular  these  cases  are  nearly  al- 
ways short  in  the  last  syllable,  and  in  the  plural  always  end  in  a. 


Latin  C.F. 
English. 

Nomgn- 
name. 

Opes- 
work. 

Frigos- 
cold. 

Robor- 
hardness. 

Caput- 
head. 

Singular. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

nomen 
nomgn 
nomSn 
nominls 
nomin! 
nomlnS 

Spiis 
Spiis 
Spiis 
opens 
5pSr! 
Sperg 

frigus 
frigus 
frigus 
frig-Sris 
fr!g5rl 
fr!g5re 

robur 
robur 
robur 
rob5ris 
rob5r! 
robSrS 

caput 
caput 
caput 
capitis 
capiti 
capite 

Plural. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

nomma 
nomma 
nomma 
nominum 
nomimbiis 
nomimbus 

6pgra 
opSra 
SpSra 
operum 
(5pSrIbus 
SpSribus 

frlgSra 
fr!g5ra 
frigSra 
frlg5rum 
fr!g5ribus 
frigSribiis 

rob5ra 
robSra 
robSra 
robQrum 
roborlbus 
rob5ribus 

capita 
capita 
capita 
capitum 
capitlbus 
capitlbus 

*  Not  found. 


10 


CONSONANT  DECLENSION. 


NEUTER  NOUNS — (continued). 


Latin  C.F. 

English. 

Uber- 
stream. 

Os- 

mouth. 

Oss- 

bone. 

Crus- 
leg. 

Cord- 
heart. 

Singular. 

Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

ubSr 
fiber 
fiber 
uberis 
ubeii 
ubere 

OS 
OS 
OS 

oris 
or! 
ore 

5s 
5s 
5s 

OSS1S 

ossT 
ossS 

crus 
crtis 
crus 
eruris 
crQri 
crur§ 

c5r 
c5r 
c5r 
cordis 
cord! 
corde 

Plural. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

ubera 
ubera 
ubera 
uberum 
ubenbus 
uberibiis 

ora 
ora 

ora 

• 

ossa 
ossa 
ossa 
ossmnrf- 
ossibus 
ossibus 

crura 
crura 
crura 
crurum  » 

cruribus 
cruribus 

corda 
corda 

corda 
* 

oribus 
oribus 

cordlbus 
cordibus 

57 


Remarks  on  the  Consonant  Declension. 


The  nominative,  as  has  been  already  said,  is  most  regularly 
formed  by  the  addition  of  s :  as,  trab-  beam,  N.  trabs. 

58  If  the  crude  form  end  in  g  or  c,  x  is  written  instead  of  gs  or 
cs :  as,  reg-  king,  N.  rex  ;  nuc-  nut,  N.  nux. 

59  If  the  crude  form  end  in  d  or  t,  this  letter  is  omitted  :  as,  lapld- 
stone,  N.  lapis ;  comlt-  companion,  N.  comgs. 

CO        If  in  Greek  words  the  crude  form  end  in  ant,  ent,  or  unt,  the 
Nom.  will  end  in  as,  Is,  or  us  respectively. 

61  Even  in  Latin  words,  this  change  is  sometimes  found  :  as,  in- 
fant- infant,  N.  infans  or  infas. 

62  If  the  crude  form  end  in  r  or  lt  the  s  is  omitted  :  as,  patgr- 
father,  N.  pater ;  consul-  consul,  N.  consul :  if  in  n,  either  the  n 
or  the  s  is  omitted,  as  sanguln-  blood,  N.  sauguls,  or  in  old  writers 
sanguen. 

63  If  the  crude  form  end  in  on  or  on,  both  n  and  5  are  omitted :  as, 
ho'md'n-  human  being,  N.  homo  ;  ration-  an  account,  N.  ratio.     In 
Greek  names  in  on  or  ont,  the  n  is  often  retained,  but  not  by  the 
best  writers  :  as,  Lacon-,  Xgnophont-,  N.  Lacon,  X6n5phon ;  better 
Laco,  Xentfpho. 

*  Not  found.  f  Observe  the  irregular  i. 


CONSONANT  DECLENSION.  11 

64  If  the  crude  form  end  in  *  or  ss,  only  one  *  is  left  at  the  end  of 
the  nominative  :  as,  mus-  mouse,  os-  mouth,  oss-  bone  ;  N.  mus, 
os,  5s. 

05  If  the  crude  form  end  in  II,  rr,  or  rd,  the  second  of  these  con- 
sonants is  omitted  in  the  nominative  :  as,  mell-  honey,  farr-  spelt, 
cord-  heart ;  N.  mel,  far,  c5r. 

66  If  the  word  be  neuter,  the  s  is  not  added :  as,  alec-  pickled 
herring,  N.  ale"c.     Many  adjectives  however  take  the  «?  even  for 
the  neuter  K  V.  Ac.  :  as,  feroc-  haughty,  praesent-  present ;  N. 
V.  Ac.  neut.  fgrox,  praesens. 

67  Neuters  in  mat,  borrowed  from  the  Greek  language,  imitate 
that  language  in  dropping  the  t  in  the  N.  V.  Ac.  :  as,  poemat-  a 
poem,  N.  V.  Ac  poema". 

68  If  the  crude  form  has  a  short  i  before  the  final  consonant,  this 
is  often  changed  in  the  N.  into  $ :  as,  milit-  soldier,  N.  mile's. 

69  If  the  crude  form  end  in  Ss  or  ds,  the  N.  and  V.  generally  pre- 
fer us:  as,  venes-  beauty,  corpus- yfcsA,  body ;  N.  and  V.  venus, 
corpus.    Neuter  words  retain  the  us  in  the  Ac.  also.    Greek  words 
prefer  ds  in  tho  N.  V.  Ac.  of  neuters. 

70  The  crude  form  of  comparative  adjectives  ends  in  os;  whence 
the  neuter  N.  V.  Ac.  end  in  us,  the  masculine  and  feminine  N. 
and  V.  in  6r :  as,  melios-  better,  N.  and  V.  m.  and  f.  metier,  N.  V. 
Ac.  neut.  melms. 

71  *When  the  nominative  is  left  with  a  single  consonant  at  the 
end,  the  quantity  of  the  preceding  vowel  generally  remains  as  in 
the  crude  form  :  as,  salut-  safety,  custod-  keeper,  N.  salus,  custos  ; 
and  again,  anat-  duck,  lapid-  stone,  patSr-  father,  have  in  the  N. 
Sujls,  Iftpls,  patgr. 

72  But  the  crude  forms  in  or  have  a  short  nominative  :  as,  tlmor- 
fear,  N.  tlmor.     Yet  such  a  form  as  tlmor  also  occurs. 

73  Crude  forms  in  s  coexist  for  the  most  part  with  crude  forms  in 
r :  as,  arbSs-  or  arbor-  a  tree,  5dos-  or  <5dor-  scent.     Of  these,  the 
form  with  r  is  preferred  in  those  cases  where  a  vowel  follows  :  as, 
G.  arbtfris  of  a  tree,  odoris  of  the  scent. 

*  In  old  writers,  such  as  Ennius,  Plautus,  Terence  (and  occasionally 
even  Virgil),  nominatives,  which  should  be  short  according  to  this  rule, 
are  at  times  long :  as,  pater,  like  the  Greek  Trarrjp.  So  the  nominatives 
aer,  sSnipes,  abies,  aries,  paries,  Ceres,  sangius,  pulvis,  from  the  crude 
forms  aer-,  soniped-,  ahiet-,  ariet-,  pariet-,  Ceres-,  sanguin-,  pulvis-,  have 
some  of  them  always,  others  at  times,  a  long  vowel. 


12  CONSONANT  DECLENSION. 

74  If  the  crude  form  end  in  &,  8r  takes  its  place  in  those  cases 
where  a  vowel  follows  :  as,  pulvis-  dust,  G.  pulvSrls. 

75  If  the  crude  form  end  in  tin,  $n,  ut,  &c.,  the  short  vowel  is 
often  changed  into  I  in  those  cases  where  a  vowel  follows  :  as, 
ordon-nm£,  c&piit-  head,  G.  ordinis,  c&pltls.     CarSn-yk^  drops 
the  vowel  altogether  in  those  cases  :  as,  G.  carnls. 

76  V.— Greek  words  in  ant  form  the  V.  in  a  :  as,  Atlant-  Atlas, 
N.  Atlas,  V.  Atla. 

77  Ac. — Greek  words  often  form  the  Ac.  in  d  :  as,  Pallad-  the 
goddess  Pallas,  N.  Pallas,  Ac.  PallSda ;  a6r-  air,  Ac.  aer& ;  aether- 
the  region  of  fire  (ahove  the  air),  Ac.  aethera. 

78  G. — Greek  words  often  form  the  G.  in  os  or  us :  as,  Pall&d-,  G. 
PalladSs. 

79  D. — The  dative  sometimes  takes  an  8  instead  of  an  I :  as,  aes- 
bronze,  D.  aerl,  and  rarely  aere. 

80  D. — Greek  words  sometimes  form  the  D.  in  If :  as,  Pall&d-,  D. 
Palladi. 

81  Ab. — The  ablative  sometimes  takes  an  I  instead  of  an  <?:  as, 
c&piit-  head,  Ab.  capItS,  and  rarely  caplti. 

82  N.  and  V.  pi. — Greek  words  often  shorten  the  last  syllable  of 
the  N.  and  V.  pi.  :  as,  rhetSr-  orator,  N.  and  V.  pi.  rhetdre's. 

83  N.  V.  Ac.  pi. — Greek  neuter  nouns  whose  crude  form  ends  in 
8s  form  the  N.  V.  and  Ac.  pi.  in  ea  or  e  :  as,  Spes-  an  heroic  poem, 
N.  sing.  6p8s,  N.  V.  Ac.  pi.  epeS,  or  6pe. 

84  Ac.  pi. — Greek  words  often  form  the  Ac.  pi.  in  as  :  as,  rhetbr- 
orator,  Ac.  pi.  rhetSr&s. 

85  G.  pi. — There  is  an  old  form  of  the  G.  pi.  in  8rum  :  as,  nuc- 
nut,  G.  pi.  niicerum. 

86  D.  and  Ab.  pi. — Greek  nouns  in  mat  often  form  this  case  in 
mdtls,  rather  than  in  mdtibus:  as,  poemat-  a  poem,  N.  sing.  poe"ma, 
D.  and  Ab.  pi.  poematlbus,  or  poematis. 

87  D.  and  Ab.  pi. — Greek  nouns  sometimes  form  the  D.  and  Ab. 
pi.  in  sin  or  si,  with  the  final  consonant  of  the  crude  form  omitted, 
so  as  to  leave  the  preceding  vowel  short :  as,  Troad-  a  Trojan  wo- 
man, N.  sing.  Troas,  D.  and  Ab.  pi.  Troasln  or  Troasl. 


13 


VOWEL  DECLENSIONS. 
1.  MASCULINE  AND  FEMININE  NOUNS. 


Last  let. 

a 

0 

i 

u 

e 

Declen. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Latin. 
Gender. 
English. 

Ala- 
fern. 
wing. 

Auo- 
masc. 
grandfather. 

Aui- 
fem. 
bird. 

Acu- 
fem 
needle. 

Re- 

fem. 
thing. 

Sing. 
Nom. 

ala§ 

auos,  auus 

aulsj 

acus 

res 

Voc. 

ala§ 

aug 

auis 

acus 

res 

Ace. 

alam. 

auom,  auum 

auim,  auem 

acum 

rem 

Gen. 

alae 

am* 

auis 

acus 

re%  re 

Dat. 

alae 

auo 

aul 

acui,  acu 

rel,  re 

AU. 

ala 

auo 

aul,  auS 

acu 

re 

Plural. 

Nom. 

alae 

am 

aues 

Scus 

res 

Voc. 

alae 

aui 

aues 

acus 

res 

Ace. 

alas 

auos 

auis,  aues 

acus 

res 

Gen. 

alarum 

auorum 

auium 

acuum 

rerum 

Dat. 

allsj 

auis 

auibiis 

acubiis 

rebus 

AU. 

alls 

auis 

aulbus 

acubus 

rebus 

*  The  o  of  the  crude  form  may  be  traced  even  in  those  cases  which 
appear  commonly  without  it.  Compare  the  gen.  sing,  guo-ius  with  the 
Homeric  Ao7o:o  ;  the  old  nom.  pi.  oloe  for  illl  with  the  Greek  \oyoi ; 
the  dat.  and  abl.  pi.  duobiis,  and  oloes  for  illis,  with  the  Greek  \oyois. 

t  The  a  of  the  crude  form  is  visible  through  all  this  declension  except 
in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural.  That  it  once  existed  here  also  is  proved 
by  the  old  forms  equabus,  &c.,  and  by  the  Greek  dative  p.ovaais. 

J  Compare  this  declension  with  the  Greek  iro\t-,  N.  iro\is. 

§  The  a  of  these  cases  was  perhaps  at  first  long,  like  Greek  x«£«> 
ffroa,  ArjSa.  So  aguila,  Enn.  Ann.  148;  sancta,  filia,  Liv.  Andr.  ap. 
Prise,  vi.  42  ;  liberd,  Plant.  Ep.  in.  4.  62;  especially  in  Greek  words,  as 
Ilurica,  Trin.  iv.  2.  10;  epistula,  Asin.  iv.  1.  17  ;  Canthara,  Ep.  iv.  1.  40. 


14 


VOWEL  DECLENSIONS. 
2.  NEUTER  NOUNS. 


Last  letter. 
Declension. 

a 

1 

0 

2 

i 
3 

u 
4 

e 
5 

Latin. 
English. 

There  are  no  neuters  of  this  declensicm. 

Bello- 
war. 

Mari- 
sea. 

Cornu- 
horn. 

There  are  no  neuters  of  this  declension. 

Singular. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl 

bellum 
bellum 
bellum 
belli 
bells 
bello 

mare* 
marS 
marS 
marls 
marl 
marl 

cornu 
cornu 
cornii 
[corn  us]* 
cornul,  cornu 
cornu 

Plural. 

Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

bell& 
bellX 
belli 

bellorum 
bellls 
bellls 

maria 
maria 
maria 
marium 
marlbus 
maribus 

cornua 
cornua 
cornua 
cornuum 
cornubus 
cornubus 

Remarks  on  the  First,  or  A  Declension. 

90  A  very  large  number  of  feminine  adjectives  are  of  this  declen- 
sion, while  the  masculine  and  neuter  forms  end  in  o :  as,  bona- 
f.  goody  b5no-  masc.  and  neuter. 

91  N. — Four  words  add  an  e  to  make  the  feminine  nominative  : 
quae  ;  haec  ;  istaec  ;  illaec.     In  the  last  three  the  c  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  case-suffix.t 

92  N. — The  nominative  in  Greek  proper  names  sometimes  has  an 
s:  as,  Aenea-  Aeneas,  N.  AenSas ;  but  the  best  prose  writers  pre- 
fer the  N.  and  V.  in  a :  as,  Aristagora. 

03        V. — The  vocative  of  Greek  proper  names  sometimes  has  a  long 
a :  as,  Aenea-,  voc.  Aenea. 

94  Ac  — The  accusative  of  Greek  proper  names  sometimes  has  an 
n :  as,  Aeuoa-,  ac.  Aenean ;  MaiS,-,  ac.  MaiSn. 

95  G. — The  genitive  has  an  old  form  in  i :  as,  alai. 

9(5        G. — The  genitive  sometimes  takes  an  5 :  as,  f&mllia-  (fam'lia) 
a  gang  of  slaves,  an  establishment  of  slaves,  gen.  f&mllias. 
*  Not  found.  t  See  §  289. 


VOWEL  DECLENSIONS.  15 

97  D. — The  dative  has  an  old  form  in  i  :  as,  alai. 

98  G.  pi. — The  plural  genitive  sometimes  has  a  short  form  :  as, 
caellcftla-  inhabitant  of  heaven,  G.  caelicolum,  instead  of  caellco'la- 
rum  ;  amphora-  a  measure  of  content,  G.  amphSrum.  And  in  foreign 
proper  names  on,  as  in  Greek,  is  sometimes  written  instead  of  um. 

99  D.  and  Ab.  pi. — The  dative  and  ablative  have  an  old  form  in 
bus:  as,  Squa-  mare,  D.  and  Ab.  gquabus.     This  form  is  often  re- 
tained to  distinguish  the  sex ;  otherwise,  equo-  horse,  and  Squa- 
mare,  would  have  the  same  dative  and  ablative  plural ;  so  also 
dua-  f.  two,  amba-  f.  both,  have  D.  and  Ab.  duabus,  ambabus. 

Remarks  on  the  Second,  or  0  Declension. 

100  The  Greek  words  Tro-  a  Trojan,  and  hero-  a  demigod,  are  de- 
clined like  Greek  words  of  the#  consonant  declension. 

101  If  the  crude  form  end  in  8ro,  the  e  is  often  dropped  in  those 
cases  where  a  vowel  follows  the  r  :  as,  HbSro-  the  inner  bark  of  a 
tree,  a  book,  X.  and  V.  llbSr,  Ac.  librum,  <fec.     See  §  124. 1. 

102  N.  and  Ac. — The  nominative  and  accusative  prefer  an  o,  if  u 
precede,   as   auo-  grandfather,  N.    &u5s,    Ac.  £uom  :    otherwise 
u  is  preferred,  as  hamo-  hook,  N.  hamus,  Ac.  hamum.      But  if 
the  crude  form  end  in  quo,  then  cus  and  cum  are  preferred  to  quus 
or  quos,  and  to  quum  or  quom :  as,  Squo-  horse,  N.  Sous,  Ac.  Scum  ; 
antique-  old,  N.  antlcus,  Ac.  anticum. 

103  N. — Tn  Greek  words  o  is  preferred  to  u  :  as,  Delo-  the  island 
Delos,  N.  Delos. 

104  N.  and  V. — If  the  crude  form  of  a  masculine  noun  end  in  ro, 
the  N.  and  V.  often  drop  the  letters  that  follow  r  :  as,  llbero- 
book,  N.  and  V.  liber ;  ulro-  man,  N.  and  V.  ulr. 

105  N.— Three  nouns  form  the  N.  in  8:  ipso-self,  N.  ipsus,  more 
commonly  ipsS  ;  isto-  that  near  you,  N.  ist£ ;  illo-  yonder,  N.  ille. 
If  nominatives  so  formed  take  after  them  the  enclitic  cS,  look  or 
lo,  they  have  an  i  instead  of  an  e :  hence  ho-  this,  N.  h!c ;  isto-, 
N.  istlc;  illo-,  N.  illlc. 

106  V. — The  vocative  from  proper  names  in  io  contracts  te  into  I  : 
as,  Antonio-  Antonius  or  Antony,  V.  Anton!.   So  gSnio-  a  guardian 
spirit,  V.  gem ;  fllio-  s'm,  V.  fill. 

107  V. — Meo-  mine  contracts  the  V.  into  ml. 

108  V. — The  nominative  is  sometimes  used  as  a  vocative  :  as,  Deo- 
God,  N".  or  V.  Detis. 

109  Ac. — Greek  proper  names  sometimes  form  the  accusative  with 
n  :  as,  Delo-  the  island  Delos,  Ac.  Del8n. 


16 


VOWEL  DECLENSIONS. 


110  G.  and  D. — The  following  adjectives  form  their  genitives  in 
ius,  their  datives  in  I,  for  the  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter, 
though  some  of  them  have  occasionally  the  more  common  forms. 


C.F. 

G. 

D. 

C.F. 

G. 

D. 

eo- 
quo-  or 
cu- 

ejus 
quoius  or 
cuiiis 

el 
quoi,  cut* 
or  cm 

ipso- 
alio- 
altSro- 

ipslus 
alms 
altSrius 

ipsi 
alii 
alter! 

utgro- 

utriiis 

utri 

uno- 

unms 

unl 

neutSro- 

neutrius 

neutri 

ullo- 

ullius 

ulli 

ho- 

huiiis 

hui-c* 

nullo 

nullius 

null! 

isto- 

istms 

isti 

solo- 

solms 

soli 

fflo- 

illius 

illl 

toto- 

totlus 

totlf 

111  Many  of  these  genitives  in  ius  are  found  in  poetry  with  a  short 
penult,  as  illius  ;  but  the  genitive  Sftiis  (contracted  from  aliius)  is 
always  long.     Altertiis  with  a  long  i  is  found  in  old  writers  ( Ter. 
And.  iv.  1.  4  and  Enn.  ap.  Donat.  ad  Ter.  Ph.  n.  2.  25)  :  in  prose 
it  is  usual  to  pronounce  the  i  short :  alteriiis. 

112  G. — Substantives  in  io  contract  il  into  i:  as,  otio-  leisure,  G. 
oti.     This  final  i  is  sometimes  written  so  as  to  overtop  the  other 
letters,  as  OT!. 

113  G. — Greek  words  sometimes  form  the  genitive  in  u  :  as,  M6n- 
andSro-  the  poet  Menander,  G.  Mgnandrii. 

114  D. — Names  of  places  form  a  dative  in  *  with  the  meaning  at  : 
as,  Mlleto-  the  town  Miletus,  D.  Miletl  at  Miletus ;   so   humo- 
ground,  D.  hiimi  on  the  ground ;  domo-  house,  D.  domi  at  home ; 
bello-  war,  D.  belli  in  war :   and  some  adjectives  in  certain 
phrases,  as  quint!  die  on  the  fifth  day,  &c. 

115  N.  pi. — The  old  nominative  ended  in  e:  as,  oloe  from  olo- 
yonder,  instead  of  illl  from  illo-.      So  also  in  Greek  words :   as, 
Adelpho-  brother,  N.  pi.  Adelphoe. 

110  1ST.  pi. — Deo-  God  has  the  plural  N.  Del,  Dil,  or  more  com- 
monly Dl ;  and  eo-  this  or  that  has  a  plural  N.  il,  1,  or  more 
commonly  hi. 

117  N.  and  Ac.  pi. — Duo-  two  and  ambo-  loth  have  for  the  mas- 
culine N.  du5  and  ambo,  Ac.  duos  or  duo,  ambos  or  ambo  ;  for 
the  neut.  N.  and  Ac.  du5  and  ambo. 

*  Pronounced  as  monosyllables  :  cui  (ki),  huic  (hik). 

f  These  words  may  be  recollected  by  the  following  rhymes : 

ius  and  I  from  alio-  altero-,  I  eo-  and  quo-,  uno-  and  ullo-, 
solo-  toto-,  utero-  neutSro-,   I  ho-  isto-  illo-,  ipso-  and  nullo-. 


VOWEL  DECLENSIONS. 


17 


118  G.  pi. — The  genitive  sometimes  has  a  short  form,  especially  in 
numbers  weights  and  measures  :  as,  duo-  two,  G.  pi.  duorum  or 
duum  ;  mo'dio-  a  bushel,  G.  pi.  medium. 

119  G.  pi. — Greek  words  form  the  G.  pi.  in  on  :  as,  Georglco-  be- 
longing to  agriculture,  G.  pi.  Georgicon. 

120  D.  and  Ab.  pi. — The  dative  and  ablative  of  duo-  and  ambo- 
are  in  the  masculine  and  neuter  duobus,  ambobiis. 

121  D.  and  Ab.  pi. — An  old  form  of  the  D.  and  Ab.  pi.  is  in  es : 
as,  oloes  from  olo-  yonder,  instead  of  illls  from  illo-. 

122  D.  and  Ab.  pi.— Deo-  has  in  the  D.  and  Ab.  pi.  Dels,  Dils,  or 
more  commonly  Dls  ;  and  eo-  has  els,  ils,  Is,  or  more  commonly 
his. 

123  Four  neuters  in  o  have  a  d  in  the  N.  and  Ac.  singular  :  quo-, 
quod ;  isto-,  istud ;  illo-,  illud  ;  alio-,  aliiid. 

124  Ho-,  isto-,  illo-,  when  compounded  with  the  enclitic  c8,  look  or 
lo,  take  neither  d  nor  m  in  the  N.  and  Ac.  neut.  :  as,  hoc,  istSc  or 
istuc,  illoc  or  illuc. 


124.1 


IRREGULAR  0  DECLENSION. 


Latin  C.F. 

Puero- 

Viro- 

Libero- 

Filio- 

Equo- 

Gender. 

masc. 

masc. 

masc. 

masc. 

masc. 

English. 

boy. 

man. 

inner  bark. 

son. 

horse. 

Singular. 

Nom. 

puSr 

mr 

UbSr 

fllius 

Setts* 

Voc. 

puer 

uir* 

liber 

fill 

Squg 

Ace. 

puerum 

uirum 

Itbrum 

filium 

Scum* 

Gen. 

puSri 

uiri 

llbri 

f  ilil  or  fill 

8qui 

Dat. 

puero 

uiro 

libro 

filio 

§quo 

Abl. 

puero 

ulro 

llbro 

filio 

Squo 

Plural. 

Nom. 

puSri 

uiri 

llbri 

fllil 

gqul 

Voc. 

pue'rl 

uiri 

llbri 

filii 

equi 

Ace. 

puSros 

uiros 

Itbros 

filios 

gquos 

Gen. 

pugrorum 

uirorum 

llbrorum 

filiomm 

gquorum 

Dat. 

puSiis 

uiris 

libris 

filiis 

SquTS 

Abl. 

pueiis 

uMs 

libris 

flliTs 

fiquls 

*  So  our  best  Mss.  for  the  best  authors ;  but  editors  in  their  timidity 
generally  print  equus,  equwn. 

0 


18  YOWEL  DECLENSIONS. 

Remarks  on  the  T/iird,  or  I  Declension. 

125  Many  words  belong  partly  to  the  i  declension,  partly  «x>  ohe 
consonant  declension  :  as,  sorti-  or  sort-  a  lot  or  ballot.     In  such 
words  the  singular  is  generally  formed  according  to  the  consonant 
declension,  the  plural  according  to  the  i  declension.    (See  §  148. 1) 

126  Many  words  belong  partly  to  the  i  declension,  partly  to  the  e  de- 
clension :  as,  aede-  or  aedi-  temple.     (See  §  148. 1)    The  forms  from 
e  are  seldom  used  except  in  the  nom.  and  voc.     But  fame-  or  fami- 
hunger  has  an  Ab.  fame  with  the  e  long,  as  in  the  e  declension. 

126. 1  N. — Although  neuter  nominatives  of  this  declension  commonly 
end  in  £,  poti-  possible  has  for  the  neuter  in  old  writers  potis,  as 
well  as  p5tS. 

127  N.  and  V. — If  a  crude  form  end  in  ri,  the  letters  which  should 
follow  r  are  often  dropped  in  the  nom.  and  voc. :  as,  lintgri-  a  wherry, 
N.  and  V.  linter ;  Arari-  a  river  in  Gallia,  N.  and  V.  Ar&r  or  Araris. 

128  N.  and  V. — Some  adjectives  ending  in  eri  have  both  forms  :  as, 
acSri-  sharp,  N .  and  V.  acer  for  the  masculine,  acris  for  the  femi- 
nine ;  but  aciis  is  sometimes  used  even  for  the  masculine. 

129  If  the  crude  form  end  in  &ri,  the  e  is  often  dropped  in  those  cases 
which  do  not  end  in  er :  as,  linteri-  wherry,  G.  lintrls. 

130  N.  and  V. — If  the  crude  form  ends  in  li,  the  letters  which  should 
follow  I  in  the  N.  and  V.  are  sometimes  dropped  :  as,  vlglli-  a  night- 
sentinel,  N.  and  V.  vigil.     This  word  is  in  origin  an  adjective. 

131  N.  V.  Ac. — If  the  crude  form  of  a  neuter  substantive  end  in 
dri  or  dli,  the  N".  V.  Ac.  generally  drop  the  final  8  and  shorten  the 
a :  as,  calcari-  spur,  N.  V.  Ac.  calcar.     These  words  are  in  origin 
neuter  adjectives. 

132  N.  and  Ac.— Three  pronouns  form  the  neut.  sing.  N.  and  Ac. 
in  d :  qui-  quid  ;  i-  Id  ;  ali-  alld. 

133  Ac. — Some  few  substantives  are  found  only  with  the  Ac.  in 
im  :  as,  vi-m  force,  siti-m  thirst ;  but  em  is  in  more  general  use. 
With  adjectives  em  alone  is  found,  as  from  leni-  smooth,  Ac.  nuisc. 
and  fern,  lenem. 

134  Ac. — Greek  words  often  form  the  accusative  in  n  :  as,  P&ri- 
Paris,  N.  Paris,  Ac.  Farm. 

135  G. — Greek  words  sometimes  form  the  gen.  in  os  :  as,  m&thesi- 
knowledge,  G.  mS-theseos. 

136  Ab  —Neuter  substantives  (with   the   exception   of  names  of 
towns)  and  also  adjectives  of  all  genders  prefer  the  ablative  in  I : 


VOWEL  DECLENSIONS. 


19 


as,  mari-  sea.,  Ab.  mSri  ;*  leni-  smooth,  Ab.  lenl.  But  adjectives 
used  as  masc.  or  fern,  substantives  admit  the  Ab.  in  £  .-  as  affini- 
a  relative  by  marriage,  Ab.  affinS.  Participles  in  enti-  when  used 
as  substantives,  and  also  in  the  construction  called  the  ablative 
absolute  (§  1013),  require  the  form  in  e. 
136. 1  Ac.  pi. — A  form  in  eis  (=ls)  also  occurs  in  inscriptions. 

137  G.  pi. — Some  nouns  drop  the  i  in  the  G.  pi.  :  as,  cani-  dog, 
3\WQm- young  man,  celeri-  quick ;  G.  pi.  canum,  juvenum,  celgrum. 
This  is  often  the  case  in  poetry  :  as,  agresti-  of  the  country,  G.  pi. 
agrestiuin,  or  in  poetry  agrestum  ;  and  generally  with  those  adjec- 
tives which  have  no  neuter  plural :  as,  Inop-  helpless,  G.  pi.  inopum. 

138  G.  pi. — Greek  words  sometimes  form  the  G.  pi.  in  on  :  as, 
metamorphosi-  change  of  form,  N.  sing,  metamorphosis,   G.  pi. 
mgtamorphoseon. 

139  G.  pi.— Plural  names  of  festivals  often  form  the  G.  pi.  as  if  from 
a  C.F.  in  io :  as,  Baccanali-  of  Bacchus,  N.  pi.  BaccanaliS,,  G.  pi. 
Baccanalium  or  Baccanaliorum. 


139.1 


IRREGULAR  /  DECLENSION. 


Lat.  C.F. 
Gender. 
English. 

Lintgri- 
•  fern. 
wherry. 

Vigili- 
masc. 
a  night- 
sentinel. 

Affini- 
mas.  or  fern. 
relative  by 
marriage. 

Animali- 
neut. 
living  being. 

Calcari- 
neut. 
spur. 

Sing. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
AcCj 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

lintSr 
linter 
lintrem 
lintris 
lintri 
lintri  or 
lintre 

uigil 

Ulgll 

uigilem 

UlglllS 
Ulglll 

uigili  or 
uigile 

affmis 
affinis 
afFmem 
affinis 
affini 
affmi  or 
affme 

animal 
animal 
animal 
animalis 
animali 
animall  or 
animale 

calcar 
calcar 
calcar 
calcaris 
calcari 
calcari  or 
calcare 

Plural. 
Nom. 
Voc. 
Ace. 

Gen. 
Dat. 
Abl. 

lintres 
lintres 
lintris  or 
lintres 
lintrium 
lintribiis 
lintribus 

uigil  es 
uigiles 
uigilis  or 
uigiles 
uigilumf 
uigilibus 
uigilibus 

afflnes 
affmes 
affinis  or 
affines 
affmium 
affinibus 
affinibus 

animalia 
animalia 
animalia 

animalium 
animalibus 
animalibus 

calcaria 
calcariS 
calcaria 

calcarium 
calcaribus 
calcaribus 

*  But  mare  as  an  abl.  occurs  in  poetry  after  prepositions :  as,  e  mare 
Lucr.  i.  162,  demure Qv.  Trist.  v.  2.  20. 

f  Observe  the  omission  of  the  i  before  the  u. 


20  VOWEL  DECLENSIONS. 


Remarks  on  the  Fourth,  or  U  Declension. 

140  Two  monosyllabic  nouns,  su-  a  boar  or  sow,  gni-  a  crane,  are 
not  contracted  like  the  longer  nouns  of  this  declension,  and  are 
therefore  declined  as  in  the  consonant  declension ;  but  su-  has 
both  sub  us  and  suibus  in  the  D.  and  Ab.  pi. 

141  Many  crude  forms  in  u  coexist  with  crude  forms  in  o :  as,  lauro- 
or  lauru-  laurel.     Hence  the  genitives  Senati,  tiimulti,  &c.  as  well 
as  Sgnatus,  tumultus,  <fec.  are  found.     See  §  148.1. 

142  G. — From  §,nu-  an  old  woman  the  uncontracted  Gen.  anuls  is 
used. 

143  G.  pi.— One  u  is  sometimes  omitted  in  the  G.  pi.  :  as,  curru- 
chariot,  G.  pi.  curruum,  or  in  poetry  currum. 

144  D.  and  Ab.  pi. — Many  words  change  the  penult  u  into  i :  as, 
cornu-  horn,  D.  and  Ab.  pi.  cornlbiis. 


Remarks  on  the  Fifth,  or  E  Declension. 

145  Many  crude  forms  in  e  coexist  with  crude  forms  in  a :  as, 
matgria-  or  materie-  timber.     See  §  148. 1. 

146  G.— Old  forms  of  the  genitive,  such  as  dies  and  dil  from  die- 
day,  are  found. 

147  G.  and  D. — The  penult  e  in  the  G.  and  D.  was  originally  long 
in  all  the  nouns  of  this  declension  ;  but  if  no  i  precede,  it  is  consi- 
dered to  be  short  in  prose  :  as,  from  fide- faith,  G.  and  D.  fldel ; 
but  from  die-  day,  G.  and  D.  die!. 

148  Few  nouns  in  e  have  a  plural,  and  still  fewer  a  G.  D.  and 
Ab.    L 


148.1 


MIXED  DECLENSIONS. 


21 


Consonant  and  i. 

t  and  e. 

Ltitin. 

urb-  or 

part-  or 

nubi- 

torqui-  or 

urbi-,  /. 

parti-,  / 

or  nube-,/. 

torque-,m-or/. 

English. 

city. 

part. 

cloud. 

twisted  chain. 

Sing. 

Nom. 

urbs 

pars 

nubes  or 

torques  or 

nubis 

torquis 

Voc. 

urbs 

pars 

nubes 

torques 

Ace. 

urbem 

partem* 

nubem 

torquem 

Gen. 

urbis 

partis 

nubis 

torquJs 

Dat. 

urbi 

parti 

nubi 

torqui 

AU. 

urbe 

part§ 

nubS 

torque7 

Plural. 

Nom. 

urbes 

partes 

nubes 

torques 

Voc. 

urbes 

partes 

nubes 

torques 

Ace. 

urbis  or 

partis  or 

nubis  or 

torquis  or 

urbes 

partes 

nubes 

torques 

Gen. 

urbium 

partium 

nubium 

torquium 

Dat. 

urbibus 

partibus 

nubibus 

torquibiis 

AU. 

urbibiis 

partibus 

nubibus 

torquibus 

Latin. 
English. 

e  and  a. 

a  and  o. 

o  and  u. 

materia-  or  materie-,/ 
timber. 

b5no-  or  bona- 
good. 

f  Ico-  or  ficu-,  /. 
fig-tree. 

Sing. 

Nom. 

mate'ries  or  materia 

ficus 

Vnr 

Acc. 

matSriem  or  materiam 

flcum 

Gen. 

-fX    ' 

Ul 

f  ici  or  f  Icus 

XllciuCl  Id" 

T)nt 

Abl. 

materie  or    materia 

<D* 

f  Ico  or  f  Icu 

O 

Plural. 

0> 

Nom. 

f 

f  Ici  or  f  Icus 

Voc. 

9 

to 



Acc. 

*a 

r^ 

flcos  or  f  Icus 

Gen. 

1 

f  Icoruni  or  f  Icuum 

Dat. 

F 

ficis  or  f  Icubus 

AU. 

ficis  or  f  Icubus 

*  Rarely  partim  unless  used  adverbially. 


DEFECTIVE  AND  IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 

149        Some  nouns  are  not  declined  :  as,  nihll  nothing,  Us  permitted 
by  Heaven,  nequam  good  for  nothing,  quSt  how  many,  tot  so  many, 
many  numerals.     See  Numerals,  §  252.     Substantives  unde- 
1       Jd  are  seldom  used  except  as  nominatives  or  accusatives. 

Some  want  the  plural  :  as,  senectut-  old  age,  ver-  n.  spring, 
superbia-^rwfe,  prole-  offspring,  auro-  n.  gold,  oleo-  n.  oil. 

Some  want  the  singular  :  as,  tensbra-,  N.  pi.  tgn§-brae  dark- 
ness; castro-  «.,  N.  pi.  castrammp;  anno-  n.,  N.  pi.  armS,  arms  • 
Puteolo-,  N.  pi.  Puteoll  Little  wells,  the  name  of  a  town. 
152  ^     Some  have  both  singular  and  plural,  but  with  different  mean- 
ings :  as, 


SING-  PLUR. 


.  . 

aedi-  or  aede-  a  room  or  temple,  aedes       a  house. 

Squa-  water,  squae      medicinal  springs. 

auxKlio-rc.       help,  auxtlia    allied  troops. 

abundance,  copiae     military  forces. 

end>  fines        boundaries,  territory. 

fortune,  fortunae  property. 

gratia-  favour,  gratiae     thanks. 

a  letter  of  the  alphabet,    llterae      a  letter  w  epistle. 

work,  assistance,  Spgrae     labourers  or  Aired  «ie». 

153  Some  nouns  are  deficient  in  one  or  more  cases  :  thus,  vie-  turn 
has  no  N.  or  D.  sing.  ;  6p-  help  has  no  nominative. 

154  Some  nouns  form  their  cases  partly  from  one  crude  form,  partly 
from  another.      Thus,  volgoV  n.  mob  supplies  a  N.  V.  Ac.  sing 
volgus,  and  volgo-  n.  the  G.  volgl,  D.  and  Ab.  volgo  ;  Jter-  n.  route 
supplies  a  N.  V.  Ac.  sing,  iter,  and  Itmer-  n.  the  other  cases  ; 
praeclp-  head-foremost  supplies  praeceps  for  the  N.  and  V.  sing,  of 
all  genders  and  the  Ac.  neut.  sing.,  the  other  cases  being  formed 
from  praeclplt-  ;  vas-  n.  a  vessel  is  declined  in  the  singular  along 
with  vaso-  n.  in  the  plural. 

155  Some  nouns  have  one  gender  in  the  singular,  another  in  the 
plural.     Thus, 

die-      day        is  m.  or/,  in  the  singular,  but  m.  in  the  plural 
caelo-  air,  sky  is  n.          „          „          „          m, 
freno-  bridle     is  n.          „          „          „  ^  or  ^ 

rastro-rofc       is  n.         „         „         j?          ^  op  n> 
iSco-    joke        ism.         „          „          ?>          w>  or  ^       ^ 
Wco-    place     ism.         „         „  ^  or  ^ 


DEFECTIVE  AND  IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 

156  Some  adjectives  are  deficient  in  gender.     Thus,  memor-  mind- 
ful pauper-  earning -little,  have  no  neuter ;  victrlci-  or  victrlc-  victo- 
rious is  only  fern,  in  the  sing.,  only  fern,  or  neut.  m  the  plur. 

Some  Irregular  Nouns  declined. 

157  B5u-  ox  or  cow,  N.  V.  bos,  Ac.  bouem,  G.  White,  D.  Wul,  Ab  bSue. 

PL  N.  V.  Ac.  bSues,  G.  bSuum  or  bourn,  D.  and  Ab.  bob 

158  Veo*God,  N.  V.  Deiis,  Ac.  Deum,  G.  Dei,  D.  Ab.  Deo.    PI.  N.  V. 

Del,  'Dii,  more  commonly  Dl,  Ac.  Deos,  G.  Deorum  or  I  eum, 
D  Ab.  Dels,  Dils,  more  commonly  Dis. 

159  Domo-  or  domu-/.,  house,  N.  V.  domiis,  Ac.  domum,  G.  domus, 

D  domul,  domo,  with  doml  at  home,  Ab.  d6mu  or  domo.  PL 
N.  V.  domus,  Ac.  dSmus  or  d6mos,  G.  domuum  or  domorum, 
D.  Ab.  domlbiis. 

160  lou-plter-  (=  pater-)  Jupiter,  N.  V.  lupplter  or  lupiter,  Ac.  I5uem, 

G.  ISuis,  D.  ISul,  Ab.  louS. 

161  lus-iurando-  *.,  oath  (really  two  words),  N.  V.  Ac.  msmrandum, 

G  iurisiurandi,  D.  iurliurando,  Ab.  iurgiurando. 

162  Nig-  or  nlu-  snow,  N.  V.  nix,  Ac.  nluem,  G.  nluis,  D.  nXui,  Abl. 

niue.     PI.  N.  Ac.  nlues,  Ab.  nluibfis. 

163  Re-Publica-  commonwealth  (really  two  words),  N.  V.  res-publlca, 

Ac.  rem-publicam,  G.  D.  rel-publicae,  Ab.  re-publica.     PL  Ac. 
res-publicas,  G.  rerum-publlcarum,  Ab.  rebus-publlcis. 

164  S6nec-  or  sen-  an  old  man,  N.  V.  senex,  Ac.  senem,  G.  sgnls,  D. 

sem  Ab.  s6n6.    PL  N.  V.  Ac.  senes,  G.  sgnum,  D.  Ab.  senibus. 

165  Vlsi-  uis-  or  m- force,  N.  V.  uls,  Ac.  uim,  G.  uls,  D.  Ab.  ul.     PL 

N.  V.  Ac.  uires,  G.  ulrium,  D.  Ab.  uiribus. 

Some  Foreign  Proper  Names  declined. 

166  Aima-  Aenea-  Aeneas,  N.  Aeneas,  V.  Aenea,  Ac.  Aenean  or  -am, 

G.  D.  Aeneae,  Ab.  Aenea. 

167  Avyto-a-  or  -r  Anchlsa-  or  Anchlse-  Anchises,  N.  Anchlses,  V.  An- 

chlse  or  -a,  Ac.  Anchisen  or  -am,  G.  D.  Anchlsae,  Ab.  Anchlsg 

168  Op°^-  Oreste-  or  -to-  Orestes,  N.  Orestes,  V.  Orest&,  Ac.  Oresten 

or  -em,  G.  D.  Orestae,  Ab.  Oreste. 

169  M«*rtpo-  Menandgro-  Menander,  N.  Mgnandros  or  -drus  or  -dgr, 


DEFECTIVE  AND  IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 

V.  Menandrg  or  -dgr,  Ac.  Mgnandrifn  or  -drum,  G.  Mgnandrtt 
or  -drl,  D.  Ab.  Menandro. 

170  UavBoo-  Panthoo-  Panthus,  K  Panthus,  V.  Panthu,  Ac.  Panthun 

or  Panthum,  G.  Panthi,  D.  Ab.  Pantho. 

171  A0co-  Atho-  or  Athon-  (and  perhaps  Ath5-)  Mount  Athos,  N.  Athos, 

Ac.  Athon  Atho  Athonem  (and  perhaps  AthSn),  G.  D.  Atho, 
Ab.  Atho  or  Athong. 

172  AfiSoi-  Didoi-  Dido,  N.  V.  Ac.  Dido,  G.  Dldus,  D.  Ab.  Dido.    Also 

from  Dldon-  N.  V.  Dido,  Ac.  Dldonem,  &c. 

173  Koo>-  or  K<a-  Coo-  the  island  Cos,  N.  Cos,  Ac.  Coon  or  Con,  G.  Col 

or  Co,  D.  Ab.  Coo  or  Co. 

174  Uapi-  or  Uaptd-  PSri-  or  Parfd-  Paris,  K  Paris,  V.  PSris  or  Parl, 

Ac.  Parim  or  -In,  Paridem  or  -d&,  G.  Paridos  or  -dis,  D.  Paridl 
or  -dX,  Ab.  PSrldg. 

175  A^tAXe/-  Achilleu-  or  -le-  Achilles,  N.  Achilles,  V.  Achille,  Ac. 

Achillen  or  -Ian  or  -lem,  G.  AchilleSs  -lei  -Us  and  in  the  best 
prose  Achilll,  D.  Achillel  or  -lei  or  -ll,  Ab.  Achille. 

176  0P06f-  Orpheu-  or  Orpheo-  Orpheus,  N.  Orpheus,  V.  Orpheu,  Ac. 

OrpheS,  or  -eum,  G.  Orpheos  or  -el  or  -ei  or  -1,  D.  Orphel  or  -ei 
or  -eo,  Ab.  Orpheo. 

177  iXiovef-  Ili5ngu-  Jlioneus,  N.  Ilioneus,  V.  Ilioneu,  Ac.  Ilionea,  G. 

Ili8ne5s  or  Ilionei,  D.  Ilionel  or  -ei  or  -eo,  Ab.  IliSneo. 

178  Uepo-ef-  Persgu-  or  Perse-  Perseus,  like  OrphSu-  :  but  also  N. 

Perses,  V.  Perse,  Ac.  Persen,  G.  D.  Persae,  Ab.  Perse  or  -sa. 

179  2aKpaT€or-  Socrates-  or  Socr&te-  Socrates,  N.  SocrStes,  V.  Socrates  or 

-tes  or  -te,  Ac.  Socraten  or  -tern,  G.  Socratls  or  rather  Socratl. 
D.  Socratl,  Ab.  SocrSte. 

180  UepiKXeeo-  Pgrlcle-  Pericles,  N.  Pgrlcles,  V.  Pericles  or  -cle,  Ac. 

Pgrlclea  or  -clem,  G.  Perlclis  or  rather  PgrXcli,  D.  Pgrlcll,  Ab. 
Pgrlcle. 

181  Ba^T-  Th&let-  or  Th^lg-  Tholes,  N.  ThSles,  V.  Thales  or  -le,  Ac. 

Thaleta"  or  -tern,  Thalen  or  -em,  G.  Thaletls  Thails  or  -ll,  D. 
Thaletl  or  Th&li,  Ab.  ThSletg  or  Thaie. 

182  A™-  Aty-  Atys,  N.  Atys,  V.  Aty,  Ac.  Atyn  or  Atym,  G.  AtySs  or 

Atyls  or  Atys,  D.  Atyl  or  Aty,  Ab.  Atyg  or  Aty. 


GENDER. 

183  It  has  been  already  stated  that  there  are  two  genders,  mascu- 
line and  feminine,  and  that  those  nouns  which  are  of  no  gender 
are  called  neuter. 

184  The  gender  may  be  determined  partly  by  the  meaning,  partly 
by  the  suffix  or  termination. 


Gender  determined  by  Meaning. 

185  Males,  months,*  winds,  and  rivers,  are  generally  masculine. 

186  Females,  countries,*  islands,*  and  trees,  are  generally  femi- 
nine. 

187  Nouns  undeclined,  as  fas  right,  ngfas  wrong,  gummi  gum;  words 
belonging  to  the  other  parts  of  speech  used  for  the  time  as  substan- 
tives, as  hoc  ipsum  *  diu'  this  very  word  f  diu1 ;  sentences  used  as 
substantives ;  and  the  produce  of  trees,  are  generally  neuter. 

188  Many  substantives  denote  both  the  male  and  female,  and  are 
therefore  called  common  :  as,  sacerdot-  priest  or  priestess.     These 
are  for  the  most  part  really  adjectives. 

189  Sometimes  there  are  two  different  words  or  two  different  ter- 
minations, one  for  the  male,  the  other  for  the  female  :  as,  tauro- 
butt,  vacca-  cow  ;  equo-  horse,  equa-  mare. 

190  At  other  times  the  natural  gender  of  animals  is  forgotten  for  a 
fanciful  gender.     Thus,  the  words  uolpe-  fox,  cani-  or  c&ne-  dog, 
Sn^t-  duck,  are  generally  considered  to  be  feminine.     On  the  con- 
trary, ansSr-  goose,  IgpSs-  hare,  are  masculine.     Those  words  which 
under  one  grammatical  gender  are  applied  to  both  male  and  female 
are  called  epicenes.     If  the  real  gender  must  be  noticed,  the  words 
mS,s-  male,  and  femlna-/<?mafc,  are  added. 

*  The  names  for  the  months  are  really  adjectives  agreeing  with  the 
masculine  noun,  mensi-  '  month,'  understood.  The  names  of  countries  and 
islands  are  also  often  adjectives  agreeing  with  the  feminine  nouns,  terra- 
4  land,'  and  insula-  '  island.'  So  the  names  of  ships  (naui-  understood) 
and  plays  (fabula-  understood)  are  treated  as  feminines. 


Gender  determined  by  Suffixes. 

MASCULINE  SUFFIXES. 

191        The  following  suffixes  produce  masculine  nouns, 
arranged  alphabetically  according  to  their  last  letters. 


They  are 


Suffix 

Added 
to 

Gives  a 

subst. 
meaning 

Thus 
from 

English 

Is  derived 

English 

a* 

verbs 

a  person 

incol- 

inhabit 

incol-a- 

inhabitant. 

ta 



a  person 

naui- 

ship 

naiu-ta- 

sailor. 

1C 





uort- 

turn 

uort-ic- 

eddy. 

on 

subst. 

man 

naso- 

nose 

Nas-on- 

Big-nose. 

on 

verbs 

man 

bib- 

drink 

bib-on- 

tippler. 

on 

verbs 



turba- 

whirl 

turb-6n- 

whirlwind. 

of 

verbs 

act 

liid- 

play 

lud-o- 

play. 

iof 

verbs 



flu- 

flow 

fluu-io- 

river. 

Blot 

verbs 

little 

tum-e- 

swell 

tum-ulo- 

mound. 

tilof 

nouns 

little 

foco- 

fire 

foc-ulo- 

a  little  fire. 

culof 

nouns 

little 

frater- 

brother 

f  rater-  ciilo- 

little  brother. 

inof 



little 





as-ino- 

ass. 

v> 

lltflo 

\j             v/ 

» 

crO 

terof 

verbs 

in  tic 
means 

col- 

cnt^  dig 

nurn-cro™ 
cul-tero- 

11  it  Tnoer  • 
ploughshare. 

tot 

verbs 

one  —  ed 

lega- 

depute 

lega-to- 

deputy. 

or 

verbs 

state 

time- 

fear 

tim-6r- 

fear. 

tor 

verbs 

man 

ara- 

plough 

ara-tor- 

ploughman. 

tor 

subst. 

man 

ianua- 

gate 

iam-tor- 

gatekeeper. 

tu§ 

verbs 

—ing 

audi- 

hear 

audi-tu- 

hearing. 

192        It  would  be  a  useful  exercise  to  collect  examples  of  each  suffix. 
Thus,  for  the  suffix  a,  from  verbs,  denoting  a  person  : 

conulu-a-    a  messmate  or  guest,  from  c8n  together  and  uiu-  live. 


adugn-a-      a  stranger, 
scrib-a-       a  secretary, 
parrlcld-a-  a  parricide, 
transfug-a-  a  deserter, 
caellc&l-a-   heaven-inhabiting, 
ignlggn-a-  fire-lorn. 


M  to  and  ugn-  come. 
scrlb-  write. 

pS,ter-  father  and  caed-  slay. 
trans  across  and  fug-  fly. 
caelo-  sky  and  c61-  inhabit. 
igni-_/?r£  and  g§n-  produce. 


*  Words  of  this  class  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  common,  but  the 
masculine  is  generally  meant. 
f  See  the  neuter  suffixes. 
J  These  are  really  masculine  participles. 
§  These  are  often  called  supines. 


GEXDER. 


27 


193 


FEMININE  SUFFIXES. 


Suffix 

Added- 
to 

Gives  a 

subst. 
meaning 

Thus 
from 

English 

Is  derived 

English 

a 

verbs 

act 

fag- 

fly 

fug-a- 

flight. 

a 

male 

female 

hospit- 

stranger 

hospit-a- 

female  stranger. 

ia 

subst. 

collective 

famulo- 

slave 

famil-ia- 

family.* 

ia 

people 

a  country 

Gallo- 

a  Gaul 

Gall-ia- 

Gallia. 

ia 

adj. 

quality 

misero- 

wretched 

miser-ia- 

wretchedness. 

itia|| 

adj. 

quality 

amlco- 

friendly 

amic-itia- 

friendship. 

ela 

verbs 

act 

quer-(r.) 

complain 

quer-ela- 

complaint. 

ela 

subst. 

state 

client- 

vassal 

client-ela- 

vassalage. 

tela 

verbs 

act 

tue-  (r.) 

protect 

tu-tela- 

protection. 

iila 

nouns 

little 

anima- 

breath 

ani:n-ula- 

little  breath. 

cula 

nouns 

little 

soror- 

sister 

soror-cula- 

little  sister. 

ma 

verbs 

act 

fa- 

speak 

fa-ma- 

report. 

ma 





pate- 

be  spread 

pat-ina- 

dish. 

ina 

male 

female 

reg- 

king 

reg-Ina- 

queen. 

Ina 

verbs 

act 

ru- 

rush 

ru-Ina- 

downfall 

bra 

verbs 



late- 

lie  hid 

latg-  bra- 

hiding  -place. 

era 



. 

pate- 

bespread 

pat-  era- 

bowl. 

iira 

verbs 

act 

hg- 

model 

fig-ura- 

shape. 

turaf 

verbs 

act 

p'g- 

paint 

pic-tura- 

painting. 

ta 

verbs 

act 

UlU- 

live 

ui-ta- 

life. 

ta 

adj. 

quality 

iuueni- 

young 

iuuen-ta- 

youth. 

Ici 

-torf 

female 

uic-tor- 

conqueror 

uictr-ici- 

conqueress. 

e 

verbs 

act 

fid- 

trust 

fid-e- 

faith. 

itie 

adj. 

quality 

tristi- 

sad 

trist-itie- 

sadness. 

ti 

verbs 

act 

mor-  (r.) 

die 

mor-ti- 

death. 

don  || 

verbs 

quality 

dulce- 

be  sweet 

dulce-don- 

sweetness. 

gon|| 

verbs 

act 

ori-  (r.) 

rise 

ori-gon- 

origin. 

tudon 

adj. 

quality 

longo- 

long 

longi-tudon- 

length. 

ion§ 

verbs 

act 

opina-(r.)  fancy 

opln-ion- 

opinion. 

tion 

verbs 

act 

dic- 

speak 

dic-tion- 

speaking. 

tat|| 

nouns 

quality 

ciui- 

citizen 

cim-tat- 

citizenship. 

tut 

nouns 

quality 

seruo- 

slave 

serui-tut- 

slavery. 

*  Literally,  *  a  slave- gang.' 

+  Perhaps  more  immediately  from   nouns  in  tor,  as   from  pictdr- 
painter,'  pictura-  '  painting.' 

J  i.  e.  a  substantive  in  tor.  \\  See  Appendix  II. 

§   But  -ion  as  a  suffix  of  material  objects  is  masculine,  as : 


ion  I  verbs 
—      subst. 


little 
little 


pug- 
caballo- 


pierce 
horse 


pug-ion-       I  dagger 
caball-ion-  |  hippocampus 


28 


GENDER. 


194 


NEUTEK  SUFFIXES. 


Suffix 

Added 
to 

Gives  a 

subst. 
meaning 

Thus 
from 

English 

Is  derived 

English 

li* 

subst 



anima- 

life 

anima-li- 

animal. 

ri* 

subst. 



pulumo- 

cushion 

puluina-ri- 

shrine. 

en 

verbs 



ungu- 

anoint 

ungu-en- 

ointment. 

men  If 

verbs 

instrument 

teg- 

cover 

;eg-men- 

covering. 

0 

verbs 



iug- 

yoke 

mg-o- 

yoke. 

io 

verbs 

act,  &c 

gaude- 

rejoice 

gaud-io- 

joy- 

itio 

nouns 



seruo- 

slave 

seru-itio- 

slavery. 

iilo 

verbs 

nstrument 

iac- 

throw 

iac-ulo- 

dart. 

iilo 

nouns 

little 

paulo- 

a  little 

paul-ulo- 

a  very  little. 

bulof 

verbs 

instrument 

uena- 

hunt 

uena-biilo- 

hunting-spear 

bttlof 

subst. 

instrument 

tus- 

incense 

turi-bulo- 

censer. 

cfiloj 

verbs 

instrument 

ueh- 

carry 

uehi-culo- 

carriage. 

culo 

nouns 

little 

opes- 

work 

opus-culo- 

a  little  work. 

ino 





reg- 

king 

reg-no- 

royal  power. 

e"ro 

verbs 

instrument 

scalp- 

scratch 

scalp-ro- 

graving-tool. 

b'rof 

verbs 

instrument 

cer- 

sift 

cri-bro- 

sieve. 

c'rof 

verbs 

instrument 

sepel- 

bury 

sepul-cro- 

burial-place. 

t'ro 

verbs 

instrument 

rad- 

scrape 

ras-tro- 

rake. 

to 

verbs 

thing  done 

lega- 

leave 

lega-to- 

legacy. 

to 

trees 

collective 

arbos- 

tree 

arbus-to- 

vineyard. 

eto|| 

trees 

collective 

quercu- 

oak 

querc-eto- 

oak-grove. 

ento 

verbs 



ungu- 

anoint 

ungu-ento- 

ointment. 

mento 

verbs 

instrument 

orna- 

equip 

orna-mento- 

equipment. 

8r§ 

verbs 



it-  or  i- 

90 

Tt-er- 

route. 

iner 

verbs 



it-  or  i- 

go 

it-iner- 

route. 

ttr 

verbs 



fulg- 

shine 

fulg-iir- 

lightning. 

es 

verbs 



gen- 

produce 

ggn-es- 

race,  birth. 

OS 

verbs 



fng-e- 

be  cold 

fiig-os- 

cold. 

inos 

verbs 



fac- 

do 

fac-mos- 

deed. 

195        The  tables  of  suffixes  here  given  are  far  from  sufficient  to  de- 
termine the  gender  of  all  words.     Indeed,  some  of  the  suffixes 

*  These  are  really  neuter  adjectives,  and  the  two  suffixes  are  closely 
related  ;  pululndri-  being  preferred  to  pululnali-  because  the  word  has 
already  got  an  /. 

f  bulo  and  Vro  are  probably  the  same  suffix,  the  latter  being  pre- 
ferred after  a  preceding  /.  See  Appendix  II. 

J  The  same  may  be  said  of  culo  and  cVo,  and  perhaps  fro. 

§  But  es,  as,  as,  us,  together  with  er,  ur,  or,  ur  and  «/,  are  mere  varie- 
ties of  the  same  suffix.  So  also  tner,  Inos,  mor,  &c.  are  of  one  origin. 
Compare  the  last  three  with  the  Greek  rffj.fi/ea--  '  sacred  ground.' 

||  More  strictly  eclo,  the  first  syllable  of  which  is  the  diminutival  ec, 
see  §  207.  1.  Indeed  the  form  ecto  is  preserved  in  ulrecto-  n.,  cdrecto-  n. 

H  See  Appendix  II. 


GENDER.  29 

will  bs  found  common  to  the  masculine  and  neuter  tables  :  as,  o, 
io,  ulo,  Ino,  ero,  tSro,  to. 

193. 1    Suffixes  which  denote  an  abstract  quality  or  act  are  at  times 
used  in  the  sense  of  collective  nouns,  as  from 

equita-  ride,  Squita-tu-  m.,  a  body  of  riders,  cavalry. 

Italo-  an  Italian,  Ital-ia-  the  body  of  Italians,  Italy. 

sequ-  (r.)  follow,  sec-ta-  a  body  of  followers,  a  school. 

ggn-  produce,  gen-ti-  or  gent-  a  race. 

multo-  many,  multl-tud5n-  a  multitude,  a  mob. 

18g-  choose,  ISg-ion-  picked  men,  a  legion. 

ciui-  citizen,  cml-tat-  a  body  of  citizens,  a  state. 

nobtii-  noble,  noblli-tat-  a  body  of  nobles,  a  nobility. 

iuueni-  young,  i  mien-tut-  a  body  of  young  men,  youth. 

consul-  consult,  cousil-io-  n.,  a  body  of  persons  consulting. 

196  It  will  be  observed  that  a  large  number  of  substantives  in  a 
are  feminine.     But  the  rule  is  far  from  universal ;  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  masculines :  Belga-  a  Belgian,  Sulla-  the  Roman  dictator, 
Matrona-  m.  the  river  Marne,  Hadria-  the  Hadriatic,  riauta-  sailor, 
incola-  inhabitant. 

197  The  nouns  in  i  occasion  much  trouble.    The  majority  are  femi- 
nine, but  the  exceptions  are  numerous.     These  may  perhaps  be 
remembered  by  the  following  acrostic  : 

M  asculml  gengris  crini- 
A  mni-*  axi-  funi-*  fini-* 
S  enti-*  denti-  calli-*  colli- 
C  auli-  fasci-  fusti-  folli- 
V  t'ri-  uent'ri-  uermi-  assi- 
L  eni-  posti-  torri-  cassi- 
I  gni-  imb'ri-  pisci-  ponti- 
N  atali-  uecti-  fonti-  monti- 
E  nsi-  mensi-  pani-*  orbi- 
S  angui-  angui-*  ungui-  corbi-. 


197. 1  Lat.  C.F.  Norn.  English, 

amni-  amnls  river 

angui-  anguis  snake 

assi-  as 


Lat.  C.F.  Norn.         English. 

axi-  or  axis  or  axle  or 

assi-  assls          pole 

calli-  callis  path 


*  Many  e'en  of  these,  as  fini-, 
Are  also  generis  femimni. 


30 


DIMINUTIVES. 


Lat.  C.F. 

Nom. 

English. 

Lat.  C.F. 

Nom. 

English. 

cassi-  (pi.) 

casses 

net 

mensi- 

mensis 

month 

cauli- 

caulis 

stalk 

monti- 

mons 

mountain 

colli- 

collls 

hill 

natali- 

natalls 

birthday 

corbi- 

corbis 

basket 

orbi- 

orbis 

round 

crlni- 

dims 

band  of  hair 

pani- 

panls 

loaf 

ensi- 

ensls 

sword 

pisci- 

piscis 

fish 

fosci- 

fascls 

bundle 

ponti- 

pons 

bridge 

fini- 

finis 

end 

posti- 

postis 

door-post 

folli-  (pi.) 

folles 

bellows 

saugui-f 

sanguis 

blood 

denti- 

dens 

tooth 

senti- 

sentis 

thorn 

fonti- 

fous 

spring 

torri- 

toriis 

brand 

funi- 

funis 

rope 

uecti- 

uectis 

pole 

fusti- 

fustis 

club 

uenteri- 

uenter 

belly 

igni- 

ignis 

fire 

uermi- 

uermis 

worm 

imbeYi- 

imber 

shower 

uiigui- 

unguls 

nail 

leni-* 

lenis 

wine-press 

uteri- 

ut6r 

skin. 

FORMATION  AND  GENDER  OF  DIMINUTIVES. 

198  Diminutives  denote  strictly  small  size,  but  are  also  used  to 
denote  sometimes  contempt,  sometimes  affection. 

198.1  The  gender  of  a  diminutive  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  noun 
from  which  it  is  formed  :  as,  fratgr-  m.  brother,  fraterculo-  m. 
little  brother  ;  corona-  f.  a  circular  wreath  or  chaplet,  corolla-  f.  a 
small  chaplet ;  corpSs-  n.  body,  corpusculo-  n.  a  small  body. 

]  99  Hence  the  gender  of  a  diminutive  will  often  assist  the  memory 
to  the  gender  of  the  primitive  or  word  from  which  it  is  derived. 
Thus  tuber-ciilo-  n.  a  little  lump  proves  that  tubSr-  lump  is  neuter. 

200  If  the  noun  be  of  the  first  or  second  declension,  that  is,  if  it 
end  in  a  or  o,  the  diminutive  ends  in  ula  or  ulo  (older  form  Sla, 
$lo).     Thus  from  Snlma-  breath  or  life,  dim.  Snlmiila-. 

201  If  the  letter  before  o  and  a  be  u,  e  or  i,  olo  and  tila  are  pre- 
ferred.    Thus  from  seruo-  slave,  linea-  line,  serudlo-,  llneola-  are 
derived. 

202  If  the  letter  before  a  and  o  be  an  r,  I,  or  n,  a  contraction  gene- 

*  Leni-  =  A7?»'o-,  whence  Lenaeus '  the  God  of  the  wine-press,  Bacchus.' 
t  Hence   nom.  sangws,  ace.  sangnem,  Inscr.  Or.   2270,  5054,  the 
diminutive  sangui-culo-  m.,  and  the  adj.  ex-sangui-  'bloodless.'     Other- 
wise sanguin-^  nom.  sanguis,  &c.  is  in  use. 


DIMINUTIVES.  31 

rally  takes  place  producing  a  termination  lla  or  llo.  Thus  from 
pugra-  girl,  foulo-  eye,  umo-  wine,  are  derived  (pugrela-)  puella- 
f.,  (ocelulo-)  flcello-  m.,  (uinulo-)  uillo-  n. 

203  If  the  letter  before  a  or  o  was  an  I,  and  that  I  was  itself  pre- 
ceded by  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong,  the  diminutive  ends  in  xilla 
or  xillo.     Thus  ala-  wing,  axilla-  armpit ;  mala-  jaw,  maxilla-  ; 
paulo-  n.  little,  pauxillo-  n.  ;  palo-  m.  stake,  paxillo-  m. ;  talo-  m. 
ancle,  taxillo-  m. ;  uelo-  n.  sail,  uexillo-  n.  flag.* 

204  If  the  noun  be  not  of  the  first  or  second  declension,  the  dimi- 
nutive generally  ends  in  cula  or  culo  (older  form  ctta,  celo).     Thus 
from  cani-  f.  dog,  fra-te'r-  m.  brother,  ggnu-  n.  knee,  spe-  f.  hope, 
are  derived  cS,nlcula-  f.,  fraterculo-  m.,  geniciilo.-  n.,  specula-  f. 

205  But  if  the  noun  end  in  c  or  g,  t  or  d,  the  form  ula  or  ulo  is 
generally  preferred.     Thus  from  cornlc-  f.  crow,  reg-  m.  king, 
c&put-  n.  head,  lapld-  in.  stone,  are  derived  cornlcula-  f.,  regulo- 
m.,  capltulo-  n.,  (lapldulo-  contracted  into)  lapillo-  m. 

206  If  the  noun  end  in  on  or  6n,  the  o  is  changed  into  u.    Thus 
from  hSmon-  man,  ration-  f.  account,  are  derived  hSmunciilo-  m., 
ratiuncula-  f. 

206. 1  If  the  noun  end  in  any  of  the  five  terminations  os,  or,  os,  6"r,  8s, 
this  syllable  becomes  us.  Thus  from  rumos-  or  rumor-  m.  report, 
arb5s-  or  arbor-  f.  tree,  opes-  n.  work,  are  derived  rumusciilo-  m., 
arbuscula-  f.,  opusculo-  n. 

207  These  rules  for  forming  diminutives  are  applicable  to  adjectives 
also  :  as,  pauper-  poor,  pauperculo- ;  mlsSro-  wretched,  misello- ; 
uno-  one,  ullo-  j  molli-  soft,  molliculo-  ;  paruo-  little,  paruolo- ; 
aureo-  golden,  aureSlo-. 

207. 1  Diminutives  are  also  formed  by  the  addition  of  suffixes  2c  or 
ic,  e  or  i,  and  w.f  Thus  from  sen-  an  old  man  (which  forms  ac. 
seYiem,  gen.  senis,  &c.)  comes  sen-ec-  a  little  old  man  (with  nom. 
s§nex). "  Many  of  these  diminutives  have  wholly  superseded  the 
primitives  whence  they  were  derived,  so  that  the  latter  have  dis- 
appeared :  as,  cul-go-  m.  gnat,  clm-ec-  m.  lug,  pul-gc-  m.flea,  sal-ic- 
f.  willow,  rad-lc-  f.  root,  torqu-i-  or  torqu-e-  f.  twisted  chain,  &p-i- 
f.  bee,  an-u-  f.  old  woman,  ac-u-  f.  needle,  rnan-u-  f.  hand,  gen-u-  n. 
knee. 

*  In  these  nouns  a  guttural  has  probably  been  lost  before  the  /.  Com  p. 
pauco-  'few,'  and  tela-  u  web'  from  tex-  '  weave.' 

f  These  suffixes  correspond  to  our  English  suffixes  ock ;  ie  or  ee ;  ew, 
ue,  and  ow :  as  seen  in  hillock,  bullock  ;  lassie,  knee,  tree  ;  shrew,  crew ; 
clue;  sparrow,  willow,  crow.  See  Phil.  Soc.  vol.  iii. 


32  DIMINUTIVES. 

207.  2  A  diminutival  suffix  leo  also  occurs.  Thus  from  Squo-  or  gco- 
horse,  8culeo-.  So  also  there  are  Sciileo-  m.  a  sting,  mal-leo  m. 
a  mallet.  Probably  deo  in  hordeo-  or  fordeo-  barley  is  virtually 
the  same  suffix,  added  to  the  root  far-  spelt. 

207. 3  Diminutives  may  be  formed  from  diminutives  :  as  cista-  a  box, 
cistula-  a  little  box  or  casket,  cistella-  a  little  casket,  cistelliila-  a 
very  little  casket.  So  from  Sculo-  an  eye  (itself  formed  from  an 
obsolete  5co-)*  come  tfcello-  a  little  eye,  and  Scelliilo-  a  dear  little 
eye. 

208  The  feminine  diminutives  in  io  declined  like  neuters,  as  Gly- 
cgrio-  N.  Gly  cerium,  from  Glycera-  /Sweet  one,  belong  to  the  Greek 
language. 

209  To  the  same  language  belong  the  masculine  diminutives  in  isco 
and  astfro  :  as,  Syrisco-  N.  Syrisciis  little  Syrus,  paiasltastgro-  a 


210       Many  adjectives  are  used  as  substantives,  the  real  substantive 
being  understood.     Thus : 

Medicina-,  arti-  art  understood,  the  art  of  healing. 
Arithmetlca-,  arti-  art  understood,  the  art  of  numbers. 
Medlcma-,  taberna-  shop  understood,  the  doctor's  shop. 
Agnlna-,  caron-^sA  understood,  lamb's  flesh,  lamb. 
Bellona-,  dea-  goddess  understood,  the  goddess  of  war. 
Africa-,  terra-  land  understood,  the  land  of  the  Afri. 
Annona-,  copia-  supply  understood,  the  year's  supply. 
CSrona-,  uitta-  fillet  understood,  circular  filet,  chaplet. 
Compgd-,  catena-  chain  understood,  foot-chain,  fetter. 
Monica-,  catena-  chain  understood,  hand-chain,  hand-cuff. 
Annali-,  llbgro-  book  understood,  year-book. 
Natali-,  die-  day  understood,  birth-day. 

De'cembgri-,  mensi-  month  understood,  the  tenth  month  (from 
March),  December. 

StStuario-  m.  (a  man)  of  statues,  a  sculptor. 
Praetorio-  n.  (the  place)  of  the  praetor,  the  general's  tent. 
Granario-  n.  (the  place)  for  grain,  granary. 
Oulli-  n.  (the  place)  for  sheep,  sheep-fold. 

210. 1    Such  compounds  in  io  as  trienn-io-  n.  (from  tri-  three,  anno- 
year)  a  space  of  three  years,  interlun-io-  n.  (from  intSr  between, 

*  Compare  OKK.O-  or  0000-  and  the  German  auge. 


ADJECTIVES. 


33 


lima-  moon)  the  time  when  no  moon  is 
neuter  adjectives. 


•,  are  probably  in  origin 


ADJECTIVES. 

211  Adjectives  are  declined  like  substantives. 

212  Adjectives  with  crude  forms  in  o  for  the  masculine  and  neuter, 
in  a  for  the  feminine,  are  often  called  adjectives  of  three  termina- 
tions. 


213 


Bono-  m.  and  n.,  b5na-  f.  good. 


'   Singular, 
Masc.       Fern. 


Neut. 


N.  bftnvis     b5na      bSnum 

F.  bo'nS      b5na      bSnum 
Ac.  b5num  bonam  bonum 

G.  b5m       bftnae    b(5ni 
D.    bftno      bonae    bono 
Ab.  b5no    .  bona      b5no 


Masc. 


Plural. 
Fern. 


Neut. 


N.  boni  bSnae  b5na 

F.  b5ni  bSnae  b5na 
Ac.  b5nos  bSnas  b5na 

G.  b5nomra  bSnarum  bSnorum 
D.    b5ms  bSnis  btfnis 
Ab.  b5ms  bSnis  bSnis 


214 


Atgro-  m.  and  n.,  atera-  f.  UacJc. 


Masc. 
N.    ater 

F.  ater 
Ac.  atrum 

G.  atri 
D.    atro 
Ab.  atro 


Singular. 

Fern.  Neut. 

atra  atrum 

atra  atrum 

atram  atrum 

atrae  atri 

atrae  atro 

atra  atro 


Plural. 

Masc.         Fern.          Neut. 

N.   atri          atrae  atra 

F.  atri          atrae  atra 
Ac.  atros        atras  atra 

G.  atrorum  atrarum  atrorum 
D.   atris         atris  atris 
Ab.  atris         atris  atris 


215 


Aspgro-  m.  and  n.,  aspgra-  f.  rough. 


Masc. 
aspgr 
F.  asper 


Singular. 

Fern. 
aspera 
aspera 


Neut. 
asperum 
aspSrum 


Ac.  asperum  asperam  aspSrum 
G.  aspeii      asperae  asp^ii 
D.  aspgro     asperae  aspSro 
^16.aspero     aspera    aspSro 

216       Adjectives  with  crude  form  in  i  are  often  called  adjectives  of 
two  terminations. 


Plural 

Fern. 

asperae 

asperae 

aspSras 

asperorum  asperarum  aspgrorum 
aspgris       aspeiis        aspSris 
ris       asperis       aspSris 


Masc. 
aspSri 
asperi 
ros 


Neut. 
asp8ra 
aspera 


ADJECTIVES. 


Singular. 

Masc.         Fern.  Neut. 

N.  tristis    tristis  tristS 

V.  tristis    tristis  tristS 
Ac.  tristem  tristem  tristS 

0.   tristis    tristis  tristis 

D.  tristi      tristi  tristi 

Ab.  tristi     tristi  tristi 


Tristi-  litter. 

Plural 

Masc.              Fern.  Neut 

N.  tristes           tristes  tristia 

F.  tristes          tristes  tristia 
Ac.  tristis  or  -es  tristis  or-es  tristia 

G.  tristium       tristiurn  tristium 
D.  tristibus       tristibus  tristibus 
Ab.  tristibus       tristibus  tristibus 


218  Aceri-  sharp 

Singular. 

Masc.             Fern.  Neut. 

N.  acSr  or  acris  acris  acre 

F.  acSr  or  acris  acris  acre 
Ac.  acrem           acrem  acrS 

G.  acris             acris  acris 
D.  acri               acri  acri 
Ab.  acri               acri  acri 


Plural. 

Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 

acres  acres  acria 

acres  acres  acria 

acris  or  acres  acris  or  -acres  acria 

acrium  acrium  acrium 

acribus  acribus  acribus 

acribus          acribus  acribus 


218.1 

Singular. 
Masc.          Fern. 
N.  cSlSr  or  celeris 


i-  quick. 


Neut. 
celere 


V.   cSleror  celeris     celere 


Ac.  celerem  celerem  cele're' 

G.   cele'ris  celeris  celeris 

D.  celerl  celerl  celerl 

Ab.  celeri  celerl  celerl 


Masc. 
cSlSres 


Plural. 
Fern. 

celSres 


Neut. 
ceieria 


F.  cgleres      celSres       cSleria 

Ac.  c8l§ris  or  cSleris  or  cSleria 
cSleres      cSlSres 

G.  celerum    celerum  celfirum 
D.    celeribus  celSribus  celSribus 
Ab.  cSleribus  cgleribus  celeribus 


219  Adjectives  with  one  crude  form  in  a  consonant,  and  another  in 
i9  form  the  singular  chiefly  from  the  former,  the  plural  from  the 
second  :  as, 

Praesenti-  or  praesent-  present. 

Singular. 

Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 

praesens  praesens  praesens 

praesens  praesens  praesens 

Ac.  praesentem  praesentem  praesens 

G.    praesentis  praesentis  praesentis 

D.    praesenti  praesenti  praesenti 

Ab.  praesenti  or  -t8         praesenti  or  -to        praesenti  or  -te 


N. 
V. 


ADJECTIVES. 


Plural. 
Masc. 
N.   praesentes 

F.  praesentes 

Ac.  praesentis  or  -tes 

G.  praesentium 
D.    praesentibus 
Ab.  praesentibiis 

219. 1  Nouns  in  tor  are  often  used  as  masculine  adjectives ;  nouns  in 
tnci  or  trie  as  feminine  adjectives,  and  also  in  the  plural  as  neuter 
adjectives. 


Fern. 
praesentes 
praesentes 
praesentis  or  -tes 
praesentium 
praesentibiis 
praesentibiis 

Neut. 
praesentia 
praeseutia 
praesentia 
praesentium 
praesentibus 
praesentibiis 

Victor-  and  u 
Singular. 
Masc.           Fern. 
N.  uictftr       uictrix 
F.   uictSr       uictrix 
Ac.  uictorem  uictrlcem 
G.   uictoris    uictricis 
D.   uictori      uictrlci 
Ab.  uictorg     uictrlcg 

Lctrlci-  or  uictric-  conquering. 
Plural. 
Mase.            Fern.               Neut. 
N.    uictores      uictrlces      uictricia" 
F.    uictores      uictrlces      uictricia 
Ac.  uictores      uictrlces      uictricia 
G.    uictorum    uictncium  uictricium 
D.    uictoribiis  uictricibus  uictricibus 
Ab.  uictoribus  uictricibus  uictricibus 

220  Adjectives  with  the  crude  form  in  a  consonant  are  sometimes 
called  adjectives  of  one  termination. 

221  VetSs-  old. 
Singular. 

Masc.         Fern.        Neut. 
N.  uSttis      uetus      uSttis 

F.  uetus      uStiis      uStus 
Ac.  uSterem  uStSrem  uStiis 

G.  ugtgris     ugtgris    ugteris 
D.  ugtgri      ugtgri      uSten 
Ab.  u§tSr§  or  ueterS  or  ugtere  or 


ugtSri      uetgri      ugteri 


Masc. 
ueteres 
ugtSres 
uetSres 
uStSrum 
uetSribus 
ugtgribiis 

Plural. 
Fern. 

ueteres 
ugtSres 
uetgres 
uSterum 
uetgribiis 
ugtSribus 

Neut. 
ugtSra 
uStgra 
ugtgrS, 
ugterum 
ugtgribiis 
ugtSribiis 

221.1 


Masc. 
N.-  dmgs 

F.  diuSs 
Ac.  diuitem 

G.  dmitis 
D.    dmiti 


Diuit-  rich. 
Singular. 

Fern. 
dmgs 
diugs 
diuitem 
dmitis 
dmiti 


Neut. 
diugs 
diugs 
diugs 
diuitis 
dmiti 


Ab.  dluite  or  dmiti    diuitg  or  dmiti     diuitg  or  diuiti 


3C 


ADJECTIVES. 


Masc. 

N.    dmites 
V.    dmites 
Ac.  dmites 
Gf.    dmitum 
D.    dmitibus 
Ab.  dmitibus 


Plural 
Fern. 
dilutes 
dmites 
dmites 
dmitum 
dmitibus 
dmitibus 


Neut. 
not  found. 

dmitum 
diuitibus 
dmitibus 


There  is  also  in  the  poets  a  contracted  form,  dit-  or  dlti- ; 
whence  N.  m.  f.  dls,  Ac.  m.  f.  ditem,  &c. ;  but  for  the  neuter  of 
the  N.  V.  Ac.  sing,  dlte,  plur.  dltiS. 


222 


Tristios-  or  tristior-  more  bitter. 


Masc. 

N.   tristiSr 
F.    tristiSr 
Ac.  tristiorem 
0.    tristioris 
D.   tristiori 
Ab.  tristiorg* 

Masc. 
JV.   tristiores 

F.  tristiores 
Ac.  tristiores 

G.  tristiorum 
D.    tristioribus 
Ab.  tristioribus 


Singular* 

Fern. 
tristitfr 
tristiSr 
tristiorem 
tristioris 
tristiori 
tristiorS* 

Plural. 
Fern. 

tristiores 
tristiores 
tristiores 
tristiorum 
tristioribus 
tristioribus 


Neut. 
tristiiis 
tristius 
tristiiis 
tristioris 
tristiori 
tristiore* 


Neut. 
tristiora 
tristiora 
tristiorS 
tristiorum 
tristioribus 
tristioribus 


223  Adjectives  whose  crude  form  ends  in  a  consonant  rarely  have 
a  neuter  plural. 

224  Some  adjectives  have  a  crude  form  in  i  as  well  as  that  in  o  or 
a:  as, 

yoked-two-together  or  Miugi- 

cheerful  „  hllari- 

weak  „  imbecilli- 

unarmed  ,,  inermi- 

unbridled  ,,  infreni- 

of  -one-mind 

*  Seldom  tristidrl. 


bliugo- 

hll&ro- 

imbScillo- 

mermo- 

infreno- 


SUFFIXES  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


37 


•|  -o      "£ 
S  ;g      e 

^"        - 


. 


. 


•i 


.So 


" 
'So^j      "So  2  S 


323 

6C  be  bO 
SC.S 
'5>*S>'S) 


iniilii  .ii  i 

Cco    .otuoo 


ill 

gajoo 


I 


33 


SUFFIXES  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


T 


5 


222  ^ 

bo  bo  bO  O 

.S    S  .S    °  I 

'Sa'Sb'S) , 


"0^0  *S      'Qfa-aJ +•  sP'Sag  I  "I 

o  §  §  -  s  '"i  JS  *3  *S  "I 

S  TS   P   H   B 


II 


t'a 
a 


o  xi  >a  O  a  3=  o  ^ 


SUFFIXES  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


39 


»      -2  85  £-2.2 
s  5 


:   .       ..  .   • 

li!lllli!i  fll  ^11  ti 

illltll  I  III  111  1  1  2  -si 


o, 


cr       A 


tt 


.  k» 

um  si.i  i  in 


. 


332     3333         3 

ll.l^.sl.s.s5      * 

*3a  So  fee  °  'SfSb'Bj  tb      o  'So  o 

§§§-S§§§§^^§^^^-S 

JSSI  12122  1'sS'sSS  1 


. 

S^.^U 

JX  ^ 


See  §  230. 
Contracted  into 
Of  cru-or-,  cru* 


Instead  ofpro-imo-. 
See  J3  231. 
These  are  called  part 
See  Appendix  11. 


40  ADJECTIVES. 

226  Of  these  suffixes  many  are  closely  connected:  as,  dc  and  oc  ; 
li,  ri,  and  rio  ;  llli  and  beri ;  estri  and  esti ;  nco,  luo,  uo9  and  io, 
from  verbs  j  oso  and  coso,  &c. 

227  In  adding  the  suffixes,  the  last  vowel  of  the  preceding  word 
must  not  be  neglected.      Thus,  with  the  suffix  Ino  or  no,  the 
following  derivatives  are  formed  : 

Roma-  Rome,          Roma-no-  of  Rome. 

porno-  apple,  &c. ,  Pomo-na-  (goddess)  of  fruit. 

mari-  sea,  marl-no-  of  the  sea. 

tribu-  tribe,  tribu-no-  (commander)  of  a  tribe,  tribune. 

ege-  (verb)  want,    ege-no-  in  want. 

228  Or,  with  a  slight  change  : 

diuo-  a  god,  (diuoino-)  diuino-  belonging  to  a  god. 

ulpe'ra-  a  viper,      (uiperaino-)  ulperlno-  belonging  to  a  viper. 

229  And,  lastly,  since  o  is  readily  interchanged  with  a  : 

Pompeio-  Pompey,  Pompeia-no-  belonging  to  Pompey. 

230  Now,  as  by  far  the  greater  number  of  Latin  nouns  end  in  a  or 
o,  and  the  latter  itself  is  often  changed  to  a,  the  result  was,  that 
of  the  adjectives  formed  with  the  suffix  ino  or  no,  a  large  majority 
were  found  to  end  in  ano.     Hence  ano  was  itself  mistaken  for  a 
suffix,  and  from  mont-  mountain  was  formed  montano-  belonging 
to  the  mountains,  &c. 

231  Again,  as  the  nouns  ending  in  o  or  a,  when  the  suffix  %no  is 
added,  often  suffer  a  contraction  so  as  to  form  adjectives  in  ino, 
and  as  the  same  termination  resulted  from  adding  the  same  suffix 
to  nouns  in  i,  the  consequence  was  that  Ino  was  mistaken  for  a 
suffix.     Hence  from  ansSr-  goose  was  formed  ansSrluo-  belonging 
to  a  goose,  &c. 

232  Similarly,  with  the  suffix  li,  or  after  a  preceding  I,  ri  are 
formed  : 

ancSra-  anchor,  aucora-li-  of  the  anchor. 

puella-  girl,  puella-ri-  girl-like. 

fliiuio-  river,  fluuia-li-  of  the  river. 

pflpiilo-  state,  p8pula-ri-  of  the  same  state. 

ciui-  citizen,  clul-li-  like  a  citizen. 

tribu-  tribe,  trlbu-li-  of  the  same  tribe. 

fide-  faith,  f  Ide-li-  faithful. 

233  Again,  of  adjectives  so  formed,  the  greater  number  will  be 


ADJECTIVES.  '     41 

found  to  end  in  dli  or  dri.  Hence  these  were  mistaken  for  suffixes ; 
and,  accordingly,  from  capita-  head,  uirgon-  maid,  reg-  king,  <fcc. 
were  formed  capiit-ali-,  uirgin-ali-,  reg-ali-. 

234  In  the  same  way  drio  was  supposed  to  be  a  suffix  in  place  of 
rio,  and  from  carbon-  coal  was  formed  carbon-ario-  coal-dealer. 

235  Adjectives  are  also  formed  as  follows  : — a.  By  prefixing  a  par- 
ticle to  a  substantive  :  as, 

from  In  not,  genti-  or  gent-  nature,   in-genti-  unnatural,  immense. 
,,     se  apart,  cord-  heart,  se-cord-  senseless. 

,,     se  apart,  cura-  care,  se-cu.ro-  unconcerned. 

,,     con  together,  muni-  share,          com-muni-  common. 

236  b.  By  prefixing  a  substantive  or  adjective  to  a  substantive :  as, 
from  c&pero-  goat,  ped-/0o£,  capii-ped-  aoat-footed. 

„     [quadr-]  four,  ped-foot,          qu.Mru-p$d- four-footed. 
„     centum  hundred,  m&im- hand,   centl-mano-  hundred-handed. 
„     magno-  great,  S,nlmo-  mind,     magn-anlmo-  great-minded. 
,,     mlsSro-  wretched,  cord-  heart,  mlsSrl-cord-  tender-hearted. 

237  c.  By  prefixing  a  particle  to  an  adjective  :  as, 
from  In  not,  utili-  useful,  Xn-utili-  useless. 

,,     p&r  thorough,  magno-  great,       per-magno-  very  great. 

„    -pY&Q preeminently,  claro-  bright,  prae-claro-  very  illustrious. 

238  d.  By  prefixing  a  substantive,   adjective,   or    particle  to  a 
verb  :  as, 

from  tuba-  trumpet,  can-  sing,  tubl-cen-  trumpeter. 

,,     parti-  part,  cap-  take,  partl-cep- partaking. 

„     caron-  flesh,  uora-  devour,         carul-uftro- flesh-eating. 
„     [beno-]  good,  gen-  produce,       beni-g'no-*  generous. 
„     malo-  bad,  dic-t  speak,  mall-dico-  abusive. 

„     de  down,  sed-  sit,  de-sid-  slothful. 

„     c8m  with,  [it-  obs.,  go]  c8m-it-  accompanying. 

239  Adjectives  are  also  formed  from  prepositions.     See  the  tablo 
of  words  derived  from  prepositions,  §  838. 

COMPARATIVES  AND  SUPERLATIVES. 
The  suffixes  which  form  the  Comparatives  and  Superlatives  are 
so  much  used,  that  they  must  be  spoken  of  more  at  length. 
21»k        The  simple  adjective  is  said  to  be  in  the  positive  degree :  as, 
longo-  or  -a-  long. 

*  Literally  well-born.  f  See  §  451. 1. 


42 


ADJECTIVES. 


241  The  comparative  degree  takes  the  suffix  ids  or  ior :  as,  long 
ios-*  or  long-ior-  longer  or  more  long. 

242  The  superlative  degree  takes  the  suffix  umo^  or  imo,  issumoi 
or  issimo  :  as,  long-issumo-*  longest  or  most  long. 

243  If  the  adjective  ends  in  ero,  $ri,  or  er,  the  superlative  suffix: 
is  slightly  changed  :  as,  nlgero-  black,  niger-rumo-  blackest;  llbero- 

/ra»,llberrumo-;  acZri- sharp,  acerrumo-;  celeri-  quick,  celerrimio-; 
pauper-  poor,  pauperrumo- ;  ugtes-  old,  ugterrumo-. 

244  If  the  adjective  ends  in  tti,  the  superlative  suffix  is  slightly 
changed:  as,  facili-  easy,  fScil-lumo-  easiest;   difficlli-  difficult, 
difficillumo-;  gracili-  slender,  gracilluino-  ;  simtti-ft/k?,  simillumo- ; 
dissimili-  unlike,  disslmillumo-. 

245  The  following  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  irregular : 
Pos.  Comp.  Sup. 

bSiio-  good,  melios-  better,  optiimo-  best. 

malo-  bad,  peios-  (=ped-ios-)  worse,    pessumo-  worst. 

mag-no-  great,         maios-  ( = mag-ios  •)  greater,  maxiimo-  greatest. 
paruo-  little,  minos-  less,  mlnumo-  least, 

multo-  much,  plus-I  n.  more,  pluriimo-  n.  most. 

multo-||  pi.  many,  plur-  pi.  more,  pluriimo- 1|  pi.  most. 

See  also  the  table  of  words  derived  from  prepositions,  §  838. 

246  Sometimes  one  or  more  of  the  positive,  comparative,  and  su- 
perlative are  deficient :  as, 

Pos.  Comp.  Sup. 

oc-ios-  quicker,  oc-isstimo-  quickest. 

nequ-ios-  worse,  nequ-issumo-  worst. 

nouo-  new,  • nou-issiimo-  newest. 

falso-  false,  fals-issiimo-  most  false. 

ingenti-  immense,  ingent-ios-  more  immense.  • 

desld-  slothful,       desld-ios-  more  slothful.      

iuuSni-  young,       iimios-  younger. 

S6nios-  older  has  no  corresponding  positive  :  see  §  207. 1. 

*  In  adding  the  suffixes  of  the  comparative  and  superlative  the  vowels 
a,  o,  i,  at  the  end  of  the  crude  form  of  the  positive  are  discarded. 

f  The  forms  with  u  are  the  oldest.  They  were  used  by  Terence,  &c., 
down  to  Cicero,  inclusive. 

J  From  pie-  '  full,'  the  root  of  pie-no-,  is  formed  ple-ios-  contracted 
into  pious-  and  plus-.     Compare  the  Greek  Tr\e-ioi>  and  TrAe-o^. 
||  These  are  used  in  the  singular  in  poetry. 


43 


NUMEKALS. 

247  Cardinal  numbers  answer  to  the  question,  qu5t  ?  (undeclined) 
how  many  ?  as,  one,  two,  three,  &c. ;  or  tSt  (undecl.)  so  many. 

248  Ordinal  numerals  state  the  place  occupied  in  a  rank  or  series. 
They  answer  to  the  question  quoto-  or  -ta-  N.  quStus,  -ta,  -turn  ? 
occupying  what  place  in  the  series  ?*  answer,  first,  second,  third, 
&c. ;  or  t5to-  or  -ta-  occupying  such  a  place. 

249  Distributives  answer  to  the  question,  quoteno-  or  N.  pi.  qu5- 
teni,  -ae,  -a  ?  how  many  at  a  time  ?  one  at  a  time,  two  at  a  time, 
&c. ;  or  the  preposition  by  may  be  used,  by  twos,  by  threes,  &c. ; 
or  the  word  each,  as,  two  each,  three  each,  &c. 

250  The  numeral  adverbs  answer  to  the  question,   quotiens  or 
quSties  ?  how  often  ?  once,  twice,  thrice,  four-times,  &c. ;  t5tiens 
or  tSties  so  often. 

251  Roman  Symbols.— The  symbols  for  1,  10,  100,  1000,  seem  to 
have  consisted  of  one,  two,  three,  and  four  lines  respectively  :  viz. 
I,  X,  C,  M  ;  for  the  last  two  of  which  the  more  easily  written 
symbols,  C,  and  /<t\  or  /t\,  were  afterwards  substituted.     The 
mark  for  1000  seems  to  have  suggested  those  for  10  000, 100  000, 
&c.  viz.  /?fct/^b,  or  ^  ^,  <fec.     The  next  step  was  to  find  sym- 
bols for  the  halves  of  these  numbers,  and  the  most  easy  course 
was  to  take  the  half  of  the  symbols  themselves.     Thus,  V,  L,  h 
or  K,    f^  or  fc,,   £h    or   ^,  severally  denoted  5,  50,  500,  5000, 
50  000.     Lastly,  modern  printers  found  it  convenient  to  use  the 
existing  types  for  letters,  to  avoid  the  expense  of  new  types  for 
the  numerical  symbols.     Hence,  in  modern  Latin  books,  we  find 
the  letters  I,  V,  X,  L,  C,  D,  M,  and  the  inverted  0,  all  used  in 
the  representation  of  Latin  numerals.     It  was  probably  an  acci- 
dent, that  of  these  seven  letters,  two  were  the  initials  of  the  words 
for  which  they  stood  :  viz.  C  and  M,  of  centum  and  millg.f 

*  No  single  English  word  corresponds  to  quoto-.  Such  a  form  as 
what-th,  \\kejif-th,  six-th,  would  best  suit  it. 

f  When  a  symbol  of  a  smaller  number  precedes  one  of  a  greater,  the 
smaller  is  to  be  subtracted,  as  IIX  =  8,  IX  =  9,  XXIX  =  29,  CD  =  400. 
Further,  a  bar  over  a  symbol  denotes  multiplication  by  1000 :  thus 
V  =  5000. 


44 


NUMERALS. 


Distributive. 
Masc.  N.  pi. 


""3  O    I^H  ^    'S     ZH  fl    lS  C;    ._-  ^     ^    '3     S    '^    "S    "5 

3|-3  gil  -3§  §  a-isg      s  ts«  §  §  •§ 

2  ,3  a>  ^   ^  iS  M  o  JO  iS  fl  "  "  " 

•55,a-£  CT'CT'M  S  o  CTi  p 


0*0* 


s  a 


SS.SS-TH  c5^ 

w   1  t!   1  •!  "8    Q. 

K  38  s  3  " 


o  j«  s  s  -2 


« 


fl.        3.'o 

»    ji    3    S 


II 


c4 


NUMERALS, 


a^tj  >o  S  >3 


o 
«-S 

!  I 


& 

.3  "3 

tf.s 

S   bD 


lii 

a>§  s 

xe  iS  ^ 

i^sr^ 

^-Soort-SC?,^^ 

g|ll^|§e>Sg-a 

S^.S  o'-^-J  ^^3  S.g  g 
-*jc^(crltflc«oc3S*    o''tj 


88 

!>•  CO 


« 

da 

t 

I 

II 

If 


1 

I  . 


S  o 

s 


.J 

O,  O 


a, 


2  * 

I          S 


CJ    g 


1  S 


*    4-4-1-= 


46  NUMERALS. 

253  Cardinal  Numbers. — Those  from  quattuor  to  centum,  both  in- 
clusive, are  not  declined.     Mili-  is  both  substantive  and  adjective. 
If  no  smaller  number  accompany  it,  it  is  more  commonly  used  as 
a  substantive.     Hence  the  phrases  mille  hSmlnum  or  mille  homi- 
nes ;  tria  milia  homlnum,  tria  milia  trecenti  hSmines. 

254  The  three  first  numerals  are  declined.      Uno-  one  makes  G. 
unius,  D.  uni.     The  other  cases  are  regular.     The  plural  is  used 
with  those  substantives  which  with  a  plural  form  have  a  singular 
meaning  :  as,  N.  pi.  una  castra  one  camp. 

255  Duo-  dua-  two  is  declined  thus  :  Plur.  N.  duo  duae  du5,  Ac. 
du5  or  duos,  duas,  duo,  G.  duorum  duarum  duorum  or  m.  f.  n. 
duum,  D.  and  Ab.  duobus  duabus  duobus.      In  the  same  way 
is  declined  ambo-   amba-   both,    except  as  to  the    quantity  of 
ambo.* 

256  Tri-  three  is  declined  regularly. 

257  Milli-  or  mlli-  thousand  is  declined :  Sing,  for  all  casqs  mille, 
Plur.  N.  V.  Ac.  miliS,  G.  milium,  D.  and  Ab.  mllibus.f 

258  From  13  to  19  there  occur  also  dScem  et  tres,  &c.     Between 
20  and  100  there  are  two  forms,   viz.  ulginti  unus  or  unus  et 
ulgintl,  <fec.     Above  100,  the  greater  number  precedes :  as,  tr8- 
centl  sexaginta  sex  or  trScenti  et  sexaginta  sex. 

259  The  practice  of  prefixing  the  smaller  number  to  the  greater 
in  order  to  denote  subtraction,  as  IV  (one  from  five),  IIX  (two 
from  ten),  extended  also  to  the  names.     Hence  duSdeulginti,  18  ; 
undeulgintl,   19 ;    duodetnginta,  28 ;    undetriginta,  29  ;    duSde- 
qu&draginta,,  38 ;  undequadraginta,  39 ;  and  so  on  to  dutfdecen- 
tum,  98  ;  undecentum,  99.    Series  of  the  same  kind  belong  to  the 
ordinals,  distributives  and  adverbs. 

260  The   high   numbers  were    chiefly  required  for  representing 
money.     Here  abbreviations  were  found  convenient.     Thus  mil- 
lions of  sesterces  were  commonly  denoted  by  adverbs  alone,  the 
words  centena  milia  being  omitted :  as,  dgciens  ten  times  (a  hun- 
dred thousand)  sesterces,  that  is,  a  million  sesterces ;  uiciens  twenty 
times  &c.,  or  two  million  sesterces. 

201        Ordinal  Numbers. — From  13  to  19  there  are  also  sometimes 
found  dgcumus  tertius  and  decumus  et  tertius,  <fec.     Between  20 

*  See  Prof.  Ramsay's  Latin  Prosody.    Yet  duo,  Plant.  Mil.  iv.  9.  7. 
t  A  single  /  was  preferred  before  the  vowel  i :  so  that  from  uilla-  '  a 
farm'  comes  ultico-  m.  *  a  farm-bailiff.' 


NUMERALS.  47 

and  100  there  are  two  forms,  uicensumus  quartus  or  quartus  et 
uicensumus,  <fec.  For  21,  31,  41,  <fcc  ,  units  et  uicensumus,  una 
et  uicensuma'  or  unetulcensuma,  <fcc.  frequently  occur. 

262  Distributive  Numerals. — These  are  also  used  as  cardinal  num- 
bers with  those  nouns  which  with  a  plural  form  have  a  singular 
meaning :  as,  N.  binae  aedes  two  houses,  binae  litterae  two  letters 
or  epistles.     Duae  aedes,  duae  litterae,  would  signify  two  temples, 
two  letters  of  the  alphabet.     With  uno-  there  could  not  be  the  same 
confusion :  hence  una  littera,  unae  KttSrae,  signify  respectively 
one  letter  of  the  alphabet,  one  letter  or  epistle.     The  distributives* 
are  often  used  by  the  poets  for  the  cardinals. 

263  Adverbs. — Between  20  and  100  there  are  three  expressions  : 
bis  et  uiciens,  ulciens  et  bis,  ulciens  bis.     Bis  ulciens  would 
mean  twice  twenty  or  forty  times. 

264  There  is  a  series  formed  from  plica-  a  flat  surface  or  fold, 
answering  to   quotu-plici-   or   -plgc-,    N.  quotuplex  how  many 
fold?  viz.  sim-pllci-t,  du-plici-,  tri-pllci-,  quadru-plici-,  quincu- 

pllci-,  ,  septem-pllci-,  ,  -      — ,  decem-pllci-,  and 

centum-pllci-. 

265  There  is  a  series  of  similar  meaning,  with  crude  form  end- 
ing in  plo-  (—to  our  full)  and  answering  to  quotiiplo-  ?  viz.  sim- 

plo-,  diiplo-,  triple  ,  quadruple-,  quincuplo-,  ,  septuple-, 

octuplo-. 

266  There  is  a  series  with  suffix  rio  formed  from  the  distributives, 

containing  two,  three,  &c. :  viz.  ,  binario-,  ternario-,  qua- 

ternario-,  qumario-,  senario-,  septenario-,  octonario-,  &c. 

267  There  is  a  series  with  suffix  no,  formed  from  ordinal  series, 
belonging  to  the  first,  second,  &c.  :  viz.  primano-,  secundano-,  ter- 
tiano-,  &c.     These  terms  are  chiefly  used  to  denote  the  legion  to 
which  a  soldier  belongs.     Hence,  in  the  higher  numbers  are  found 
such  forms  in  the  nom.  as  tertia-decuma-nus,  tertia-et-uicensuma- 
nus  ;  where  the  feminine  form  of  the  first  part  seems  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  gender  of  the  Latin  word  Iggion-. 

268  Fractions  are  expressed  by  the  ordinal  series  with  parti-  or 

*  The  distributives  are  also  used  in  phrases  of  multiplication,  as  quater 
quini  '  four  times  five  men.' 

f  Not  from  sine  plica,  but  from  an  old  root  sim  or  sum  '  one  ;'  which 
is  also  found  in  sinyulo-,  simplo-,  simili-,  sincero-,  semel,  simul ;  Gr.  a^a, 
ovSa/j.0-,  OTrAoo-;  Eng.  same  ;  Germ,  sammhing,  &c. 


48  PRONOUNS. 

part-  part  expressed  or  understood:   as,  nom.  £,  tertia  pars;  f, 
tres  septumae. 

269  But  many  shorter  forms  were  employed.     Thus,  when  the 
numerator  is  one  less  than  the  denominator  :    as,  nom.  f,  duae 
partes,  two  parts  out  of  three ;    f ,  tres  partes,  three  parts  out  of 
four,  &c. 

270  Again,  when  the  denominator  is  12,  the  unit  or  whole  being 
represented  by  assi-,  N.  as  (our  ace),  the  parts  are 


Yg  uncia-  (our  ounce  and  inch) 
T25  or  £  sextanti-,  nom.  sextans 
--%  or  ^  quadranti-,  n.  quadrans 
•~5  or  |  trienti-,  n.  triens 
-JTJ  quincunci-,  n.  quincunx 
-fir  or  5  semissi-,  n.  semis 


•^  septunci-,  n.  septunx 

T85-  or  f  bessi-,  n.  bes 

•5^-  or  |  dodranti-  (from  de-quadranti-) 

if  or  f  dextanti-  (from  de-sextanti-) 

±%  de-unci-,  n.  deunx 


271  Fractions  were  also  expressed  by  the  addition  or  multiplication 
of  other  fractions  :  as,  nom.  tertiS,  septuma,  £  of  |,  or  ^\ ;  tertia  et 
septuma,  £  + 1  or  ^. 

272  Mixed  numbers  were  denoted  by  the  Latin  for  the  fractional 
part  accompanied  by  that  number  of  the  ordinal  series  which  ex- 
ceeds by  unity  the  given  whole  number.    Thus,  nom.  3£  is  quadrans 
quarttis;  5£,  semis  sextiis;  £3,  semis  tertiiis,  or  rather,  by  con- 
traction, sestertius.     The  last  quantity,  viz.  2 1,  was  represented 
in  symbols  by  adding  s,  the  initial  letter  of  semis,  to  the  symbol 
for  two,  with  a  line  running  through  the  whole  symbol,  as  in  our 
own  lt>,  £,  for  pounds ;  thus,  4iS-.     But  printers  have  found  it 
convenient  to  substitute  the  letters  HS. 


PRONOUNS. 

273  Pronouns  are,  strictly  speaking,  substantives,  adjectives,  ad- 
verbs, <fec.,  and  therefore  belong  to  those  heads  of  grammar ;  but 
it  is  convenient  to  discuss  them  separately,  partly  because  they 
SDmetimes  exhibit  the  suffixes  in  a  more  complete,  sometimes  in 
a  less  complete  form  than  other  words  belonging  to  the  same  parts 
of  speech,  and  partly  because  they  are  so  much  used. 


PRONOUNS. 
PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 


274  FIRST  PERSON. 

C.F.  not  known,*  /,  &c. 

Sing.  Plur. 

N.  eo  nos 


V.   — 

Ac.  me  nos 

G.    mei  nostrum  or  -ri 

D.    mihiormi  nobis 

Ab.  me  nobis 


275  SECOND  PERSON. 

C.F.  tgb-  thou,  c£v. 

Sing.  Plur 

N.  tu  uos 

V.   tu  uos 

Ac.  te  uos 

G.    tui  uostrum  or  -ri 

D.   tibi  uobis 

Ab.  te  uobis 


276  For  the  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  viz.  he,  she,  it,  the  several 
parts  of  the  adjective  eo-  or  i-  are  used. 

277  The  nominatives  of  these  pronouns  are  not  expressed  unless 
emphatic,  because  the  personal  suffixes  of  the  verbs  already  denote 
the  persons. 

REFLECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

278  Reflective  pronouns  refer  to  the  person  or  thing  expressed  in 
the  nominative  case.    In  English  the  word  self  is  used  for  this 
purpose. 

279  Reflective  pronouns,  from  their  very  nature,  can  have  no  no- 
minative 6r  vocative. 

280  In  the  first  and  second  persons,  the  common  personal  pronouns 
are  used,  viz.  me,  mel  &c.,  te,  tu!  &c.     For  the  third  person  the 
several  cases  formed  from  the  crude  form  seb-  self  are  used  with- 
out any  distinction  for  number  or  gender,  to  signify  himself,  her- 
self, itself,  themselves. 

C.F.  sSb-f  self. 
Ac.  se,  G.  sui,  D.  sibi,  Ab.  se. 

Remarks  on  tlie  Pronouns  EGO,  Tu,  SE. 

281  Ac. — Med  and  ted  are  used  by  old  writers,  as  Plautus,  for  me 
and  te.    Me,  te,  se,  are  also  doubled,  as  meme,  tgte,  sese.     The 
two  first  are  rare,  and  only  used  to  give  emphasis.     Sese  is  not 
uncommon.     Mehe  is  an  antiquated  form  for  me. 

*  Probably  egomet  (corresponding  to  the  Sanscrit  asmat),  or  rather 
m£g%mSt.  Compare  too  the  Greek  ^uer-  (for  typer-)  of  ^uercpos,  implied 
also  in  (^/xees)  r)fj.eis. 

f  The  same  as  the  old  English  adjective  sib  '  related,'  still  preserved 
in  Scotch.  In  Greek  the  form  is  <re^-,  whence  (r<f>e,  aQfrcpos,  &c. 


50 


282  G. — Mis  and  tis  are  antiquated  forms,  found  in  Plautus. 

283  D.— Ml  is  rarely  used  in  prose  writers.     Me,  te  or  tlbe,  sibe, 
are  severally  antiquated  forms  for  mini,  tibi,  slbi. 

284  Ab. — Med  and  ted  are  found  in  old  writers 

285  G.  pi. — These  are  merely  genitives  of  the  possessive  adjectives 
noste'ro-,  uostSro-.     Indeed  nostrorum,  uostrorum  for  the  m  ?  and 
nostrarum,  uostrarum  for  the  f.,  are  found  in  old  writers.    Vestrum, 
uestrl,  with  an  e,  are  used  by  later  writers.     The  genitives  nostn, 
uostrl  are  used  only  in  the  objective  sense.   (See  §  927.)    Nostrum, 
nostrum  are  required  in  partitive  phrases.     (See  §  922.) 

285. 1    D.  and  Ab.  pi. — Nis  for  nobls  is  given  in  Festus. 

DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

286  The  three  demonstrative  pronouns  are  adjectives,  which  point 
as  it  were  with  the  finger  to  the  place  occupied  :  as,  ho-  this  near 
me,  isto-  that  near  you,  illo-  that  yonder. 

2S7  Illo-  (older  form  olo-*  or  olio-)  that  yonder. 

Plural. 

Masc.         Fern*  Neut. 

N.   ill!  illae  ilia 

Ac.  illos          illas  ilia 

G.    illorum    illarum  illorum 

D.    illis  illis  illis 

Ab.  illis         illis  illis 

288  In  the  same  manner  is  declined  isto-  that  near  you.i 

289  To  the  three  demonstratives,  and  to  the  adverbs  derived  from 
them,  the  demonstrative  enclitic  cS  or  c  (look,  lo)  is  often  added 
for  the  sake  of  greater  emphasis. 


Singular. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neut. 

XT.   illS 

ma 

illud 

Ac.  ilium 

illam 

illud 

G.    illffis 

illms 

illms 

D.    illi 

ill! 

ill! 

Ab.  illo 

ilia 

illo 

200 


Illo-  with  enclitic  c£. 


Singular. 

Masc.      Fern.        Neut. 
N.    illic       illaec     illoc  or  illuc 
Ac.  illunc    illanc    illQc  or  illuc 
G.    illiuscS  illluscS  illluscS 
D.\  illic       illic       illic 
Ab.  illoc      iliac       illoc 


Plural. 

Masc.         Fern.  Neut. 

N.  illlcS       illaec  illaec 

Ac.  illoscS    illasee'  illaec 

G.    illorunc  illarunc  illorunc 

D.   illiscS     illisce  illiscg 

Ab.  illiscS     illiscS  illiscS 


*  See§  1173.1. 

f   i'he  Mss.  often  drop  the  t,  as  H«r.  Ep.  n.  2. 163,  nempg  mSdo  sto. 
(See  Lachmann'a  Lucretius.)     Istus  as  a  nom.  m.  is  in  PI.  Mil.  iv.  6.  18. 
±  The  dative  illic  is  onlv  used  aaa.n  adverb. 


PRONOUNS.  51 

291  In  nearly  all  those  cases  which  end  in  c,  the  e  may  be  added  : 
as,  Ac.  m.  illuncS,  <fec. 

292  In  the  same  manner  is  declined  isto-  with  eg, 

293  If,  besides  the  enclitic  ce,  the  enclitic  ng  whether  is  also  added, 
the  first  enclitic  takes  the  form  cl  throughout :  as,  illlclne  illae- 
clng  illtfclng  &c. ;  istlcmg  istaecmg  latticing  &c. ;  hieing  haeclue 
hScmg  &c. 

294  Many  of  the  cases  from  ho-  alone,  have  disappeared  from  the 
language,  their  places  being  supplied  by  those  formed  from  ho- 
with  eg.     Hence  in  part  the  irregularities  of  the  following  de- 
clension. 

295  Ho-  this,  partly  with,  partly  without  the  suffix  eg. 


Singular. 

Masc.        Fern.  Neut. 

N.    hlc  haec  hoc 

Ac.  hunc  hanc  hoc 

G.     hums  hums  hums 

Z).*  huic  huic  huic 

Ab.  hoc  hac  hoc 


Plural. 

Masc.  Fern.       Neut. 

N.    hi  hae  haec 

Ac.   hos  has  haec 

Gr.     horum  harum  horum 

D.     his  his  his 

Ab.  his  his  his 


296  Those  cases  which  do  not  end  in  c,  as  here  declined,  may  have 
that  enclitic  added:  as,  Gr.  huiuscg;  N.  pi.  m.  hlcg,  f.  haec6  or 
haec ;  Ac.  hoscg,  &c.    An  old  N.  pi.  is  hisce,  PL  Mil.  m.  6.  9. 

297  An  old  form  of  the  D.  or  Ab.  pi.  is  hlbus. 

298  The  adverbs  from  illo-  (or  olo-)  are  illo  or  illoc  or  illuc  to  yonder 
place,  thither ;  illim  or  illinc  from  yonder  place ;  illl  or  illic  in 
yonder  place,  yonder,  there  ;  ilia  or  iliac  by  yonder  road,  along  that 
line;   and  olimf  formerly  or  hereafter,  in  those  days.     See  also 
Table  of  words  derived  from  prepositions. 

299  The  adverbs  from  isto-  are,  isto  or  istoc  or  istuc  to  the  place 
where  you  are,  to  your  part  of  the  country  ;  istim  or  istinc  from  the 
place  where  you  are;  istl  or  istic  where  you  are;  ista  or  istac  along 
the  place  or  country  where  you  aret 

300  The  adverbs  from  ho-  are,  hoc  or  hue  hither,  towards  me; 
hinc  hence,  from  me,  from  this  time ;  hlc  here,  near  me  ;  hac  along 
this  road,  by  me;  and  si  (very  rare),  more  commonly  sic,  so,  thus, 
in  this  way. 

*  Hlc  is  the  form  of  the  dative  when  used  as  an  adverb, 
f  Unless  olim  be  the  equivalent  in  form  of  our  rjhilcm,  an  old  dative 
of  while,  and  signifying  '  at  times.' 


52  PRONOUNS. 

LOGICAL  PRONOUNS. 

301  Logical  pronouns  refer  only  to  the  words  of  a  sentence.     To 
these  belong  i-  or  eo-  this  or  that,  and  qui-  or  quo-  which,  &c. 

302  I-  0*  eo-*  this  or  that. 


Singular. 
Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 
N.    Is      ea     id 
Ac.  eum  earn  id 
G.     eius  eius  eius 
D,     el      el      el 
Ab,   eo     ea     eo 


Plural. 

Masc.  Fern.         Neut. 

N.     ii  or  I  or  rather  hi     eae         ea 
Ac.    eos  eas          ea 

G.     eorum  earuin    eoruni 

D.   feis  iis  or  is  or  rather  his  for  all  gen- 


Ab.  \     ders. 


303  Old  forms  are  N.  h!s,t  Ac.  im  or  em,  D.  or  Ab.  pi.  Ibus  and 
eabiis. 

304  The  adverbs  from  i-  or  eo-  are,  eo  to  this  or  to  that  place  or 
degree,  thither ;  indg  (in  compounds  im  or  in,  as  exim  or  exin) 

from  this* ,from  that ,  thence ;  Ibi  in  or  at  this ,  in 

that ,  there,  then;  ea  along  this  or  that  line  or  road ;  Ita"  thus, 

so  ;  iam  now,  already,  at  last. 

305  Qui-  or  quo-  §  which,  what,  who,  any. 

Singular. 

Masc.  Fern.  Neut. 

N .    quls  or  qui  quae  or  qua  quid  or  qu<5d 

Ac.   quem  quam  quid  or  qu5d 

G.     quoius  or  emus/or  all  genders 
D.     quoi  or  cui  or  cm  for  all  genders 


Ab.  quo  or  qui 

qua  or  qui 

quo  or  qui 

Plural. 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neut. 

N. 

qui 

quae 

quae  or  qua 

Ac. 

quos 

quas 

quae  or  qua 

G. 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

D.  Ab.  quibus  or  quisyb/'  all  genders. 

*  An  older  C.F.  was  in,  whence  in-d$  adv.  *  from  this  place.'  Com- 
pare the  Greek  ev-6ev,  as  illustrated  by  oiKo-Oev,  e^e-Oev. 

f  Fest  .sub  voce  '  Muger.' 

J  For  the  blanks  insert  time,  place,  $c.,  as  it  may  be. 

§  An  older  C.F.  was  quin  or  cun,  whence  un-dS  (for  ctinde,  compare 
sl-cunde)  '  from  what  place.' 


PRONOUNS. 


53 


306  Of  the  double  forms,  qul  N.  and  quSd  are  adjectives ;  quls 
commonly  a  substantive,  rarely  an  adjective ;  quid  a  substantive 
only. 

307  Qui-  or  quo-  is  called  a  relative  when  it  refers  to  a  preceding 

word,  as,  the  person  who ,  the  thing  which ,  the  knife  with 

which 9  &c.     To  the  relative  belong  all  the  forms  except  quis 

quS,  and  quid. 

308  It  is  called  a  direct  interrogative  when  it  asks  a  question,  as, 
who  did  it  ?  and  an  indirect  interrogative  when  it  only  speaks  of 
a  question,  as,  we  do  not  know  who  did  it.     To  the  interrogative 
belong  all  the  forms,  except  qua. 

309  It  is  said  to  be  used  indefinitely  when  it  signifies  any.    In  this 
case  it  is  placed  after  some  word  to  which  it  belongs ;  very  com- 
monly after  si,  ne,  num,  ec,  Sli.     All  the  forms  are  used  in  this 
sense,  but  qua  is  more  common  than  quae. 

310  N.  Ac. — Quis  and  quern  in  old  writers  are  sometimes  feminine. 

311  G.  D. — Quoius  and  quoi  are  older  than  the  other  forms.     They 
appear  to  have  been  used  by  Cicero.    An  old  genitive  cul  occurs 
in  the  word  cul-cul-m5dl  of  whatever  kind. 

312  Ab.— Qul  is  the  older  form,  and  is  only  used  by  the  later 
writers  in  particular  phrases  :  as,  1.  qulcum  =  quocum  m.  or  n. ; 
2.  without  a  substantive  in  the  sense  wherewith;   3.  as  an  in- 
terrogative, by  what  means,  how? 

313  N.  pi. — Ques  is  a  very  old  form. 

314  D.  and  Ab.  pi. — Quls,  sometimes  written  queis,  is  the  older 
form  of  the  two. 

315  The  adverbs  from  quo-  or  qui-  are,  quo  whither,  to  what ; 

unde  (formerly  cundg)  from  what  ,   whence;  iibi   (formerly 

ciibi)  in  what ,  where,  when  ;  qua  along  what  road  or  line,  &c. 

316  The  conjunctions  from  quo-  or  qui-  are,  quoin  quum  or  cum 
when;  quando  when;   quam  how;    quare  (qua  re)  quur  or  car 

' ;  ut  (formerly  cut)  or  tttl  how,  that,  as  ;  quod  that,  because,  <fcc. 


OTHER  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES,  &c. 

317  The  following  adjectives  are  derived  from  quo-  or  qui- :  quanto- 
how  great;  quali-  like  what,  of  what  kind;  quot  (undeclined)  how 
many  (whence  quotiens  how  often)',  quo" to-  occupying  what  place 
in  a  series. 

318  From  an  old  root,  to-  this,  are  derived  the  adjectives,  tanto-  so 
great;  tali-  like  this,  of  this  kind;  t5t  (undecl.)  so  many  (whence 


54  PRONOUNS. 

ttftiens  so  often)  ;  tSto-  occupying  this  place;  also  the  adverbs  tnm 
so  ;  turn  or  (with  the  enclitic  eg)  tune  then. 

319  Of  pronominal  origin  are,  nam  thus  or  for,   and  num  now 
(Greek  wv),  an  old  word  still  used  in  gtiam-num  even  now,  still, 
and  in  nudius  tertiiis  now  the  third  day,  two  days  ago.     In  com- 
mon use  the  enclitic  ce  is  always  added,  as,  nunc  now. 

320  Ali  is  prefixed  to  many  of  the  relative  forms  :  as,  aliqui-  any, 
some  (emphatic),  declined  like  qui-  any  ;  N.  n.  allquantum  some, 
a  considerable  quantity ;  allqu5t  (undeclined)  some,  a  considerable 
number,  &c. 

321  EC  is  prefixed:  as,  ecqui-  &c.  whether  any?  ecquando  whether 
at  any  time  ? 

322  Hum  whether,  si  if,  ne  not,  are  also  prefixed :  as,  numqui- 

9     whether  any,  siqui-  if  any,  nequi-  lest  any.     N.  numquis,  slquls, 
nequis,  &c. 

323  Of  the  adverbs  formed  from  aliqui-,  nequi-,  numqui-,  slqui-, 
many  take  the  old  initial  c,  as  all-cubi,  Sll-cunde',  &c. 

324  Vtero-  (originally  cu-tero-) — generally  an  interrogative,  which 
of  the  two  ?  and  sometimes  a  relative,  he  of  the  two,  who  ;  and  after 
si,  either,  as,  si  ut^ro-  if  either — has  G-.  utrlus,  D.  tttrl.     Hence 
neute'ro-  N.  neuter,  <fec.  (formerly  ne-cut6r)  neither.* 

325  Ipso-  ipsa-  self,  very,  is  declined,  N.  ipsiis  or  ipsS  ipsS,  ipsum, 
Ac.  ipsum  ipsam  ipsum,  and  the  rest  like  illo-. 

326  The  N.  ipsus  is  found  only  in  old  writers,  as  Terence.     Apse" 
or  'pse  undeclined  is  sometimes  found  in  old  writers  instead  of 
the  proper  case  of  ipso- :  as,  re-apse  for  re-ipsa,  eampse  for  earn 
ipsam,  <fec. 

327  Alio-  one,  another,  has  Gr.  alms,  D.  a"lil,  and  N.  and  Ac.  neut. 
sing,  aliiid,  and  the  rest  like  illo-.     From  a  crude  form  Sli-  are 
derived  the  old  N.  m.  f.  alls,  n.  alld,  and  the  adverbs  alibi  else- 
where, Sllt8r  otherwise. 

*  The  plural  of  those  words  which  have  the  suffix  tero  must  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  the  singular.     Thus, 

N.  sing,  uter  which  of  the  two  individuals. 

N.  pi.  utrl  which  of  the  two  classes,  parties,  nations,  armies,  &c. 

N.  sing,  alter  one  of  the  two  individuals. 

X.  pi.  alien  one  of  the  two  classes,  parties,  nations,  armies,  &c. 

N.  sing,  uterquehoih  of  the  two  individuals. 

N.  pi.  utrlquS  both  of  the  two  classes,  parties,  nations,  armies,  &  c. 

N.  sing,  neuter  neither  of  the  two  individuals. 

X.  pi.  neutri  neither  of  the  two  classes,  parties,  nations,  armies,  &c. 


PRONOUNS. 


55 


328  When  alio-  is  used  in-  two  following  sentences,  it  is  translated 

by  one f  another ;  or  some  ,   others :  as,  alius 

rldet,  alius  lacriimat  one  laughs,  another  cries  ;  S,lios  caedit,  alios 
dmrittlt  he  kills  some,  and  lets  others  go. 

329  When  alio-  is  used  twice  in  the  same  sentence,  that  sentence  is 
commonly  translated  twice  over  :  as,  aliud  alio  tempore  one  thing 
at  one  time,  another  at  another  ;  or  by  each  other :  as,  alii  aliis  pro- 
sunt  they  do  good  to  each  other. 

330  Altero-  (from  ali-)  one  of  two,  another  of  two,  the  second,  has  G. 
alteriiis,  D.  altgr!  ;  but  altgrlus  occurs  in  poetry.* 

331  When  altero-  is  used  in  two  following  sentences,  it  is  trans- 
lated by  the  one ,  the  other :  as,  alter  rldet,  alter  lacriimat 

the  one  laughs,  the  other  cries. 

332  When  altero-  is  used  twice  in  the  same  sentence,  it  is  com- 
monly translated  by  each — other :  as,  alter  alterum  uoluerat  each 
wounds  tJie  other. 

333  As  ali-  and  qui-  form  allqui-,  so  from  altgro-  and  iitero-  is 
formed  alter-utero-  one  of  the  two,  which  is  declined  in  both  parts  ; 
but  elision  generally  takes  place  if  the  first  part  end  in  a  vowel  or 
m :  as,  N.  alterutgr  altgr'iitra  altgr'utrum  &c.,  but  G.  altgrius- 
utrlus. 

334  Ullo-  any  (a  diminutive  from  uno-  one)  has  G.  ulllus,  D.  ulll 
<fec.    It  is  accompanied  by  a  substantive,  and  is  used  only  in  nega- 
tive sentences.     Hence  nullo-  none,  declined  like  ullo-. 

335  Many  enclitics  are  added  to  the  pronouns  to  give  emphasis  to 
them:  viz. 

336  Quidem  :  as,  gquldem,  for  egS  quldem  I  at  least. 

337  Met :  as,  ggSmet  /  myself ;  uosmgt  you  yourselves.     It  is  com- 
monly followed  by  ipse  :  as,  suisme't  ipsl  praesldils  they  themselves 
with  their  own  troops. 

338  Te,  only  with  the  nominative  tu  :  as,  tutS  thou  thyself. 

339  C8,  only  with  the  demonstrative  pronouns.     See  §§  28G-300. 

340  PotS  :  as,  ut-pote  inasmuch  as,  as. 

341  Ptg,  in  certain  old  forms  :  as,  mihiptS,  meptS ;  and  above  all 
with  the  ablatives,  meoptS,  meapte,  suoptS,  suapte,  <fec. 

342  Dem,  with  the  pronoun  i-  or  eo- :  as,  i-dem  the  same.     The 
N.  m.  drops  the  s,  but  leaves  the  vowel  long ;  the  N.  and  Ac. 
neut.  take  no  d,  and  have  the  vowel  short.     In  the  Ac.  sing,  and 

*  See  note  p.  54. 


56  PRONOUNS. 

G.  pi.  the  final  m  becomes  n  before  d.  Thus,  N.  idem  ea-dem 
Idem,  Ac.  eun-dem  ean-dem  Idem  &c.  So  also  with  t5t,  t5ti- 
dem  (undecl.)  precisely  as  many ;  and  with  tanto-,  N.  m.  tantus- 
dem,  &c.  of  the  same  magnitude. 

343  Dam,  with  quo-  or  qui-.     N.  qui-dam  quse-dam  quid-dam  or 
quod-dam,  Ac.   quen-dam  quan-dam  quid-dam  or  quod-dam  <foc. 
a  certain  person  or  thing.     It  is  used  when  a  person  cannot  or 
will  not  state  whom  or  what  he  means,  and  often  serves  to  soften 
adjectives  which  would  express  too  much:  as,  dlvlnS,  quaedam 
eloquentici  a  certain  godlike  eloquence,  a  sort  of  godlike  eloquence, 
I  had  almost  said  a  godlike  eloquence.     From  quidam  is  derived 
quondam  at  some  former  or  future  time,  formerly,  hereafter. 

344  Quam,  with  quo-  or  qui-  :  as,  N.  quisquam  quaequam  quid- 
quam  or  quicquam  <fec.  any,  in  negative  sentences.     It  is  Cvm- 

•  monly  used  without  a  substantive.  See  ullo- above.  From  quisquam 
are  formed  the  adverbs  umquam  or  unquam  (originally  cumquam) 
ever  ;  from  whence  nunquam  never,  ne-qulquam  in  vain,  haudqua- 
quam  in  no  way,  l>y  no  means,  neutiquam  or  rather  nutlquam  in 
no  way,  by  no  means,  usquam  any  where,  nusquam  no  where. 

345  Piam  (probably  another  form  of  preceding  suffix),  with  quo- 
or  qui- :  as,  N.  quispiam  quaepiam  quidpiam  or  quodpiam  &c.  any 
(emphatic).    .From  qui-piam  comes  the  adverb  uspiam  any  where. 

346  Nam  :  as,  N.  quisnam  or  qulnam  quaenam  quidnam  or  quod- 
iiam  &c.  who,  which  ?  in  interrogations  (emphatic) ;  and  N.  uter- 
nam  which  of  the  two?  in  interrogations  (emphatic). 

347  Quo  (this   enclitic   is  probably  a  corruption   of  the  relative 
itself) :   as,   N.   quisquS  quaequS  quidque  or  quodquS  &c.  every, 
each  ;  whence  the  adverbs  iibique'  every  where,  undlquS/rora  every 
side,  iitlquS  any  how,  at  any  rate,  usque7  every  step,  every  moment; 
also  N.  uterquS  utr&quS  utrumquS  each  of  two,  both. 

348  Quisque  in  old  writers  is  used  in  the  same  sense  as  quicunque. 

349  Quisque  is  generally  placed — 1.  after  relatives  and  relative 
conjunctions  :  as,  ut  quisquS  uenit  as  each  arrived ;  2.  after  reflec- 
tive pronouns  :  as,  pro  se  quisquS  each  for  himself ;  3.  after  super- 
latives and  ordinal  numerals :    as,  optumus  quisquS  all  the  best 
men,  dScumus  quisqug  every  tenth  man,  quStus  quisquS  2   (every 
how  manyet  )  how  few? 

350  Cumqug  or  cunquS  (an  old  variety  of  quisque') :  as,  N".  qui- 
cunque quaecunquS  quodcunquS  <fec.  whoever,  whosoever,  whichever, 
whatever:    so  also  N.   utercunqug  utr&cunquS  iitrumcunquS  etc. 


PRONOUNS.  57 

whichever  of  the  two  ;  N.  m.  quantuscunque"  <fec.  how  great  soever, 
quandocunquS  whensoever  &c.  CunquS  may  be  separated  from  the 
other  word  :  as,  qui  me  cunque  uldit  whoever  saw  me.  QuicunquS 
is  rarely  used  as  an  indefinite,  any  whatever. 

351  Vis  (thou  wishest,  from  uol-  wish) :  as,  N.  qululs  quaeuis  quid- 
uls  or  quoduis  <fec.  any  one  you  please  (the  best  or  the  worst),  a 
universal  affirmative  ;  whence  quamuls  as  muck  as  you  please,  no 

matter  how ,  though  ever  so ;  and  literals  iitrauis  utrum- 

uls  whichever  of  the  two  you  please. 

352  Liibet  or  libet  (it pleaseth)  :  as,  N.  m.  qullubet  <fec.  any  one  you 
please  ;  and  N.  m.  uterliibet  &c.  whichever  of  the  two  you  please. 

353  Relative  forms  are  often  doubled.     Thus,  qui-  doubled :  as,  N". 
m.  quisquis,*  n.  quidquld  or  quicquid  whoever,  no  matter  who; 
whence  cuicuimodl,  a  genitive,  of  whatever  Krcc?,and  quoquo  mSdo 
in  any  way  whatever. 

355  Quanto-  doubled:   as,  N.  m.  quantusquantus  &c.  how  great 
soever,  no  matter  how  great. 

356  Quali-  doubled  :  as,  N.  m.  qualisqualis  &c.  whatever-liJce,  no 
matter  what-UTce. 

357  Quot  doubled  :  as,  quotqu5t  (undeclined)  how  many  soever, 
no  matter  how  many. 

358  So  also  there  are  the  doubled  adverbs  or  conjunctions  :  quam- 
quam  however,  no  matter  how,  although,  and  yet ;   iitut  however ; 
no  matter  how;   quoquo  whithersoever;   undeunde   whencesoever ; 
ubiubi  wheresoever  ;  quaqua  along  whatsoever  road. 

POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

359  Meo-  mea-  mine,  my. 

Tuo-  tua-  thine,  thy,  your,  yours  (referring  to  one  person). 
Suo-  sua-  his,  hers,  her  ;  its  ;  theirs,  their. 
Nostero-  nostSra-  ours,  our  ;  N.  noster  nostra  nostrum  &c. 
Vostgro-  uostera-  or  uestero-  uestera-  yours,  your  (referring  to 
more  than  one)  ;  N.  uoster  uostra  uostrum  &c. 
Cuio-  cuia-  whose. 

360  These  are  all  declined  regularly,  except  that  the  m.  V.  of  meo- 
is  ml. 

361  Suo-  is  a  reflective  pronoun,  and  can  only  be  used  when  it  re- 
fers to  the  nominative  (see  §  280).     In  other  cases  his,  her  or  its 
must  be  translated  by  the  genitive  eius  from  i-,  and  their  by  the 
genitive  eorum  or  earum. 

*  NO  snecial  form  for  the  feminine  in  use. 


PRONOUNS. 


362  The  adjective  cuio-  is  rarely  met  with,  the  genitives  cuius, 
quorum,  quarum,  being  used  in  its  place. 

363  The  possessive  pronouns,  if  not  emphatic,  are  placed  after  the 
noun  they  belong  to.  If  they  are  emphatic,  they  are  placed  before  it. 

364  From  the  possessive  pronouns  are  derived  : 

Nostrati-  or  nostrat-,         N.  nostras  of  our  country. 
Vostrati-  or  uostrat-,         N.  uostras  of  your  country. 
Cuiati-  or  cuiat-,  N.  cuias  of  whose  country. 

365  Formed  in  the  same  way  are  inftimati-  belonging  to  the  loicest, 
summati-  belonging  to  the  highest.     All  these  are  declined  like 
Arplnati-  or  Arplnat-  belonging  to  Arpinum. 


366 


TABLE  OF  PRONOMINAL  ADVERBS. 


Ending  in 

bi  or  I,  dat. 

o  (=om)  ace. 

dg(  =  6»€w)» 
old  gen. 

a,  abl.  fern. 

Meaning 

where 

whither 

whence 

along  what 
road 

ho- 

hie 

ho,t  hoc3t  hue 

hinc 

hac 

isto- 

isti,  istic 

isto,  istoc,t  istuc 

istim,  istinc 

ista,  istac 

illo- 

ilh,  illic 

illo,  illoc,:  iUuc 

illim,  illinc 

ilia,  iliac 

i-  or  eo- 

ibl 

eo 

indS 

efi 

i-  or  eo-  +  dem 

ibidem 

eodem 

indidem 

eadem 

qui-  or  quo- 

iib! 

quo 

unde 

qua 

utero- 

utrob! 

iitro 

iitriudS 

iitra 

alio- 

Sllilbi 

alio 

Sliundg 

alia 

ali- 

Sllbf 

altgro- 

altro§ 

altrindS(?)|| 

neutSro- 

neutrub! 

neutro 

ali-  +  qui-  or  quo- 

allcub! 

aliquo 

allcunde 

allqua 

si  +  qui-  &c. 

sicub! 

siquo 

sicundg 

siqua 

'  ne  +  qui-  &c. 

necub! 

nequo 

necuiidS 

nequa 

uum  +  qui-  &c. 

numcub! 

numquo 

qui-  doubled 

ubiub! 

quoquo 

undeunde 

quaqua 

qui-  or  quo-  +  uls 
qui-  &c.  +  liibet 

ubluis 
iibilubet 

quouis 
quoliibet 

undeuls 
undglubet 

quauis 
qualubet 

qui-  &c.  +  qug 

ubique 

quoquell 

undlqug 

HtSro-  +  qu6 

iitrobiqu6 

iitroquS 

utrinquS 

utraqu6 

qui-  <fcc.  +  quam 

quoquam 

quaquam** 

qui-  &c.  +  nam 

ub!nam 

quonam 

quanam 

*  See  §790. 

f  Occurring  in  horsum  for  ho-uorsum  '  hitherwards. 
J  Less  used  than  the  other  forms 
§  Occurring  in  altro-uorsiis  '  towards  the  other  side.' 
||  Virtually  occurring  in  allrinsecus  '  from  the  other  side.' 
IT  In  quoqueuorsus  '  in  every  direction.' 
**  in  nequdquam  and  haudqudquam  'in  no  way,  by  no  means.' 


VERBS. 

367       An  active  verb  denotes  action,  that  is,  movement :  as,  caed- 
fell,  cut  or  strike,  cur-  run. 

308  The  person  (or  thing)  from  whom  the  action  proceeds  is  called 
the  nominative  to  the  verb. 

309  The  object  to  which  the  action  is  directed  is  called  the  accusa- 
tive after  the  verb. 

370  A  verb  which  admits  a  nominative  is  called  personal :  as,  caed- 
striJce  ;  whence  uir  caedit  the  man  strikes. 

371  A  verb  which  does  not  admit  a  nominative  is  called  impersonal : 
as,  tona-  thunder  ;  whence  tonat  it  thunders. 

372  A  transitive  verb  is  one  which  admits  an  object  or  accusative 
after  it :  as,  caedit  pugrum  he  strikes  the  boy. 

373  An  intransitive  verb  is  one  which  does  not  admit  an  accusative  : 
as,  cur-  run  ;  whence  currlt  he  runs. 

374  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  may  be  the  agent  himself:  as, 
caedo  m6  I  strike  myself,  caedis  te  you  strike  yourself,  caedit  se  he 
strikes  himself,  &c.    A  verb  is  then  said  to  be  used  as  a  reflective. 

375  In  Latin  a  reflective  suffix  is  added  to  a  transitive  verb,  so  as 
to  give  it  the  reflective  sense  :  as,  uerto  I  turn,  uertor  I  turn  my- 
self;  uertis  you  turn,  uertSrls  you  turn  yourself ;  uertlt  he  turns, 
uertltur  he  turns  himself. 

376  A  reflective  verb  then  denotes  an  action  upon  oneself,  and  in 
Latin  is  conjugated  in  the  imperfect  tenses  with  a  suffix  s  or  r.* 
It  will  be  denoted  by  an  r  between  brackets :  as,  uert-(r.)  turn 
oneself. 

377  The  perfect  tenses  of  a  reflective  verb  are  supplied  by  the  verbs 
6s-  and  fu-  be,  united  with  the  participle  in  to-. 

378  An  intransitive  verb  is  generally  in  meaning  reflective  :  as, 
ciir-  run  i.  e.  put  oneself  in  a  certain  rapid  motion,  ambula-  walk 

*  This  suffix  is  no  doubt  the  pronoun  se  '  self,'  which,  as  it  is  not  limited 
in  number  and  gender,  was  probably  at  first  not  limited  in  person.  In 
some  of  the  Slavonic  languages  the  same  pronoun  is  actually  applied  to 
all  the  persons  ;  and  in  the  Lithuanian  the  reflective  verb  is  formed  from 
the  simple  verb  through  all  the  persons  by  the  addition  of  s.  The  inter- 
change of  s  and  r  has  been  seen  already  in  the  nouns;  another  example 
presents  itself  in  nerter-ts,  which  is  formed  from  iterfts,  precisely  as  the 
gen.  puluer-is  from  the  C.F.  pulitis,  and  the  old  pi.  gen.  nucer-um  (see 
§  80)  from  the  sing.  gen.  nucis.  So  also  lapiderum,  regerum  (Charisius. 
p.  40  P.  tech.),  bouerum  ,Cato  R.  R.  62). 


60 


VERBS. 


i.  e.  put  oneself  in  a  certain  moderate  motion  ;  but  as  the  object  in 
these  cases  cannot  easily  be  mistaken,  no  reflective  pronoun  or 
suffix  is  added. 

379  When  the  source  of  an  action  (i.  e.  the  nominative)  is  not 
known,  or  it  is  thought  not  desirable  to  mention  it,  it  is  common 
to  say  that  the  action  proceeds  from  the  object  itself.    A  reflective 
so  used  is  called  a  passive  :  thus  uertltur,  literally,  he  turns  him- 
self, is  often  used  for  he  is  turned.* 

380  This  passive  use  of  a  verb  with  a  reflective  suffix  is  more 
common  than  the  proper  reflective  use. 

381  The  nominative  to  the  passive  verb  is  the  same  as  the  accusa- 
tive after  the  transitive  verb,  caedunt  puerum  they  strike  the  boy, 
or  caedltur  puer  the  boy  is  struck. 

382  Hence  passive  verbs  can  be  formed  only  from  transitives. 

383  An  impersonal  passive  verb  however  is  formed  from  intransi- 
tivesf  :  as,  from  noce-  do  damage,  ntfcetur  damage  is  done;  from 
resist-  stand  in  opposition,  offer  resistance,  resistitur  resistance  is 
offered.     When  the  intransitive  verb  can  be  thus  expressed  by  an 
English  verb  and  substantive,  the  passive  impersonal  may  be  trans- 
lated by  what  is  also  strictly  impersonal,  the  person  who  does  the 
damage,  or  offers  the  resistance,  <fec.  not  being  mentioned.     At 
times  this  is  impracticable,  and  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  word 
they  or  people  with  the  active,  as  from  i-  go,  ittir  they  go. 

384  Transitive  verbs  also  may  form  a  passive  impersonal :  as,  from 
die-  say,  diciturj  they  say  ;  but  in  this  case  the  words  of  the  sen- 
tence that  follow  dlcitiir  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  a  nomina- 
tive to  it.     See  Syntax,  §  1240. 

*  Many  European  languages  will  afford  examples  of  this  strange  use 
of  the  reflective;  as  the  German:  Das  versteht  sich  vort  selbst,  'that  is 
understood  of  itself;'  the  French:  Le  corps  se  trouva,  'the  body  was 
found ;'  the  Italian  :  Si  loda  Vuomo  modesto, '  the  modest  man  is  praised  ;' 
the  Spanish  :  Las  aguas  se  secaron,  '  the  waters  were  dried  up.'  There 
is  something  like  this  in  our  own  language  :  the  chair  (jot  broken  in  the 
scuffle.  Nay,  children  may  often  be  heard  to  use  such  a  phrase  as  the 
chair  broke  itself. 

f  Where  the  action  of  an  intransitive  verb  is  to  be  expressed  without 
mentioning  the  nominative,  the  artifice  of  supposing  the  action  to  proceed 
from  the  object  is  of  course  impracticable,  because  an  intransitive  verb 
has  no  object.  Here  a  second  artifice  is  adopted,  and  the  action  is  sup- 
posed to  proceed  from  itself ;  thus,  nocetur,  literally  translated,  is  *  damage 
does  itself.' 

J  In  Italian,  si  dice ;  in  Spanish,  se  dize.  In  German  it  is  expressed 
by  man  sayt,  'man  says;'  from  which  the  French  have  literally  translated 
their  on  dit,  originally  horn  dit. 


VERBS. 


385  A  static  verb  denotes  a  state  :  as,  6s-  be,  dormi-  sleep,  iace-  lie, 
uiglla-  be  awake,  m6tu-/mr. 

386  Static  verbs  generally  end  in  e,  by  which  they  are  sometimes 
distinguished  from  active  verbs  of  nearly  the  same  form  and 
meaning:  as, 

iac-  or  iaci-  throw,  iace-  lie. 

pend-  hang  or  *M*p«n</,  pende-  hang  or  5<?  suspended. 

sld-  (side-re)  a%A*  or  *w£,  sede-  sit  or  fe  smted. 

cap-  or  capi-  tafc,  h^be-  hold  or  Aat*. 
possld-          enter  upon  possession,        posslde-  possess. 

feru-  boil,  ferue-  fo  Miny  /ictf. 

[cand-  set  on  fire],  cande-  Jta,  &  cale-  fo  Ac*, 

tend-  stretch,  strain,  tene-  hold  tight. 

alba-  whiten,  albe-  be  white. 

387  A  static  imperfect  is  nearly  equivalent  to  the  perfect  of  an 
active  :  as,  possedlt  Ae  7i«s  taken  possession,  and  possldet  A<J  pos- 
sesses or  is  i?i  possession;  possederat  he  had  taken  possession,  and 
possidebat  he  possessed  or  was  in  possession;  possederit  he  will 
have  taken  possession,  and  possidebit  he  will  possess  or  be  in  pos- 


session, 


388  Hence  many  static  verbs  in  e  have  no  perfect ;  and  even  in 
those  which  appear  to  have  one,  the  perfect  by  its  meaning  seems 
to  belong  to  an  active  verb.     Thus  frige-  be  cold  is  said  to  have 
a  perfect  frix-.     The  compound  rSfrixit  does  exist,  but  not  with 
a  static  meaning :  thus  uinum  rgfrixit  the  wine  got  or  has  got 
cold  again.     The  form  of  the  perfect  itself  implies  a  present  re- 
frig-,  not  refrlge-. 

389  Hence  two  perfects  from  active  verbs  are  translated  as  static 
imperfects :  as,  gno-  or  gno-sc-  examine,  whence  perf.  gnouit  he 
has  examined  or  he  knows,  gnougrat  he  had  examined  or  he  knew; 
consue-  or  consuesc-  acquire  a  habit  or  accustom  oneself,  whence 
perf.  consueuit  he  has  acquired  the  habit  or  is  accustomed,  consue- 
uerat  he  had  acquired  the  habit  or  was  accustomed. 

390  Two  verbs  have  only  the  perfect  in  use,  and  these  translated 
by  English  imperfects  of  static  meaning,  viz.  od-*,  memln-,  whence 
odit  he  hates,    oderat  he  hated,  odgrlt  he  will  hate;    mgmlnit  he 

*  These  imply  an  imperfect  crude  form  U-  or  odi-  '  take  an  aversion 
to,'  whence  odio-  sb.  n. «  hatred  ;'  and  men-  'mind'  or  '  notice,'  whence  the 
sb.  f.  men-ti-  or  ment-  '  mind.' 


62  ,  VERBS. 

remembers,  mSmlngrat  he  remembered,  memlngiit  he  will  remem- 
ber. 

391  Static  verbs  are  for  the  most  part  intransitive ;  but  some  are 
transitive,  as  those  which  denote  possession,  habe-  hold,  tgne-  hold 
tight,  keep,  posslde-  possess,  sci-  know ;  and  verbs  of  feeling,  as, 
ama-  love,  time-  fear. 

IRREGULARITIES  OP  FORM  AND  MEANING. 

392  A  static  intransitive  has  sometimes  a  reflective  or  passive  per- 
fect.    Such  a  verb  is  commonly  called  a  Neuter -Passive :  as, 


Lai. 

English. 

Pres.  Spers. 

Perf.  3  pers.  masc. 

aude- 

dare, 

audet 

ausus  est. 

gaude- 

rejoice, 

gaudet 

gauisus  est. 

fid- 

trust, 

fldlt 

f  isus  est. 

s61e- 

be  wont, 

sSlet 

solitus  est. 

393  To  the  same  class  belong  several  impersonal  verbs  of  feeling, 
&c.  :  viz. 

mlsSre-  denoting  pity,  mlsSret  mlsgrltum  or  mfsertum  est. 

piide-  „  shame,  pudet  puduit  or  pudltum  est. 

plge-  ,,  reluctance,  plget  plguit  or  plgltum  est. 

taede-  ,,  weariness,  taedet  taeduit  or  per-taesum  est. 

lube-  „  pleasure,  lubet  liibuit  or  lubltum  est. 

pl&ce-  „  approbation,  placet  placuit  or  pl^citum  est. 

lice-  ,,  permission,  licet  Hcuit  or  llcltum  est. 

394  Some  transitive  verbs  are  used  without  a  reflective  pronoun  or 
suffix,  yet  with  a  reflective  or  intransitive  meaning :  as,  fortunS, 
MQri^r^i  fortune  had  turned  i.e.  had  turned  herself.    In  these  cases 
the  pronouns  me,  te,  se  &c.  are  said  to  be  understood. 

395  This  use  of  a  transitive  form  with  a  reflective  or  intransitive 
meaning  is  more  common  in  the  perfect  tenses  :  as,  rguortitur  he 
returns,  rguortebatur  he  was  returning,  rguortetur  he  will  return; 
but  reuertit  he  has  returned,  rguertgrat  he  had  returned,  rSuertgrlt 
he  will  have  returned.     So  deuortltur  he  turns  out  of  the  road  into 
an  inn,  but  deuertit  (perf.)  he  has  done  so  ;  planglttir  he  beats  him- 
self, but  planxit  he  has  beaten  himself. 

396  Some  of  the  principal  verbs  which  are  thus  used  with  both 
a  transitive,  and  reflective  or  intransitive  meaning,  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 


VERBS. 


Lat.       Trans. 
in  Sue-  move, 
auge-  increase, 
laxa- 
laua- 

muta-  change, 
sta-     set  up, 
ru- 


Intrans. 
move, 
increase, 
get  loose. 


put  in  violent  rush, 
motion, 


Lat. 

plang- 
inclpi- 
inclina- 


Trans. 


slant, 
keep  away, 
again, 


Intrans, 
beat  oneself, 
begin, 
slant, 
abstain, 
relax. 


wash.       abstine- 

change.    remit- 

stand.       suppSdlta-  keep  filling  up,  abound. 

praecipIta-ZArow  headlong,  rush  head- 
long.'*' 

397  In  some  verbs  the  transitive  meaning,  though  originally  be- 
longing to  the  word,  has  become  nearly  or  quite  obsolete,  as  in 
prSpera-  hasten,  trans,  or  in  trans.,  propinqua-  make  near  or  ap- 
proach. 

398  The  reflective  form  seems  to  have  been  originally  given  to  some 
verbs  to  denote  reciprocal  action  :  as, 


amplect-imiir   we  embrace  each  other. 


conulcia-mur  we  abuse  each  other. 

fabula-mur  we  talk  together. 

loqu-imiir  we  talk  together. 

lucta-mur  we  wrestle  together. 

oscula-mur  we  kiss  each  other. 


parti-miir 


rixa-mur 
sola-miir 
sorti-mur 
sauia-miir 


we  share  together. 
r 'we  fight  each  other, 
we  snarl  at  each  other, 
we  comfort  each  other, 
we  cast  lots  together, 
we  kiss  each  other. 

399  Many  reflective  verbs  are  translated  by  an  English  intransitive  : 
as,  pr5flc-isc-  (r.)  set  out,  laeta-  (r.)  rejoice,  which  have  still  a  re- 
flective sense.     These  are  called  Intransitive  Deponents. 

400  Many  reflective  verbs  have  so  far  thrown  off  the  reflective 
meaning,  that  they  are  translated  by  an  English  transitive  and 
take  a  new  accusative  :  as,  mira-  (r.)  admire,  ugre-  (r.)  fear,  am- 
plect-  (r.)  embrace,  indu-  (r.)  clothe  oneself,  put  on,  sgqu-  (r.)  follow, 
Imita-  (r.)  make  onself  like,  imitate.     These  are  called  Transitive 
Deponents. 

401  Some  intransitive  verbs,  by  a  slight  change  of  meaning,  are 
used  transitively :  as,  from  horre-  bristle  or  shudder,  horret  t6n6- 
bras  he  dreads  the  dark;  m&ne-  wait,  mSnet  aduentum  ems  he  awaits 
his  arrival;  Sle-  smell,  51et  unguenta  he  smells  of  perfumes.     This 

*  It  is  in  this  way  that  ft-,  only  a  shortened  form  of  fad-,  first  sig- 
nified 'make  myself,' and  then 'become'  or 'am  made.'  It  is  indeed  pro- 
bable that  the  c  in  J 'ado  was  not  always  pronounced.  This  would  account 
for  its  disappearance  in  the  Italian  infinitive  fare  and  French  faire;  and 
would  also  account  for  the  fact  that./?  is  commonly  long  before  a  vowel, 
as/i-o  '  I  am  made,'  for/ai-o. 


64  VERBS. 

is  particularly  the  case  with  some  neuter  pronouns  :    as,  from 
labora-  labour •,  id  l&borat  he  is  labouring  at  this.     (See  §  909.) 

402  Intransitive  verbs  may  have  an  accusative  of  a  noun  which  has 
the  same  meaning  :  as,  uitam  iucundam  uluit  he  is  living  a  de- 
lightful life.     This  is  called  the  Cognate  Accusative  (§  894). 

403  Intransitive  verbs  when  compounded  sometimes  become  transi- 
tive :   as,  ufid-*  go,  euad-  go  out,  escape;    whence  euadgre  peri- 
ciilo  or  ex  perlculo  to  make  one's  way  out  of  danger,  or  guadSre 
periculum  to'  escape  danger ; —  ueni-  come,   conueni-  come  toge- 
ther, meet;  whence  conuenire  Sliquem  to  meet  one,  to  go  and  see 
a  person; — grad-  or  gradi-  (r.)  march,  egrgd-  or  egredi-   (r.) 
march  out,  leave;  whence  egredi  urbg  or  ex  urbg  to  march  out  of 
the  city,  or  egredi  urbem  to  leave  the  city. 

404  Some  transitive  verbs  when  compounded  take  a  new  transitive 
sense,  nearly  allied  to  the  original  meaning,  and  thus  have  a  double 
construction  :    as,  da-  put,    circumda-  put  round  or  surround ; 
whence  circumdare  murum  urbl  to  throw  a  wall  round  the  city,  or 
circumdare  urbem  muro  to   surround  the  city  with  a  wall ;  — 
ser-  sow  or  plant,  inser-  plant  in,  graft ;  whence  inse're're'  plrum 
orno  (dat.)  to  graft  a  pear  on  a  wild  ash,  or  inserere  ornum  piro 
(abl.)  to  engraft  a  wild  ash  with  a  pear; —  du-  put,  indu-  put 
on,  clothe  ;  indue're  uestem  Slicu!  to  put  a  dress  on  one,  or  indue're 
Sllquem  uestg  to  clothe  one  with  a  dress. 

405  The  verb  then  has  two  forms  or  voices  :  the  simple  voice  (com- 
monly called  the  active),  which  does  not  take  the  reflective  suf- 
fix; the  reflective  voice  (commonly  called  the  passive),  which  does 
take  it. 

PERSONAL  SUFFIXES  TO  VERBS. 

406  In  English  the  pronouns  I,  you  or  thou,  he,  she,  it,  &c.  are 
prefixed  to  a  verb.    In  Latin,  as  in  Greek,  little  syllables  with  the 
same  meaning  are  attached  to  the  end  of  a  verb  so  as  to  form  one 
word  with  it. 

407  The  Greek  verb  in  its  oldest  shape  formed  from  the  pronouns 
me-  me,  su-  or  tu-  thou,  and  to-  this,  the  three  suffixes  ml,  si,  tl, 
or,  with  a  short  vowel  prefixed,  6ml,  <M,  etl.^     Now  the  Latin  lan- 
guage has  its  personal  suffixes  not  unlike  these  :  viz.  dm,  Is,  It. 

*  See  §451.1. 

f  Compare  the  old  verb  6t/«  (e<r-/Ki),  eo--<rt,  e<r-n,  with  the  old  reflec- 
tive verb  Tt/TTT-o/i-ot,  rvirr-eff-ai, 


VERBS.  65 

408  The  suffix  dm,  belonging  to  the  first  person,  is  but  little  altered 
in  sum  (=gs-urn)  I  am,  or  in  inqu-am*  I  say. 

409  More  commonly  the  suffix  om  undergoes  one  of  two  changes. 
Either  the  m  is  lost,  as,  scrlb-o  /  write,  for  scrlb'omf ;  or,  if  a 
vowel  precede,  the  o  sometimes  disappears,  leaving  the  m,  as, 
scrlbeba'm  /  was  writing. 

410  The  final  o  of  the  first  person  is  always  long  in  Virgilt,  but 
common  in  later  poets. 

411  The  suffixes  of  the  second  person,  te§,  and  of  the  third  person, 
It,  also  lose  their  vowel,  if  the  verb  itself  end  in  one.     Thus, 
scrlb-Is  you  write,  and  scrib-it  he  writes  ;  but  scrlbeba's  you  were 
writing,   Sra's  you  plough,    scrlbeba't  he  was  writing,    Sra't    he 
ploughs.     So  also  the  t  is  lost  in  fers  you  bring,  fert  he  brings  ;  es 
(for  Ss-Xs)  you  are,  est  he  is  ;  and  uolt  he  wishes. 

412  When  the  suffix  tt  thus  loses  its  vowel  by  contraction,  as, 
&ra-Xt,  £rat  he  ploughs,  it  might  be  expected  that  the  syllable 
would  be  long  ;  but  it  is  in  fact  nearly  always  short.     Still  in  the 
reflective  the  right  quantity  is  preserved,  scrlbebat-iir,  S,rat-ur; 
and  the  old  poets,  including  even  Virgil,  have  examples  of  a  long 
quantity  in  such  words  as  versat,  augeat,  accldet. 

413  The  form  of  the  second  person  suffix  in  the  perfect  is  tl  for  tu : 
as,  sci  ipsis-tl  you  have  written. 

414  The  suffixes  of  plurality  for  the  nouns  were  s  and  um.     (See 
§  52.)     Those  employed  for  the  verbs  are  nearly  the  same. 

415  From  time  and  s  is  formed  the  double  suffix  times  '  we'  for  the 
old  Greek  verb.     The  old  Latin  prefers  umiis,  as  in  u51-umtis  we 
wish,  sumus  (=Ss-umiis)  we  are,  quaes-umus  we  ask.     Commonly 
fonus  is  written,  as  scrib-imus  we  write.\\ 

*  The  English  language  still  retains  a  trace  of  the  first  person  suffix 
in  the  verb  am.  See  also  §  1158.  1,  note  -t,  about  sciain, 

f  See  the  adverbs  of  motion  towards,  where  om  final  is  similarly 
reduced  to  o. 

£  Spondeo  and  nescio  appear  to  have  a  short  o  in  Virgil,  but  in  reality 
are  to  be  considered  as  words  of  two  syllables,  spondo  or  spondyo  and 
nescyo.  Scio  in  Italian  has  become  so. 

§  The  English  language  still  retains  its  suffix  of  the  second  person 
est,  and  of  the  third  person  eth  or  s,  as  in  sendest  and  sendeth  or  sends. 

II  See  the  same  interchange  of  un  us  and  imus  in  the  superlatives 
(§  242),  and  in  the  ordinal  numerals  (§  252).  Nay  the  Emperor  Au- 
gustus wrote  simus  (i.e.  simus)  for  sumus  in  the  indicative. 


W  YERBS. 

416  The  %  is  lost  after  a  vowel :  as,  scribeba-miis  we  were  writing, 
a>a-mus  we  plough. 

417  From  tu  or  ti  and  s  is  formed  the  double  suffix  tis  'you'  (pi.)  j 
or,  with  a  short  vowel  prefixed,  ttfe:  as,  scrib-Itis  you  (pi.)  write. 

418  The  prefixed  i  is  lost  after  a  vowel :  as,  sorlbeba-tls  you  (pi.) 
were  writing,  ara-tls  yow  (pi.)  plough.     So  also  in  es-tis  you  are, 
fer-tls  you  briny,  and  uol-tis  you  wish. 

419  The  syllable  attached  to  the  verb  to  form  the  third  person 
plural  is  unt :  as,  scrib-uut  they  write. 

420  The  u  is  always  lost  if  the  verb  end  in  a  or  e,  and  sometimes 
if  it  end  in  i.     Thus,  scrlbeba-nt  they  were  writing,  scrlbe-nt  they 
will  write,  scripseri-nt  they  will  have  written ;  but  audi-unt  they 
Jiear. 

421  In  the  imperative  mood  the  suffixes  of  the  second  person  sin- 
gular and  plural  change  the  &  into  £,  and  tils  into  lt& :  as,  scrib-e 
and  scrlb-itS  write,  scribito-tS  ye  shall  write.* 

422  The  final  e  is  lost  after  a  vowel :  as,  &ra  plough ;  also  in  fSr 
bring,  fac  make,  die  say,  due  lead,  es  be. 

MOODS,  <fec. 

423  The  indicative  mood  is  used  for  the  main  verb  of  a  sentence, 
whether  it  be  affirmative,  negative,  or  interrogative.     It  is  also 
used  in  some  secondary  sentences. 

The  indicative  mood  has  no  special  suffix. 

424  The  imperative  mood  commands.     Its  suffix  in  the  future  tense 
is  the  syllable  to  or  ito :  as,  scrib-ito  thou  shalt  write. 

426  The  two  tenses  of  the  imperative  are  commonly  united  as  one. 

427  The  subjunctive  mood,  as  its  name  implies,  is  used  in  second- 
ary sentences  subjoined  to  the  main  verb. 

428  In  some  sentences  it  is  not  uncommon  to  omit  the  main  verb, 
and  then  the  subjunctive  mood  seems  to  signify  power,  permission, 
duty,  wisli,  purpose,  result,  allegation,  hypothesis;  whereas  in  fact 
these  notions  rather  belong  to  the  verb  which  is  not  expressed. 
Thus  the   phrase,  Quid   faciam  1  is  translated  by  What  should  I 
do  ?  or  What  ami  to  do  ?     But  the  full  phrase  is  Quid  uis  f&ciam  1 
What  do  you  wish  me  to  do  f 

*  So  in  the  Greek,  even  the  indicative  has  rvirrere  for  rinrrfris. 
Compare  also  the  double  fora  s  trisfa  and  triste,  magis  and  mage*  and 
above  all  the  second  persons  of  reflective  verbs:  uideris,  uidere ;  uiiie- 
barts,  uidebare,  &c. 


VERBS.  67 

429  The  suffix  of  the  subjunctive  mood  cannot  be  easily  separated 
from  those  of  the  subjunctive  tenses. 

430  The  infinitive  mood  is  also  used  in  secondary  sentences  sub- 
joined to  the  main  verb.     It  differs  from  the  subjunctive  in  that  it 
does  not  admit  the  personal  suffixes  to  be  added  to  it. 

431  The  suffix  of  the  infinitive  mood  is  &£  or  &r8 :  as,  es-se  to  be, 
scrlb-SrS  to  write. 

432  The  infinitive  mood  may  also  be  considered  as  a  neuter  sub- 
stantive undeclined,  but  differing  from  other  substantives  in  that 
it  has  the  construction  of  a  verb  with  a  noun  following. 

433  The  supines  are  the  accusative  and  ablative  cases  of  a  masculine 
substantive  formed  from  a  verb  with  the  suffix  Uu  or  tu.     The  ac- 
cusative supine  has  occasionally  the  construction  of  a  verb  with 
the  noun  following. 

434  The  accusative  supine  is  in  many  grammars  called  the  supine 
active ;  and  the  ablative  supine,  the  supine  passive. 

435  The  gerund  is  a  neuter  substantive  formed  from  a  verb  with 
the  suffix  endo  or  undo ;  of  which  the  first  vowel  is  lost  after  a 
and  e.    In  the  old  writers  it  has  the  construction  of  a  verb  with 
the  noun  following. 

436  A  participle  is  an  adjective  in  form,  but  differs  from  adjectives, 
first,  because  an  adjective  speaks  of  a  quality  generally,  while  a 
participle  speaks  of  an  act  or  state  at  a  particular  time ;  secondly, 
because  a  participle  has  the  construction  of  a  verb  with  the  noun 
following. 


ON  TENSES  IN  GENERAL. 

437  Tense  is  another  word  for  time.     There  are  three  tenses  :  past, 
present,  and  future. 

438  The  past  and  future  are  boundless ;  the  present  is  but  a  point 
of  time. 

439  As  an  act  may  be  either  past,  present,  or  future,  with  respect 
to  the  present  moment,  so  yesterday  had  its  past,  present,   and 
future;   and  to-morrow  again  will  have  its  past,  present,    and 
future. 

Thus,  first  in  reference  to  the  present  moment,  we  have :  Past, 
he  has  written  to  A;  Pres.  he  is  writing  to  B;  Fut.  he  is  going  to 
write  to  C. 

Secondly,  in  reference  to  yesterday  or  any  other  moment  now 


68 


VERBS. 


gone  by  :  Past,  he  had  written  to  D;  Pres.  he  was  writing  to  E; 
Fut.  he  was  going  to  write  to  F. 

Thirdly,  in  reference  to  tomorrow  or  any  moment  not  yet 
arrived  :  Past,  he  will  have  written  to  G  ;  Pres.  he  will  be  writing 
to  H;  Fut.  he  will  be  going  to  write  to  I. 

440  Or  the  same  ideas  may  be  arranged  as  follows  : 

Action  finished,  or  perfect  :  at  a  past  time,  he  had  written  to 
D;  at  the  present  moment,  he  has  written  to  A;  at  a  future  time, 
he  will  have  ivritten  to  G. 

Action  going  on,  or  imperfect:  at  a  past  time,  he  was  writing 
to  E  ;  at  the  present  moment,  he  is  writing  to  B  ;  at  a  future  time, 
he  will  be  writing  to  H. 

Action  intended  :  at  a  past  time,  he  was  going  to  write  to  F  ; 
at  the  present  moment,  he  is  going  to  write  to  C  ;  at  a  future  time, 
he  will  be  goiny  to  write  to  I. 

441  Or  lastly,  the  same  ideas  may  be  represented  by  the  lines  in 


the  following  diagram  : 


PAST  TIME. 

y 


FUTURE  TIME. 
t 


f 


k* 


P 


A  point  in  the  vertical  line  pp  denotes  present  time  ;  a  point 
in  yy  denotes  yesterday  or  some  past  time  ;  a  point  in  tt,  tomor- 
row or  some  future  time. 

The  several  horizontal  lines  a,  b,  c,  &c.  denote  the  time  occu- 
pied in  writing  to  A,  £,  C,  &c.  respectively.  Thus, 

a  is  wholly  to  the  left  of  pp,  and  signifies  he  has  written  —  pre- 
sent perfect. 


TEBBS.  69 

b  partly  on  the  left,  partly  on  the  right :  he  is  writing— present 
imperfect. 

c  wholly  to  the  right  :  he  is  going  to  write — present  intention. 

d  wholly  to  the  left  of  yy :  he  had  written  at  time  y — past  per- 
fect. 

e  partly  on  the  left,  partly  on  the  right :  he  was  writing  at  time 
y — past  imperfect. 

/  wholly  to  the  right :  at  time  y  he  was  going  to  write — past 
intention. 

g  wholly  to  the  left  of  tt :  he  will  have  written  at  time  t — future 
perfect. 

h  partly  on  the  left,  partly  on  the  right :  he  will  be  writing  at 
time  £— future  imperfect. 

i  wholly  to  the  right :  at  time  t  he  will  be  going  to  write — future 
intention. 

442  The  word  '  perfect'  in  all  these  phrases  means  relatively  past : 
thus  the  present  perfect  is  past,  the  past  perfect  was  past,  the 
future  perfect  will  be  past. 

443  Again,  the  perfect  tenses  are  used  for  events  recently  past,  the 
consequences  still  remaining.     I  have  passed  a  good  night,  and  feel 
refreshed;  he  had  had  his  breakfast,  and  was  putting  on  his  boots  ; 
you  will  then  have  finished  your  letter,  and  will  be  ready  to  walk  with 
me.     But  we  cannot  say,  William  the  Conqueror  has  died  in  Nor- 


444  So  also  the  tenses  of  intention  apply  to  a  time  soon  to  arrive. 

445  The  aorist,  he  wrote,  is  not  thus  limited  ;  it  may  be  applied  to 
any  past  time  ;  as,  Cicero  wrote  a  history  of  his  consulship.  It  does 
not,  like  the  past  tenses  which  we  have  been  considering,  stand  in 
any  relation  to  any  other  point  of  time.     The  consequences  of  the 
act  are  not  alluded  to,  as  in  the  perfects  ;  nor  the  duration  of  the 
act  spoken  of,  as  in  the  imperfects.     On  the  contrary,  the  aorist 
treats  the  act  as  a  mere  point  of  past  time. 

446  In  the  diagram  the  aorist  may  be  represented  by  the  point  Jc. 

447  The  simple  future,  he  will  write,  corresponds  in  general  cha- 
racter to  the  aorist  of  past  time.     It  is  equally  independent  of 
other  points  of  future  time,  and  speaks  of  the  act  as  momentary. 

448  In  the  diagram  the  future  may  be  represented  by  the  point  /. 

449  If  the  simple  present  were  strictly  limited  to  the  mere  point  of 
time  which  belongs  to  it,  it  would  seldom  be  used  ;  but  this,  like 
some  of  the  other  tenses,  is  employed  to  denote  a  state  of  things, 


TERB5. 


customs,  general  truths,  <fcc.,  the  duration  of  which  in  fact  is  not 
limited  to  a  mere  moment.* 

450       The  true  present  may  be  represented  in  the  diagram  by  the 
point  m  in  pp. 


TENSES  OF  THE  LATIN  VERB. 

451  The  Latin  indicative  has  six  leading  tenses: — three  perfect 
tenses,  and  three  which,  for  convenience,  but  somewhat  inaccu- 
ratelyf,  are  called  imperfects  ;  viz.  the  present,  the  past-imperfect, 
the  future ;  the  present-perfect,  the  past-perfect,  the  future-per- 
fect. 

451.1  The  C.P.  of  a  verb  is  often  strengthened  for  the  imperfect 
tenses  :  (a.)  by  lengthening  the  vowel :  thus,  die-  say,  due-  lead, 
fid-  trust,  become  in  the  imperfect  tenses  die-,  due-,  fid-,  (b.)  by 
doubling  the  final  consonant :  thus,  mlt-  let  go,  cur-  run,  uer- 
sweep,  become  mitt-,  curr-,  uerr-.  (c.)  by  substituting  two  conso- 
nants for  the  final  consonant :  thus,  rup-  burst,  scld-  tear,  t6n- 
stretch,  become  rump-,  scind-,  tend-. 

452  The  present  has  no  tense  suffix  :  as,  scrib-  write,  scrlblt  he 
writes. 

433  When  an  affirmation  is  made  with  emphasis,  also  in  nega- 
tive and  interrogative  phrases,  the  verb  do  is  commonly  used  in 
the  translation  :  as,  he  does  write ;  he  does  not  write ;  does  he 
write  ? 

454  The  present-imperfect  has  the  same  form  in  Latin  :  as,  scrlbit 
he  is  writing. 

*  An  example  of  the  true  present,  as  applied  to  acts,  occurs  in  Ivan- 
hoe  (c.  xxix.),  where  the  agitated  Rebecca,  standing  at  the  lattice,  re- 
ports to  the  sick  knight  the  proceedings  of  the  siege.  "  He  blenches  not, 
he  blenches  not !"  said  Rebecca.  "  I  see  him  now  ;  he  leads  a  body  of 
men  close  under  the  outer  barrier  of  the  barbican.  They  pull  down  the 
piles  and  palisades ;  they  hew  down  the  barriers  with  axes.  His  high 
black  plume  floats  abroad  over  the  throng,  like  a  raven  over  the  field  of 
the  slain.  They  have  made  a  breach  in  the  barriers  !  they  rush  in  !  they 
are  thrust  back  !  Front-de-Bceuf  heads  the  defenders;  I  see  his  gigantic 
form  above  the  press.  They  throng  again  to  the  breach,  and  the  pass  is 
disputed  hand  to  hand  and  man  to  man.  God  of  Jacob  !  it  is  the  meet- 
ing of  two  fierce  tides — the  conflict  of  two  oceans  moved  by  adverse 
winds."  Such  a  use  of  the  true  present  can  only  be  looked  for  in  dra- 
matic writing.  The  historic  present,  as  it  is  called,  is  an  imitation  of  this 
dramatic  excitement. 

f  Inaccurately,  see  §  469. 


VERBS.  71 

455  The  present  is  sometimes  employed  in  past  narrative,  both  in 
English  and  Latin,  as  if  the  scene  described  were  passing  before 
one's  eyes.     This  is  called  the  historic  present :  as,  he  tlien  plunges 
into  the  river,  swims  across,  and  seeks  tJie  tent  of  the  king. 

456  The  present  is  also  used  in  Latin  when  a  state  has  continued 
for  some  time  and  still  exists :  as,  iam  tris  inensls  Sbest  he  has 
been  absent  now  three  months. 

457  The  present  in  Latin  sometimes  denotes  not  even  the  begin- 
ning of  an  act,  but  only  the  purpose,  when  the  mind  alone  is  em- 
ployed upon  it,  or  the  matter  at  best  is  only  in  preparation  :  as, 
uxorem  ducit  he  is  going  to  be  married. 

458  On  the  other  hand,  the  present  is  at  times  used  in  Latin  after 
certain  conjunctions  when  past  time  is  in  fact  meant  :  as, 

A.  Quid  pater,   uiuitne  ?      B.  Viuom,   quom  inde   abimus,* 

liquimus  (Plant.  Capt.  n.  2.  32). 
A.  Well  and  your  father,  is  he  living  ?    B.  We  left  him  alive, 

when  we  came  away. 
Dum  studeo  obsequi  tibi,  paene  inlusi  uitam  filiae  (Ter.  And. 

v.  1.3). 
While  I  have  endeavouredf  to  oblige  you,  I  have  almost  trifled 

away  my  daughter's  life. 

So  also  with  postquam,  ubi,  and  tit,  when  they  signify  the  moment 
that. 

459  The  past-imperfect  has  the  suffix  eba  :  as,  scrlbeba-  was  writ- 
ing, scrlbebat  he  was  writing. 

460  But  the  e  of  eba  is  lost  after  the  vowels  a  and  e  :  as,  ara'bat  he 
was  ploughing,  dSce'bat  he  was  teaching.     While  after  the  vowels 
i  and  u  the  e  is  commonly  left :  as,  ueni-ebat  he  ivas  coming,  acu- 
Sbat  he  was  sharpening. 

4C1  The  verb  i-  go  loses  the  e :  as,  I'bat  he  was  going.  The  old 
writers  and  the  poets  often  use  this  contracted  form  with  other 
verbs  in  i :  as,  molli'bat  he  was  softening. 

462  Sometimes  this  tense  is  expressed  in  English  by  the  simple 
past  tense,  he  wrote.  Thus,  in  answer  to  the  question,  What  used 
to  be  his  duties  in  the  counting-house  ?  the  reply  might  be,  He 
wrote  the  foreign  letters.  This  would  be  expressed  in  the  Latin 
by  the  tense  in  eba,  because  a  continued  state  of  things  is  meant, 

*  In  editions  generally  abiirmts^  which  is  against  the  metre  (abyimus, 
see  §  25).     Some  Mss.  at  any  rate  have  abimus  ;  and  see  §  1455  e. 
f  Or,  '  In  my  endeavours.' 


72  VERBS. 

scrlb-ebat  he  used  to  write,  he  always  wrote.  The  Latin  aorist  would 
speak  only  of  one  act :  He  wrote  the  foreign  letters  on  a  particular 
occasion,  scripsit. 

463  The  use  of  the  English  simple  past  tense  for  a  continued  state 
of  things  is  very  common  with  verbs  of  static  meaning  (see  §  385) : 
as,  he  sat  (all  the  time)  on  a  rock ;  lie  loved  frank  and  open  con- 
duct. 

464  The  past-imperfect  is  also  used  in  Latin  when  a  state  had  con- 
tinued for  some  time,  and  still  existed  at  the  moment  spoken  of : 
as,  iam  tris  mensis  ciberat  he  had  been  absent  then  three  months. 

465  The  past-imperfect  sometimes  denotes  only  a  past  purpose,  or 
that  a   matter  was  in  preparation  :   as,  uxorem  ducebat  he  was 
going  to  be  married. 

466  The  simple  future  appears  to  have  had  for  its  suffix  the  syllable 
ah,  which  however  loses  its  vowel  after  verbs  in  a  or  e,  and  its 
consonant*  after  verbs  ending  in  a  consonant,  i,  or  u.      Thus 
from  verbs  in  a  and  e  we  have,  ara'b-  will  plough,  ara'b-It  he 
will  plough;  dSce'b-  will  teach,  dSce'b-It  he  will  teach.^ 

4(57  Those  verbs  which  retain  only  the  vowel  prefer  a  for  the  first 
person  singular,  and  e  for  the  rest  :  as,  scrlb-a'm  1  shall  lorite, 
scrlb-e's  you  will  write,  scrlb-e't  he  will  write,  &c. 

468  The  verbs  in  i,  according  to  the  preceding  rules,  form  the 
future  with  a  or  e     as,  audi-a'm  /  shall  hear,  audi-e's  you  will 
hear,  <fcc.     But  the  verb  i-  go  prefers  the  future  in  b :  as,  1'b-it 
he  will  go.    In  the  old  writers  many  other  verbs  in  i  have  a  future 
of  the  same  shape  :  as,  scl'b-it  he  will  know. 

469  The  Latin  future  from  an  active  verb  is  not  an  imperfect  future  ; 
thus  scribet  signifies  he  will  write,  not  he  will  be  writing. 

*  The  loss  of  a  b  has  been  seen  already  in  the  datives  of  nouns. 

f  To  the  doctrines  of  §  459-61,  466-8,  I  now  prefer  the  following: 
Scibam,  scibo,  are  older  than  sciebam*  sciam ;  dicebo  (Naev.)  than  dicam. 
The  a  of  am-ab-a-m,  ten-eb-a-m,  sc-ib-a-m  (for  sec-ib-am — where  sec= 
seh-  of  German  seh-en,  our  see)  marks  past  time,  as  in  er-a-m.  The  ab 
eb  if)  here,  as  in  amabo  tenebo  dicebo  scibo,  denote  imperfect  action.  But 
an  imperfect  pres.  is  akin  to  a  fut,  So  er-o  is  in  form  a  pres.  The  Keltic 
(Manx)  has  a  general  suffix  of  this  power  in  agh,  which  plays  a  great 
part  in  Latin  too,  as  tr-ah-  (  =  German  trag-en)  '  bear'  for  tol-agh,  from 
tol-  (tollo) ;  also  in  Greek,  as  7eA-a(x)-,  fut.  y€\a£ct),  our  'laugh.  Here 
ffh=f.  So  7pa<£-  for  yap-a^)-.  But  Greek  <p  =  Latin  b.  Hence  dol-ab-ra-, 
voc-ab-ulo-,  am-ab-ili-,  plor-ab-nndo-.  The  suffix-vowel,  assimilated  to 
root,  gives  t->r-eb-ra  t(e)r-ib-ulo-  (rpi/3-),  gem-eb-undo-,  rid-ib-undo-, 
lug-ub-ri-,  vol-ub-ili- ;  and  with  final  consonant  lost  we  have  am-a',  ten-e', 
>Vi',  sol-u'.  See  Appendix  II.  p.  439,  &c. 


VEHBS.  /«5 

470  The  perfect  tenses  are  formed  by  the  addition  of  certain  suf- 
fixes to  a  crude  form  of  the  perfect. 

471  A  crude  form  of  the  perfect  is  formed  from  the  simple  verb  in 
three  different  ways : 

a.  By  reduplication,  that  is,  by  prefixing  to  the  verb  a  syllable 
more  or  less  like  the  verb  itself  :  as,  morde-  bite,  momord-  or  me- 
mord-  bit ;  tend-  stretch,  tetend-  stretched* 

b.  By  a  long  vowel :  as,  fac-  or  faci-  make,  fee-  made ;  uSn-  or 
uSni-  come,  uen-  came.\ 

c.  By  s  suffixed  :  as,  scrlb-  write,  scrips-  wrote  ;  die-  say,  dix- 
said. 

d.  But  many  verbs,  including  nearly  all  those  which  end  in  a 
vowel,  abstain  from  all  these  three  changes. 

472  All  the  perfect  tenses  of  the  three1  moods,  indicative,  subjunc- 
tive and  infinitive,  were  formed  by  adding  the  tens.es  of  the  verb 
es-  be.     This  is  clearly  seen  in  all  but  the  present-perfect^  of  the 
indicative,  and  partly  even  here  ;  as, 

*  The  English  language  appears  to  have  an  example  of  this  formation 
in  what  we  may  perhaps  call  one  of  its  oldest  verbs,  do,  perf.  did,  the 
original  meaning  of  which  verb  was  '  put,'  whence  d?on  *  put  on,'  d'off 
'  put  off,'  d'out  '  put  out.'  The  German  compounds  of  thu"n  would 
confirm  this  view  of  the  meaning.  Thus  our  English  verb  corresponds 
to  a  Latin  verb  of  kindred  form  and  meaning,  viz.  da-  '  put'  (for  such  is 
its  meaning),  perf.  ded-.  The  Gothic  abounds  in  perfects  of  reduplica- 
tion :  as,  halt  '  call,'  perf.  haihait  '  called  ;'  skaid  4  separate,'  perf.  skai- 
skaid  'separated.' 

f  This  formation  also  has  its  parallel  in  the  English  come,  perf.  came. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  the  long-vowel  perfects  originated  in  reduplica- 
tion :  as,  ueni-  '  come,'  perf.  ueuen-  contracted  into  uen-  '  came ;'  dg- 
'  drive,'  aag-  contracted  into  eg-  'drove.'  The  last  contraction  is  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  occurs  in  the  subj.  pres.  of  the  verb  ama-  '  love,'  C.F. 
amaa-  umc-,  3d  pers.  amaat,  amet.  Compare  also  the  so-called  temporal 
augment  of  Greek  verbs. 

£  In  some  parts  of  the  present- perfect  irregularities  conceal  the  con- 
nection of  the  terminations  with  the  present  tense  of  es-  '  be.'  Yet  the 
,  singular  scrips-isti  '  thou  hast  written'  corresponds  with  great  precision 
to  the  plural  scrips-isCis  '  you  have  written.'  Again,  in  the  third  person 
singular  there  is  something  peculiar  in  the  occasional  length  of  the  suffix 
it,  as  uendidlt  Plant.  Capt.  prol.  9,  perrupit  Hor.  Od.  i.  3.  36,  despexit 
Catul.  64.  20  ;  and  especially  in  the  compounds  of  i-  '  go,'  which  have 
this  syllable  always  long,  as  praeterilt  Ov.  A.  A.  in.  63  &64  ;  rediit  Ov. 
Her.  yi.  31  and  xin.  29;  sulmt  Hor.  Sat.  i.  9.  21,  Ov.  Met.  i.  114.  This 
peculiarity  is  accounted  for,  if  scripsit  had  an  older  form  scrips-ist  corre- 
sponding to  est  '  he  is.'  The  loss  of  the  s  in  this  position  would  resemble 
that  which  occurs  in  the  French  tense  fusse^  fusses,  jut  (old  French  fust). 
Indeed  the  s  is  silent  in  the  French  eat.  Lastly,  script  must  be  regarded 


74 


VERBS. 


INDJC.  —  Present. 
estls  you  are, 
(Ssunt*  or)  sunt  they  are, 

Past. 
gram  I  was, 


eris  ^ow  wilt  be, 

S  CJBJUNC.  —  Present. 
(6sim  or)  sim  /  am, 
(e'sis  or)  sis  ZAo-w  art, 

Past. 

essem  I  was, 
esses  thou  wert, 

INFINITIVE. 
essS  to  be, 


Present- Perfect. 

scrips-istls  you  have  written. 
scrips-eruntf  they  have  written,  &c. 

Past-Perfect. 

scrips-gram  /  had  written. 
scrips-eras  thou  hadst  written,  &c. 

Future-Perfect. 

scrips-Sro  1  shall  have  written. 
scrips-Ms  thou  wilt  have  written,  &c. 


scrips-erim  /  have  written. 
scrips-eris  thou  hast  written,  &c, 

scrips-issem  /  had  written. 
scrips-isses  thou  hadst  written,  &c. 

scrips-issS  to  have  written. 


472. 1  Many  Latin  verbs,  particularly  those  which  end  in  a,  e,  i,  or  a 
liquid,  have  a  u\  in  the  perfect  immediately  before  the  suffix 
borrowed  from  gs-  be  :  as, 

as  a  corruption  of  scripsim,  and  that  of  scrips-ism,  where  ism  would  re- 
present the  old  Latin  esum  '  I  am.'  The  loss  of  the  s  in  this  position  is 
what  has  occurred  in  the  Greek  et^it '  I  am'  for  ecr/iii,  and  in  our  own  am. 
Nay,  the  Gothic  form  is  im.  If  scripsim  then  be  admitted  as  a  theoretical 
form,  the  plural  scripsimus  is  also  explained. 

*  See  §  722. 4,  note. 

+  Though  scripserunt  is  the  ordinary  pronunciation,  the  short  penult 
is  not  rare  in  the  poets. 

J  This  u  (pronounced  as  our  w)  was  no  doubt  an  original  part  of  the 
verb  fa-  '  be,'  in  the  form  ues-.  Thus,  the  Gothic  had  vis-an  *  to  be,1  the 
Icelandic  ver-a  '  to  be.'  So  the  German  wes-en  '  existence'  is  but  an 
infinitive  mood  ;  and  from  a  form  wes  is  deduced  our  own  past  tense  was, 
precisely  as  the  Germans  form  er  las  '  he  read'  from  lcs-en  '  to  read.' 
We  have  said  that  the  original  meaning  of  esse  was  *  to  eat.'  So  the  form 
ues  also  means  to  eat  in  the  Latin  uescor '  I  feed  myself,'  whence  the  sub. 
n.  uisc-es-  '  flesh.'  In  the  old  Latin  writers  uiscera  did  not  mean  '  en- 
trails.' We  have  said  nothing  of  the  origin  of  the  suffix  s  as  seen  in 
scrip-s-  &c.  If  this  be  a  genitival  suffix  signifying  '  from,'  the  formation 
of  all  the  perfect  tenses  is  simple  enough  ;  as,  scripsi '  I  am  from  writing, 


VERBS. 


75 


:-  Jtra-  plough,  Sra-uistls  you  have  ploughed. 

dSc-e-  teach,  dtfc-uistls  you  have  taught. 

airdi-  hear,  audl-uistls  you  liave  heard. 

s8r-  put,  sSr-uistls  you  have  put. 

col-  till,  cdl-uistlg  you  have  tilled. 

ggn-  produce,  gen-uistls  you  liave  produced. 

gem-  groan,  gem-uistis  you  have  groaned. 

473  The  present-perfect  tense  of  the  Latin  is  also  used  for  an  aorist : 
as,  scripsit  he  has  written  or  he  wrote. 

474  Thus  the  English  language  confounds  the  aorist  and  past-im- 
perfect; while  the  Latin  confounds  the  aorist  and  the  present- 
perfect.    See  §  462. 

475  For  the  formation  of  the  past-perfect*  and  future-perfect,  see 
§  472. 

476  The  future-perfect  of  the  indicative  bears  a  very  close  resem- 
blance to  the  present-perfect  of  the  subjunctive.     Hence  much 
confusion  arose,  so  that  even  the  first  person  of  the  indicative 
tense  in  era  is  occasionally  found  where  a  subjunctive  in  erim  was 
to  have  been  expected.   But  the  greatest  confusion  is  in  the  quan- 
tity of  the  syllables.     As  the  future-perfect  is  formed  from  gro, 
erls,  &c.,  we  ought  to  have  had  in  the  indicative  scripse'rls,  scrip- 
sMmus,  scripseritis  :  and  on  the  other  hand,  as  the  present-per- 
fect subjunctive  is  formed  from  sim,  sis,  &c.  we  ought  to  have 
had  in  the  subjunctive  scripserlp,  scripserlmus,  scripse'ritls ;  but 
the  two  tenses  are  commonly  confounded  in  respect  of  quantity. 

477  The  perfect  tenses  of  some  intransitive  verbs  are  expressed  in 

I  have  written' ;  scripseram  '  I  was  from  writing,  I  had  written'  ;  scrip- 
sero  '  I  shall  be  from  writing,  I  shall  have  written,'  The  use  of  a  pre- 
position in  forming  tenses  is  seen  in  our  periphrastic  futures  '  I  am  to 
write,'  *  I  am  going  to  write' ;  and  also  in  our  periphrastic  present  '  I  am 
fl-writing,'  where  a  represents  the  old  preposition  an,  now  written  in.  '  I 
am  a-writing'  is  the  old  form  of  the  language,  now  corrupted  to  '  I  am 
writing.'  Compare  also  the  French  je  viens  cfecrire,  literally  '  I  come 
from  writing,'  i.  e.  '  I  have  just  written.' 

*  The  formation  of  the  past-perfect  scripseram  agrees  with  that  of 
the  Greek  ereru^ea,  which  had  once  a  <r,  ereru^eo-a-,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  third  pers.  pi.  erfTvcpeaa-v.  Thus,  the  Greek  suffix  of  this  tense 
is  eo-a  corrupted  into  eo,  and  the  Latin  is  era,  itself  a  corruption  from 
esa.  Consequently  the  two  tenses  have  the  same  suffix,  viz.  the  past 
tense  of  the  verb  es-  '  be.'  Nay,  in  the  first  person  of  the  present-perfect 
re-ry^-o  .the  a  represents  aju,  that  is  our  first  person  of  the  verb  'to  be;' 
and  probably  the  preceding  aspirate  represents  the  suffixed  s  of  scrips-, 
or  in  other  words  is  a  genitival  suffix  = '  from.' 


76  VERBS. 

English  not  only  by  the  auxiliary  verb  have,  but  also  by  the  tenses 
of  be.  Thus,  rSdilt  he  has  returned  or  he  is  returned,  redierat  he 
had  returned  or  he  was  returned,  redierlt  he  will  have  returned  or 
he  will  be  returned.  These  perfect  tenses  expressed  by  the  auxili- 
aries is,  was,  will  be,  are  often  mistaken  by  beginners  for  passives. 
But  a  little  reflection  would  of  course  satisfy  them  that  the  verbs 
in  question  do  not  admit  of  a  passive. 

478  The  perfect  tenses  are  often  expressed  in  English  without  the 
perfect  form.     Thus,  in  the  three  phrases  : 

If  a  Roman  soldier  left  his  post,  he  was  put  to  death, 
If  an  English  soldier  sleep  on  his  post,  he  is  shot, 
If  you  receive  a  letter,  you  will  send  it  on  to  me, 

the  verbs  left,  sleep,  receive,  would  be  expressed  in  Latin  by  per- 
fect tenses :  viz.  left  by  a  past-perfect ;  sleep  by  a  present-per- 
fect ;  receive  by  a  future-perfect ;  for  an  offence  precedes  in  order 
of  time  the  punishment,  and  of  course  a  letter  must  be  received 
before  it  is  forwarded.  (See  §  1159.) 

479  The  imperative  has  two  tenses,  a  present  and  a  future ;  but 
the  so-called  present  might  be  more  fitly  named  an  immediate 
future. 

480  The  imperative,  mSmento,  mementotS,  you  will  remember,  is 
derived  from  a  perfect  crude  form,  like  all  the  other  tenses  of  the 
same  verb.    (See  §  390.) 

481  The  subjunctive  mood  has  four  tenses  :  the  present,  the  past, 
the  present-perfect,  and  the  past-perfect.    Of  these,  the  two  former 
are  often  called  the  imperfect  tenses. 

482  The  subjunctive  present  has  the  suffix  d,  as  scrlb-a-,  whence 
the  third  person,  scribat.     When  the  suffix  a  follows  another  a, 
the  two  are  contracted  into  e,  as  ara-  plough,  subj.  pres.  araa- 
coutracted  into  &re-,  whence  the  third  person  aret.     An  old  suffix 
of  this  tense  was  ie  or  I,  as  sie-  or  si-  from  Ss-  be,  third  person 
siet  or  sit.     So  also  ueli-m,  noli-m,  mali-m,  gdi-in,  dui-m,  and 
perhaps  ausim,  from  the  several  verbs  uol-  wish,  nol-  be  unwilling, 
mal-  prefer,  ed-  eat,  da-  or  du-put,  aude-  dare. 

483  The  subjunctive  past  has  the  suffix  ese  or  Sre,  as  from  es-  be, 
subj.  past  es'se-,  from  scrfb-  write,  subj.  past  scribSre-,  whence 
the  third  person  esset,  scrlberet.     The  suffix  Sre  loses  its  short 
vowel  after  a,  e,  i,  as  third  person  arfi-'ret,  do'ce-'ret,  audl-'ret ; 
and  sometimes  after  a  consonant,  as  fer-'ret. 


VERBS.  77 

484        For  the  formation  of  the  perfect  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  see 
§472. 

487  The  translation  of  the  subjunctive  tenses  has  various  forms, 
which  depend  chiefly  upon  the  meaning  of  the  verb  to  which  the 
subjunctive  is  attached. 

488  If  the  preceding  words  denote  a  command,  the  subj.  pres.  and 
past  are  translated  respectively  by  shall  and  should,  or  by  to.    Im- 
pero  ut  mittat  /  command  that  he  shall  send  or  /  command  him  to 
send ;  impSraui  ut  mitte'ret  /  commanded  that  he  should  send  or 
1  commanded  him  to  send. 

489  If  the  preceding  words  denote  permission,  the  subj.  pres.  and 
past  are  translated  respectively  by  may  and  might,  or  more  com- 
monly by  to.     Concedo  ut  mittat  1  grant  that  he  may  send  or  / 
permit  him  to  send ;  concessi  ut  mitteret  I  granted  that  he  might 
send  or  I  permitted  him  to  send. 

490  If  the  preceding  words  denote  a  purpose,  the  subj.  pres.  and 
past  are  translated  respectively  by  may  and  might,  or  is  to  and 
was  to.     Ob  earn  causam  scrlbo  ut  scias  /  write  for  this  reason, 
that  you  may  know  ;  tfb  earn  causam  scripsi  ut  sclres  /  wrote  for 
this  reason,  that  you  might  know.     Mittit  qul  dlcant  he  sends  per- 
sons (who  are)  to  say  ;  rnisit  qul  dicerent  he  sent  persons  (who  were) 
to  say. 

491  When  the  preceding  words  speak  of  the  cause  which  leads  to 
the  result  expressed  in  the  following  subjunctive,  the  latter  mood 
is  translated  as  an  indicative.     Tantiis  est  terror  ut  fiigiant  so 
great  is  the  alarm  that  they  fly. 

492  The  subjunctive  in  all  its  tenses  may  be  translated  as  an  in- 
dicative in  passages  where  the  assertions  or  thoughts  of  another  are 
expressed.     Qul  scrlbat  who  is  writing  (they  say),  qul  scribSret 
who  was  writing  (they  said),  qul  scripse'rit  who  has  written  (they 
say)  or  who  wrote  (they  said),  qul  scripsisset  who  had  written  (they 
said). 

493  The  subjunctive  in  all  its  tenses,  after  certain  conjunctions, 
may  be  translated  as  an  indicative.    Quum  scrlbat  as  he  is  writing, 
quum  scribe'ret  while  he  was  writing,  quum  scripserit  as  he  has 
written,  quum  scripsisset  when  he  Jiad  written. 

494  The  subjunctive  in  all  its  tenses  may  be  translated  as  an  in- 
dicative in  indirect  interrogatives  :  as,  nescio  quid  f  aciat  /  know 
not  what  he  is  doing,  nesciebam  quid  f  Secret  /  knew  not  what  he 
was  doing,  nescio  quid  fecerit  /  know  not  what  he  has  done  or 


78  VERBS. 

what  he  did,  nesciebam  quid  fecisset  /  knew  not  what  he  had 
done. 

495  When  the  two  verbs  in  these  phrases  have  the  same  nomina- 
tive, the  meaning  is  ambiguous  :  as,  nescio  quid  faciam  /  know 
not  what  I  am  doing  or  I  know  not  what  to  do,  nescis  quid  f£cias 
you  know  not  what  you  are  doing  or  what  to  do  &c. 

496  In  hypothetical  sentences,  the  subjunctive,  which  marks  the 
condition,  is  expressed  by  English  past  tenses  :  as, 

si  scribat,  if  he  were  writing  or  were  to  write. 

si  scrlbgret,  if  he  had  been  writing. 

si  scripsSrit,  if  he  were  to  write. 

si  scripsisset,  if  he  had  written. 

497  With  verbs  of  static  meaning,  the  past  indicative  of  the  Eng- 
lish is  still  used,  but  somewhat  differently  :  as, 

si  sciat,  if  he  knew. 

si  sclret,  if  he  had  known. 

si  adsit,  if  he  were  present. 

si  adesset,  if  he  had  been  present. 

498  In  hypothetical  sentences,  the  subjunctive,  which  marks  the 
consequence,  is  translated  in  the  pres.  by  sltould  or  would,  in  the 
past  and  past-perfect  by  should  have  or  would  have :  as, 

scribat,  he  would  write. 

scrlbe'ret,  he  would  have  been  writing. 

scvipserit,  he  would  write. 

scripsisset,  he,  would  Jiave  written. 

499  In  elliptical  sentences,  with  qua" si  as  ift  tanquani  as  if  <fec.,  the 
subjunctive  is  translated  nearly  in  the  same  way :   as,  tauquam 
dormiat  as  if  he  were  asleep  (when  in  fact  he  is  not),  tanquam 
dormlret  as  if  he  had  been  asleep  (when  in  fact  he  was  not) ; 
qu&si  nunquam  antehac  proelio  adfuSrls  as  if  you  had  never  before 
this  been  present  at  a  battle  (when  in  fact  you  have  been) ;  quS-si 
nunquam  antea  proelio  adfuisset  as  if  he  had  never  before  that  been 
present  at  a  battle  (when  in  fact  lie  Iwd  been).* 

5')0        The  subjunctive  mood  has  no  special  future  tenses ;  still  all  its 

four  tenses  are  at  times  used  as  future  tenses. 
501        The  so-called  subjunctive  present  is  used  for  a  future  after 

a  pres.  or  fut. :  as,  mitto  qui  rtfgerit  1  am  tending  persons  to  ask, 

*  The  clauses  in  the  brackets  are  useful  guides  to  the  Latin  tense. 


VERBS.  79 

mittam  qui  regent  1  shall  send  persons  to  ask,  mlsl  qui  regent 
1  have  sent  persons  to  ask. 

502  The  so-called  subjunctive  past  is  used  for  a  future  after  past 
tenses :  as,  mittebam  qui  rogarent  I  was  sending  persons  to  ask, 
mlsl  qui  r&garent  /  sent  persons  to  ask,  mise'ram  qui  rflgarent 
/  had  sent  persons  to  ask. 

503  The  so-called  subjunctive  present-perfect  is  used  for  a  fut.- 
perf.  after  a  pres.  or  fut.,  and  the  so-called  subj.  past-perf.  is  used 
for  a  fut.-perf.  after  a  past.     Thus,  in  the  phrase,  is  ctfrdnam 
acclpiet  qui  primus  escendSrft  the  man  shall  receive  a  chaplet 
who  first  climbs  up,  the  word  escenderit  is  the  indicative  future- 
perfect.     But,  by  making  the  sentence  depend  upon  such  a  word 
as  dlclt  he  says,  or  dixit  he  said,  the  indicative  escende'rit  will  be 
changed  for  a  subj. :   as,  dlclt  eum  c5ronam  accepturum  qui 
primus  escenderit  he  says  that  the  man  shall  receive  a  chaplet  who 

first  climbs  up,  dixit  eum  ctfronam  accepturum  qui  primus  es- 
cendisset  he  said  that  the  man  should  receive  a  chaplet  who  first 
climbed  up. 

504  Thus,  when  the  subjunctive  perfect  tenses  are  used  as  future- 
perfects,  the  present-perf.  of  the  Latin  is  translated  by  the  Eng- 
lish ind.  pres.,  the  past-perf.  of  the  Latin  by  the  English  ind. 
past. 

505  If  then  we  unite  the  different  uses  of  the  tenses  in  the  sub- 
junctive as  so  far  explained,  we  shall  have — 

Tense  in  a  Pres.  or  Fut.  after  Pres.  or  Fut. 

„        ere  Past  „  Fut.  after  Past. 

„         erl  Pres.-Perf.  „  Fut.-Perf.  after  Pres.  or  Fut. 

„        use  Past-Perf.   „  Fut.-Perf.  after  Past. 

505  1     The  subjunctive  past  is  often  used  in  phrases  denoting  a 
result  with  the  power  of  an  aorist,  as,  accidit  ut  primus  nuntiaret 
it  Jtappened  that  he  was  the  first  to  bring  word.    Hence,  although 
the  present-perfect  indicative  is  habitually  employed  as  an  aorist, 
the  present-perfect  subjunctive  is  rarely  so  ueed.     Still  examples 
occur  (see  §  1182,  ex.  5 ;  §  1189,  last  two  examples),  especially  in 
negative  clauses. 

506  The  infinitive  has  strictly  but  two  forms,  the  imperfect  and 
perfect. 

507  The  infinitive  imperfect  has  for  its  suffix  to/8  or  M:  as,  from  Sa- 
fe, inf.  es'sS ;  from  scrlb-  write,  inf.  scribSrS. 


80 


VERBS. 


508  Slightly  irregular  are  the  infinitives,  fer'rg,  from  fSr-  bear} 
uel'lS,  nol'lg,  mal'16,  from  u&l-  or  uel-  wish,  nol-  be  unwilling,  mill- 
prefer.  Plautus,  Mil.  1. 1.  27,  iv.  8.  6,  has  dicere ;  in.  2. 34,promere.t 

509  The  infinitive  imperfect  may  be  translated  in  three  ways  : — by 
to:    as,  inclpit  ridere  he  begins  to  laugh:  in  some  phrases  the 
English  language  omits  this  to,  as,   pStest  rlderS  he  can  laugh 
i.e.  is  able  to  laugh,  uldi  eum  rlderS  I  saw  him  laugh; — by  ing : 
as,  inclpit  rlderS  he  begins  laughing,  or  uldi  eum  riderg  /  saw 
him  lanrjhing; — as  an  indicative,  with  that  before  the  English 
nominative:  as,  scio  eum  rtdGrS*/£notf  that  he  is  laughing,  scie- 
bam eum  riderS  /  knew  that  he  was  laughing. 

510  For  the  formation  of  the  infinitive  perfect,  see  §  472. 

511  The  infinitive  perfect  may  be  translated  in  three  ways  : — by  to 
h"ir. :  as,  scripsissS  dlcltur  he  is  said  to  have  written  ; — by  having  : 
as,  risisse  exltio  fuit  the  having  laughed  was  fatal ; — as  an  indi- 
cative, with  that  before  the  English  nominative  :  as,  scio  eum 
scripsissS  I  know  that  lie  wrote  or  that  he  has  written,  sciebam  eum 
scripsissS  I  knew  that  he  had  written. 

512  Thus  the  infinitive  imperfect  scrlberg  corresponds  to  two  indi- 
cative tenses,  scrlblt  and  scrlbebat;   and  the  infinitive  perfect 
scripsissS  also  to  two,  scripsit  and  scripserat. 

513  The  infinitive  imperfect  is  sometimes  used  as  a  future,  where 
the  preceding  verb  itself  implies  a  reference  to  futurity  :  as,  pol- 
llcetur  darS  he  promises  to  give. 

514  The  participle  in  enti  or  ent  is  an  imperfect,  and  belongs  alike 
to  past,  present  and  future  time. 

515  The  participle  or  gerund  in  endo  is  also  an  imperfect,  and 
belongs  alike  to  past,  present  and  future  time. 

516  The  participle  in  to  is  a  perfect,  and  belongs  alike  to  past, 
present  and  future  time. 

517  The  participle  in  tilro  denotes  intention  or  destiny,  and  belongs 
alike  to  past,  present  and  future  time. 

CONJUGATIONS. 

618  As  the  changes  which  take  place  in  adding  the  suffixes  to  a 
verb  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  last  letter,  verbs  may  be 
divided  into  the  following  classes  or  conjugations*,  viz. : 

*  See  a  similar  division  of  nouns  into  declensions,  §§  54,  55,  56, 
88,  80.  t  Compare  at  of  the  Greek  inf.,  as  SiSovai. 


VERBS.  81 

The  consonant  (or  third*)  conjugation,  as  scrlb-  write,  whence 
scrlberg  to  write,  and  scrlbls  thou  writest. 

The  a  (or  first)  conjugation,  as  Sra-  plough,  whence  Srar8  to 
plough,  and  aras  thou  ploughest. 

The  e  (or  second)  conjugation,  as  dSce-  teach,  whence  do'cerS 
to  teach,  and  d8ces  thou  teachest. 

The  u  (or  thirdf)  conjugation,  as  a"cu-  sharpen,  whence  ScuSrS 
to  sharpen,  and  &culs  thou  sharpenest. 

The  i  (or  fourth)  conjugation,  as  audi-  hear,  whence  audlre*  to 
hear,  and  audls  thou  hearest. 

519  The  o  conjugation  has  nearly  disappeared  from  the  Latin  lan- 
.     guage.     There  remain  however  fragments  of  two  or  three  verbs  of 

this  conjugation,  viz. : 

gno-  examine,  whence  gno-sco,  gno-ui,  gno-tum,  or,  as  they  are 
more  commonly  written,  no-sco,  no-ui,  notum  ;  also  the  substan- 
tives no-me'n-  n.,  no-tion-  /.  &c. ;  po-  J  drink,  whence  the  par- 
ticiple po-to-  drunk,  the  substantives  po-ciilo-  n.  drinking -cup, 
po-tion-/.  drinking,  and  the  adjective  po-culento-  drinkable,  &c. ; 
aegro-  make  sick,  implied  in  the  participle  or  adj.  aegro-to-  sick. 

520  The  other  verbs,  which  might  have  been  expected  to  end  in  o, 
have  changed  that  vowel  for  a  (see  §  229)  :  as  from  auro-  gold  is 
formed  the  verb  in-aura-re^  to  gild. 

521  The  monosyllabic  verbs  ending  in  a  consonant  generally  denote 
an  act,  and  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  old  verbs  of  the 
language  :  as  due-  draw.    (See  §  30.) 

522  The  verbs  in  a  are  generally  formed  from  substantives  or  ad- 
jectives of  the  a  or  o  declension,  and  have  a  factitive  meaning,  that 

is,  signify  to  make :  as  from  albo-  or  alba-  white,  alba-  make 

white  j  from  me'dtco-  physician,  me'dlca-  (r. )  make  oneself  a  phy- 
sician, act  the  physician,  cure. 

523  The  two  monosyllabic  verbs,  da-  put,  and  sta-  stand,  must  be 
classed  with  the  old  verbs  of  the  language.     So  also  many  other 

*  The  numbers  of  the  conjugations  are  given,  because  they  are  so 
arranged  in  nearly  all  grammars  and  dictionaries. 

f  Observe  that  the  u  and  consonant  conjugations  are  united  to  form 
the  third  conjugation,  just  as  the  i  and  consonant  nouns  are  united  to 
form  the  third  declension. 

I  Compare  the  Greek  verb  irtv-w  « I  drink,'  or  rather  the  tenses  TTW-O-W, 
7T€7rco-/ca. 

§  The  Greek  language  retained  many  verbs  of  the  o  conjugation :  as 
8ou\o-6ij/ '  to  enslave,'  xPvff°-flv  '  to  gild.' 


82 


VEKBS. 


verbs  ending  in  a  had  older  forms  without  that  final  a,  which 
therefore  belonged  to  the  consonant  conjugation  and  the  old  verbs. 
See  those  verbs  of  the  first  or  a  conjugation,  which  are  said  to 
form  their  perfects  and  supines  irregularly,  as  cuba-  lie,  <fec. 

524  The  verbs  in  e  generally  denote  a  state,  as  iace-  lie  ;  and  often 
correspond  to  a  consonant  verb,  as  i&c-  throw.     (See  §  386.) 

525  The  monosyllabic  verbs,  fle-  weep,  ne-  spin,  &c.  should  per- 
haps be  classed  with  the  old  verbs  of  the  language.     So  also  many 
other  verbs  in  e  had  older  forms  without  that  final  e,  which  there- 
fore belonged  to  the  consonant  conjugation  and  the  old  verbs,  as 
ride-  or  rid-  laugh. 

526  The  verbs  in  u  are  often  derived  from  substantives  in  u,  as 
from  mStu-  fear  is  formed  metu-ere  to  fear ;  from  trlbu-  a  divi- 
sion, trlbu-ere  to  allot. 

527  The  monosyllabic  verbs,  nu-  nod,  su-  sew,  <fec.  must  be  classed 
with  the  old  verbs  of  the  language. 

528  The  verbs  in  i  are  often  derived  from  substantives  or  adjectives 
in  i,  as  from  tussi-  a  cough  is  formed  tussi-re  to  cough;  from 
molli-  soft,  molli-rS  to  soften. 

529  The  monosyllabic  verbs,  sci-  Tcnow,  i-  go,  ci-  rouse,  must  be 
classed  with  the  old  verbs  of  the  language.     So  also  those  verbs 
which  had  an  old  form  without  the  i,  as  ueni-  or  u8n-  come. 

530  An  attention  to  the  final  vowel  of  a  verb  is  required  in  the 
foi-mation  of  the  derivatives,  particularly  as  regards  the  quantity. 

tSg-         cover,  tgg-u-mento-      covering. 

arma-       equip,  arma-mento-      equipment. 

[ere-]       grow,  in-cre-mento- *  increase. 

argu-       prove,  argu-inento-       proof. 

e-moli-    heave  up,  emoli-mento-t  great  effort. 

[gno-]      examine,  know,  co-gno-mento-    surname. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OF  A  VERB. 

531  When  the  infinitive,  the  indicative  present,  the  perfect,  and 
the  supine  or  verbal  in  tu  of  a  Latin  verb  are  known,  there  is 

*  Monumento-,  documento-,  said  to  be  derived  from  the  verbs  monc-, 
doce-,  imply  rather  verbs  of  the  consonant  conjugation,  viz.  mon-,  rfoc-,as 
do  also  the  perfects  and  supines  of  the  same. 

f  Not  to  be  confounded  with  e-mol-u-mento-  '  outgrinding  or  profit 
(of  the  miller,  who  pays  himself  by  the  excess  of  bulk  in  grinding  hia 
customer's  corn). 


VERBS. 


83 


seldom  any  difficulty  in  conjugating  it.     They  are  therefore  called 
the  principal  parts  of  the  verb. 

532  In  the  following  lists  the  crude  form  of  the  verb  with  its  trans- 
lation, the  infinitive,  the  first  person  of  the  present  and  perfect 
are  given,  and  the  accusative  of  the  supine,  or  for  reflective  verbs 
the  nominative  masculine  of  the  perfect  participle.  In  most  of 
the  compounds  the  infinitive  has  been  omitted  for  the  sake  of 
brevity. 


533 


THIRD  OR  CONSONANT  CONJUGATION. 


LIP-LETTERS,  B,  P. 

scab-  scratch 

sc&bgre 

scabo 

scabi 

lab-  lick 

lambgre 

lambo 

Iambi 

bib-  drink 

bibere 

bibo 

blbi 

scrib-  write 

scrlbere 

scribo 

scripsi 

scriptum 

cub-  lie  down 

[cumbere 

cumbo] 

ciibui 

ctibltum 

nub-  veil  oneself* 

nubere 

nubo 

nupsi 

nuptum 

c&p-  or  capi-  take 

capgre 

capio 

cepi 

captum 

rap-  or  rapi-  seize 

rapgre 

rapio 

rapui 

raptum 

rep-  creep 

repgre 

repo 

repsi 

reptum 

strep-  resound 

strepgre 

strgpo 

strgpui 

strgpltum 

scalp-  scratch 

scalpgre 

scalpo 

scalpsi 

scalptum 

carp-  nibble,  pluck 

carpgre 

carpo 

carpsi 

carptum 

serp-  creep 

serpgre 

serpo 

serpsi 

serptum 

cup-  or  ciipi-  desire 

ciipgre 

cupio 

cuplui 

ciipltum 

rup-  burst 

rumpgre 

rumpo 

rupi 

ruptum 

THROAT-LETTERS,  C,  G,  H 

,Q,x. 

f  &c-  or  f  aci-  make,  do 

facgre 

fS,cio 

feci 

iac-  or  iaci-  throw 

iScgre 

iacio 

ieci 

pec-  comb 

pectgre 

pecto 

pexi 

flee-  bend 

flectere 

flecto 

flexi 

plec-  p&wfc 

plectere 

plecto 

plexi 

nee-  link,  join 

nectgre 

necto 

nexit 

Ic-J  s^n'&e 

Icgre 

ICO 

ici 

die-  show,  say 

dlcere 

dico 

dixi 

uic-  conquer 

uincere 

uinco 

uici 

factum 

iactum 

pexum 

flexum 

plexum 

nexum 

ictum 

dictum 

uictum 

*  As  a  female  in  the  marriage  ceremony. 

f  But  in-nexuit  Virg.  J  Another  form  of  iac-  'throw.' 


84 


VERBS. 


pare-  spare 

parcere 

parco 

peperci 

parsum 

pose-  pray,  demand 

poscgre 

posco 

poposci 

due-  draw,  lead 

ducere 

duco 

duxi 

ductum 

535  £g-  drive 

aggre 

S,go 

egi 

actum 

plag-*  strike 

plangere 

plango 

planxi 

planctum 

pag-/tf 

pangere 

pango 

pepigit 

pactum 

frag-  break 

franggre 

fran  go 

fregi 

fractum 

tag-  touch 

tanggre 

tango 

tgtlgi 

tactum 

Igg-  sweep,  read 

legere 

Iggo 

legi 

lectum 

reg-  wia&e  straight 

regfere 

rego 

rexi 

rectum 

tgg-  thatch,  cover 

tegere 

tggo 

texi 

tectum 

tt&tfix 

figere 

flgo 

fixi 

fixuin 

fig-  mould,  invent 

fiugere 

fingo 

finxi 

fictum 

pig-  paint 

pingere 

pingo 

piuxi 

pictum 

strig-  grasp,  graze 

stringere 

stringo 

strinxi 

strictum 

tig-  C?J/(2 

tingSre§ 

tingo 

tinxi 

tinctum 

fulg-  y?#sA 

fulgere 

fulgo 

fulsi 

ang-  strangle 

arigere 

ango 

anxi 

cing-  #iW 

cingere 

cingo 

cinxi 

cinctum 

ung-  #razs<? 

ungere§ 

UllgO 

unxi 

unctum 

sparg-  or  spar-||  scoter 

sparggre 

spargo 

sparsi 

sparsura 

merg-  or  mer-1f  SMI& 

mergere 

mergo 

mersi 

mersum 

terg-**  or  ter-  mjoe 

tergere 

tergo 

tersi 

tersum 

fug-  or  f  ugi-  flee,  fly 

fugere 

fiigio 

fugi 

fugitum 

itig-  yoke,  join 

iungere 

iungo 

iuuxi 

iunctum 

pug-  puncture 

pungere 

pungo 

pupugi 

puuctum 

stig-  SMC& 

sugere 

sugo 

suxi 

suctum 

536  tr&h-  drag 

trShere 

traho 

traxi 

tractum 

ugh-  carry 

uehere 

u&ho 

uexi 

uectum 

537  liq-  leave 

linqugre 

linquo 

liqui 

c3q-  coo& 

cSqugre 

cSquo 

coxi 

coctum 

538  tex-  weave 

texgre 

texo 

texui 

textum 

*  For  the  quantity  compare 

•f*  But  panxit  Enn.,  pegi  Pacuv. 

J  Fig-  'fix'  and^-  'mould'  may  perhaps  be  originally  one,  with  the 
sense  '  squeeze,'  like  0<j>iy-.  See  Paley's  Propertius.  Observe  too  th;it 
fictus  for  fixus  was  preferred  by  Varr.  R.  R.  in.  7. 4,  afficlus  in.  3. 2,  &c. 

§  Also  tinguere,  tinguo  ;  unguere,  unguo. 

||  Comp.  a-rrep-  of  crireipa}.  ^[  Comp.  marl-  'sea.' 

**  Also  terge-.     Comp.  rep-  of  re.pw.  and  tcr-ra  '  drv-land.* 


tto 


539  uiu-  or  ulg-  live 

uiugre 

U1UO 

uixi 

uictum 

flu-  or  fluc-/ow 

fluere 

fluo 

fluxi 

fluxum 

stru-  or  struc-  pile,  build  struSre 

struo 

struxi 

structum 

TEETH-LETTERS,  D,  T. 

640  <M-*faH 

cSdere 

cS^do 

cecidi 

casumf 

r&d-  scrape 

radere 

rado 

rasi 

rasumf 

gd-  or  6s-  eat 

edere  or  esse 

gdo 

edi 

esumf 

caed-fell,  strike,  cut 

caedere 

caedo 

cgcidi 

caesum 

laed-  strike,  hurt 

laedere 

laedo 

laesi 

laesum 

cgd-  go  quietly,  yield 

cedgre 

cedo 

cessi 

cessum 

sgd-  sit  down 

sldgre 

sldo 

sedi 

sessum 

scld-  tear,  cut 

scindere 

scindo 

scldij 

scissum 

fid-  cleave 

findere 

findo 

fldi 

fissum 

strid-§  Am,  screech 

strldere 

strido 

strldi 

scand-  climb 

scandere 

scando 

scandi 

scansum 

mand-  chew 

mandSre 

mando 

mandi 

mansum 

pand-  or  pS,d-  spread 

pandere 

pando 



passum|| 

pend-  hang,  weigh 

pendgre 

pendo 

pgpendi 

pensum 

tend-  or  tgn-  stretch 

tendgre 

tendo 

tgtendi 

tentum^ 

ftfd-  or  ftfdi-  dig 

f«dere 

f3dio 

fodi 

fossum 

r<5d-  gnaw 

rodSre 

rodo 

rosi 

rosum 

cltid-  sAw£ 

claudSre 

claudo 

clausi 

clausum 

plaud-  clap 

plaudSre 

plaudo 

plausi 

plausum 

cud-  hammer,  coin 

cud8re 

cudo 

cudi 

cusum 

f  iid-  j*?ow 

fund  ere 

fundo 

fudi 

fusum 

liid-  £>&zy 

ludgre 

ludo 

lusi 

lusum 

trud-  thrust 

trudere 

trudo 

trusi 

trusum 

tud-  hammer,  thump 

tundgre 

tundo 

tutiidi 

tunsum 

quat-  or  quati-  rtrtig 

quStSre 

quatio 



quassum 

mgt-  wow 

mStgre 

meto 

messui 

m  essum 

pgt-  or  p8ti-  go,  seek 

pgtere 

pgto 

pgtlui 

petltum 

mlt-  let  go,  send 

mittgre 

mitto 

mlsi 

missum 

*  Akin  to  caed-,  just  as  OUT  fall  to  /*?//. 

t  The  forms  with  ss  seem  to  have  been  originally  in  use  with  old 
writers,  and  even  with  Cicero,  Virgil,  &c.  as  cassum,  essum. 

J  Scicidi  and  jifidi  were  probably  the  older  forms  of  these  perfects. 
Ennius  has  the  former.  Comp.  tetuli,  afterwards  lull. 

§  Also  stride-.  \\  But  pansls  in  Germanicus  and  Vitruvius. 

If  7V»5M5  in  Quintilian  and  late  writers. 


VERBS. 


542 


stert-  snore                      stertere 

sterto      stertui 

uort-  or  uert-  turn           uortgre 

uorto       uorti          uorsum 

sist-  make  to  stand           sistgre 

sisto     stetiorstiti  statum 

The  compounds  of  da-*  put  or 

give,  with  prepositions  of  one 

syllable,  are  all  of  the  third 

conjugation;  as,  with 

ab,  put  away,  hide          abdSre 

abdo        abdidi       abdltum 

ad,  put  to,  add                addere 

addo        addidi       addltum 

cSn,  put  together              conde're 

condo      condldi      conditum 

de,  put  down,  surrender  dedere 

dedo        dedldi        dedltum 

dls,  distribute                   dldgre 

dido         dldldi        didltum 

ec,  put  out,  utter              edere 

edo          edidi          edltum 

in,  put  on                          indere 

indo        indidi        indltum 

per,  fordo,  destroy            perdere 

perdo       perdidi      perdltum 

ob,  put  to  (as  a  bar)         obdSre 

obdo        obdldi       obditum 

pro,  abandon,  betray         prodere 

prodo       prodidi      proditum 

red,  put  back,  restore       reddSre 

reddo       reddidi      redditum 

sub,  put  up                      subdgre 

subdo       subdldi     subditum 

trans,  hand  over               tradere 

trado       tradidi       traditunit 

To  these  add  two  other  compounds  of  da-  put  : 
uend-^  exhibit  for  sale     uendere     uendo      uendldi     uenditum 


cred-  trust,  believe 


credere      credo       credldi      creditum 


543  al-  raise,  rear,  feed 
fal-  cheat 
sal-  salt 

pel-  push,  drive 
u61-  pull,  pluck 
c51-  dig,  till 
m51-  grind 


L,  M,  N. 

algre  alo 

failure  fallo 

sallgre  sallo 

pellere  pello 


uellere 
colgre 


uello 
cSlo 


alui     alitum  or  altum 
fgfelli        falsum 

salsum 

pgpiili  pulsum 
uelli  uolsum 
colui  cultum 


molere       molo        molui        molitum 


*  Some  Sanscrit  scholars  would  lay  it  down  that  da-  in  these  com- 
pounds represents  the  root  Oe-  of  Ti6r)/j.i,  not  So-  of  8i8w/j.i.  They  forget 
that  the  archaic  forms  perduim,  creduim  claim  immediate  connection  with 
the  archaic  duim  of  da-.  Besides  0e-  or  rather  0e<r-  (Oeo--/j.os)  is  repre- 
sented in  Latin  by  ser-  '  put,'  whence  exser-,  inser-  &c. 

f  Praedito-,  *  armed'  or  '  endowed  (with),'  implies  a  vb.  prae-dere. 

J  Literally  '  put  in  the  window.'  The  first  syllable  is  an  abbreviation 
of  uenum,  whicli  occurs  in  uenum  i-re,  ueni-re,  uenun-da-re. 


VERBS. 


to1!-  raise,  bear 

tollgre* 

tollo 

tulif 

latumf 

udl-  wish 

uelle 

uolo 

uolui 

544  8m-  take,  buy 

gmere 

emo 

emi 

emptum 

gSm-  groan 

ggmgre 

ggmo 

gemui 

ggmitum 

fvem-  roar 

frgmgre 

fremo 

frgmui 

fremitum 

prSm-  press 

premgre 

premo 

press! 

pressum 

trgm-  tremble 

trgmere 

trgmo 

tremui 

545  can-  sing 

canere 

cano 

cgclni 

cantum 

gen-  produce 

gigngre 

gigno 

ggnui 

ggnitum 

lin-  smear 

lingre 

lino 

leui 

lltumj 

sin-  £>2^,  permit 

slngre 

sino 

slui  or  sii 

situmj 

R, 


546  pSr-  or  pS,ri-  produce 
quaer-,  quaes- 
c^r-  sift,  separate 
fer-  raise,  bear 

ger-  or  g§s-  wear,  carry  gerSre 
sp6r-  reject,  despise 
ser-j|  put 
ser-||  ^?a?i^  sow 
t8r-  rzii 


pftrere 

pario 

pepgri 

partum 

quaerere 

quaero 

quaeslui 

quaesltum 

cerngre 

cerno 

creui 

cretum 

ferre 

fgro 

tiili 

latum 

ggrgre 

ggro 

gessi 

gestum 

spernSre 

sperno 

spreui 

spretum 

sSrere 

sSro 

serui 

sertum 

sgrgre 

sgro 

seui 

satum^ 

tergre 

tgro 

trlui^ 

tritum 

sternere 

sterno 

straui** 

stratum** 

uerrgre 

uerro 

uerri 

uersum 

ur6re 

uro 

ussi 

ustum 

currgre 

curro 

cucurri 

cursum 

pascgre 

pasco 

paui 

pastum 

esse 

sum 

fui 

ugr-  sweep 
ur-  or  us-  burn 
cur-  rem 
5i7  pS,s-  or  ^a,-  feed 


*  In  meaning  the  following  go  together  :  tollere,  tollo,  sustnli,  subla- 
tum.     See  fer-. 

f  An  old  form  of  the  perfect  is  tetuli.     Latum  is  for  tlatum.     Comp. 


J  Observe  the  quantity  of  litum,  siturn,  satum. 

§  Quaeso  is  used  in  the  sense,  '  I  pray'  or  '  prithee.'  A  form  quaesi- 
is  implied  in  quaesltum  ;  as  also  in  quaesttor  'a  commissioner'  or  'judge.' 

||  Ser-  'put'  and  ser-  '  sow'  are  one  in  origin. 

II  Trmi,  trltum  imply  a  secondary  verb  trib-,  whence  trlbulo-  sb.  n. 
'  a  threshing  harrow.'  Comp.  rpi/8-  of  rplfio). 

'*  From  a  secondary  verb  strag-  (=ster-ag-\  whence  strug-e-  sb.  f, 
slrag-ulo-  adj.  ;  also  stramen-  '  straw/  Comp.  our  verb  strew,  old  form 
straw. 


88 


VEKBS. 


ulsere 
lacessSre 


uls-  go  to  see 

lacess-*  provoke 

facess-*  perform,  cause   facesse're 

arcess-*  send  for 

capess-*  take 


ulso  uisi 

lacesso  lacessiui  lacessitum 

facesso  facessi 

arcessgre   arcesso  arcessiui  arcessitum 

capessere  cS-pesso  capesslui  capessltum 

pone're       pono  posui  positum 


V. 


548  lau-t  wash 

l&uere 

lauo 

laui 

lautum  or  lotum 

tribu-  distribute 

tribugre 

tribuo 

trlbui 

tributum 

acu-  sharpen 

acugre 

acuo 

acui 

acutum 

argu-  prove 

arguere 

arguo 

argui 

argutum 

solu-  loosen 

soluSre 

soluo 

solui 

sSlutum 

uolu-  roll 

uoluere 

uoluo 

uolui 

uolutum 

inlnu-  lessen 

minuere 

minuo 

mlnui 

minutum 

sternu-  sneeze 

sternuere 

sternuo 

sternui 

spu-  spit 

spuere 

spuo 

spui 

sputum 

ru-  make  to  rush,  rush 

ruere 

ruo 

rui 

rutumj 

su-  sew 

sugre 

suo 

sui 

sutura 

8tatu-  set  up 

statuere 

statuo 

statui 

statutum 

metu-/mr 

mStugre 

metuo 

mgtui 

metutum 

FIRST  OR  A  CONJUGATION. 

549  da-§  put,  give  dare  do  d6di  datum 

&i&-\\7nake  to  stand,  stand  stare  sto  steti  statum 

ciiba-1I  lie  cubare  cubo  ciibaui 

neca-  stifle,  Ml  ngcare  neco  iiecaui**  necatum 

seca-  cut  secare  sgco  sScui  sectum 

plica-  fold  pllcare  pllco  plicaui  plicatum 

*  These  four  verbs  are  formed  from  lac-  or  luci-,fcic-  or/«cz-,  arci- 
(com pound  of  ci-  '  call '),  cap-  or  cdpi-.  So  also  petess-  c  seek,'  from  p&- 
or  peti-. 

+  See  also  laua-  §  549,  and  dilu-  §  655.2. 

f  Observe  the  short  vowel  of  rutum.  Ruitnro-  is  the  participle  in 
turo. 

§  Da-  stands  apart  from  the  other  verbs  in  a  by  the  irregularity  of  its 
quantity.  See  §  732. 

|j  The  derivatives  from  sta-  have  often  a  short  vowel,  as  statu-  sb., 
stabili-  adj.,  statim  adv. 

^f  See  also  cub-  §  533.  **  Nccuit  Enn.  and  Phaedr. 


VERBS. 


89 


mica-  vibrate 

mlcare 

mlco 

micui 

frlca-  rub 

frlcare 

frico 

Mcui 

frictum 

dtfma-  tame 

dSmare 

d5mo 

dSrnui 

d5mltum 

s5na-  sound 

sfinare 

s5no 

sSnaui 

sonatum 

or 

s6no 

scmui 

sSnltum 

tSna-  thunder 

ttfnare 

t5nat 

tSnuit 

tSnltum 

crgpa-  creak,  chatter 
u6ta-*  forbid 
lS.ua-  wash 

crepare 
ugtare 
ISuare 

crgpo 
ugto 
la"uo 

crepui 
uStui 
ISuaui 

crgpltum 
ugtltum 
lS,uatum 

iuua-  assist 

iuuare 

iiiuo 

iuui 

iutumf 

551  The  thirteen  disyllabic  verbs  given  in  the  preceding  section 
were  probably  at  one  time  all  monosyllabic,  and  consequently  of 
the  consonant  or  third  conjugation.     The  verbs  ISuere,  ablue're, 
procumbere,  plectere,  &c.  are  met  with  in  the  best  authors ;  and 
in  the  older  writers  there  occur  such  forms  as  sone're,  sonlt,  stfnunt, 
tSnlmus,  &c.     Observe  too  that  the  same  thirteen  verbs  have  all 
the  first  vowel  short. 

552  The  other  verbs  in  a  form  their  principal  parts  like 

&ra-  plough  S,rare  S,ro          &raui          Sratum 


SECOND  OR  E  CONJUGATION. 


553  hSb-e-  hold,  have 
sorb-e-  suck  up 
iub-e-  bid,  order 
iS,c-e-  lie 
ta"c-e-  be  silent 
d8c-e-  teach 
nSc-e-  do  damage 
arc-e-  confne,  keep  off 
misc-e-  mix 
suad-e-  recommend 
rld-e-  laugh 
uld-e-  see 
prand-e-  breakfast 
pend-e-  hang  (intrans.) 


*  Old  form  titita-.     Persius  has  uetauit. 

f  luuaturo-  in  Sal.  and  Plin.  ep. 

J  lacituro-  Stat.  §  Arcto-  or  arto-  as  an  adj.  *  confined.1 


hSbere 

habeo 

hS-bui 

h§,bltum 

sorbere 

sorbeo 

sorbui 

iiibere 

iiibeo 

iussi 

iussum 

iS,cere 

iS,ceo 

iS,cui 

X 

tacere 

ta"ceo 

tS,cui 

taciturn 

dScere 

doceo 

ddcui 

doctum 

nocere 

noceo 

n6cui 

nocitum 

arcere 
miscere 

areeo 
misceo 

arcui 
miscui 

§ 

mixturn 

suadere 

suadeo 

suasi 

suasum 

rldere 

rldeo 

rlsi 

rlsum 

uldere 

uldeo 

uidi 

uisum 

prandere 
pendere 

prandeo 
pendeo 

prandi 
pSpendi 

pransum 

00 


VERBS. 


spond-e-  promise 

spondere 

spondeo 

spopondi 

sponsum 

toiid-e-  shear 

tondere 

tondeo 

totondi 

ton  sum 

mord-e-  bite 

mordere 

mordeo 

mSrnordi 

morsuin 

urg-e-  press 

urgere 

urgeo 

ursi 

aug-e-  increase  (trans.) 

augere 

augeo 

auxi 

auctum 

lug-e-  mourn 

lugere 

lugeo 

luxi 

ci-e-  rouse 

ciere 

cieo 

ciui 

citum 

fie-  weep 

flere 

fleo 

fleui 

fletum 

51-e-  smell 

olere 

oleo 

61ui 

dol-e-  ache 

dolere 

dSleo 

dolui 

dolitus 

ilm-Q-fear 

timere 

timeo 

timui 

ne-  spin 

nere 

neo 

neui 

netum 

man-e-  remain 

manere 

maneo 

man  si 

mansum 

t&n-e-*  hold 

tSnere 

t8neo 

t§nui 

mSn-e-  warn 

m  on  ere 

moneo 

mSnui 

mftnltum 

torque-  or  tor-  twist,  hurl  torquere 

torqueo 

torsit 

tortumt 

car-e-  be  without 

carere 

careo 

carui 

par-e-  wait  on,  obey 

parere 

pareo 

parui 

paritum 

haer-e-  stick 

haerere 

haereo 

haesi 

haesum 

iner-e-J  earn,  deserve 

mgrere 

mereo 

merui 

mgrltum 

torre-  or  t5r-  roast 

torrere 

torreo 

torrui 

tostum 

cen-se-  or  c§n-§  count 

censere 

censeo 

censui 

censum 

lcit-e-  lie  hid 

latere 

lateo 

latui 

nlt-e-  shine 

nltere 

niteo 

nltui 

cau-e-  be  on  one's  guard  cauere 

caueo 

caui 

cautum|| 

fS,u-e-  wish  well 

fauSre 

faueo 

faui 

fautum|| 

pau-e-/6«r 

pauere 

paueo 

paui 

f5u-e-  keep  warm 

f6uere 

foueo 

ioui 

fotum 

mSu-e-  move 

mouere 

mSueo 

moui 

motum 

uou-e-  vow 

uSuere 

uSueo 

uoui 

uotum 

feru-e-  boil^ 

ferugre 

ferueo 

ferbui 

*  Comp.  'tend-  '  stretch. 

•f-  From  a  root  ter-  or  /or-,  whence  tor-tor-,  tor-men-. 
J  Also  mere-ri  (r.). 

§  The  literal  sense  of  cen-  was  '  puncture,'  and  so  '  count "" 
cen-tro-  sb.  n. '  centre.' 

||  Cauitum  and  fauitum  were  preferred  by  Cicero. 
^[  Also  feru-Sre. 


Hence 


VERBS. 


FOURTH  OR  /  CONJUGATION  * 


554  i-  go 

ire             eo 

lui  or  ii      Itum 

fold-prop 

fulcire       fulcio 

fulsi            fultum 

sanci-  hallow 

sanclre      sancio 

sanclui        sancltum 

or  sancio 

sanxi           sanctum 

uinci-  bind 

uinclre      uiricio 

uinxi           uinctum 

farci-  cram 

farclre       farcio 

farsi            farctum 

sarci-  mend 

sarcire       sarcio 

sarsi            sartum 

sail-  leap 

sallre         salio 

saluiorsaliisaltum 

sepeli-  bury 

sepelire     sepelio 

sSpellui       sSpultum 

ueni-  come 

uenlre       uenio 

ueni            uentum 

saepi-  hedge  in 

saeplre      saepio 

sepsi            septum 

apSri-  open 

Sperire      Sperio 

ape'rui         apertum 

Speri-  cover 

operlre      Sperio 

Spgrui          Spertum 

hauri-  draw  (water) 

haurlre      haurio 

hausi           haustum 

555       The  other  verbs 

in  i  form  their  principal  parts  like 

audi-  hear 

audire      audio 

audiui       auditum 

555. 1    Some  inceptive  verbs  with  a  suffix  esc  or  isc  : 

lang-  droop,  flag  languesco  langui 

dic-f  learn 

luc-  get  light 

ard-J  Haze  up 

put-  become  putrid 

cal-  get  hot 

ual-  get  strong 

sil-  become  silent 

quie-  become  quiet 

ere-  grow 

*  The  irregular  supines  of  the  verbs  in  §  554  imply  verbs  of  the  con- 
sonant conjugation ;  and  indeed  such  forms  as  euenat,  &c.  for  the  imper- 


disco 

dldlci 

lucisclt 

luxit 

ardesco 

arsi 

putesco 

putui 

calesco 

calui|| 

u&lesco 

Lialui|| 

silesco 

sllui 

quiesco 

quieui 

quietum 

cresco 

creui 

cretum 

Perhaps  in  Hor.  Od.  iv.  4,  65 


feet  tenses  occur  in  Ennius  and  Plautus. 
we  should  read  pulchrior  euenet. 

f  Die-  '  learn,'  originally  identical  with  die-  '  say,'  or  more  properly 
'show.'  Comp.  Se«-  of  Set/cw/^t  '  show.'  Doce- '  teach'  is  also  of  the  same 
family.  Disco  is  for  dic-sco. 

J  Ard-  is  probably  akin  to  at-  '  raise,'  so  often  used  with  Jlammam. 
Compare  as  to  form  arduo-  '  lofty,'  which  is  immediately  formed  from  al- 
'  raise.'  Comp.  too  ap-  of  cupw. 

||  Calituro-,  ualituro-. 


02 


VERBS. 


sue-  become  accustomed  suesco 
rS+Scip-*  come  to  one's  senses  again  rSsIpisco 

rg+frig-  get  cold  again  rSfrigesco 

rg+um-  come  to  life  again  rSuiuisco 

re+sci-/nd  out  (a  secret)  rescisco 

con-t-Sl-  or  ol-  grow  together  coalesco 

Sd+Sl-  or  61e-  grow  up  Sddlesco 

ab+dle-  grow  out  of  use  ab51esco 

ob+s81e-f  get  covered  with  dirt  obsolesco 


sueui        suetum 

reslpiui 

rSfrixi 

reuixi 

resciui 

coalui 

adoleui 


rescitum 
coalitum 
adultum 


abSleui 

obsoleui    obsoletum 


555.2        Compound  verbs : 

pro+cub-  lie  down  procumbo  procubui  procubltum 

r8+cap-  or  capi-  take  back  rgclpio       rgcepi  rgceptum 

ab+rap-  or  rapi-  carry  of  abripio      abiipui  abreptum 

dis+carp-jow^  to  pieces  discerpo     discerpsi  discerptum 

per+fac-  or  faci-  finish  perf  icio     perfect  perfectum 

c6n+iS,c-  or  iaci-  hurl  conlcio       conieci  coniectum 

r6+iac-  or  iaci-  throw  back  reilcio        reieci  reiectum 

ad+lac-  or  Iaci-  draw  to  allicio        allexi  allectum 

ec+lac-  or  Iaci-  draw  out  ellcio         elicui  elicitum 

in+spgc-  or  spSci-  look  in  insplcio     inspexi  inspectum 

rSd+&g-  drive  back  rgdlgo        redegi  rgdactum 

ctfn+ag-  drive  together  cogo           coegi  coactum 

con+pag-yu?  together  compingo  compegi  compactum 

per+frag-  break  through  perfringo   perfregi  perfractum 

con+tag-  touch  closely  contingo    contlgi  contactum 

con+leg-  sweep  together  colligo        collegi  collectum 

re-flgg-  read  again  relggo         rglegi  reiectum 

inter +18g-  pick  up,  perceive  intellego    intellexi  intellectum 

dl+\$g- esteem  dlllgo        dilexi  dllectum 

neg+lgg-  leave  behind  neglggo     neglexi  neglectum 

por-fl8g-  lay  out  (a  corpse)  pollingo    pollinxi  pollinctum 

por+reg-  stretch  forth  porrigo      porrexi  porrectum 

por+rgg-  keep  straight  on  pergo        perrexi  perrectum 

sub+rgg-  rise  surgo         surrexi  surrectum 

ab+fllg-  dash  down  affiigo       afflixi  afSictum 

*  Read  the  symbol  (+)  as  plus  or  'with.' 

t  The  root  of  this  verb  is  connected  with  s8lo-  sb.  n.  'soil, 'also  with 
sordea  and  sordido-.  It  appears  again  in  the  French  sale  '  dirty,'  souillir  ; 
and  in  the  Eng.  soil  vb.  or  sb,,  as  well  as  sully  and  slush. 


VERBS. 


<J3 


con+flig-  dash  together 

confllgo     conflixi      conflictum 

ec+stig-  stamp  out 

extinguo   extinxi      extinctum 

dis+stlg-  spot 

distingue  distiiixi      distinctum 

ec+miig-  wipe  (nose) 

emungo     emunxi      emunctum 

cou+sparg-  bespatter 

conspergo  conspersi  conspersum 

con+pug-  puncture  forcibly 

corapungo  compunxi  compuncturn 

rS+liq-  leave 

rglinquo    rgliqui       rglictura 

ob+c£d-  set  (as  sun},  die 

occldo        occidi         occasum* 

rg+c&d-/a^  back 

rgcldo        reccldif     rgcasnm 

ec+uad-  come  out 

euado        euasi          euasum 

ob+caed-  cut  down,  Mil 

occldo       occldi        occisum 

con+laed-  dash  together 

collldo       collisi        colllsum 

re+scid-  cut  away  again 

rescindo     rescldi       rescissum 

dis+fid-  cleave  in  two 

diffindo     diffldi        diffissum 

rg+sld-  subside 

resldo        resedi         resessum 

dl+uid-  divide 

dluldo        diulsi         dlulsum* 

sub+cand-  set  fire  to  from  below    succendo    succendi    succeusum 

ec+scand-  climb  up 

escendo      escendi      escensum 

de+fend-  ward  of 

defendo      defendi      defensum 

ex+pend-  weigh  out 

expendo    expend!     expensum 

prae+hand-  take  hold  of 

prehendo  prehendi    prehensum 

or  prendo      prendi       prensum 

obs+tend-  hold  towards 

ostendo     ostendi      ostensumj 

ex+clud-  shut  out 

exclude     exclusi       exclusum 

con+tud-  hammer  to  pieces 

contundo  coutudi     contusum 

per+qu£t-  strike  violently 

percutio    percussi     percussum 

re+sist-  stand  against 

rgsisto       restiti        restltum 

per+cel-  overturn 

percello     perculi      perculsum 

con+pel-  drive  cogetJier 

compello   compiili     compulsum 

rg+pel-  drive  back 

rgpello       reppiilit    rgpulsum 

con+sol-H  sit  together,  consult 

consulo     consului    consultum 

ex+em-  take  out 

exlmo        exemi        exemptum 

den-em-  take  down 

demo         dempsi      demptum 

con+em-  arrange  (the  hair) 

como          compsi       comptum 

pro+gm-  bring  out 

promo        prompsi     prouiptum 

*  Also  in  the  older  writers  occassnm,  diuissum,  &c. 
f  For  re-cecidi,  re-pepuli.     Hence  the  double  consonant. 
t  Ostenso-  in  Lucan  ;  but  in  Ter.  Ph.  v.  4,  7.  and  in  Varr.  ostento-. 
II  Sol-,  an  obsolete  verb,  is  the  parent  of  sSlio-  sb.  n.  'a  seat.'     It  is 
also  akin  to  side-  sb.  f.,  sMe-  vb.,  sodali-,  sella-,  subsellio-. 


94 


VERBS. 


sub+em-  take  up 

sumo         sumps!       sumptum 

rS+prSm-  press  back 

rSprlmo      repress!      repressum 

con+tSm-  (cut  up)  despise 

contemuo  contempsi  contemptum 

con+c£n-  sing  together 

conclno      concinui    concentuin 

dS+sIn-  (put  down)  leave  off 

deslno        desii           desttum 

con+quaer-  get  together 

conquiro    conquisiui  conquisltum 

ab+feY-  carry  off 

aufero        abstuli      ablatum 

ec+fe'r-  carry  out 

effe'ro         extuli        elatum 

ob+f  er-  present 

offSro          obtuli        oblatum 

re+fer-  bring  back 

rSfSro         rettiili*     relatumf 

con+se'r-  plant  all  over 

consero      conseui      consitum 

con+biir-  burn  up 

comburo    combussi  combustum 

ob+ciir-  run  towards 

occurro      occurrij    occursum 

in+du-  put  on 

induo         indui         indutum 

ec+du-  put  off 

exuo          exui          exutum 

dis+lu-  or  lau-  dissolve 

dlluo          dilui          dllutum 

ob+ru-  overwhelm 

obruo         obrui         obrutum 

in+su-  sew  in 

insuo         insui         insutum 

re+statu-  set  up  again 

restltuo      restitui     restitutum 

ec+neca-  kill  off 

enSco         en^caui     enecatum 

or  enSco         enScui       enectum 

ex+plica-  unfold 

expllco      explicaui  explicatum 

or  expllco      explicui    explicltum 

in+crgpa-  chide 

incrgpo      increpaui  increpatum 

or  incrgpo      increpui     increpltum 

pro+h&be-  keep  off 

prohlbeo   prohibui    prohlbltum 

de+habe-  owe,  ought 

debeo        debui         debitum 

prae+habe-  present 

praebeo     praebui      praebitum 

co+arce-  confine 

coerceo      coercui      coercltum 

ex+erce-§  work  out,  drill 

exerceo     exercui      exercltum 

re+sponde-  answer 

respondeo  respond!    responsum 

in+dulge-j|  be  kind 

indulgeo    indulsi      indultum 

de+le-  or  Hn-  blot  out 

deleo         deleui        deletum 

£b+51e-  abolish 

Sb81eo       aboleui      Sbolitum 

*  For  re-tetuli,  re-peperi.     Hence  the  double  consonant. 
f  Rellatum  also  in  old  writers.     Comp.  redduc-^  redd-. 
J  Also  occucurri. 

§  Erce-  or  arce-  is  an  obsolete  vb.  akin  to  the  Greek  fepy-,  whence 
£-  and  the  neut.  sb.  ep-yo-. 
||  Dulffe-  must  be  an  obsolete  vb.  akin  to  the  adj.  dulci-. 


VERBS. 


95 


ex+ple-  fill  up 
rg+tgne-  hold  lack 
r8+cense-  review 
ex+i-  go  out 

Sm+Ici-  throw  round  one 
iu+farci-  cram  in 


con+pSri-  find  out 

555. 3    Reflective  verbs  : 

ISb-  slip 

am-plect-  embrace^ 

lic-e-  lid  at  an  auction 

pl&g-  beat  oneself 

fung-  discharge  oneself 

seq- follow 

18q-  talk\ 

fru-  or  frug-  enjoy% 

grS,d-  or  grS,di-  march 

eo+grS,d-  march  out 

ordi-  legin  weaving 

fS,t-e-  confess 

pro+f£t-e-  profess 

pjlt-  or  p&ti-  suffer 

per+pat-  suffer  to  the  last  perpeti 

n!c-§  kneel,  lean 

m8n-  or  meuti-  measure 

ad+sSn-  or  senti-  agree  with  assentlri 

ut-  use 

ex+peri-  try 

ob+pSri-  wait  for 

quer-  complain^ 


expleo 

expleui 

expleturn 

rgtlneo 

r8tlnui 

rStentum 

rgcenseo 

rScensui 

rgcensltum 

exeo 

exii 

exltum 

S,micio 

Smlcui 

Smictum 

infercio 

infersi 

infertum 

rSpSrio 

repperi* 

rgpertuin 

compgrio 

compSri 

compertum 

labi 

labor 

lapsus 

amplecti 

amplector 

amplexus 

llceri 

llceor 

Hcltus 

plangi 

plangor 

fungi 

fungor 

functus 

sequi 

sequor 

secutus 

I5qui 

ISquor 

locutus 

frui 

fruor 

frultus 

[gr&di] 

gr&dior 

gressus 

egrSdi 

egrSdior 

egressus 

ordiri 

ordior 

orsus 

fate'ri 

iateor 

fassus 

proflteri 

prSfiteor 

prSfessus 

pati 

pS^tior 

passus 

perpeti 

perpetior 

perpessus 

nlti 

nltor 

nlsus  or  nixus 

metlri 

metier 

mensus 

.assentlri 

assentior 

assensus 

uti 

utor 

usus 

experiri 

expgrior 

expertus 

opperiri 

oppSrior 

oppertus|| 

qugri 

queror 

questus 

*  See  note  * 
f  See  §  398. 


p.  94. 


I  More  literally  *  feed  oneself.' 

§  Old  form  gnitor  &c.  from  genu-  (or  genie-]  '  a  knee.'     SPP  Festus. 
||  But  Plautus  has  opperitus. 

1  Literally  'beat  oneself;'  for  quSs-  is  but  a  variety  of  auat-  "  strike.' 
Comp.  /?%-  (r.)  and  KO/TT-  (r.)  'beat  oneself.' 


VERBS. 


6r-  or  Sri-  rise 

oriri 

Srior 

mor-  or  mSri-  die 

m8ri 

morior 

re-  reckon 

reri 

reor 

mer-e-  earn 

mgreri 

mereor 

uer-e-fear 

ugreri 

ugreor 

tu-  or  tue-  guard 

tueri 

tueor 

Sp-  oitam 

Spisci 

ttpiscor 

ad+&p-  obtain 

Sdipisci 

adlpisco 

pro+fcic-  set  out 

proflcisci 

proficis' 

nac-  win,  obtain 

nancisci 

nancisc< 

ip&c-fiX)  bargain 

pacisci 

p^ciscor 

ulc-  avenge 

ulcisci 

ulciscor 

ex+por+reg-  wake  up 

cxporgisci 

exporgis 

de+fat-  give  in 

def6tisci 

defetisc< 

con+m8n-  invent 

commmisci 

commin 

ob+llu-  forget 

oblluisci 

oblluisc' 

ortus 

mortuus 

rS-tns 

mgritus 

ueritus 

tultusortutus 

aptus 

adeptus 

prSfectus 

nanctus* 

pactus 

ultus 


*  So  rather  than  nactus  in  MSS. 

t  Literally  4 1  begin  to  stretch  myself  out.* 


VERBS. 


97 


556 


CONJUGATION  OF  IMPERFECT  TENSES. 


Last  letter          u 
Conjugation.        1 

e 
2 

consonant 
3 

u 
3 

i 
4 

Lat.c.F 

English 

faa- 

plough 

dSce- 
teach 

scrib- 
icrite 

&CU- 

sltarpen 

audi- 
hear 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

1 
I 

1 

S.  arc- 
aras 
arat* 
P.aramiis 

aratis 
aiant 

dSceo 
d6ces 
docet* 
docemua 
docetls 
decent 

scrlbo 
scrlbis 
scrlbit 
scrlbimus 
scrlbitis 
scrlbunt 

Scuo 
S,cuis 
acuit 
acuimus 
acuitis 
acuuntf 

audio 
audls 
audit* 
audlmus 
auditis 
audiunt 

Past  Imperfect. 

8.  arabam 
arabas 
arabat* 
P.arabamus 
arabatis 
arabant 

dScebam 
docebas 
docebat* 
docebamiis 
dScebatis 
docebant 

scrlbebam 
scribebas 
scribebat* 
scribebamiis 
scribebatls 
scrlbebant 

Scuebam 
acuebas 
acuebat* 
acuebamiis 
acuebatis 
acuebant 

audiebam 
audiebas 
audiebat* 
audiebainus 
audiebatis 
audiebant 

I 
^ 

1 

1 

S.  arabo 
arabls 
arabit 
P.arabimus 
avabltls 
arabunt 
* 

dtfcebo 
docebis 
doceblt 
docebimus 
docebitis 
docebunt 

sciibara 
scribes 
scrlbet* 
scrlbemiis 
scribetls 
scrlbent 

acuam 
acues 
acugt* 
S,cuemiis 
acuetls 
acuent 

audiam 
audies 
audiet* 
audiemus 
audietls 
audient 

Q 
| 

C3 
| 

1 

3 

1 

S.  2.  ara 
P.2.  &ratg 

dSce 
dScetg 

scribe 
scrlbite 

acue 
acuite 

audi 
audlte 

Future. 

S.  2.  arato 
3.  arato 
P.2.  &ratote 
3.  aranto 

doceto 
doceto 
docetote 
docento 

scrlbito 
scrlbito 
scrlbitotg 
scrlbunto 

acuito 
Scuito 
acultotg 
acuunto 

audlto 
audlto 
auditote 
audiunto 

j  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Past  Tense.  Present  Tense. 

S'.  aiem 
ares 
argt* 
P.aremus 
aretis 
arent 

docearn 
doceas 
doceat* 
doceamus 
doceatis 
doceant 

scrlbam 
scrlbas 
scribat* 
scrlbam  iis 
scribatis 
scrlbant 

acuam 
acuas 
S,cuat* 
acuamiis 
acuatis 
acuant 

audiam 
audias 
audiat* 
audiamus 
audiatis 
audiant 

6'.  Srarein 
arares 
Sraret* 
/^.arareinus 
araretis 
Srarent 

docerem 
doceres 
doceret* 
doceremiis 
doceretis 
d5cerent 

scrlbgrem 
scrlberes 
scrlberet* 
scrlberemiis 
scrlbergtis 
scriberent 

icuerem 
icugres 
acueret* 
icuererniis 
acueretls 
acuerent 

audirem 
audires 
audiret* 
audlremus 
audlretis 
audlrent 

*  AM  see  for  quantity  §  412  and  note.                  t  Or  acuont. 

98 


VERBS. 


Last  letter           a 
Conjugation        1 

e 
2 

consonaut 
3 

u 
3 

i 
4 

Lat.  C.F. 
English 

ara- 
plough 

d5ce- 
teach 

scrfb- 
write 

&CU- 

sharpen 

audi- 
hear 

INFINI- 
TIVE 

MOOD. 

Srarg 

d5cere 

scrlbgrg 

Scugre 

audire 

PARTICI- 
PLE.* 

aranti-  or 
arant- 

dScenti-  or 
d5cent- 

scrlbenti-  or 
scrlbent- 

Scuenti-  or 
acuent- 

audienti-or 
audient- 

PART. 

FUTURE. 

araturo- 
or  —  a- 

docturo- 
or  —  a- 

scripturo- 
or  —  a- 

[aoulturo- 
or  —  a-] 

audlturo- 
or  —  a- 

GERUND.f 

arando- 

dScendo- 

scrlbendo- 

acuendo- 

audiendo- 

557        There  are  certain  verbs  which  mix  together  the  consonant  and 
i  conjugations  in  the  imperfect  tenses,  viz.  : 


fto- 
i&c- 


or  f£ci-  make 
„  i&ci-  throw 
,  ,  lS,ci-  draw] 
„  speci-  look] 

f5d-  or  fodi-  dig 
fug-  „  fugi-^e 
cS,p-  ,,  capi-  take 
rap-  ,,  rapi-  seize 

sap-    or  sSpi-  taste 
cup-    ,,  cupi-  desire 
pS,r-     ,,  piiri-  produce 
quat-  ,,  quSti-  shake. 


Together  with  the  reflective  verbs  : 


gr&d-  or  grSdi-  march  I  mor-  or  mori-  die    I  pot-  or  pSti-  make 
or-       „  ori-  rise          \  pat-   ,,  pati-5^«?r!          oneself  master. 

Observe  too  that  all  these  seventeen  verbs  have  the  vowel  short. 


558  MIXED  CONSONANT  AND  7  CONJUGATION. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
S.  fugio  fugis  fugtt ;  P.  fuglmus  fug!tis  fugiunt. 


Past-  Imperfect. 
S.  fugiebam,  fugiebas  &c. 


Future. 
S.  fugiam  fugies  &c. 


*  Declined  like  praesenti-  or  praesent-.     See  §  219. 

|  Declined  like  a  neuter  noun  in  o.  J  Only  used  in  compounds. 


VERBS.  99 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 
Present.  S.  fug6  ;  P.  fuglte. 

Future. 
S.  2.  fuglto,  3.  fuglto  ;  P.  2.  fugitote,  3.  fugiunto. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense. 

S.  fugiam  fugias  &c.  S.  fugerem  fuggres  <fcc. 

INFINITIVE,  fugere.  PARTICIPLE,  fugienti-  or  fugient-. 

PARTICIPLE  FUTURE,  fugituro-.  GERUND,  fugiendo-. 

559  Observe  that  those  forms,  which  have  the  vowel  after  g  marked 
short,  follow  the  consonant  conjugation ;  the  others  are  derived  as 
from  a  verb  in  i. 

500        In  old  writers  such  forms  as  capire,  fodire,  parlre  &c.  occur. 

561  CONJUGATION  OF  PERFECT  TENSES. 

Crude  form  of  perfect,  Sra-uis-. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present- Perfect  or  Aorist. 

S.  iiraui  Srauisti  arauit ;  P.  araulmus  3,rauist!s  aVauerunt 

or  a'riluere'. 
Past-Perfect. 
S.  Sraugram  a'raue'ras  Sraugrat ;        P.  Sraugramus  araugratis  Sr5- 

ugrant. 

Future-Perfect. 
S.  arauero  Sraugrfs  Srauerit ;   P.  Srauerfmus  Srauerftis  S,rau6rint.* 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present- Perfect  or  Aorist. 

S.  Sraugrim  a"rau6r!s  araugrit ;  P.  araugrimiis  araugritis  Sraugrint.* 

Past-Perfect. 
S.  Srauissem  Srauisses  arauisset ;     P.  arauissemiis  a"rauisset!s  Sra- 

uissent. 
INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

arauisse. 

The  conjugation  of  a  perfect  which  takes  the  suffix  £s,  instead 
of  ute,  differs  solely  in  the  absence  of  the  u.  See  §  §  584, 588,  590, 
613,  620,  628. 

*  These  two  tenses  are  often  confounded  by  Latin  writers  as  regards 
the  quantity  of  the  ».  See  §  476. 


100  VERBS. 

563       The  perfect  tenses  often  undergo  a  contraction :  as, 


araul 

Srauisti  or  jirasti 

Srauit 


arauimiis 

Srauistls  or  Srastis 

Srauerunt  or  ftrarunt  or  arauerg. 


araueram  or  Sraram  &c. 
arauero      „  araro  &c. 
aVauerim   ,,  ararim  &c. 
cirauissem  ,,  Srassem  <fcc. 
Srauisse     ,,  arassg. 

564        In  the  perfects  of  the  i  conjugation  similar  contractions  oc- 
cur :  as, 


audmi  or  audii 

audluistl,  audiistl,  or  audisti 

audiuit  or  audiit 


audluimus  or  audiimiis 
audluistis,  audiistis,  or  audistis 
audlueruut  or  audierunt,  or 


audiuere  or  audiere. 
audlu^ram  or  audieram  &c. 
audluero       ,,    audiero  &c. 
audiuerini    ,,    audierira  &c. 
audmissem  5,    audiissem  or  audissem  &c. 
audluisse      ,,    audiisse  or  audisse'. 

565        If  the  crude  form  of  the  perfect  have  x  or  s  before  &,  as  dix-is-, 
the  following  contractions  are  found  : 


dixl 

dixistl  or  dixtl 

dixit 


diximiis 

dixistis  or  dixtls 
dixerunt  or  dixerg. 


dixisseni  or  dixem  &c. 
dixissS      „   dixe  &c. 

566  As  the  future-perfect  of  the  indicative  originally  ended  in  eso, 
rather  than  ero,  and  the  subjunctive  perfect  in  esim,  rather  than 
erim,  the  following  contractions,  which  occur  in  old  writers,  are 
explained : 

Ind.  fut.-perf.     faxo,       faxls  &c.   for  fecgro  &c. 
Sulj.  pres.-perf.  faxim,    faxis  &c.     „    fecerim  &c. 
Sulj.  past-perf.  faxem*,  faxes  &c.     „    fecissem  &c. 

567  So  again,  Srasso,  Srassls  &c.  for  ftravgro  &c. 

*  See§  1209/  note. 


REFLECTIVE  OR  PASSIVE  VERBS. 


101 


568  From  this  future-perfect  is  formed  an  old  infinitive  future 
arasserg. 

569  The  gerund  of  the  consonant  and  i  conjugations  often  ends  in 
undo,  rather  than  endo  ;  as  scribundo-. 


570 


REFLECTIVE  OR  PASSIVE  VERBS. 
CONJUGATION  OP  IMPERFECT  TENSES. 


Last  letter        a 
Conjugation      1 

e 
2 

consonant 
3 

U 

3 

i 
4 

Lat.C.F. 

English 

orna- 
dress 

dtfce- 
teach 

uort- 
turn 

mStu- 
fear 

audi- 
hear 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

S.  ornor 
ornarfs* 
ornatur 
P.ornamur 
ornamim 
ornantiir 

doce5r 
dScerls* 
docetur 
docemur 
docemlnl 
docentiir 

uortSr 
uortgrls 
uortitiir 
uortlmiir 
uortimln! 
uortuntur 

metu8r 
mgtuSrls 
mgtultiir 
mgtulmur 
mgtulmlnl 
mStuunturt 

audiSr 
audiris 
auditiir 
audimur 
audimini 
audiuiitur 

Past-Imperfect. 

S.  ornabar 
ornabarisor 
ornabare 
ornabatur 
P.ornabamur 
ornabaminl 
ornabantur 

docebSr 
dScebarfs  or 
docebarg 
docebatiir 
d8cebamur 
dScebamlnl 
dScebantur 

uortebar 
uortebarfsor 
uortebarg 
uortebatur 
uortebamiir 
uortebamlnl 
uortebautiir 

mStuSb&r 
mgtuebarls  or 
metuebarg 
metuebatur 
mgtuebamur 
metuebamlni 
mgtuebantur 

audiebar 
audiebarisor 
audiebare 
audiebatur 
audiebamur 
audiebamin! 
audiebantur 

S 

1 

5 
1 

S.  ornabSr 
ornabgrfs  or 
ornabgrg 
ornabitiir 
P.ornabimur 
ornablminl 
ornabuntiir 

d5ceb5r 
doceberls  or 
docebgrg 
docebltiir 
doceblmur 
doceblmlnl 
dScebuntur 

uortSr 
uorteris  or 
uorterg 
uortetur 
uortemiir 
uortemini 
uortentur 

m8tuS,r 
mStueris  or 
mgtuerg 
mgtuetiir 
mgtuemiir 
metuemin! 
mgtuentur 

audiar 
audierls  or 
audiere 
audietur 
audiemiir 
audiemini 
audientur 

|rMPEUATlVEMOOD 

I 

S.  2.  ornarg 
P.  2.  ornamlnl 

docerg 
docemlni 

uortgre 
uortimlnl 

metugrS 
mStuimlni 

audirg 

audimini 

c 

_s 

^l-jornatSr 
P.  3.  ornantor 

dScetSr 
docentSr 

uortitSr 
uortuntor 

mStuItSr 
metuunt8r§ 

audits^ 
audiuntor 

*  Arbitrdre,  uidere,  for  arbitraris,  uideris,  occur.        f  Or  vnetuontur. 

I  There  was  also  for  the  2d  and  3d  person  of  the  singular  an  old  form 

inmmo;  as  fa-mmo,  progredi-mmo.  §  Or  metuontor. 


102 


BEFLECTIVE  OR  PASSIVE  VERBS'. 


Last  letter        a 
Conjugation      1 

e 

2 

consonant 
3 

u 
3 

i 
4 

Lat.c.F. 

English 

orna- 
dress 

dfce- 
teach 

uort- 
turn 

m8tu- 
fear 

audi- 
foar 

SHt^i  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

S.  orngr 
ornerfs  or 
ornerS 
orngtur 
P.ornemur 
ornemim 
ornentur 

dScear 
dScearis  or 
docearS 
dSceatur 
doceamur 
doceamTnl 
doceantur 

uortar 
uortaris  or 
uortare 
uortatur 
uortamiir 
uortamini 
uortantiir 

metu&r 
mgtuaris  or 
metuarg 
metuatiir 
metuamiir 
metuamini 
mgtuantur 

audiar 
audiarls  or 
audiarS 
audiatur 
audiamur 
audiaminl 
audiantiir 

^. 

{ 

ja 
N 

FINI- 
VE 
OD.* 

S.ornarer 
ornareris  or 
ornarere 
ornaretur 
P.omaremur 
omaremiril 
ornareutur 

dScerer 
docereiis  or 
docererS 
doceretiir 
doceremur 
doceremml 
docerentiir 

uortergr 
uortereris  or 
uorterere 
uorteretur 
uorteremur 
uorteremml 
uortereutur 

metuSrgr 
metuereris  or 
metuerere 
metueretur 
metuererniir 
metueremmi 
inetuerentiir 

audlrgr 
audireris  or 
audlrere 
audlretur 
audlreniur 
audlreininl 
audlrentiir 

ornariSr  or 
ornarl 

docerier  or 
docerl 

uortier  or 
uorti 

metuier  or 
metul 

audlrier  or 
audlrl 

i  PARTI- 

CIPLE.f 

ornando- 

docendo- 

uortendo- 

metuendo- 

audiendo- 

571  MIXED  CONSONANT  AND  /  CONJUGATION.^ 

INDICATIVE  MOOD.    Present  Tense. 
•V.  morior  moreris  moritur  ;          P.  morimiir  morimim  moriuntiir. 

Past- Imperfect.  Future. 

S  mSriebar  moriebaris  &c.  S.  moriar  morierls  &c. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  S.  morgre  ;  P.  monmmi. 

Future.  S.  2.  moritor,  3.  morltor;          P.  3.  moriuntSr. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

•  Present  Tense.  Past  Tense. 

S.  moriar  moriaris  &c.  S.  mSrerer  morereris  &c. 

INFINITIVE,  m5rl.  PARTICIPLE,  morienti-  or  mSrient -. 

PARTICIPLE  FUTURE,  morituro-.  GERUND,  mSriundo-. 

*  The  infinitives  in  er  belong  to  the  old  language, 
t  The  reflective  verbs  have  also  participles  in  enti-  or  ent-  and  in 
turo-.  J  See  §  557. 


REFLECTIVE  OR  PASSIVE  VERBS. 


103 


571. 1    In  old  writers  such  forms  as  moilmur  and  mtfrirl  occur. 

572  Ori-  (r.)  rise,  and  poti-  (r.)  make  oneself  master,  partake  more  of 
the  i  conjugation  :  as,  orlrgr,  Srlrl ;  pStlris,  p5titur,  pStimur,  pS- 
tirgr,  ptftlrl. 

573  The  perfect  tenses  of  a  reflective  or  passive  verb  are  formed  by 
the  perfect  participle  in  to  and  the  verbs  gs-  or  fu-. 


£74         CONJUGATION  OF  THE  PERFECT  TENSES  OF  A 
REFLECTIVE  OR  PASSIVE  VERB. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present- Perfect  or  Aorist. 
or  fill  P.  ornatif  sumus  or  fulmus 


/S.  ornatus*'  sum 
ornatus  8s 
ornatus  est 


fuisti 
fuit 


ornati  estls 
ornati  sunt 


„  fuistis 
fuerunt  or  fuere. 


Past-Perfect. 
S.  oruatiis  gram     or  fueram        P.  ornati  8ramus  or  fueramiis 


ornatus  eras 
ornatus  erat 

S.  ornatus  ero 
ornatus  eris 
ornatus  erlt 


S,  ornatus  sim 
ornatus  sis 
ornatus  sit 


S.  ornatus  essem 
ornatus  esses 
ornatus  esset 


fueras 
fugrat 


ornati  gratis 
ornati  grant 


„  fugratls 
„  fuerant. 


Future-Perfect, 
or  fugro  P.  ornati  grlmus   or  fugrlmiis 


„  fugrls 
„  fuerit 


ornati  gritls 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present-Perfect  or  Aorist. 
or  fuerim         P.  ornati  simiis 
,,  fugrls  ornati  sltis 


fugrit 


ornati  sint 


fugrltls 


or  fugrlmiis 
„  fugrltls 
,,  fugrint. 


Past-Perfect. 

or  fuissem       P.  ornati  essemus  or  fuissenms 
,,  fuisses 


,,  fuisset 


ornati  essent 


fuissent. 


INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
ornatus  esse  or  fuissg. 

*  Ornatus,  ornata  or  ornatum^  to  agree  with  the  nominative, 
f  Ornati,  ornatae  or  ornata,  to  agree  with  the  nominative. 


104  VERBS. 

CONJUGATION  OF  A  SIMPLE*  VERB,  WITH  THE 
ENGLISH  TRANSLATION. 

575  C.P.  SCR!B-  write. 

Principal  parts  :  scrlbere'  scribo  scripsl  scriptum. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense,  scrib-. 

As  a  present-imperfect,  am ing  : 

Ad  fratrem  meum  scribo,  1  am  writing  to  my  brother. 

Ad  fratrem  tuum  scrlbis,  You  are  writing  to  your  brother. 

Ad  fratrem  suum  scribit,  He  is  writing  to  his  brother. 

Ad  fratrem  nostrum  scrlblmus,  We  are  writing  to  our  brother. 

Ad  fratrem  nostrum  scrlbitls,  You  are  writing  to  your  brother. 

Ad  fratrem  suum  scribunt,  They  are  writing  to  their  brother. 

576        as  an  historic  present  : 

Postgro  die  ad  sSnem  scribo,     The  next  day  I  write  to  the  old  man. 

577       as  a  present  of  custom  : 

Eg5  calamo  scribo,  /  write  with  a  reed. 

Tu  pinna  scrlbis,  You  write  with  a  pen. 

578  • as  a  present,  translated  by  do  : 

Egtf  uero  scribo,  Yes  I  do  write. 

Tu  uero  scrlbis,  Yes  you  do  write. 

579        as  a  present,  including  past  time,  have  been ing  : 

lam  duas  horas  scribo,  /  have  been  writing  now  two  hours. 

580  Past-Imperfect,  scrlbeba-. 
As  a  past-imperfect,  was ing  : 

Scribebam  cum  puSr  intrauit,  /  was  writing  when  the  boy  came  in. 

581 as  a  past  tense  of  custom,  used  to : 

Eg5  calamo  scrlbebam,  /  used^  to  write  with  a  reed. 

Tu  pinna  scrlbebas,  You  used  to  write  with  a  pen. 

*  That  is,  not  reflective  or  passive, 
f  Or  '  I  wrote,'  &c. 


VERBS.  105 

582        as  a  past  tense,  including  time  preceding,  had  been 

ing  : 

lam  tris  horas  scribebam,  /  had  been  then  writing  three 

hours. 

583  Future  Tense,  scriba-  or  scribe-. 
Translated  by  shall,  will  : 

Oras  mauS  scrlbam,  /  shall  write  tomorrow  morning. 

Cras  manS  scribes,  You  will  write  tomorrow  morning. 

Present-Perfect  Tense,  scripsls-. 

584  As  a  present-perfect,  have en  :* 

Quattuor  gpistSlas  scrips!,  /  have  written  four  letters. 

585       as  an  aorist,  translated  by  the  English  past : 

Hgri  ad  nggotiatorem  scrips!,        /  wrote  yesterday  to  tlie  mer- 
chant. 

586       as  an  aorist,  translated  by  did  : 

Eg5  uero  scrips!,  Yes  I  did  write. 

Tu  uero  scripsisti,  Yes  you  did  write. 

587       as  a  present-perfect,  translated  by  an  English  pre- 
sent: 

Ego  si  scrips!,  rescrlblt,  If  1  write,  he  writes  again. 

Tu  si  scripsisti,  rescriblt,  If  you  write,  he  writes  again. 

588  Past-Perfect,  scripsera-. 
Translated  by  had en  : 

Ante  id  tempus  scripse'ram,  /  had  written  before  that  time. 

589       translated  by  an  English  past : 

Eg5  si  scripse'ram,  rescrlbebat,          If  I  wrote,  he  wrote  again. 
Tu  si  scripse'ras,  rescribebat,  If  you  wrote,  he  wrote  again. 

*  That  is,  the  perfect  participle  of  the  English  verb. 


106  VEllBS. 

590  Future-Perfect,  scripser-. 
Translated  by  shall  have en,  will  have en  : 

AntS  noctera  scripsSro,  I  shall  have  written  before  night. 

Ant6  noctem  scripsSris,*  You  will  have  written  before  night. 

591        translated  by  an  English  present  : 

Ego  si  scripsero,  rescribet,  If  I  write,  he  will  write  again. 

Tu  si  scripseris,  rescribet,  If  you  write,  he  will  write  again. 

592  IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Translated  by  the  simple  verb  : 

Scribe  ad  patrem  tuum,  Write  to  your  father. 

Scribite  ad  patrem  nostrum,         Write  to  your  father. 

593  Future  Tense. 

Translated  by  shall,  must,  let ;  or  by  the  simple  verb  : 
Scrlbito,  Thou  shalt  write.          Scribltote,  Ye  shall  write. 
Scrlbito,  He  shall  write.  Scribunto,  They  shall  write. 

594  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Present  Tense,  scriba-. 

As  a  present-imperfect,  am ing  (indirect  interrogative)  : 

Nescio  quid  scribam,  /  know  not  what  I  am  writing. 

Nescio  quid  scribas,  1  know  not  what  you  are  writing. 

595        translated  by  an  indicative  present  (result)  : 

IndS  fit  ut  nihil  de  hac  re  scrl-    Hence  it  happens  that  I  write 

bam,  nothing  on  this  subject. 

IndS  fit  ut  nihil  de  hac  re  scrlbas,    Hence  it  happens  that  you  write 

nothing  on  this  subject. 

596 translated  by  do  (concession)  : 

Vt  scrlbam,  non  est  satis,      Even  granting  that  I  do  write,  it  is  not 

enough. 
Vt  scrlbas,  non  est  s£tis,       Even  granting  that  you  do  write,  it  is 

not  enough. 

*  But  see,  as  regards  the  quantity  of  the  i  after  r,  §  47G. 


VERBS.  107 

597       translated  by  should,  would  (hypothesis)  ; 

Si  pinnft  mihi  sit,  scribam,          If  I  had  a  pen,  I  would  write. 

Si  phmS,  tlbi  sit,  scribas,  If  you  had  a  pen,  you  would  write. 

598        translated  by  were ing  : 

Sgdeo  hie,  tanquam  scribam,       /  sit  here,  as  if  I  were  writing. 
Sedes  istlc,  tanquam  scribas,        You  sit  there,  as  if  you  were  writing. 
Sedet  illic,  tanquam  scribat,       He  sits  yonder,  as  if  he  were  writing. 

599        translated  by  may  (purpose) : 

PinnS,  d&tur,  qua*  scribam,  The  pen  is  given  me,  that  I  may 

write^  with  it. 

PinnS,  datur,  qua  scrlbas,  The  pen  is  given  you,  that  you  may 

write  with  it. 

599. 1    translated  by  must  or  shall  (command)  : 

Lex  est  ut  scribam,  There  is  a  law  that  I  must  write. 

Lex  est  ut  scribas,  There  is  a  law  that  you  must  write. 

600 translated  by  to  (indirect  interrogative)  : 

Nescio  quid  scribam,  /  know  not  what  to  write. 

Nescis  quid  scribas,  You  know  not  what  to  write. 

601 translated  by  shall,  will  : 

Puer  tlmet  ne  scribam,  The  boy  is  afraid  I  shall  write. 

Puer  tmiet  ne  scrlbas,  The  loy  is  afraid  you  will  write. 

602        translated  by  from ing  : 

Hoc  impgdit  ne  scribam,  •        This  prevents  me  from  writing. 
Hoc  impgdit  ne  scrlbas,  This  prevents  you  from  writing, 

602. 1 translated  by  English  infinitive  : 

Sing  scribam,     Let  me  write.       Sing  scribamus,    Let  us  write. 
Sing  scribat,       Let  him  write.     Sine  scribant,       Let  them  write. 

*  Literally, « with  which.' 
f  Or  rather,  '  to  write  with.' 


108  VERBS. 

602.  2 translated  by  an  English  imperative  : 

N§  scrlbam,  Let  me  not  write.      Ne  scrlbamus,  Let  us  not  write. 

Ne  scrlbas,    Do  not  write.  Ne  scrlbatls,     Do  not  write. 

Ne"  scrlbat,    Let  him  not  write.    Ne  scribant,      Let  them  not  write. 

603  Past  Tense,  scrlbgre-. 

As  a  past-imperfect,  was ing  (indirect  interrogative) : 

Nesciebam  quid  scribe'rem,          I  knew  not  what  I  was  writing. 
Nesciebam  quid  scrlberes,  /  knew  not  what  you  were  writing. 

604        translated  by  an  English  past  (result). 

Inde  factum  est  ut  nihil  de  hac  Hence  it  happened  that  I  wrote 

re  scribe'rem,  nothing  on  this  subject. 

Inde  factum  est  ut  nihil  de  hac  Hence  it  happened  that  you  wrote 

re  scribgres,  nothing  on  this  subject. 

605        translated  by  should  or  would  have  been ing  (hy- 
pothesis) : 

Si  pinnS  mihi  esset,  scriberem,  If  there  had  been  a  pen  for  me,  I 

should  have  been  writing. 

Si  pinnS,  tlbi  esset,  scrlbe'res,  If  there  had  been  a  pen  for  you, 

you  would  have  been  writing. 

606        translated  by  had  been ing : 

Sgdebam  hie,  tanquam  scribe'rem,  /  was  sitting  here,  as  if  I  had 

been  writing. 

SSdebas  istlc,  tanquam  scribgres,  You  were  sitting  there,  as  if  you 

had  been  writing. 

Sedebat  illlc,  tanquam  scrlbe'ret,  He  was  sitting  yonder,  as  if  he 

had  been  writing. 

607       translated  by  might  (purpose)  : 

PinnS,  d£ta  est  qua*  scribe'rem,  The  pen  was  given  me,  that  Imight\ 

write  with  it. 
PinnS,  d£ta  est  qua  scribgres,       The  pen  was  given  you,  that  you 

might  write  with  it. 

*  Literally, '  with  which.'  f  Or  rather, « to  write  with.' 


VERB?.  109 

60S       translated  by  must  or  should  (command)  : 

Lex  grat  ut  scrlberem,  There  was  a  law  that  I  must  write. 

Lex  grat  ut  scrlbgres,  There  was  a  law  that  you  must  write. 

609        translated  by  to  (indirect  interrogative)  : 

Nesciebam  quid  scrlbgrem,      /  knew  not  what  to  write. 
Nesciebas  quid  scribgres,          You  knew  not  what  to  write. 

610 translated  by  should  or  would  : 

Puer  tlmebat  ne  scrlberem,      The  boy  was  afraid  I  should  write. 
Puer  tlmebat  ne  scrlberes,       The  boy  was  afraid  you  would  write. 

611        translated  by  from ing : 

Hoc  impgdiebat  ne  scrlberem,     This  prevented  me  from  writing. 
Hoc  impgdiebat  ne  scrlberes,       This  prevented  you  from  writing. 

612       translated  as  a  past  order*  : 

Ne  scrlberem,  (He  bade)  me  not  write. 

Ne  scrlbgres,  (He  bade)  you  not  write. 

613  Present-Perfect,  scripseri-. 

As  a  present-perfect,  have en  (indirect  interrogative)  : 

Nescio  quid  scripsgrim,  /  know  not  what  I  have  written. 

Nescis  quid  scripserlst,  You  know  not  what  you  have  written. 

614       as  an  aorist  (indirect  interrogative)  : 

Nescio  quid  herl  scripsgrim,    I  know  not  what  I  wrote  yesterday. 
Nescis  quid  her!  scripserls,       You  know  not  what  youwrote yesterday. 

615       translated  by  may  have en : 

Forsltan  nimium  scripsgrim,   Perhaps  I  may  have  written  too  much, 
Forsitan  nimium  scripsgrls,     Perhaps  you  may  have  written  too  much. 

*  In  reported  speech. 

t  But  see,  as  regards  the  quantity  of  the  i  after  r,  §  476. 


110  VERBS. 

616       as  a  future-perfect  after  a  present,  translated  by  an 

English  present  (reported  speech)  : 

Caesar  polllcetur  se,  si  scripse'rim,  Caesar  promises  that  if  1  write,  he 

rescripturum,  will  write  again. 

Caesar  polllcetur  se,  si  scripseris,  Caesar  promises  that  if  you  write, 

rescripturum,  he  will  write  again. 

617          translated  by  were  to ,  or  English  past  tense  (hy- 
pothesis) : 

Si*  scripse'rim  £d  eum,  rgdeat,     If  I  were  to  writeft  to  him,  Jte  would 

return. 
Si  scripsgris  ad  eum,  rSdeat,       If  you  were  to  write  to  him,  he  would 

return. 

618        translated  by  should,  would  (consequence  of  hypothesis) : 

Frustra  scripse'rim,  I  should  write  in  vain. 

Frustra  scripsSrls,  You  would  write  in  vain. 

619       translated  by  had en  : 

S&leo  hie,   tanquam  gpistolam    I  sit  here,  as  if  I  had  written  the 

perscripserim  J,  whole  letter. 

SSdes  istic,  tanquam  Spistolam     You  sit  there,  as  if  you  had  writ- 

perscripsSris,  ten  the  whole  letter. 

SSdet  illic,  tanquam  epistolam     He  sits  yonder,  as  if 'he  had writ- 

perscripserit,  ten  the  whole  letter. 

620        translated  as  an  imperative  : 

Id  nunquam  scripse'rim,  Let  me  never  write  that. 

Id  nunquam  scripseris,  Never  write  that. 

Id  nunquam  scripserit,  Let  him  never  write  that. 

*  This  si  might  be  omitted.     Thus  in  the  English  too  we  might  drop 
the  if,  and  say, '  were  I  to  write  to  him,'  &c. 

t  Or,  '  if  I  wrote,'  &c. 

J  Per-scrib-  literally  signifies  '  write  through,  write  to  the  end.' 


VERBS.  Ill 

621  Past-Perfect,  scripsisse"-. 

As  a  past-perfect,  translated  by  had  en  (indirect  inter- 
rogative) : 

Quaesltum  est,  utrum  scripsissem,  The  question  was  asked,  whe- 
ther I  had  written. 

Quaesltum  est,  utrum  scripsisses,  The  question  was  asked,  whe- 
ther you  had  written. 

622       as  a  future-perfect  after  a  past,  translated  by  an  English 

past  (reported  speech) : 

Caesar  polllcebatur  se,  si  scripsis-  Ocesar promised  that  if  J  wrote, 

sem,  rescripturum,  he  would  write  again. 

Caesar  polllcebatur  se,  si  scripsis-  Caesar  promised  that  if  you 

ses,  rescripturum,  wrote,  he  would  write  again. 

623       translated  by  had en  (hypothesis)  : 

Etiamsl  scripsissem,  frustra  esset,  Even  if  I  had  written,  it  would 

have  been  in  vain. 

Etiamsi  scripsisses,  frustra  esset,  Even  if  you  had  written,  it 

would  have  been  in  vain. 

624       translated  by  should  have,  would  have  (consequence  of 

hypothesis)  : 

Turn*  qutfqug  scripsissem,  Even  in  that  case*  I  should  have  written. 
Turn  quSqug  scripsisses,    Even  in  that  case  you  would  have  written. 

625  INFINITIVE  IMPERFECT,  scribe're. 
Translated  by  an  English  infinitive  : 

Debeo  scribe're',  /  ought  to  write. 

Ngqueo  scribe're',  /  cannot  write. 

626       translated  as  an  English  indicative  : 

Scio  eum  scriberg,  I  know  that  he  is  writing. 

Sciebam  eum  scriberg,  1  knew  that  he  was  writing. 

627       translated  by  an  English  perfect  infinitive  : 

Debebam  scrlbgrg,  /  ought  to  have  written. 

*  Literally  « then.' 


11-  VERBS. 

628  INFINITIVE  PERFECT,  scripsissg. 

Translated  by  an  English  perfect  infinitive  : 

Scripsisse  dlcltiir,  lie  is  said  to  have  written. 

G29        translated  by  an  English  indicative  : 

Scio  eum  scripsissg,  /  know  that  he  has  written. 

Scio  eum  herl  scripsissg,  I  know  that  he  wrote  yesterday. 

Sciebam  eum  scripsissg,  /  knew  that  he  had  written. 

630        translated  by  the  having en : 

Scripsisse  exitio  el  fuit,  The  having  written  was  fatal  to  him. 

631  PARTICIPLE  IMPERFECT,  scrlbenti-  or  scrlbent-. 
Translated  by ing  : 

Sgnex  gpistolam  scribens  decldit,     The  old  man,  while  writing  a 

letter,  fell  down. 

632  PARTICIPLE  FUTURE,  scripturo-. 
Translated  by  about  to ,  intending  to : 

Ad  ipsuni  eras  scripturus,  haec    Intending  to  write  to  himself  to- 
nunc  5mitto,  morrow,  1  pass  over  these  things 

now. 
632. 1    Dlco  me  scripturum  esse,        /  say  that  I  will  write. 

Dixl  me  scripturum  essg,        1  said  that  I  would  write. 
632.  2    Dixl  me  scripturum  fuissg,      I  said  that  I  would  have  written. 

633        translated  as  an  intention  not  fulfilled : 

Habebam  el  gratias,  scripturus*  1  felt  grateful  to  him,  and  should 
quoqug,  nisi  aegrotarem,  have  written  toj,  if  I  had  not 

been  ill. 

634  GERUND,  scrlbendo-. 
Translated  by ing  : 

N.  Mihi  est  scribendum  gpisttf-  To  me  belongs  the   writing  the 

last,  letters. 

Ac.  Dellgitur    ad    scribendum  He   is    selected  for   writing  the 

gpistSlast,  letters. 

*  See  also  the  conjugation  of  the  verb/w-  with  the  participle  in  turo. 
f  Most  of  these  constructions  are  confined  to  the  old  writers.     See 
the  use  of  the  Gerundive,  §  1287. 


VERBS.  113 

G.  Veni  epistolas  scrlbendi  caussa,  1  came  for  the  sake  of  writing 

the  letters. 

P.  Aptiis  est  scrlbendo  episttflas*,  He  is  fit  for  writing  letters. 
Ab.  Scrlbendot  epistolas  occupa-  He  is  engaged  in  writing  letters. 
tus  est, 

G35  SUPINE,  scriptu-. 

Translated  as  an  English  infinitive  : 

Ac.  Eo  illuc  scriptum,  I  am  going  yonder  to  write. 

Ab.  Hae  littgrae  diffMles  sunt     These  letters  are  difficult  to  write. 
scriptu, 

CONJUGATION  OF  A  REFLECTIVE  VERB,  WITH 
THE  ENGLISH  TRANSLATION. 

636  Anna-  (r.\  arm  oneself. 
Principal  parts  :  armarl,  armor,  armatiis. 

637  INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  am  arming  myself,  arm  myself,  &c. 

Armor,  /  am  arming  myself. 

Armarfs  or  armargj,  You  are  arming  yourself. 

Armatiir,  He  is  arming  himself. 

Armanrar,  We  are  arming  ourselves. 

Armammi,  You  are  arming  yourselves. 

Armantiir,  They  are  arming  themselves 

638  Past- Imperfect,  was  arming  myself,  &c. 
Armabar,  /  was  arming  myself. 
Armabaris  or  armabarS,  You  were  arming  yourself. 
Armabatur,  He  was  arming  himself. 
Armabamur,  We  were  arming  ourselves. 
Armabamlnl,  You  were  arming  yourselves. 
Armabantiir,  They  were  arming  themselves. 

*  See  note  f  p.  112. 

f  This  form  of  the  Gerund,  although  an  ablative,  is  often  shortened 
in  late  writers,  as  uigilando  (Juv.  3.  232). 

£  The  form  in  re  is  not  common  for  the  present  indicative ;  it  may 
be  from  fear  of  confusion  with  the  infinitive. 


114  VERES. 

639  Future,  shall  or  will  arm  myself,  &c. 
Armabor,  I  shall  arm  myself  . 
Armabe'ris  or  armaberS,  You  will  arm  yourself 
Armabltur,  He  will  arm  himself. 
Armablmui-,  We  shall  arm  ourselves. 
Armablmml,  You  will  arm  yourselves. 
Armabuntiir,  They  will  arm  themselves. 

640  Present-Perfect,  have  armed  myself,  &c.  (or  Aorist,  armed  myself.) 

Armatus*  sum,  /  have  armed  myself. 

Armatus*  8s,  You  have  armed  yourself. 

Armatus*  est,  He  has  armed  himself. 

Armatif  sumus,  We  have  armed  ourselves. 

Armatif  estls,  You  have  armed  yourselves. 

Armatit  sunt,  They  have  armed  themselves. 

641  Past-Perfect,  had  armed  myself,  &c. 
Armatus  gram £,  /  had  armed  myself. 
Armatus  eras,  You  had  armed  yourtdf. 
Armatus  erat,  He  had  armed  himself. 
Armati  eramus,  We  had  armed  ourselves. 
Armati  gratis,  You  had  armed  yourselves. 
Armati  erant,  They  had  armed  themselves. 

642  Future- Perfect,  shall  have  armed  myself,  <kc. 
Armatus  ero,  §  J  shall  have  armed  myself. 
Armatus  erSs,  You  will  have  armed  yourself. 
Armatus  Srlt,  He  will  have  armed  himself. 
Armati  erinms,  We  shall  have  armed  ourselves. 
Armati  eritis,  You  will  have  armed  yourselves. 
Armati  Srunt,  They  will  have  armed  themselves. 

643  IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Present. 
ArmarS,  Arm  yourself .          \      Armamlnl,  A  rm  yourselves. 

•  Armatd  if  the  nominative  be  feminine,  armatum  if  it  be  neuter. 
f  Armatae  if  the  nominative  be  feminine,  armatti,  if  it  be  neuter. 
&c.  §  Or  fnero,  &c. 


TERBS.  115 

644  Future. 

Armator  or  armamlno,  You  must  arm  yourself. 

Armator  or  armamlno,  He  must  arm  himself. 

Armantor,    '  They  must  arm  themselves. 

645  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present.    (See  the  several  translations  of  scriba-m.) 
Consul  impSrat  tit  armer,       The  consul  commands  me  to  arm  myself. 
Consul  impgrat  ut  armerfs    The  consul  commands  you  to  army  our- 
or  armerg,  self. 

646  Past.     (See  the  several  translations  of  scribere-m.) 
Consul  impSrauit  fit  armarer,       The  consul  commanded  me  to  arm 

myself. 

Consul  imperauit  ut  armarerls      The  consul  commanded  you  to  arm 
or  armarere',  yourself. 

647  Present- Perfect.     (See  the  several  translations  of  scripseri-m.) 

Nescio  quare  armatus  sim,   1  know  not  why  I  have  armed  myself. 
Nescio  quare  armatus  sis,     /  know  not  why  you  have  armed  yourself. 

648  Past-Perfect.     (See  the  several  translations  of  scripsisse-m.) 
Nesciebam  quare  armatus  essem,     /  knew  not  why  I  luad  armed 

myself. 

Nesciebam  quare  armatus  esses,       I  knew  not  why  you  had  armed 

yourself. 

€49  INFINITIVE  IMPERFECT. 

Debeo  armari,  /  ought  to  arm  myself. 

Scio  eum  armari,  /  know  tluit  he  is  arming  himself. 

Sciebam  eum  armari,  I  knew  that  he  was  arming  himself. 

Armari  signum  belli  est,  To  arm  oneself  is  a  sign  of  war. 

Debebam  armari,  /  ought  to  have  armed  myself. 

650  INFINITIVE  PERFECT. 

Scio  eum  armatum  essg,  /  know  that  he  has  armed  himself. 
Sciebam  eum  armatum  essg,  /  knew  that  he  had  armed  himself. 
Scio  eum  armatum  fore,  I  know  that  he  will  have  armed  himself. 


116  VERBS. 

651  PARTICIPLE  IMPERFECT. 
Armanti-  or  armant-,     (While)  arming  oneself. 

652  PARTICIPLE  PERFECT. 
Armato-,  Having  armed  oneself. 

653  PARTICIPLE  FUTURE. 
Armature--,  About  to  arm  oneself. 

654  GERUND. 
Armando-,  Arming  oneself. 

CONJUGATION  OF  A  PASSIVE  VERB,  WITH  THE 
ENGLISH  TRANSLATION. 

Prgm-  press. 

Principal  parts  :  premi,  prSmor,  pressus. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

655  Pres.  Prgmor*  /  am  pressed,  premeris  you  are  pressed,  prgmltur 
he  is  pressed.    Preralmur  we  are  pressed,  prgmlminl  you  are  pressed, 
premimtiir  they  are  pressed. 

656  Past.  Prernebarf  /  was  pressed,  premebarfs  or  premebare  you 
were  pressed,  premebatiir  he  was  pressed.      Premebamur  we  were 
pressed,    premebfiminl  you  were  pressed,   premebautur  they  were 


657  Future.  Premar  I  shall  be  pressed,  premeiis  or  premerg  you  will 
be  pressed,  premetur  he  will  be  pressed.  Prememur  we  shall  be 
pressed,  prgmemlnl  you  will  be  pressed,  prementur  they  will  be 
pressed. 

*  With  many  verbs  this  translation  would  not  give  the  meaning,  and 
indeed  the  English  passive  is  defective  in  the  imperfect  tenses.  Thus 
domus  aedificatur  means,  not  'the  house  is  built,'  for  that  would  imply 
that  the  building  is  completed,  but '  the  house  is  being  built'  or  '  is  a-build- 
ing  ;'  but  of  these  two  phrases,  the  first  is  scarcely  English,  and  the  second 
is  obsolete.  Again,  such  a  verb  as  occldor  must  not  be  translated  '  1  am 
killed,1  but  rather  '  I  am  on  the  point  of  being  killed.' 

f  Similarly,  domus  aedificabatur  would  signify  *  the  house  was  being 
built'  or  '  was  a-building.'  So  occtdebar  must  not  be  translated  '  I  was 
killed,'  but  rather  '  I  was  on  the  point  of  being  killed.' 


VERBS.  117 


658  Pres.-perf.  Pressus*  sumf  1  have  been  pressed^,  pressus 

have  been  pressed,  pressus  est  he  has  been  pressed.  Press!  sumiis 
we  have  been  pressed,  press!  estis  you  have  been  pressed,  pressl  sunt 
they  have  been  pressed. 

659  Past-perf.  Pressus*  eram§  1  had  been  pressed\\,  pressus  eras  you 
had  been  pressed,  pressus  erat  he  had  been  pressed.     Press!  Sramus 

,  press!  eratis  you  had  been  pressed,  press!  grant 


660  Fut.-perf.  Pressus*  SroU  I  shall  have  been  pressed,  pressus  eris 
you  will  have  been  pressed,  pressus  erit  he  will  have  been  pressed. 
Press!  grfmus  we  shall  have  been  pressed,  press!  eritls  you  will  have 
been  pressed,  press!  grunt  they  will  have  been  pressed. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

661  Present.  Preme're  be  thou  pressed,  prgmiminl  be  ye  pressed. 

662  Future.   Pr&mitcr  thou  shalt  be  pressed,  prgmltor  he  shall  be 
pressed.     Premuntor  they  shall  be  pressed. 

663  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense.  Res  eo  rediit,  ut  malis  premar,  Matters  are  come 
to  this,  that  1  am  pressed  with  troubles. 

664  Ego  si  tot  malis  premar,  peream,  If  I  were  pressed  by  so  many 
troubles,  I  should  die. 

665  Turn  nlmium  premar,  In  that  case  I  should  be  too  much  pressed. 

666  Tlmflr  est  ne  prgmar,  The  fear  is  that  I  shall  be  pressed. 

667  Stat  per  Caium,  quominus  premar,  Gains  prevents  me  from 


668  Nitor  ne  prgmar,  /  am  striving  not  to  be  pressed. 

669  Past  Tense.  Tim5r  grat  ne  prgmgrer,  There  was  a  fear  that  I 
should  be  pressed. 

670  Res  eo  redigrat,  ut  m&lis  pre'me'rer,  Matters  had  come  to  this, 
that  I  was  pressed  with  troubles. 

*  i.  e.  Pressus,  -«,  or  -urn. 

f  Or  as  an  aorist,  '  I  was  pressed,'  &c. 

J  With  some  verbs  the  translation  '  is ed'  is  admissible.  Thus 

domus  aedificata  est  means  *  the  house  is  built'  or  '  the  building  is  now- 
completed.'  Occisus  sum,  'I  am  killed.'  §  Orfueram,  &c. 

||  With  some  verbs  this  tense  may  be  translated  'was ed.'  Thus, 

domus  iam  aedificata  era t, '  the  house  was  now  built,'  i.e.  the  building 
was  completed. 

^  Orfuero,  &c. 


118  VEKBS. 

671  Eg5  si  tot  mails  prgmgrer,  perirem,  If  I  had  been  pressed  with 
so  many  troubles,  I  should  have  died. 

672  Turn  nlmium  prSmSrer,  In  that  case  I  should  have  been  too  much 


673        Stetit  per  Caium,  ne  prgmerer,  Caius  prevented  me  from  being 


674  Nltebar  ne  prgmerer,  1  was  striving  not  to  be  pressed. 

675  Pres.-perf.   Nescit,  quam  grauiter  pressus  sim,  He  knows  not 
how  heavily  I  have  been  pressed. 

676  As  an  Aorist.    Nemo  scit,  quantis  turn  mails  pressus  sim,  No 
one  knows  with  what  great  troubles  1  was  then  pressed. 

677  Si  pressus  sirn,  cedam,  If  I  were  pressed ',  I  should  give  way. 

678  Palleo,  tanquam  ab  urso  pressus  sim,  /  look  pale,  as  if  I  had 
been  pressed  by  a  bear. 

679  Nequlquam  pressus  sim,  1  should  be  pressed  to  no  purpose. 

6SO        Scit  me,  si  malo  pressus  sim,  tamen  incolumem  euasurum,  He 
knows  that  if  I  am  pressed  by  trouble,  still  I  shall  come  out  unhurt. 

Past-perf.   Nesciebat,  quam  grauiter  pressus  essem,  He  knew 
not  how  heavily  I  had  been  pressed. 

632        Nequlquam  pressus  essem,  /  should  have  been  pressed  to  no  pur- 


683  Sciebat  me,  si  malo  pressus  essem,  ta"men  nunquam  cessurum, 
He  knew  that  if  I  were  pressed  by  trouble,  still  I  should  never  yield. 

684  •  INFINITIVE  IMPERFECT.  Pr§ml  to  be  pressed. 

INFINITIVE  PERFECT.  Pressus*  essS  to  have  been  pressed. 
PARTICIPLE  IMPERFECT.  Premendo-  being  pressed  or  to  be  pressed. 
PARTICIPLE  PERFECT.  Presso-  pressed. 


635  CONJUGATION  OF  A  DEPONENT  VERB. 

C.F.  ^C^i- follow. 

Principal  parts  :  sSqui,  sgquor,  sgcutiis. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

633  Present.  Sgquor  I  follow,  sequgris  you  follow,  sgqultiir  he  fol- 
lows. Sequlmiir  we  follow,  sequiminl  you  follow,  sSquunturf  they 
follow 

*  The  case  and  gender  will  vary  with  the  sentence. 
f  The  forms  sequontur  and  secuntur  also  occur. 


VERBS.  119 

687  Past.  SSquebar  /  was  following,  sSquebarls  or  sSqugbare'  you 
were  following,  sSquebatiir  fa  was  following .     Sequebamtir  we  were 
following,  sSquebamln!  you  were  following,  sgquebautur  they  were 
following. 

688  Future.  SSquar  I  shall  follow,  sgquerfs  or  se'quere'  you  will  fol- 
low, sSquetur  he  will  follow.     Sequemur  we  shall  follow,  sSquemlnl 
you  will  follow,  sequenttir  they  will  follow. 

689  Pres.-perf.  S6cutus*  sum  I  have  followed*; ,  sScutus  6s  you  Jiave 
followed,  sScutus  est  he  has  followed.     SecutlJ  siimus  we  have  fol- 
lowed, sScuti  estls  you  have  followed,  sScuti  sunt  they  have  followed. 

690  Past-perf.  SScutus*  gram§  I  had  followed,  sgcutus  gras^ow  had 
followed,  sgcutiis  erat  lie  had  followed.    Secuti$  gramus  we  had  fol- 
lowed, secuti  gratis  you  had  followed,  sSciiti  6raut  they  had  followed. 

691  Fut.-perf.  Secutiis*  gro||  I  shall  have  followed,  sgcuttis  6ris  you 
will  have  followed,  sgcuttis  erft  he  will  have  followed.     Secuti  J  6ri- 
mus  we  shall  have  followed,  sScuti  iritis  you  will  have  followed, 
sgciiti  erunt  they  will  have  followed. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

692  Present.  S$qu&r%  follow  thou,  %Q^m\nl  follow  ye. 

693  Future.  SSquItor  or  sequlmlno  thou  shalt  follow,  sSqultor  or 
sequlmlno  he  shall  follow.     SScuntor  they  shall  follow. 

694  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD.H 

Present.  S8quar,  sgquaiis  or  sgquarS,  sgquatur ;  sgquamur, 
sSquaminl,  sgquantur. 

695  Past.  Sgqugrer,  sgqugrerls  or  s6qu6rgrg,  sgquSrettir;  sgquere- 
mur,  sgqugremlni,  sgqugrentiir. 

696  Pres.  -perf.  Sgcutus  sim**,  secutus  sis,  sgcutus  sit ;  sScuti  sl- 
miis,  sScuti  sltls,  sSctiti  sint. 

697  Past-perf.  SScutiis  essemff,  sgcutus  esses,  sgcutus  esset ;  sScuti 
essemiis,  s^cuti  essetls,  secuti  essent. 

*  Secutus,  -a,  -urn,  according  to  the  gender  of  the  nominative. 

f  Or  as  an  aorist,  *  I  followed,'  &c. 

J  Secuti,  -ae,  -a,  according  to  the  gender  of  the  nominative. 

§  Orfueram,  &c.  ||  Or  fuero,  &c. 

^[  For  the  English  translation,  see  the  mode  of  translating  scriba-m, 
&c.  §§  594-624  ;  and  observe  that  Deponent  verbs  are  translated  by 
English  active  verbs. 

**  Orfuerim,  &c.  ff  Qrfuixisem,  &c. 


1 20  VERBS. 

61)8        INFINITIVE.  SSqui  to  follow. 

INFINITIVE  PERFECT.  Secutus  ess§  to  have  followed. 
PARTICIPLE  IMPERFECT.  SSquenti-  or  sequent-  following. 
PARTICIPLE  and  GERUND.  Sgquendo-  following. 
PARTICIPLE  PERFECT.  SScuto-  having  followed. 

099  CONJUGATION  OF  AN  IMPERSONAL  VERB. 

C.F.  Plu-  rain. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present.  Pluit  it  rains. 

Past.  Pluebat  it  was  raining. 

Future.  Pluet  it  will  rain. 

Pres.-perf.  Pluuit  it  has  rained,  or 

As  an  Aorist.  Pluait  it  rained. 

Past-perf.  PluuSrat  it  had  rained. 

Fut.-perf.  Pluugrit  it  will  have  rained,  &c. 

700    CONJUGATION,  IN  PART,  OF  AN  IMPERSONAL  VERB 

OF  THE  FEELINGS.     (See  §  393.) 

C.F.  Ptide-  shame. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present. 

Piidet  me  ignauiae,     /  am  ashamed  of  my  cowardice. 
Piidet  te  ignauiae,       You  are  ashamed  of  your  cowardice. 
Piidet  eum  ignauiae,  He  is  ashamed  of  his  cowardice. 

Pudet  nos  ignauiae,     We  are  ashamed  of  our  cowardice. 
Piidet  uos  ignauiae,     You  are  ashamed  of  your  cowardice. 
Piidet  eos  ignauiae,      They  are  ashamed  of  their  cowardice. 

Past. 

Pudebat  me  ignauiae,  I  was  ashamed  of  my  cowardice. 
Piidebat  te  ignauiae,    You  were  ashamed  of  your  cowardice,  &c. 

Future. 

Piidebit  me  ignauiae,  1  shall  be  ashamed  of  my  cowardice. 
Piidebit  te  ignauiae,    You  will  be  ashamed  of  your  cowardice,  &c. 


VERBS.  121 

701  Conjugation,  in  part,  of  a  Passive  Impersonal  Verb; 

C.P.  Resist-  stand  against,  make  opposition,  oppose. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present. 

RSsistltur  mihi,    Opposition  is  made  to  me,  or  /  am  opposed. 
Rgsistitur  tlbi,      Opposition  is  made  to  you,  or  you  are  opposed. 
Resistitur  el,         Opposition  is  made  to  him,  or  he  is  opposed. 

Resistitur  nobis,  Opposition  is  made  to  us,  or  we  are  opposed. 
Resistitur  uobis,   Opposition  is  made  to  you,  or  you  are  opposed. 
RSsistitur  els,       Opposition  is  made  to  them,  or  they  are  opposed. 

Past.  Resistebatur  mihi,  Opposition  was  made  to  me,  or  I  was 


Resistebatur  tlbi,  Opposition  was  made  to  you,  or  you  were  op- 
posed, <fec. 

Future.  RSsistetur  mihi,  Opposition  will  be  made  to  me,  or  / 
shall  be  opposed. 

Rgsistetur  tlbi,  Opposition  will  be  made  to  you,  or  you  will  be 
opposed,  &c. 

Pres.  -perf.  Restitum  mihi  est,  Opposition  has  been  made  to  me, 
or  I  have  been  opposed.^ 

Restitum  tibi  est,  Opposition  has  been  made  to  you,  or  you  have 
been  opposed,  &c. 

Past-perf.  Restitum  mihi  8rat,  Opposition  had  been  made  to  me, 
or  /  had  been  opposed. 

Restitum  tlbi  erat,  Opposition  had  been  made  to  you,  or  you  had 
been  opposed,  &c. 

702        Conjugation,  in  part,  of  the  participle  in  turo  with  the  verbs 
8s-  and  fu-  be  in  the  sense  of  intention  or  destiny. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

With  the  present  of  8s-,  intend  to . 

Nihll  acturus  sum,  /  intend  to  do  nothing. 

*  i.e.1  All  this  time'  or  *  for  a  time.'  This  tense  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  aorist. 

t  Or  as  an  aorist,  '  Opposition  was  made  to  me,'  &c. 


122  VERBS. 

am  destined  to . 

Quid  tlmeam,  si  beatus  futurus  sum  ?  What  am  I  to  fear,  if  I 
am  destined  to  be  happy  ? 

703  With  the  Past  of  gs-,  intended  to . 

Nihll  acturus  eram,  I  intended  to  do  nothing. 


was  destined  to 


Quid  tlmerem,  si  beatus  futurus  eram  ?  What  was  I  to  fear,  if 
1  vas  destined  to  be  happy  ? 

705  With  the  Perf.  of  fu-,  intended  to ,  and  should  have  done 

so,  if . 

Dsdltos,  occlsurus  ful,  If  they  had  been  given  up,  I  should  have 
killed  them. 

was  destined  to ,  and  should  have  done  so,  if . 

Nisi  reuertissem,  intgrlturus  ful,  If  I  had  not  turned  back.  I 
should  have  perished. 

706  With  the  Past-perf.  of  fu-,  had  intended  to ,  and  would 

have  done  so,  if . 

Quam  uim  latro  mihi  fugrat  illaturiis,  In  ipsum  conuertl,  The 
violence  which  the  robber  had  intended  to  direct  against  me,  I  turned 
against  himself. 

707  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

With  the  Pres.  of  gs-,  intend  to . 

Scrlbam  quid  acturus  sim,  /  will  write  word  what  I  intend 
to  do. 

am  destined  to . 

Nescio  quando  sim  mSrlturus,  I  know  not  when  I  am  to  die. 

708  With  the  Past  of  gs-,  intended  to . 

Scrips!  quid  acturus  essem,  /  wrote  word  what  J  intended  to  do. 


die. 


was  destined  to . 

Nesciebam  quando  essem  mtfrlturus,  /  knew  not  when  I  was  to 


VERBS.  123 

709  With  the  Perf.  of  fu-,  intended  to,  and  should  have  done  so, 

if • 

Quis  diibitat  quin  deditos  occisurus  fuerim  ?  Who  doubts  but 
that)  if  they  had  been  given  up,  I  should  have  killed  them  ? 

was  destined  to,  and  should  have  done  so,  if . 

S6quitiir  ut  nisi  reuertissem,  int6riturus  fugrim,  It  follows  that 
if  1  had  not  turned  back,  I  should  have  perished. 

710  With  the  Infinitive  of  6s-,  intend  to . 

Scio*  eum  nihil  acturum  esse,  /  know*  that  he  intends*  to  do 
nothing. 

is  destined  to . 

Scio  omnes  homines  mSrituros  esse,  /  know  that  all  men  are 
destined  to  die. 

711  With  the  Perf. -inf.  of  fu-,  intended  to ,  and  should  have 

done  so,  if . 

Fama  est  me  deditos  occisurum  fuiss6,  There  is  a  report  that  if 
they  had  been  given  up,  I  should  have  killed  them. 

was  destined  to ,  and  should  have  done  so,  if . 

Certum  est  me  nisi  reuertissem,  int6rlturum  fuiss6,  It  is  cer- 
tain that  if  I  had  not  turned  back,  I  should  have  perished. 

712  Conjugation  of  the  participle  in  endo  when  used  with  the  verb 
6s-  and  fu-  be  in  the  sense  of  duty  or  necessity. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
With  the  Pres.  of  6s-. 

Mihi  omnia  uno  tempo'rS  sunt  SgendS,,  /  have  every  thing  to  do 
at  once. 

713  With  the  Past  of  6s-. 

Mihi  omnia  uno  temp5re  6rant  SgendS,  I  had  every  thing  to  do 
at  once. 

714  With  the  Fut.  of  6s-. 

Mihi  omnia  uno  tempSre  6runt  agenda",  /  shall  have  every  thing 
to  do  at  once. 

*  After  a  past  tense,  as  sciebam  «  I  knew,'  the  infinitive  would  be 
translated  by  '  intended'  or  '  were  destined.' 


124 


VERBS. 


715  With  the  Pres.-perf.  of  fu-. 

Nisi  firmata  extrema  agminis  fuissent,  ingens  clades  acclpienda 
fuit,  If  the  rear  of  the  line  of  march  had  not  been  strengthened,  a 
tremendous  blow  must  have  been  received. 

Ab  Alexamgno  fuit  habenda  oratio,  The  speech  was  to  have  been 
made  by  Alexamenus,  (but  as  he  is  now  dead)  &c. 

716  With  the  Past-perf.  of  fu-. 

Ab  Alexaineno  fuerat  habenda  oratio,  The  speech  was  to  have 
been  made  by  Akxamenus,  (but  as  he  was  then  dead)  &c. 

717  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
With  the  Pres  of  gs-. 

Nescio  quid  sit  nobis  agendum,  1  know  not  what  we  ought  to  do. 

718  With  the  Past  of  es-. 

Nesciebam  quid  esset  nobis  agendum,  1  knew  not  what  we  ought 
to  do. 

719  With  the  Pres.-perf.  of  fu-. 

Hoc  haud  dubium  fecit  quin  nisi  firmata  extrema  agminis 
fuissent,  ingens  clades  accipienda  fugrit,  This  made  it  certain  that 
if  the  rear  of  the  line  of  march  had  not  been  strengthened,  a  tremen- 
dous blow  must  have  been  received. 

720  INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
With  Imperf.  of  6s-. 

Sentit  diffgrendum  esse  In  aestatem  bellum,  He  feels  that  the 
war  must  be  put  off  to  the  summer. 

721  With  the  Perf.  of  fu-. 

Hoc  scio,  nisi  rSuertisset,  In  illo  ei  conclaul  cubandum  fuissS, 
This  1  know,  that  if  he  had  not  turned  back,  he  would  have  had  to 
sleep  in  that  chamber. 

722  SOME  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS 

CONJUGATED. 

The  verb  es-  means,  first,  eat;  secondly,  live;  thirdly,  exist  for 
the  senses,  be  ;  fourthly,  exist  for  the  mind,  be.  In  the  first  sense 
the  forms  in  use  are  as  follows  : 


VERBS. 


125 


6s-  eat. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD.  Present.  S.  es  you  eat,  est  he  eats  ;  P.  estts 
you  eat. 

IMPERATIVE.  Present.  S.  es*  eat  thou  ;  P.  estg  eat  ye. 

Future.  S.  esto  thou  shalt  eat,  esto  he  shall  eat;  P.  estote  ye 
shall  eat. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Past.  S.  essem  esses  esset;  P.  essemus  essetis 
essent. 

INFINITIVE.  essS  to  eat.\ 

PASSIVE.  Indie.  Pres.  S.  3.  estur.     Subj.  Past.  S.  3.  essetur. 

722. 1  The  same  forms  exist  for  several  of  the  compounds,  as  comgs- 
eat  up,  whence  cSrnes,  comest,  comestis,  cSmesse. 

722.2  The  verb  ed-  eat  is  but  a  variety  of  8s-  eat.     It  is  declined 
regularly,  except  that  for  the  subj.  pres.,  besides  the  regular  gdam 
&c.  it  has  also  an  old  form  edim,  edls  &c. 


723 


Present. 

S.  sum     lam 
gst      you  are 
est  J     he  is 

P.  sumus  we  are 
estls    you  are 
sunt     they  are 


8s-  or  fu-  be. 

(a)  Imperfect  Tenses. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Past. 

S.  6ram       I  was 
6ras        you  were 
Srat        he  was 
P.  gramus  we  were 
gratis     you  were 
grant      they  were 


Future. 

S.  er5         I  shall  be 
grfs        you  will  be 
grft        he  will  be 

P.  grfmiis  we  shall  be 
erltis  you  will  be 
grunt  they  will  be. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Present.  S.  gs  be;  P.  estg  be. 

Future.  S.  esto  thou  shalt  be,  esto  he  shall  be;  P.  estotg  ye 
shall  be,  sunto  they  shall  be. 

*  The  quantity  is  not  proved  by  the  authority  of  any  poet,  but  in- 
ferred from  the  statements  of  the  grammarians  Priscian  (ix.  1,  11)  and 
Servius  (ad  Aen.  v.  785). 

f  Thus  it  appears  that  forms  which  begin  with  es,  and  these  alone, 
are  used  with  the  double  sense  of '  eat'  and  *  be.' 

J  Es  and  est  often  lose  the  e,  as  sanw's,  iussu's,  for  sanus  es,  iussiis 
es  ;  bonust,  bonast^  bonumst,  for  bonus  est,  bona  est,  bonum  est ;  quantist 
for  quanti  est;  umbra's  dmantmn,  Plant.  Mil.  in.  1.  31. 


126 


VERBS. 


Present. 

/S.  sim  1  am 

sis  you  are 

sit  he  is 

P.  slmus  we  are 

sitls  you  are 

sint  they  are 


SUBJUNCTIVE.* 

1 
S.  essem 

esses 

esset 
P.  essemiis 

essetis 

essent 


INFINITIVE. 
£e  ;  fore" 


at.                            Or 

I  was 

S.  forem 

you  were 
he  was 

fores 
fflret 

we  were 

P.  

you  were 
they  -were 

forent. 

PARTICIPLE  FUTURE. 
future-  about  to  be. 


/23.1 


(b)  Perfect  Tenses. 


S.  ful      1  have  been 
fuisti  you  have  been 
fuit     he  has  been 


S.  fui      I  was 
fuisti  T/OW 
fuit    he  was 


S.  fuSram  7  had  been 
fuSras  yew  A«c?  been 
fu8rat  he  had  been 


INDICATIVE. 
Present-perfect. 

P.  fulmus  we  have  been 

fuistls  you  have  been 

fuerunt  or  fuere  they  have  been. 

Or  as  Aorist. 

P.  fulmus  we  were 

fuistls  you  were 

fuerunt  or  fuerS  they  were. 

Past-perfect. 

P.  fueramus  we  liad  been 
fugratls     you  had  been 
fuSrant     tJiey  had  been. 


Future-perfect. 


S.  fugro  I  shall  have  been 
fueris  you  will  have  been 
fugrlt  he  will  have  been 


P.  fuSrlmus  we  shall  have  been 
fuMtis  you  will  have  been 
fuSrint  they  will  have  been. 


*  For  the  other  meanings  of  the  subjunctive  tenses  see  the  conjuga- 
tion of  scribam^  &c. 


VERBS.  127 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present-perfect, 


S.  fugrini  /  have  been 


fuSris  you  have  been 
fugrit   he  has  been 


P.  fuerlmus  we  have  been 
fuSrltls     you  have  been 
fuSrint     they  have  been. 


Or  as  Aorist. 


*  fugrim  I  was 
fueris  you 'were 
fuerit   he  was 


P.  fuerimus  we  were 
fueritls    you  were 
fuSrint     they  were. 


Past-perfect. 


tS.  f uissem  /  had  been 
fuisses    you  had  been 
fuisset   he  had  been 


P.  fuissemus  we  had  been 
fuissetls    you  had  been 
fuissent     they  had  been. 


INFINITIVE. 
f uissS  to  have  been,  was  or  had  been. 

724  As  regards  quantity,  a.  Es  is  often  long  in  old  writers  (as 
Plautus,  Mil.  Gl.  in.  1.  30),  which  agrees  with  the  formation  from 
esis  (eis),  with  es  eat,  and  with  the  Greek  cis.    b.  For  the  quantity 
of  the  i  after  r  in  fueris,  fuerimus,  fuSritls,  of  the  indicative  and 
subjunctive,  see  §  476. 

725  Old  forms  are,  a.  6sum  /  am,  gsumus,  gsunt,  Ssim  &c.  (see 
Varr.  L.  L.  ix.  57),  which  are  in  nearer  agreement  with  the  root 
es-.     b.  simus  for  sumus  (comp.  scriblmus)  was  used  by  Augustus 
(Suet.  Aug.  87).     c.  escit,  an  inceptive  present  (§  752),  occurs  in 
old  writings  (as  xn.  Tab.  ap.  Gell.  xx.  1.  25,  Lucr.  i.  612)  as  a 
future.     So  indeed  the  whole  future  tense  ero,  8rls  &c.  is  in  form 
a  mere  present.     Compare  also  ftfre'  (=fugr6),  a  present  in  form,  a 
future  in  meaning,     d.  A  fuller  form  of  the  subjunctive  present, 
siem,  sies  &c.,  is  common  in  the  older  writers,     e.  Another  form 
of  the  present  subjunctive,  used  in  old  writers,  is  S.  fuam,  fuas, 
fuat ;  P.  fuant.    /.  The  past  subjunctive — S.  ftfrexn,  ftfres,  foret ; 
P.  fSrent — sometimes  takes  the  place  of  essem  in  classical  writers, 
especially  in  hypothetical  sentences  (§  1209),  and  those  which  de- 
note a  purpose  (§1179).     It  also  occurs  in  compound  tenses  for 
essem,  but  not  in  Cicero.*    g.  In  the  perfect  tenses  a  fuller  form, 

*  This  From  Madvig. 


128  VERBS. 

fu-uis-  existed  for  the  older  writers,  as  fuuimiis  (Enn.  ap.  Cic.  de 
Or.  in.  42),  fuuisset  (Enn.  ap.  Gell.  xn.  4. 4).  h.  An  imperfect 
participle  enti-  (N.  ens)  is  attributed  to  Caesar  by  Priscian.  The 
compounds  praesenti-  present,  absenti-  absent,  for  prae-Ss-enti-, 
ab-Ss-enti,  are  in  form  participles,  in  meaning  adjectives.  So  also 
consentes  for  cSn-gs-entes,  in  the  phrase,  Dl  consentes,  literally 
the  united  gods.  In  late  philosophical  writings  ens  is  used  as  a 
substantive  for  a  thing. 

727  Es-  or  fu-  compounded  with  pro  or  prod,  be  profitable. 
INDICATIVE.    Pres.    8.   Prosum  prodes   prodest,  P.  prosumus 

prodestis  prosunt.  Past.  S.  Proderam  proderas  (fee.  Put.  S. 
Prodero  prodMs  (fee.  Pres.-perf.  Profui  &c.  Past-perf.  Profug- 
ram  &c.  Fut-perf.  Profuero  (fee. 

IMPERATIVE  probably  not  in  use. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Pres.  Prosim  &c.  Past.  Prodessem  &c.  Prcs.- 
perf.  Profugrim  (fee.  Past-perf.  Profuissem  &c. 

INFINITIVE.  Imperf.  ProdessS.     Per/.  Profuissg. 

PARTICIPLE.  Fut.  Profuturo-, 

728  Es-  or  fu-,  compounded  with  the  adjective  pftti-  or  pSt-,  be 

able,  can. 

INDICATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Possum  potSs  p5test,  P.  possumiis  pS- 
testls  possunt.  Past.  S.  Poteram  poteras  p5t8rat,  P.  pStgramus 
pSteratls  poterant.  Fut.  S.  Poterd  pSteris  ptfterft,  P  pStSrimfis 
poterltls  poterunt.  Pres.-perf.  Potul  p5tuistl  &c.  Past-perf.  P6- 
tueram  (fee.  Fut.-perf.  S.  PotuerS  p5tu6ris  potugrlt,  P.  p5tu6- 
rimus  pStuMtls  potuerint. 

IMPERATIVE  not  in  use. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Pres.  Possim  possis  (fee.  Past.  Possem  posses 
&c.  Pres.-perf.  S.  Potuerim  potueris  ptftugrit,  P.  potugrlmus 
potugrltls  p6tu8rint.  Past-perf.  Potuissem  pStuisses  &c. 

INFINITIVE.  Imperf.  Posse  (used  sometimes  as  a  future,  will 
be  able}.  Perf.  P3tuiss6. 

PARTICIPLE.  Ptftenti-*  or  p5tent-. 

729  F6r-  bring.    (For  the  perfect  tenses  see  §  540.; 
INDICATIVE.  Pres.  S.  FSro  fers  fert,  P.  fgrlmus  fertis  fSrunt. 

Past-imp.  Ferebarn  (fee.     Fut.  Fgram  (fee. 

*  This  is  used  rather  as  an  adjective  than  as  a  participle. 


VERBS.  129 

IMPERATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Fer,  P.  fertS.  Put.  S.  Ferto  ferto,  P. 
fertotg  fgrunto. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Pres.  Fgram  <fec.     Past.  Ferrem  <fcc. 

INFINITIVE.  Ferrg.  Part.  Ferenti-  or  fgrent-.  Gerund.  F&- 
rendo-. 

The  passive  is  regular  except  in  the  indie,  pres.  ferris,  fertur  ; 
imperative  fertor ;  subj.past  ferrer  <fec. ;  infin.  fern ;  and  part.perf. 
late--. 

730  Inqu-  or  inqui-  say  has  only  IND.  Pres.  S.  inquam  inquis  in- 
quit,  P.  inquimus  inqultls  inquiunt.     Past-imperf.  

inquiebat.    Fut.   inquies  inquiet.     Perf.  inquistl  in- 
quit. 

IMPERAT.  Pres.  S.  inquS.  Fut.  inqulto.  The  present  inquam 
is  only  used  in  repeating  a  phrase,  I  say,  I  tell  you  once  more ;  and 
inquit  says  he  or  said  he  introduces  a  direct  speech,  and  always 
follows  one  or  two  words  of  this  speech. 

731  Ced-  give,  tell,  only  used  in  the  imperative  present. 
S.  Cgd5  give  (me),  tell  (me}  ;  P.  cettg  give  (me),  tell  (me). 

732  Da-  put  or  give. 

INDICATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Do  das  dat,  P.  d&mus  dStls  dant.  Past- 
imp.  DS,bam  &c.  Fut.  Dabo  &c.  Pres.-perf.  Dedl  &c.  Past- 
perf.  Dederam  &c.  Fut.-perf.  dgdgro  <fec. 

IMPERATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Da,  P.  d^tg.  Fut.  S.  Daio  dSto,  P. 
datotg  danto. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Pres.  S.  Dem  des  det,  P.  demus  detls  dent. 
Past-imperf.  Darem  &c.  Pres.-perf.  Dedgrim  &c.  Past-perf. 
Dedissem  &c. 

INFINITIVE.  Imperf.  DSrg.     Perf.  Dgdissg. 

PARTICIPLE.  Imperf.  Danti-  or  dant-.  Fut.  DSturo-.  GE- 
RUND. Dando-. 

The  Subj.  Pres.  has  also  an  old  form,  duim,  duis  &c.,  from  a 
crude  form  du-. 

733  V61-  or  ugl-  wish. 

INDICATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Volo  uls  uolt  or  uult,  P.  uoliimus  uoltls 
or  uultls  uSlunt.  Past-imp.  Volebam  &c.  Fut.  V51am  udles  &c. 
Pres.-perf.  V51ul  &c.  Past-perf.  Volugram  &c.  Fut.-perf.  V5- 
lugro  &c. 

K 


130  YEBBS. 

IMPERATIVE  not  in  use. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Pres.  S.  Velim  uelis  uelit,  P.  uelimiis  uelitls 
uelint.  Past.  Vellem  uelles  &c.  Pres.  -perf.  VSluerim  &e.  Past- 
perf.  Voluissem  &c. 

INFINITIVE.  Imperf.  Velle.     Perf.  Voluisse". 

PARTICIPLE.  Imperf.  Volenti-  or  uolent-.     GERUND.  V&lendo-. 

734  Nguol-  or  nol-  be  unwilling,  a  compound  of  ne  or  ndn  and  uol-. 

INDICATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Nolo  neuis*  or  nonuls  nguolt*  or  non- 
uoltf,  P.  nolumus  neuoltls*  or  nonuoltist  nolunt.  Past-imp. 

Nolebam  <fec.  Fut.  noles  nolet  &c.  Pres. -perf.  Nolul  «&c. 

Past-perf.  Nolueram  &c.  Fut. -perf.  Nolugro  &c. 

IMPERATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Noli,  P.  nolitS.  Fut.  S.  Nollto,  P. 
nolltote. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Pres.  Nolim  noils  <fec.  Past.  Nollem  <fec.  Pres.- 
perf.  NoluSrim  &c.  Past-perf.  Noluissem  &c. 

INFINITIVE.  Imperf.  Nolle.     Per/".  NoluissS. 

PARTICIPLE.  Imperf.  Nolenti-  or  nolent-.    GERUND.  Nolendo-. 

735  Mauol-  or  mal-  prefer,  a  compound  of  m£gg  and  u61-. 

INDICATIVE.  P^«.  /SI  Mautflot  or  malo  mauls  mauolt§,  P, 
malumus  mauoltls§  mauoluntt  or  malunt.  Past-imp.  Malebam. 

<fcc.  ^W.  males  malet  &c.  Pres. -perf.  Malui&c.  Past-perf. 

MaluSram  <fec.  Fut. -perf.  MaluSro  «&c. 

IMPERATIVE  not  in  use. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Pres.  Mauelimt  or  malim  malls  &c.  Past. 
Mauellemt  or  mallem  &c.  Pres.  -perf.  Malugrim  &c.  Past-perf. 
Maluissem  &c. 

INFINITIVE.  Imperf.  MauellSt  or  mallS.     Perf.  MaluissS. 

736  Fi-  become,  used  in  the  imperfect  tenses  as  a  passive  of  f&ci-  or 
fSc-  make  (see  §  534). 

INDICATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Flo  fts  fit,  P. flunt.     Past- 
imp.  Fiebam  &c.     Fut.  Flam  fies  <fec. 
IMPERATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Fi,  P.  fits. 

*  The  forms  with  ne  are  found  in  the  older  writers. 

f  Or  nonuult  and  nonuultis. 

J  The  longer  forms  mauolo  &c.  are  found  in  the  older  writers. 

§  Or  mauult  and  mauultis. 


VERBS.  131 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Pres.  Flam  <fec.     Past.  Ffgrem*  &c. 
INFINITIVE.  Imperf.  Fieri.* 

737  I-  go. 

INDICATIVE.  Pres.  S.  Eo  is  it,  P.  imus  itis  eunt.  Past-imp. 
Ibam  &c.  Put.  Ibo  Ibis  &c.  Pres.-perf.  lu!  or  ii  iisti  lit  &c. 
Past-perf.  luSram  or  ieram  &c.  Put.  -perf.  luSro  or  iero  <fec. 

IMPERATIVE.  Pres.  S.  I,  P.  it&    jfatf.  /SI  Ito  ito,  P.  Itotg  eunto. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  Pm.  Earn  eas  &c.  Past.  Irem  &c.  Pres.-perf 
lugrim  or  ierim  &c.  Past-perf.  luissem  or  iissem  or  issem  <fec. 

INFINITIVE.  Imperf.  Irg.     Per/.  luisse"  iisse  or  iss§. 

PARTICIPLE.  Imperf.  lenti-  or  lent-,  N.  iens,  ^c.  euntem,  G'. 
euntls  &c.  Fut.  Ituro-.  GERUND.  Eundo-. 

737. 1    The  passive  is  used  impersonally.     INDIC.  Itiir,  ibatiir,  ibitfir, 
itum  est  &c.     SUBJ.  Eatur,  iretur,  itum  sit  &c.     INFIN.  In,  Xtum 


737.  2  Some  of  the  compounds  being  transitive  form  a  passive,  as  adi- 
approach.  Hence  IND.  Pres.  S.  S,de8r  S,diris  Sdltiir,  P.  &dimur 
adimJnl  Sdeuntur  &c. 

737.  3  Veni-  for  uenum  i-  be  offered  for  sale,  is  a  compound  of  i-  go, 
and  consequently  conjugated  like  it. 

738  Qui-  be  able,  and  ngqui-  be  unable,  are  conjugated  as  i-  go  ;  but 
have  no  imperative,  no  participle  imperfect  or  future,  and  no  ge- 
rund. 

739  Ai-  affirm,  say,  is  seldom  used  except  in  the  following  forma  : 

INDICATIVE.  Pres.  8.  Aio  als  or  ais  ait  or  ait,  P. 

aiunt.     Past.  Aiebam  or  aibam  aiebas  <fec. 

740  DERIVATION  &o.  OF  VERBS. 

It  has  been  stated  that  many  substantives  and  adjectives  in  a 
and  o  are  used  as  verbs  in  a  (§  522)  ;  that  some  substantives  in  u 
are  used  as  verbs  in  u  (§  526) ;  that  some  substantives  and  adjec- 
tives in  i  are  used  as  verbs  in  i  (§  528). 

*  The  i  is  sometimes  long  in  old  writers,  as  Terence  (Ad.  i.  2.  26) 
and  Plautus  (Trin.  n.  4.  131,  and  Men.  v.  5.  24). 


132 


VERBS. 


741  It  has  been  stated  (^  224)  that  some  adjectives  have  a  crude 
form  in  i  as  well  as  that  in  o  or  a.     Similarly  some  adjectives  in  o 
or  a  coexist  with  verbs  in  i  ;  and  some  adjectives  in  i  coexist  with 
verbs  in  ft.     Thus  there  is 

An  adj.  insano-  mad,  and  a  verb  insani-  be  mad. 
,  ,      largo-  bountiful,       ,  ,        largi-  (r.  )  lavish. 
,,      cSleri-  quick,  ,,        celSra-  quicken. 

„      leui-  light,  „        Igua-  lift. 

„      leui-  smooth,  ,,        l5ua-  polish. 

742  As  so  large  a  number  of  substantives  and  adjectives  ended  in  o 
or  a,  and  these  led  to  verbs  in  a,  the  consequence  was,  that  there 
was  a  tendency  to  introduce  an  a  in  all  such  secondary  verbs,  even 
when  the  substantive  or  adjective  ended  in  a  consonant.     Thus 
there  is 

A  subst.  nomen-  name,  and  a  verb  nomina-  name. 

,,      laud-  praise,  ,,        Iauda-j0rai.se. 

,,      5ngs-*  load,  ,,         tfnSra-  load. 

„      robor-  hardness,        ,,         robtfra-  harden. 

„      exiil-  an  exile,          „        exula-  be  an  exile. 
An  adj.  memor-  mindful,      „         mgmo'ra-  mention. 

,,      exoss-  boneless,          „        exossa-  bone. 

„      praeclp-  or  praeclpit-  head  foremost,  and  a  verb  prae- 
cipita-  send  headforemost. 

742.  1     A  few  compound  verbs  take  a  final  a  although  the  simple  verb 
ends  in  a  consonant  :  as, 

From  spec-  or  speci-  (obsolete)  look,  consplca-  (r.  )  behold. 
,,     diic-t  lead,  educa-  bring  up,  nurse. 
,,     spern-  despise,  asperna-  (r.) 


*  Verbs  formed  in  this  way  from  nouns  in  es,  8s  &c.  are  very  numer- 
ous: as,  pignera-,  nenera-  (r.),  frigera-,  tempera-^  uolnera-,  genera-^ 
(jlomera-,  modern-  &c.  The  neuter  noun  modes-  is  obsolete,  it  is  true,  but 
its  existence  is  proved  by  the  adj.  modesto-.  Ramshorn  erroneously  con- 
siders era  as  a  verbal  suffix,  and  even  quotes  as  an  example  uocifera-  (r  ). 

f  See§  451.1. 

J  This  class  is  probably  formed  directly  from  compounded  nouns,  as 
is  certainly  the  case  with  remiga-  'row,'  from  remtg-  'rower;'  and  that 
from  remo-  (m.)  'oar,'  and  ay-  'put  in  motion.'  Velifica-  (r.)  'make 
sail,'  from  uelifico-  'making  sail;1  and  that  from  uelo-  (n.)  'sail'  and 


DERIVATION  OF  TERBS.  133 

742.  2    Some  verbs  in  a  from  substantives  signify  to  supply  with  the 
thing  which  the  substantive  denotes  :*  thus  there  is 

A  subst.  tabula-  plank,  and  a  verb  contabula-  cover  with  planks. 
„      tigno-  (n.)  beam,  and  a  verb  contigna-  furnish  with 

learns. 
„      calceo-  shoe,  and  a  verb  calcea-  shoe. 

743  Such  verbs  are  often  found  only  as  perfect  participles  in  to  : 
thus, 

From  barba-  beard,  barbato-  bearded. 

„     tfculo-  eye,  oculato-  provided  with  eyes.     . 
,,     auri-  ear,  zurlto-  provided  with  ears. 
,,     cornu-  horn,  cornuto-  horned. 
,,     aes-  bronze,  aerato-  armed  with  bronze. 
,,     denti-  or  dent-  tooth,  dentato-  armed  with  teeth. 
,,     cord-  heart,  benS  cordato-  good-hearted,  i.  e.,  in  the  Ro- 
man sense  of  the  phrase,  clever. 

744  Certain  reflective  verbs  from  substantives  also  signify  to  pro- 
vide oneself  with  what  the  substantive  denotes.     The  verbs  in 
question  belong  chiefly  to  military  phraseology  : 

From  Squa-  water,  &qua-  (r.)  fetch  water. 

,,     frumento-  (n.)  corn,  frumenta-  (r.)  fetch  corn,  forage. 
,  ,     pabulo-  (n.  )  fodder,  pabula-  (r.  )  fetch  fodder,  forage. 
,,     materia-  timber,  materia-  (r.)  fetch  timber. 
,,     ligno-  firewood,  ligna-  (T.}  fetch  firewood. 
praeda-  booty,  praeda-  (r.)  go  plundering. 
i,  pisca-  (r.)fish. 


744.  1    Again,  certain  reflective  verbs  from  adjectives  signify  to  regard 
as  what  the  adjective  denotes  :  as, 

From  gr&ui-  heavy,  gr&ua-  (r.)  regard  as  heavy,  be  unwilling  to 

bear. 
„     digno-  worthy,  digna-  (r.)  deem  worthy  of  one,  deign. 

fac-  «  make/  ^  Vocifera-  (r.)  '  raise  one's  voice,'  from  an  obsolete  adj. 
uocrfero-    raising  the  voice  ;'  and  that  from  uoc-  '  voice'  and  fer-  <  raise.' 
Iptl^a-  (r.)  'bring  help  '  from  an  obsolete  adj.  opitulo-  '  bringing  help  ;' 
and  that  from  op-  «  help'  and  tol-  '  bring.' 

*  The  English  language  agrees  in  this  use  of  substantives  as  verbs. 
Ihus  we  use  the  phrases,  to  shoe  a  horse,  to  water  a  horse,  to  horse  a 


134  DERIVATION  OF  VERBS. 

From  indigno-  unworthy,  indigna-  (r.)  deem  unworthy  of  one. 
„     mlsgro-  wretched,  mlsgra-  (r.)  regard  as  wretched,  pity. 

745  Verbs  called  frequentative,  and  they  are  very  numerous,  are 
formed  by  adding  the  suffix  ita  to  the  simple  verb  :  as, 

Ag-  put  in  motion,  aglta-  put  in  constant  motion. 

Quaer-  seek,  quaerlta-  seek  perseveringly. 

Clama-  cry  out,  clamlta-  keep  crying  out. 

Mina-  (r.)  threaten,  minlta-  (r.)  keep  threatening. 

Flu-/ow,  flulta-  keep  flowing. 

Sequ-  (r.)  follow,  secta-  (r.)  be  in  the  habit  of  following.* 

746  As  this  suffix  tia  is  very  similar  to  tto,  the  suffix  of  perfect 
participles,  similar  contractions  and  alterations  commonly  take 
place  :  thus, 

Merg-  sink,  participle  merso-,  frequentative  mersa-.t 
Trah-  draw,  participle  tracto-,  frequentative  tracta-. 
Pel-  drive,  participle  pulso-,  frequentative  pulsa-.f 

747  Some  frequentatives  are  formed  by  the  suffix  Vita :  as,  from 
scrib-  write,  scriptita- ;  from  leg-  read,  lectita- ;  from  uiu-  live, 
uictita-. 

748  Many  frequentatives  have  superseded  the  simple  verb :  thus, 
gus-ta-  taste  was  formed  from  an  obsolete  verb  gus-  taste,  which 
is  also  the  root  of  the  substantive  gus-tu-  taste ;  Imita-  (r. )  copy 
was  formed  from  an  obsolete  verb  Ima-  (r.),  which  is  also  the  root 
of  the  substantive  ima-g5n-  likeness ;  pota-  drink  to  excess,  was 
formed  from  an  obsolete  verb  po-  drink,  which  is  also  the  root  of 
the  participle  poto-  drunk,  and  of  the  substantive  po-ciilo-  (n.) 
drinking -cup. 

749  A  few  verbs  form,  what  are  at  once  diminutives  and  frequenta- 
tives, with  the  suffix  tea :  as,  ftfd-  dig,  fodica-  keep  digging  or  nudg- 
ing ;  uel-  pull,  uellica-  keep  plucking. 

750  A  few  diminutive  verbs  are  formed  with  a  suffix  ilia  or  tilla  : 
as,  f5ue-  warm,  focilla-  cherish ;  scrib-  write,  conscribilla-  scribble 
over ;  sorbe-  suck,  sorbilla-  suck  a  drop  or  two  ;  can-  sing,  can- 

*  The  so-called  frequentatives  in  cina-  (r.),  as  sermo-cina-  (r.)  'con- 
verse,' patro-cina-  (r.)  '  act  the  patron,'  uati-cina-  (r.)  '  act  the  prophet,' 
are  probably  formed  upon  the  same  principle  from  the  verb  can-  '  sing,' 
just  as  medita-  (r.)  is  at  one  time  applied  to  music,  at  another  to  any 
repeated  act. 

t  But  the  frequentatives  merta-,  pulta-  are  used  by  the  old  writers. 


DERIVATION  OP  VERBS.  135 

tilla-  warble.  Ventfla-  fan,  from  the  subst.  uento-  wind,  and 
ustula-  singe,  from  the  verb  us-  or  iir-  burn,  are  also  diminu- 
tives.* 

751  A  few  imitative  verbs  are  formed  from  nouns,  with  a  suffix  in 
issa:  as,  from  pa"ter-  father,  p&trissa-  take  after  one's  father;  from 
Graeco-  a  Greek,  Graecissa-  be  in  the  Greek  fashion.1^ 

752  Inceptive  verbs  are  formed  from  verbs,  substantives  and  adjec- 
tives, with  the  suffix  esc%  or  isc :  as, 

From  feru-  boil,  feru-esc-  or  feru-isc-  begin  to  boil. 
,,     [sSn-  an  old  man],  sSn-esc-  grow  old. 
„     luc-  light,  lucisc-  or  lucesc-  get  light. 

752. 1    If  the  substantive  or  adjective  end  in  o  or  a,  the  e  of  esc  is 
sometimes  omitted,  and  the  vowel  a  prevails  :  as,  from 

Pugro-  a  boy,  rg-puSra-sc-  become  a  boy  again. 

Intege'ro-  or  -a-  whole,  rgd-integra-sc-  become  whole  again. 

753  But  there  are  exceptions  both  ways,  those  verbs  taking  an  a 
which  are  not  entitled  to  it,  and  those  which  should  have  it 
dropping  it :  as, 

From  mature-  or  -a-  ripe,  maturesc-  ripen. 
„     ugtes-  old,  ue'te'rasc-  become  old. 

754  The  suffix  ess  is  added  to  a  few  verbs  in  i  without  any  marked 
change  of  meaning  :  thus, 

From  oS/pi-  take  is  formed  cSpess-  take. 

„     [l&ci-  obs.  draw]  „      IScess-  provoke. 

,,     [arci-  obs.  call  to  one]         „      arcess-  send  f or. § 

755  A  few  verbs,  called  desiderative,  are  formed  from  verbs  with  a 
suffix  turi,  which  is  liable  to  the  same  changes  as  the  participial 
suffix  to :  thus, 

*  Ramshorn  erroneously  treats  as  diminutival  verbs  exula-,  iacula- 
(r.),  opitula-  (r.),  uigila-,  strangula-,  the  last  of  which  is  probably  formed 
from  an  obsolete  subst.  strangula-  '  a  halter,'  corresponding  to  the  Greek 


f  These  verbs  are  formed  after  the  Greek  verbs  in  if:  as, 
Indeed  the  later  Latin  writers  use  the  z  instead  of  ss,  and  write  patrix-are. 

%  In  Greek  e<r/c  or  KTK. 

§  Petess-  « seek'  is  formed  in  this  way  from  the  obsolete  form  peti- 
'  seek,'  which  is  also  the  root  of  petiui,  petitus,  petitor. 


•£'36  COMPOSITION  OF  VERBS. 

From  8m-  buy,  empturi-  desire  to  buy. 
,,     Sd-  eat,  esiiri-  be  hungry. 
,,     pSr-  or  pari-  bring  forth,  parturi-  fo  w  labour. 

So  Sullaturi-  efcstVe  to  play  Sulla,  implies  such  a  verb  as  Sulla- 
(v.)play  Sulla.    (See  §  522.) 

756  Compounds  of  fac-  or  faci-  and  fi-  are  made  with  prefixes  com- 
monly supposed  to  be  verbs  :  as, 

From  tepe-  be  warm,  tgpefac-*  or  tepefaci-  make  warm,  tepefl- 

become  warm. 

,,     Uque-  melt,  liquefac-  or  liquefaci-  melt,  cause  to  melt, 
llquefl-  melt,  become  melted. 

757  The  compound  verbs  formed  by  prefixed  prepositions  are  very 
numerous.     (See  prepositions  in  the  Syntax.) 

758  The  verbs  so  compounded  often  undergo  certain  changes  of  the 
vowel :  thus,  a  frequently  becomes  %  before  one  consonant,  e  be- 
fore two  consonants  :  thus, 

From  statu-  set  up,      is  formed  constitu-  establish. 
„     c&d-fatt,  „        occid-  set  or  die. 

,,     sali-  leap,  „        insili-  leap  upon. 

,,     cap-  or  capi-  take,     „        acclp-  or  accipi-  receive,  and  ac- 

cepto-  received. 
,,     i&c-  or  iaci-  throw,     „        conic-  or  conici-t  hurl,  and  con- 

iecto-  hurled. 

But  the  compounds  of  caue-  beware,  mSne-  wait,  trah-  draw,  Snia 
love,  remain  unaltered. 

759  Again,  e  generally  becomes  $  before  a  single  consonant  :  as, 

From  sede-  sit,  asside-  sit  near. 

„     r6g-  make  straight,  dirlg-  guide. 

,,    tene-  keep,  abstlne-  keep  away. 

But  the  compounds  of  p§t-  go  or  seek,  teg-  cover,  t8r-  rub,  g8r- 
wear  or  carry,  remain  unaltered. 

760  The  diphthong  ae  becomes  I,  and  au  becomes  o  or  u  :  thus, 

From  caed-  cut,  occld-  kill. 
,,    laed-  strike,  illld-  dash  against. 

*  In  these  words  the  vowel  e  before /is  seldom  long  except  in  the 
older  poeta. 

f  Commonly  written  conjic-  or  conjici-. 


COMPOSITION  OP  VERBS.  137 

From  quaer-  seek,  exqulr-  seek  out. 

,,     claud-  or  clud-*  shut,  reclud-  open. 
„     plaud-  clap  (the  hands),  explod-  drive  of  (the  stage  by 
clapping  the  hands).f 

But  the  compounds  of  haere-  stick  retain  the  diphthong.     Gene- 
rally for  the  changes  in  compound  verbs  see  §  555.  2,  &c. 

761  A  few  compound  verbs  are  formed  with  a  prefixed  particle : 
thus, 

From  ne  not  and  sci-  know,  nesci-  know  not. 

„  ne  not  and  qui-  be  able,  ngqui-  be  unable. 

,,  ne  not  and  u61-  wish',  neuol-  or  nol- 

„  mSle  ill  and  die-  speak,  mSledlc-  abuse. 

,,  be"ne  well  and  f&c-  do,  benefac-  do  a  kindness. 

,,  magg  more  and  uol-  wish,  mauol-  or  mal-  prefer. 

„  sat  enough  and  ag-  do,  sStag-  have  enough  to  do. 

762  The  negative  in  appears  never  to  be  prefixed  to  verbst,  except 
to  the  participles,  especially  those  in  to,  and  even  then  the  com- 
pound participle  commonly  becomes  an  adjective  ;  except  also  the 
verbals  in  tu,  which  occur  only  as  ablatives,  as  iniussu-  without 
orders,  incultu-  without  cultivation. 

Docto-  taught,  indocto-  unlearned. 
Loto-  washed,  illoto-  unwashed. 
Scienti-  knowing,  inscienti-  not  knowing. 
Dicenti-  speaking,  indicenti-  not  speaking. 

763  Many  of  these  participles  in  to  with  in  prefixed  are  to  be 
translated  by  not  to  be ed:  as, 

uicto-    conquered,  inuicto-     invincible. 

menso-  measured,  immenso-  immeasurable. 

penso-  weighed,     impenso-  too  enormous  to  be  weighed. 

*  Probably  contracted  from  such  a  form  as  clauid-.     Compare  the 
Greek  substantive  K\rjfi5-,  Latin  cldui-,  and  gaudeo  gauisus. 

f  Corresponding  in  effect  to  the  English  *  hooting  off,  hissing  off.' 

J  Hence  it  is  probably  an  error  to  derive  ignosc-  '  pardon'  from  in 
'  not'  and  gnosc- '  take  cognizance.'     See  §  1308. 2. 


138 


PARTICLES. 

764  This  term  includes  those  secondary  parts  of  speech  which  have 
little  or  no  variety  of  form,  and  are  called  adverbs,  prepositions, 
conjunctions  and  interjections. 

765  It  is  not  always  possible  to  draw  the  line  between  these,  as  the 
same  word  may  be  at  one  time  an  adverb,  at  another  a  preposi- 
tion ;  or  again  at  one  time  an  adverb,  at  another  a  conjunction. 
Thus,  ante  before  we  formerly  may  be  either  adverb  or  preposition  ; 
and  simiil  at  the  same  time  or  as  soon  as  may  be  either  an  adverb 
or  a  conjunction. 

766  A  large  number  of  the  particles  must  be  treated  individually 
to  show  their  origin.     In  a  grammar,  however,  it  is  out  of  place 
to  do  more  than  exhibit  those  suffixes  which  apply  to  whole 


ADVERBS. 

767  Adverbs  are  formed  in  Latin  from  adjectives  and  substantives, 
including  pronouns,  and  also  from  verbs. 

768  From  adjectives  in  o  or  a  are  commonly  formed  adverbs  in  e  : 
as,  from  the  adjective  lato-  or  -a-  wide,  the  adverb  late  widely  ; 
from  the  adjective  pgrlculoso-  or  -a-  dangerous,  the  adverb  pericu- 
lose  dangerously. 

769  From  participles  in  o  or  a,  used  as  adjectives,  are  formed  in 
like  manner  adverbs  in  e:  as,  from  docto-  learned,  the  adverb 
docte  learnedly;    from  ornato-  dressed,  the  adverb  ornate  with 
ornament ;  from  doctissumo-  most  learned,  the  adverb  doctissiime 
most  learnedly. 

770  But  malo-  lad,  and  b6no-  (old  form  beno-)  good,  form  their 
adverbs,  male  ill,  and  bgng  well,  with  a  short  8.     Inferng  below, 
and  supernS  above  also  occur  with  a  short  #.     So  also  rltS  duly 
has  a  short  £,  though  only  a  shortened  form  of  recte". 

771  Some  adjectives  and  participles  in  o  or  a  form  adverbs  in  o  :* 

*  In  some  cases  this  termination  is  the  ablative  of  the  noun  ;  in  others 
it  probably  corresponds  to  the  Greek  adverbs  in  o>s,  from  adjectives  of 
the  same  form.  Thus,  even  in  Greek,  OVTWS  and  ovrw  '  thus,'  a<pv<as  and 
cupvu  '  suddenly,'  coexist. 


ADVERBS.  139 

as,  from  raro-  or  -a-  scattered,  an  adverb  raro  seldom ;  from  tuto- 
or  -a-  safe,  ail  adverb  tuto  safely,  and  tutissumo  most  safely. 

772  But  clto-  or  -a-  quick  forms  its  adverb  citS  quickly  with  #.* 

773  From  adjectives  and  participles  in  i  or  a  consonant  are  formed 
adverbs  in  iter  or  t$r :  as, 

From  molli-  soft,  the  adverb  mollite'r  so/%. 
,3     celeri-  smy£,  celerlter  swiftly. 
„    felici-  or  felic-  fortunate,  feliclter  fortunately. 
„    me'mo'r-  mindful,  mSmorftgr/rom  memory. 

774  If  the  adjective  or  participle  end  in  ti  or  £,  one  2  is  omitted  : 
thus,  from  amanti-  or  amant-  loving  is  formed  the  adverb  Smantgr 
lovingly. 

775  As  adjectives  in  o  or  a  sometimes  coexist  with  adjectives  in  i, 
so  adverbs  in  Her  or  ter  are  sometimes  found  in  connexion  with 
adjectives  in  o  or  a  :  as, 

From  duro-  or  -a-  hard,  the  adverbs  dure  and  duritgr  severely. 
„     largo-  or  -a-  bountiful,  the  adverb  largitgr  bountifully.^ 

776  Many  adjectives,  particularly  comparatives,  use  their  neuter 
singular  as  an  adverb  :  thus, 


From  fScili-  easy,  the  adverb  fa'clle' 
,,     multo-  or  -a-  much,  the  adverb  multum  much. 
„     doctior-  more  learned,  the  adverb  doctius  more  learnedly. I 

776. 1  The  neuter  comparative  should  end  in  ius  (=ios},  as  just  seen  ; 
but  in  a  few  words  a  shorter  form  is  produced  by  the  omission  of 
one  of  the  vowels :  thus  without  the  i  we  have  minus  (for  ml- 
nius)  less,  plus  (for  ple-ius^)  more ;  and  without  the  u,  m&gls  (for 

*  Vero  '  in  truth,'  sero  *  late,'  postremo  *  at  last,'  have  always  a  long  o 
in  the  best  writers.  It  is  only  in  the  late  writers,  such  as  Martial  and 
Statius,  that  these  words  are  used  with  a  short  o.  Even  ctto  has  a  long  o 
in  the  old  writers,  as  Ter.  And.  in.  1. 16,  and  elsewhere. 

+  Observe  the  same  irregularity  in  the  formation  of  the  verb  largi-  (r.) 
'  lavish.'  Aliter  '  otherwise,'  like  alibi  '  elsewhere,'  is  formed  from  the 
obsolete  pronoun  ali-,  whence  the  nominatives  alis  and  olid. 

J  The  poets  use  adverbs  of  this  form  more  freely  than  the  prose  wri- 
ters, and  even  in  the  plural ;  as  Virgil,  acerba  tuens,  crebraferit. 

§  Comp.  ir\eiov  and  ir\fov  (for  irAe-tov). 


1  10  ADVERBS. 

niagius)  more,  iilmis  too  muck,  satis  enough.*     So  prisf  for  prius 
before  enters  into  the  formation  of  the  adjective  pris-tluo- former. 

777  From  adjectives  and  substantives  are  formed  adverbs  in  Wfa  or 
t&8%  :  thus  we  deduce  from 

antiquo-  old,  antiquitus  from  of  old. 

caelo-  heaven,  caelitiis/rom  heaven. 

diumo-  divine,  diuinitus/row  a  divine  source. 

fundo-  bottom,  fundltus/rom  the  foundation. 

radic-  root,  radicitus/rom  the  roots. 

publico-  sb.  n.  public  money ',  publlcitus  at  the  puttie  cost. 

778  A  few  adjectives  form  adverbs  with  a  suffix  per,  denoting  time : 
as,  from  nouo-  or  -a-  new,  nuper  lately.     So  also  parumper  and 
paulisper/or  a  little  while,  tantisper  so  long,  quantispgr  as  long  as, 
semp6r§  always. 

778. 1    The  adverbs  of  numerals  have  already  been  given  in  §  252,  last 
column. 

779  Adjectives  and  substantives  form  adverbs  in  tim  with  the  sense 
of  one  at  a  tune  or  one  by  one:  thus,  from  the  adj.  singiilo-  or 
-a-  one  at  a  time,  the  adverb  singulatim  or  singillatim  or  singultim 
one  at  a  time;  from  paulo-  (n.)  little t  paulatim  little  by  little; 
from  uiro-  man,  uirltim  man  by  man ;  from  tribu-  tribe,  tributim 
tribe  by  tribe ;   from  greg-  flock,  gregatim  ^ock  by  flock ;   from 
gradu-  step,  gradatim  step  by  step.  || 

780  From  verbs  also  are  formed  adverbs  in  tim  :  as, 

From  sta-  stand,  statim  constantly,  statim  immediately. 

*  For  the  meaning  of  nimis  compare  the  use  of  the  comparative, 
§  1 155. 4,  &c.  Satis  literally  signifies  '  rather  full'  (see  §  1 155.  7). 

f  To  this  corresponds  the  Greek  irpiv  (for  Trpioi/)  '  before.'  So  also 
Tr\fLv  for  ir\cii)j/.  Tlpiv  has  more  than  once  a  long  vowel  in  Homer. 

J  This  termination  corresponds  in  meaning  to  the  suffix  of  the  old 
Greek  genitive  QGV  :  as,  ovpavoOev  'from  heaven.'  Indeed  the  forms  also 
are  identical ;  for  the  0  must  necessarily  lose  its  aspirate  in  Latin,  and  the 
final  syllable  ej/  of  the  Greek  would  be  us  in  Latin :  compare  Tvirrofjiev, 
scribimus.  The  corresponding  Sanscrit  suffix  is  Ids. 

§  The  first  syllable  of  semper  is  probably  the  same  root  which  is 
spoken  of  in  the  note  to  §  264  ;  so  that  it  would  signify  '  one  unbroken 
time.' 

||  Compare  the  irregularities  of  paulatim,  uiritim<  gregatim  &c.  with 
the  irregularities  in  the  formation  of  adjectives,  §§  227-229.  This  suffix 
tim  is  identical  with  the  Greek  Sov :  as,  from  cryeAo-  '  herd,' 
4  by  herds.' 


ADVERBS.  141 

From  prae  before  and  ser-  put,  praesertim  especially. 
„     caed-  cut,  caesim*  by  cutting. 
„     pung-  pierce,  punctim  by  piercing. ,f 

781  From  substantives  and  verbs  are  formed  a  few  adverbs  in  us: 
thus  from 

Corn  together  and  manu-  hand,  co-min-us  hand  to  hand. 
EC  from  and  m&nu-  hand,  e-utin-us  from  a  distance. 

So  from  the  verb  ten-  stretch,  the  adverb  tenusj  stretching;  whence 
proteuus  forthwith.^  And  from  the  verb  uort-  turn  the  adverb 
uorsiisj,  which  has  also  the  form  uorsum,  corresponding  in  mean- 
ing to  the  English  termination  -wards. 

782  From  substantives  and  verbs  are  formed  a  few  adverbs  by 
adding  the  suffix  am.§ 

Thus  con  together  and  6s-  or  or-  (n.)  mouth  or  face  form  an 
adverb,  coram  face  to  face. 

The  verb  pand-||  open  forms  an  adverb,  palam  openly. 
The  verb  cela-  hide  forms  an  adverb,  clam  secretly. 

783  In  analogy  with  bis  twice  (for  duis),  we  might  have  expected 
trlsl!  and  quatrls,  but  instead  of  these  we  have  ter  and  qu£tSr,  an 
s  being  commonly  rejected  after  an  r. 

784  The  cases  of  adjectives  and  substantives,  particularly  pronouns, 
are  often  used  as  adverbs  :  thus  the  following,  sometimes  called 
adverbs,  are  in  origin  datives  denoting  the  time  when  or  the  place 
where  &c.,  hgri  yesterday,  manl  in  the  morning,  luci  in  the  daylight, 
domi  at  home,  run  in  the  country,  ftfrls  out  of  doors,  multlmo'dls  in 
many  a  way,  quotannis  every  year. 

785  The  pronominal  adverbs  in  bi  or  I,  which  answer  to  the  ques- 

*  The  s  in  this  word  represents  the  t,  as  it  does  so  often  in  the  per- 
fect participle  with  verbs  in  d. 

t  This  corresponds  to  the  Greek  suffix  Sijy  added  to  verbs .  as,  from 
7pa<J>-  *  write,'  ypafiSrjv  '  in  writing.' 
J  These  are  also  prepositions. 

§  There  is  also  a  form  tenam  of  the  same  meaning  as  tenus,  whence 
protenam  '  forthwith.' 

||  Compare  scand-  'climb'  and  scala-  'ladder;'  mand-  'chew'  and 
mala-  'jaw ;'  sede-  '  sit'  and  sella-  '  chair.' 

T[  Compare  the  Greek  rpts,  and  perhaps  rerpaKis.  For  the  loss  of 
the  s  compare  linter  '  a  boat'  for  lintris,  puer  for  puerus,  uidebare  for 
uidebaris. 


142 


ADVERBS. 


tion  where  or  when,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  second  column  of  the 
table  in  §  366,  are  probably  old  datives. 

786       Again,  the  following,  sometimes  called  adverbs,  are  in  origin 
accusatives : 

DSmum  home  i.  e.  to  one's  home,  rus  into  the  country,  fSras 
out  of  doors  i.  e.  going  out  of  doors. 

The  pronominal  adverbs  in  <?,  which  answer  to  the  question 
whither,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  third  column  of  the  table  §  366, 
are  probably  old  accusatives  which  have  lost  the  final  m. 

788  Closely  related  to  the  pronominal  adverbs  in  o  are  the  adverbs 
in  tro  from  prepositions  <fec. :  as, 

RS-tro  backward. 

Por-ro*  forward. 

Cl-trof  towards  the  speaker. 

Vl-trof  to  a  distance,  forward,  voluntarily. 

In-tro  inwards. 

Con-tro  towards. ,£ 

789  Adverbs  in  6§,  chiefly  from  pronouns,  are  used  with  compara- 
tive adjectives  or  comparative  adverbs  :  as, 

Eo  mjlgls  so  much  the  more  or  the  more. 
Quo  minus  by  how  much  the  less  or  the  less. 
Hoc  utiliiis  to  this  extent  the  more  usefully. 
NiMlo  minus  never  the  less. 

790  The  terminations  inde,  in,  and  imt  seen  in  the  fourth  column 
of  the  table  §  366,  must  be  considered  as  varieties  of  one  suffix, 
since  the  compounds  deindS,  exinde  &c.  have  also  the  shortened 

*  Par  is  the  old  preposition,  corresponding  to  our l  for,' whence  comes 
por -tro,  por-ro,  and  by  contraction  pro. 

t  Whence  ultra  citroque  '  backwards  and  forwards,'  in  which  the 
word  '  backwards'  is  a  translation  of  citro.  The  common  derivation  of 
ultro  *  willingly,'  from  uol-  '  wish,'  is  altogether  indefensible. 

J  This  word  is  seen  in  the  compound  verb  contro-uort- '  turn  against.' 
These  adverbs  in  tro,  though  ultimately  derived  from  prepositions,  are 
immediately  formed  from  adjectives,  more  or  less  obsolete,  in  tero. 

§  These  are  commonly  held  to  be  ablatives,  and  supposed  to  be  trans- 
lated literally  when  we  say  multo  maior  'greater  by  much.'  The  Greek 
too  uses  Tro\\(p  n€ifav.  Still  it  is  possible  that  they  are  in  reality  only 
the  old  accusatives  in  0,  which  have  lost  their  final  m :  eo  maior  '  the 
greater  to  this  degree.' 


ADVERBS.  143 

forms  dein,  exin,  exim*  &c.    The  suffix  is  strictly  dft,  the  n  be- 
longing to  the  pronominal  base. 

791  The  adverbs  in  am,  from  pronouns,  denote  how  much  :  as,  tarn 
so}  quam  how,  quanquam  however,  no  matter  how,  although,  quam- 
uls  or  quamliibet  as  much  as  you  please,  although. 

792  The  adverbs  in  um,  chiefly  from  pronouns,  denote  the  time 
when  :  as,  turn  or  tunc$  then,  (num)  or  nuncj  now,  quom  or  quum 
or  cum  when,  umquam  or  unquam  (formerly  cumquam)  ever,  num- 
quam  or  nunquam  (for  ne-umquam)  never,  quondam  (for  quom- 
dam)  at  a  certain  time  (past  or  future),  plerumque  generally. 

793  The  adverbs  in  a§  generally  denote  the  road  along  which  any 
thing  is  done.    A  large  majority  of  these  are  from  pronouns,  as 
may  be  seen  in  §  366.     Other  examples  are,  *-ecta  in  a  straight 
line,  dextra  along  the  road  on  the  right,  sinistra  along  the  road  on 
the  left. 

794  Some  ablatives  of  nouns  are  used  as  adverbs  :  thus,  ergo||  in- 
deed, really,  in  the  matter  of,  is  the  ablative  of  an  old  Latin  noun, 
ergo-  (n.)  work  ;  and  similarly  mo'dSlI  only  is  literally  by  measure, 
being  the  ablative  of  m8do-  (m.)  measure.     Likewise  mang  in  the 
morning,  diu  in  the  daytime,  noctu  or  noctS  by  night,  lucS  in  the 
daylight,  may  be  considered  as  ablatives. 

795  The  adverb  quando,  from  the  relative,  and  those  connected 
with  it,  denote  time  :  as,  quando**  when,  allquando**  sometime, 
quandocunquS  whenever,  quandoquS  whenever,  some  time  or  other. 

*  This  is  the  orthography  used  in  Virgil. 

+  This  suffix  corresponds  to  Qev  of  6j/-0ep,  iro-Qfv:    and  indeed  the 
final  v  of  the  suffix  0e*»  disappears  at  times  in  Greek,  as  in  oirur-Qe  or 


J  This  c  is  the  demonstrative  enclitic  :  see  §  289.  And  if  the  inter- 
rogative enclitic  ne  be  added,  ci  is  preferred  to  c,  as  in  nuncine  :  see 
§293. 

§  It  is  generally  held  that  these  are  feminine  ablatives  agreeing  with 
via  '  road'  understood. 

||  Corresponding  to  the  Greek  dative  epytp  '  in  reality.' 

^T  Whether  we  are  speaking  of  a  very  great  or  a  very  small  quantity, 
it  adds  weight  to  our  assertion  if  we  can  speak  of  the  quantity  as  known 
by  measurement.  Hence,  with  small  quantities,  modo  '  by  measure'  may 
be  translated  by  'only  '  On  the  other  hand,  with  great  quantities,  ad- 
modum  '  up  to  the  measure'  is  equivalent  to  '  full,  quite.'  Observe  that 
modo  in  old  writers  has  a  long  final  o,  as  in  Ter.  And.  iv.  1.  6,  Plant. 
Asin.  prol.  5,  Aul.  n.  2.  62,  Pseud,  n.  3.23,  Poen.  i.  2.7,  Lucr.  n.  941 
and  J  135,  Cic.  Arat.  N.  D.  n.  42.  107. 

**  The  later  writers  shorten  the  o  in  these  two  words. 


144  ADVERBS. 

796  The  adverb  utl  or  ut  how,  that,  when  (itself  connected  with 
the  relative),  has  many  adverbs  compounded  with  or  derived  from 
it  :  as,  iitlqug  anyhow,  at  least,  iitut  no  matter  how,  utcunquS 
howsoever,  whensoever,  neutiquam  or  niitiquam  (for  iie-iitiquam) 
in  no  way,  utinam  0  that  ! 

796. 1  The  adverbs  in  us,  from  pronouns  of  relative  origin,  commonly 
denote  the  place  where  or  whither :  as,  usquam  any  where  or  to 
any  place,  uspiam  any  where  or  in  any  place,  nusquam  no  where 
or  to  no  place. 

71)7  Many  adverbs  are  nouns  and  prepositions  written  as  one  word : 
thus, 

Profecto*  indeed^  is  from  pro  facto  for  a  thing  done. 

Imprimis  specially,  from  in  primls  among  the  first. 

Ilico  immediately,  from  in  loco  on  the  spot. 

Indies  every  day  (more  and  more),  from  in  dies. 

Denuo  a-fresh,  from  de  nouo. 

Obiter  in  passing  (or  in  French,  en  passant),  from  5b  Iter  on 
the  road. 

Interim  meanwhile,  from  intSr  imt  during  this. 

Admodum  quite,  from  ad  rnodum  up  to  the  measure. 
798        Thus  the  preposition  or  adverb  uorsum  or  uorsus  -wards  is 
added  to  a  number  of  adverbs  in  o,  prepositions  <fec.  :  as, 

Horsum  hitherward,  istorsum  towards  your  neighbourhood,  illor- 
sum  towards  yonder  place,  quorsum  in  what  direction,  aliorsum  in 
another  direction,  allquouorsum  in  some  direction,  quoquouorsum 
in  every  direction,  utroqueuorsum  in  loth  directions,  aduorsum 
towards,  prorsum§  or  prosum^  forwards,  downright,  rursum  or 
rusum§  (for  reuorsum)  backward,  again,  deorsum  downwards,  sur- 
sum  or  susum  upwards,  introuorsum  or  introrsum  inwards,  re- 
trorsum  backwards,  dextrouorsum  or  dextrorsum  towards  the  right, 
smistrorsum  towards  the  left.  \\ 

*  Plautus  uses  this  word  with  the  first  syllable  long. 

f  Indeed =in-deed  is  itself  a  parallel  example  from  our  own  language; 
so  also  forsooth. 

J  An  old  accusative,  or  perhaps  rather  dative,  of  the  pronoun  i-  *  this,' 
for  an  older  form  is  interibi. 

§  Prosum  is  preferred  by  Plautus,  and  rusum  by  Virgil.  Prosus  and 
rusus  occur  even  in  Cicero,  if  we  follow  the  Medicean  Ms.  ad  Fam.  xiu. 
13.  and  ix.  9.3. 

||  Most  of  these  adverbs  have  also  another  form  ending  in  uorsits  in- 
stead of  uorsum,  and  also  in  uersum,  uersus. 


ADVERBS.  145 

799  Thus  too  prepositions  that  govern  an  accusative  are  attached 
to  the  pronominal  adverbs  in  o :  as, 

Adeo  to  this  or  that  degree,  so  ;  in  addition  to  this,  moreover. 
Quo&d  to  what  degree,  how  far ;  to  what  time,  how  long. 
Adhuc  to  this  time,  so  far,  as  yet. 

800  The  prepositions  that  govern  an  ablative  are  prefixed  to  the 
pronominal  adverbs  in  de,  or  their   shortened  forms  in  in  (see 
§  366)  :  as, 

Proindg*  or  proin  henceforward,  therefore,  accordingly,  at  once  then. 

Deinde  or  dein  after  this,  afterwards. 

Subinde  soon  after,  ever  and  anon 

Exinde',  exin  or  exim  after  this. 

Abhiuc/row  this  time  (reckoning  towards  the  past). 

Dehinc/rom  this  time  forward,  after  this. 

801  Thus  too  the  suffix  sfaus  is  added  to  pronominal  and  other 
adverbs  in  dS,  or  rather  to  the  shortened  forms  in  in :  as, 

Altrinsecus/rom  the  other  side.         Extrinse'cus/rom  without. 
Vtrinque'se'cus/rom  both  sides.          Intrinse'cus/rom  within. 

802  Thus  too  the  prepositions  that  govern  an  accusative  are  pre- 
fixed to  pronouns  in  am  or  a,  which  last  also  appear  to  have  been 
corrupted  from  accusative  pronouns  in  am  :  as, 

Antea  before  this  or  that.  Praeterquam  besides  that.  .  .  . 

Postea  after  this  or  that.  Superquam  over  and  above  that. . . 

Int&rea  in  the  meanwhile.  Antehac  before  this. 
ProptSrea/or  this  or  that  reason.    Posthac  after  this. 

PraetSrea  besides  this  or  that.  Praetgrhac  besides  this. 

Antequam  before  that.  .  .  .  Postilla  since  that  time,  from  that 

Postquam  after  that. '.  .  .  time. 

803  Thus  too  the  preposition  tgiius  stretching,  is  suffixed  to  pro- 
nominal forms  in  a :  as, 

Eatenus  to  this  or  that  extent,     Istactgnus  so  far  as  to  reach  your 

so  far.  neighbourhood. 

Hacteniis  to  this  extent.  QuatSnus  to  what  extent,  so  far  as. 

*  Perinde  is  only  a  corruption  of  proinde  or  rather  por-inde,  and  in 
no  way  related  to  the  preposition  per.  Indeed  the  Mss.  generally  have 
proinde  where  editions  give  perinde. 


146  PREPOSITIONS. 

AlXquatenus  to  some  extent.  Quadamtenus  to  a  certain  extent. 

804  Some  so-called  adverbs  consist  of  an  adjective  and  substantive 
written  as  one  word  :  thus, 

QuomSdo  how  is  from  quo  mSdo  in  what  manner. 
MagnoperS  greatly  is  from  magno  ope're  with  great  labour. 
H5die,  or  rather  hodie,  today,  is  from  ho*  die. 
Qudtidie  every  day,  from  quotlt  die. 

805  Nudiustertius,  or  rather  nudiustertius,  the  day  before  yesterday , 
is  for  numj  dius  tertius  now  the  third  day. 

806  Some  adverbs  are  formed  by  the  addition  of  two  or  more  par- 
ticles :  as,  etiam  even  now,  still,  also,  from  et  even,  and  iam  now  ; 
and  etiamnum  even  now-a-days,  from  St,  iam,  and  num. 

807  Scilicet,  uidelicet,  ilicet,  though  called  adverbs,  are  in  origin 
verbs.     When  literally  translated,  they  signify  respectively  : 

Sclllcet§  one  may  know,  of  course. 
Videlicet  one  may  see,  no  doubt. 
Ilicet  one  may  go,  it  is  all  over. 


PREPOSITIONS. 

808        Prepositions  are  particles  that  are  prefixed ||  to   substantives 
and  verbs,  and  sometimes  to  other  parts  of  speech.      In  their 

*  The  old  ablative  before  the  enclitic  c  was  added.  We  should  pro- 
bably pronounce  hodie  as  a  disyllable,  hojee ;  or  like  the  Italian  oggi. 

f  An  old  dative  case. 

J  The  old  form  which  with  the  enclitic  ce  produced  nunc'  now.'  Dius 
is  that  nominative  of  the  u  declension  which  has  an  ablative  diu  '  in  the 
daytime.'  Further,  dius  is  but  a  monosyllable,  just  as  dies  often  is  (see 
hodie  above).  Hence  nudiustertius  should  be  pronounced  something 
like  nujustertius  (Plant.  Most.  iv.  2,40). 

§  These  words  are  actually  employed  as  verbs.  Thus  scilicet,  Plant. 
Cure.  ii.  2,  10,  Lucr.  n.  46'8,  Sal.  Jug.  4  ;  uidelicet,  Plant.  St.  iv.  1,  49 
and  51,  Lucr.  I.  210;  ilicet,  Ter.  Ph.  I.  4,  31.  Similarly  licet  'it  is  per- 
mitted,' became  used  as  a  conjunction  in  the  sense  of  though.' 

||  The  name  preposition  itself  implies  this.  But  in  fact  they  occa- 
sionally follow  (more  particularly  in  the  older  authors)  ;  as  in  me-cum 
'  with  me,'  quo-ad  '  to  what  degree,'  de  quo  or  quo  de  '  concerning  which/ 
So  in  English  we  have  here-in,  here-upon,  &c. 


PREPOSITIONS.  147 

original  sense  they  denote  the  relations  of  place  :  as,  sub  up,  dg 
down,  8b  towards. 

809  The  letter  s  is  often  added  as  a  prepositional  suffix.  Thus  ab 
by  sometimes  becomes  abs,  aps  or  as  ;  sub  up  becomes  sus  ;  5b 
towards,  obs  or  os  ;  ec  out,  ex  ;  di  different  ways,  dis  ;  [ci,  obs., 
thu],  els  ;  [ol,  obs.,  yew],  uls. 

The  first  three  of  these  prepositions,  viz.  &b  ly  or  /row,  sub 
up,  Sb  toward,  take  this  s  more  particularly  in  composition  with 
verbs  which  begin  with  one  of  the  letters  p,  c  or  q,  tf  as, 

As-porta-  carry  away      Sus-pend-  hang  up        Os-tend-  stretch  to- 
Abs-cond-  put  away         Sus-cJp-  take  up  wards. 

Abs-tine-*  keep  away       Sus-tJne-  hold  up 

811  Ecf  out  takes  an  s  before  the  same  consonants,  and  also  before 
vowels  :  as, 

Ex-pos-:  put  out  Ex-cur-  1  run  out 

Ex-tend-  stretch  out  Ex-Im-  take  out. 

812  Di  different  ways  takes  an  s  before  the  same  consonants,  and 
takes  s,  or  its  substitute  r,  before  vowels  :  as, 

Dis-ptfs-J  put  in  different  places     Dls-Ic-§  throw  different  ways 
Dis-cM-:  depart  Dlr-Jm-  disperse  ' 

Dis-tme-  keep  apart. 

813  EC  before  a  verb  beginning  with  an  s  has  two  forms,  as  from 
sfcli-  leap,  exsffi-  or  exfli-  leap  up,  which  do  not  differ  in  sound.  || 

814  Dfa  is  preferred  to  di  before  a  verb  beginning  with  s,  if  that  s 
e  followed  by  a  vowel  :  as,  dis-sona-  sound  a  different  note;  but 


in  old  authors,  if  a  tennis  follow: 
,'  abs  quiuis  homine  '  by  any  man  you  please.' 

tio*ov^T1l^me-  obs.°[ete'  but  was  8ti11  Preserved  in  the'  composi- 
tion of  verbs  which  begin  with  /:  as,  ec-fer-  '  carry  out,'  ec-fod-  •  dig  out,' 

of  Plautus'  Terenc{'  cicero  ani 


J  See  §  451.  1. 

in^ly  Written/^f  -  or  dis^-     For  the  quantity  of  the  pre- 
m  the  compounds  of  ,'«».,  as  conic^subici-^  A.  Gellius,  ivP17. 

of  tnnn^l?  i°*lSe  ^  Sreek  characters,  was  the  symbol  originally 

other      mbh^?  ''     ?i  ?  the  R°manS  never  used  the  asPirate  X  ™  ™7 
nresenC  rt  °/letters:  ?e7  eventually  came  to  look  upon  JT  as  re- 

mfv  h     °T  V*'  and  theref°re  discarded  the  superfluous  ,.  Hence 
may  be  looked  upon  as  the  older  form,  but  representing  ech-sili- 


148  PREPOSITIONS. 

not  so  if  that  s  be  followed  by  a  consonant,  as  di-scrlb-  distribute 
in  writing. 

815  The  letter  d  is  often  added  as  a  prepositional  suffix.     Thus  pro 
for.  In  in,  rS  back,  become  severally  pr5d,  ind,  red*,  as  in  prod-i- 
ffo  forward,  ind-lge-  be  in  want,  red-i-  go  back,  red-d-  put  back, 
red-due-  bring  lack,  and  by  assimilation  of  d  to  the  following  I 
relllgion-  religion,  relllquiae  N.  pi.  remains. 

816  The  prepositions  often  lose  one  of  their  final  letters.    Thus  &b 
becomes  a  in  the  composition  of  verbs  which  begin  with  the  letter 
m  :  as,  a-moue-  move  away.     Before  the  verb  fu-  be,  ab  and  a  are 
both  found  :  as,  ab-fuit  or  a-fuit  he  was  absent ;  while  before  the 
verbs  fer-  carry,  and  fug-  fly,  the  form  au  is  used  :  as,  au-fer- 
carry  away,  au-fug-  fly  away.     Similarly  a  instead  of  ab  is  used 
before  many  nouns  beginning  with  a  consonant. 

817  In  like  manner  ec  out  becomes  e  before  other  consonants  than 
p,  c  or  q  t :  as,  e-blb-  drink  up,  e-duc-  lead  out,  &c. 

818  For  for  (see  §  834),  super  upon,  and  intgr  up  (see  §  834),  be- 
fore words  beginning  with  I,  assimilate  the  r  to  this  I,  as  pollice-  (r.) 
bid  beforehand,  promise  ;  polling- 1  lay  out  (a  corpse) ;  supelle.;-f 
(nom.  supellex)  and  supellectili-,   strictly  adjectives,  laid  upon, 
and  hence  as  sb.  f.  tapestry ,  furniture  ;  intelleg-  pick  up  or  gather 
(information),  perceive. 

819  Trans  across  before  verbs  sometimes  takes  the  form  tra  :  as, 
tra-diic-  lead  across,  tra-d-  hand  over. 

820  Cum  with  before  verbs  becomes  com  or  con  or  co  :  as,  com-e'd- 
eat  up,  con-eld-  cut  to  pieces,  co-i-  go  together,  meet. 

821  The  other  changes  which  prepositions  sometimes  undergo  be- 
fore verbs  maybe  seen  in  the  tables  of  perfects  and  supines,  ^§  533- 
554. 

822  From  prepositions  and  two  of  the  pronouns  demonstrative  are 

*  The  preposition  se  '  aside'  might  have  been  added  to  these,  as  the 
conjunction  sed  '  but'  is  another  form  of  that  word.  Sedition-  *  a  division 
of  the  people,'  or  '  erneute,'  implies  the  previous  existence  of  a  verb  se-d- 
'put  apart,  separate,'  from  da-  '  put'  (§  542),  rather  than  sed-i-,  a  com- 
pound of  i-  'go.1  as  Madvig  would  have  it  (Lat.  Gr.  §  203),  for  then  the 
e  would  be  short.  In  old  authors  other  prepositions  taKe  this  d:  thus 
post,  ante,  supra,  extra,  &c.  become  postid,  antid,  suprad,  extrarl,  &c. 
Perhaps  apud  *  near'  may  be  only  another  form  of  ab,  or,  as  the  Greeks 
wrote  it,  apo  'by.'  This  is  consistent  with  the  original  meaning  of  ab,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  Syntax. 

f  These  compounds  imply  a  simple  verb  leg-  or  ling-,  corresponding 
to  the  Greek  root  Ae^-,  German  leyeii,  and  our  lay. 


PREPOSITIONS.  143 

formed  adjectives  in  tiro*  and  fro  ;  and  from  these  again,  prepo- 
sitions in  tfr  or  8r,  and  in  tra  or  rd.  Thus  from  sub  up  is  formed 
the  adjective  supgro-  upper ;  whence  the  prepositions  super  and 
supra  above.  So  from  the  obsolete  root  inf-,  or  rather  enef-,  below* 
is  formed  first  the  adjective  infgro-  lower,  and  secondly  the  prepo- 
sition infra  below.  Again,  from  in  in  is  formed  first  the  obsolete 
adjective  intero-  inner,  and  thence  the  prepositions  inter  between, 
and  intra  within,  &c.  From  the  obsolete  preposition  &d  again  is 
deduced  a  comparatival  form  Jterum  again.^ 

823  From  prepositions  and  two  of  the  pronouns  demonstrative  are 
formed  comparatives  and  superlatives.     Thus  from  prae  or  pro 
before,  a  comparative  prior-  former,  a  superlative  primo-  first  ; 
from  In  in,  a  superlative  imo-  inmost  or  lowest;  from  sub  up,  a 
superlative  summo-t  uppermost;  from  post  after,  postiimo-§  last; 
from  6c  or  ex  out,  extiimo-  outmost  or  uttermost ;  from  the  obsolete 
pronominal  root  ci  this  or  near,  c!tumo-||  hithermost,  nearest ;  from 
an  obsolete  ol  yon,  ultumo-||  farthest. 

824  Comparatives  and  superlatives  are  also  formed  from  the  inter- 
mediate adjective  in  tero  or  fro.     Thus  from  post  after  is  formed 
first  the  adjective  postero-  after,  and  thence  a  comp.  post&rior- 
and  a  superl.  postremo-  ;  from  ex  out,  an  adj.  extSro-  outer,  and 
thence  a  comp  extSrior-,  and  superl.  extreme- ;  from  de  down,  an 
obsolete  adj.  detgro-,  and  thence  a  comp.  detgrior-H  worse,  and 
superl.  deterrumo-H  worst;  from  sub  up,  an  adj.  supgro-  upper, 
and  thence   a   comp.  superior-  higher,  and  a   superl.  supremo- 
hif/Jiest,  &c. 

825  From  the  simple  prepositions  and  from  the  adjectives  in  ttro 
and  fro  are  formed  other  adjectives  in  no  :  as, 

Siipino-  looking  upward,  prono-  looking  downward. 

*  These  are  in  fact  comparatives,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Greek  irpo- 
repo-  &c. 

t  Compare  the  Welsh  ad,  old  German  it  or  ita,  Danish  alter,  Swedish 
ater,  all  signifying  '  again.'  See  §  1308.  3.  c. 

\  For  subimo-  or  supimo-.  In  the  same  way  from  sub  '  up,'  and  em- 
*take,'  is  formed  the  compound  sum-  'take  up.'  Indeed  the  best  Mss. 
more  commonly  have  summ-. 

§  The  vulgar  orthography  is  posthumo-,  which  is  grounded  upon  a 
ludicrously  erroneous  derivation  from  post  humum. 

[\  Related  respectively  to  ho-  '  this,'  and  illo-  *  yonder.' 

^f  Literally  '  lower,  lowest ;'  but  they  occur  only  in  the  sense  of  value. 


150  PREPOSITIONS. 

Superno-  above,  inferno-  below. 
Externo-  without,  interne-  within. 

826  From  some  of  the  prepositions  are  formed  adjectives  in  Ico. 
Thus, 

Postico-  behind,  as  postica"  ianua  the  back  gate. 
Antico-  or  antique-  preceding  (either  in  time  or  value). 

827  From  some  of  the  prepositional  superlatives  are  formed  adjec- 
tives in  ti :  as, 

From  summo-  highest,  summati-  or  summat-  of  the  highest  rank. 
,,     infumo-  lowest,  infumati-  or  infumat-  of  the  lowest  rank. 

828  Adverbs  in  tus  (§  777)  are  formed  from  prepositions  :  as, 
Intus/rora  within  or  within,  subtiis  under. 

829  For  the  adverbs  in  tro  and  trin  from  prepositions,  see  §  838. 

830  The  prepositions*  in  use  before  substantives  are  the  following. 
First,  before  accusatives  alone  : 

ad  to  contra,  facing  praeter  beside 

aduorsum  or  aduorsiis  erga  towards  prope  near 

towards  infra  below  prSpiiis  nearer 

ante  before  inter  between  propter  near 

apiid  near  intra  within  proxiime  nearest 

circa  round  iuxta  near  sScuudum  following 

circiter  about  5b  towards  supra  above 

circum  round  pe'ne's  in  the  hands  of  trans  across 

cis  on  this  side  of  p§r  through  [uls?  obs.,  beyond] 

citra  on  this  side  of  post  after  ultra  beyond. 

831  Secondly,  before  ablatives  alone  : 

&b,  abs,  or  a  by  or  from  [ec],  ex,  or  e  out  of 

absque  without  prae  before 

cum  with  pro  before 

dS  down  from  sing  without. 

832  Thirdly,  before  an  accusative  or  ablative  : 

in  in  subter  under 

sub  up  or  under  supgr  upon. 

*  Many  of  these  prepositions  are  common  to  the  Greek  language,  viz. : 
ab  =  a7ro.  ec  =  eK.  con  or  cum  =  aw  or  £vv. 

ob  =  €7ri.  ante  =  ai/ri.          pro  =  7rpo. 

sub  and  super  =  UTTO  and  virfp.       in  =  fvorfts.       post  =  ^.eTo  or  ?re5a? 


PREPOSITIONS.  151 

833  Clam  secretly,  coram  face  to  face,  palam  openly,  slmul  at  the 
same  time,  tgnus  extending,  uorsus  or  uersus  towards,  usqug  all 
the  way  or  all  the  time,  are  rather  adverbs  than  prepositions.     But 
see  the  syntax  of  prepositions. 

833. 1  Some  substantives  in  the  ablative  followed  by  genitives  partake 
of  the  nature  of  prepositions,  as  causa  for  the  sake  (of),  gratia  for 
the  sake  (of),  and  in  old  Latin  ergo  on  account  (of).  So  instar 
instead  (of),  like  its  English  equivalent,  appears  to  be  compounded 
of  In  and  some  substantive  signifying  *  station.'*  This  also  is 
followed  by  a  genitive :  as,  Plato  mihi  uniis  est  instar  omnium 
(Cic.  Brut.  51. 191)  Plato  alone  in  my  eyes  is  worth  the  whole  lot. 

834  Other  prepositions  are  found  in  the  composition  of  verbs  and 
adjectives,  and  therefore  called  inseparable  prepositions,  viz. : 

a.  Amf  round,  as,  am-bur-  bum  round,  singe ;  ain-b8d-  eat 
round;  and  the  adj.  an-cip-  or  an-clplt-  two-headed. 

b.  AnJ  up,  as  an-hgla-  send  up  (a  blast  of  air).     (See  §  1308. 
1.) 

c.  Dl§  or  dls  different  ways,  as.  dis-cSd-  depart,  and  from  corda- 
string,  the  adj.  dis-cordi-  or  dis-cord-  of  a  different  note. 

d.  Inte'ril,  inseparable  prefix,  up, — a  corruption  of  an  obsolete 
antSr,  and  related  to  In  or  Sn  up  (see  two  paragraphs  above  and 
§  1308. 1),  as  praetgr  to  prae,  and  propter  to  propg  (see  §  822), 
— as  intel-leg-  pick  up  or  gather  (information),  perceive.    (See 
§  1342.1.) 

e.  For  for  or  forth,  as  por-rlg-  stretch  forth,  pol-llce-  (r.)  lid 
beforehand,  promise  ;  pol-ling-  lay  out  (a  corpse). 

/.  R§  or  r8d  back,  as,  re-pel-  drive  back,  r&d-i-  go  back,  and  the 
adj.  re'-diic-  returning. 

g.  Self  or  s8d  aside,  as,  se-p5s-  put  aside,  and  the  adjectives 
se-cu.ro-  unconcerned,  se"-cord-  or  so-cord-  spiritless. 

*  As  if  for  in-stdri  or  in-stdre,  where  star-  might  be  an  obsolete  neuter 
substantive  derived  from  the  verb  sta-.  Compare  the  German  an-statt. 

f  Related  to  the  Greek  a/j.<f>i,  and  German  urn. 

J  Related  to  the  Greek  a?a,  German  ent,  and  English  un.  See 
'Transactions  of  the  Philological  Society,'  for  Jan.  27,  1854. 

§  Related  to  the  Greek  Sta,  and  the  German  zer. 

||  This  inter,  which  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  inter  4  be- 
tween,' corresponds  to  the  German  inseparable  unter  in  unternehmen 
&c.,  to  our  under  in  undertake,  understand,  and  to  entre  in  the  French 
entretenir  and  entreprise. 

^  Related  to  the  English  sund-er  and  German  sond-ern. 


152  PREPOSITIONS. 

h.  Veh*  or  ue-  away,  as  the  adj.  ue-cord-  (heartless,  i.  e.)  seme- 
less,  uehementi-  or  uehgrnent-  (devoid  of  mind),  furious.^ 

K>5  The  prepositions  in  modern  editions  are  usually  written  in 
immediate  connection  with  verbs,  but  separately  from  nouns. 
The  Romans  themselves  however  generally  wrote  them  in  con- 
nection with  nouns  also  :  as,  inftfro  in  theforum.^. 

836  Hence  if  an  enclitic  be  inserted,  it  commonly  follows  the  noun, 
not  the  preposition  :  as,  inforoqug  and  in  the  forum,  or,  to  copy 
the  modern  mode  of  printing,  in  foroque  (Cic.  ad  Att.  iv.  1.  5). 

S37  If  the  preposition  be  repeated,  it  has  a  stronger  emphasis,  and 
may  be  separated  from  the  noun :  in  curia  inque  f5ro§  in  the 
senate-house  and  in  the  forum. 

838  It  will  be  convenient  to  exhibit  a  table  [|  of  words  derived  from 
prepositions : 

*  Related  to  the  German  weg,  and  English  away. 

f  To  these  might  be  added  the  solitary  example  of  neg^  after  ;'  viz. 
neg-leg-  ('  leave  behind,')  '  neglect.'  This  prefix  is  identical  with  the 
German  nach,  and  consequently  with  the  English  nigh. 

J  This  consideration  is  of  importance  in  the  laws  of  metre. 

§  Precisely  on  the  same  principle  and  under  the  same  circumstances 
Lucretius  separates  the  preposition  even  from  a  verb,  and  writes  disiectis 
disque  supatis  (i.  652). 

||  The  contents  of  this  table  may  be  usefully  compared  with  similar 
formations  in  our  own  tongue.  To  the  superlatives  in  umo  correspond 
Anglo-Saxon  superlatives  in  ema:  as,  inn-ema,  ut-ema,  for-ma,  aft-ema, 
mid-ema,  nid-ema,  lat-ema,  hind- ema.  The  Latin  language  forms  several 
comparatives  and  superlatives  from  words  already  in  the  comparative 
form.  Nay,  in  prim-ores  '  front-(men  or  teeth)'  we  see  a  comparative 
from  a  superlative.  So  the  Anglo-Saxon  formed  superlatives  upon  super- 
latives, as  utem-est^  nidem-est,  I'dtem-est,  or  forem-ost,  hindm-ost,  utm-ost 
(see  Grimm,  D.  G.  in  p.  630).  Our  own  form-er  agrees  accurately  with 
the  Latin  prim-or-  ;  and  in  near-er  we  have  a  comparative  formed  upon 
a  comparative  ;  since  near  itself  is  but  a  compression  of  nigh-er,  as  next  is 
of  nigh-est.  Under  the  head  of  pronominal  prepositions  we  may  com- 
pare beyond,  before,  behind,  beneath,  beout  (obs.),  afore,  amid,  abaft, 
above. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


163 


la 


mparative 
rom  gro, 
tSro. 


4    4 
II 


ill 


•f  %  -1  f  .'§ 

1 1111 


o  § 

g  I 


o   .        60 

II  I,, 


.'2 
E, 


'p 

£ 

3 


i  is 


liil 

"H          -t-9  &«        IOJ 


8   I 


154 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

839  The  name  '  conjunction'  is  commonly  given  to  several  classes 
of  particles  which  require  to  be  distinguished. 

840  Copulative  conjunctions  are  those  which  unite  words,  phrases 
or  sentences,  without  making  one  dependent  upon  another.    Such 
are  et  and,  the  enclitic  quS*  and,  atque  and ;  uelt  or,  aut£  or ; 
together  with  the  interrogative  particles  an  or,  ne  or. 

841  There  are  several  words  compounded  of  the  above  particles 
which  also  serve  as  copulative  conjunctions  :  for  instance,  ngquS 
nor,  neu8  nor,  slug  or  if. 

842  Many  of  these  may  be  used  in  pairs  :  as,  8t  hoc  gt  illud  loth 
this  and  that,  Dlque  hominesque  loth  gods  and  men,  uel  hoc  uel 
illud  eitJier  this  or  that,  aut  hoc  aut  illud  either  this  or  that,  neque 
hoc  ngque  illud  neither  this  nor  that,  slue  hoc  slue  illud  whether 
this  or  that. 

843  Several  of  the  particles  above  mentioned  admit  of  abbreviation. 
Thus,  atqug,  uel,  neque,  neu8,  slue,  may  severally  become  ac,  u6, 
ne'e,  neu,  sen. 

844  Many  adverbs,  when  used  in  pairs,  perform  the  part  of  copu- 
lative conjunctions  :  as,  nunc  hoc  nunc  illud  now  this  now  that, 
modo  hoc  modo  illud  at  one  time  this  at  another  that,  turn  sapiens 
turn  fortls  on  the  one  hand  wise  on  the  other  brave. 

845  Certain  phrases  which  run  in  pairs  may  also  perform  the  office 
of  copulative  conjunctions  :   as,  non  m5do  hoc,  sed  etiam  illud 
not  only  this,  but  also  that. 

846  Accessary  conjunctions  are  those  which  unite  an  accessary  sen- 
tence to  the  main  sentence :  as  antequam  in  the  compound  sen- 
tence, antequain  lux  nos  obprimat,  erumpamus  let  us  sally  out 
before  daylight  comes  upon  us. 

847  Accessary  conjunctions  are  often  formed  by  prefixing  a  prepo- 
sition to  some  derivative  from  the  pronoun  quo- :  as,  quam,  quod, 

*  The  same  as  the  Greek  re.     Compare  the  interrogatives  ns  and 
quis. 

f  Probably  an  obsolete  imperative  of  the  verb  uol-  *  wish.' 

J  Probably  a  corruption  of  alterum^  as  our  or  is  of  other.     Compare 
the  German  oder. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  155 

tit.*     Thus  there  are  :  post-quam  after  that  or  after,  ant§-quamt 
before  that  or  before,  super-quam  beyond  what,  pro-tit  according  as. 

848  Conjunctions  of  this  character  perform  for  a  secondary  sentence 
the  same  office  which  simple  prepositions  perform  for  nouns.  Thus 
the  same  idea  might  be  expressed  by  ant§  lucem  erumpamus  let  us 
sally  out  before  daylight.     Or,  again,  we  may  say  either  post  r&dl- 
tum  eiiis  after  his  return,  or  postquam  redilt  after  he  returned. 

849  Sometimes  instead  of  a  preposition,  a  comparative  adjective  or 
adverb,  or  other  word  of  comparison,  precedes  the  relative  adverb  : 
as,  maior  quam  speraueram  greater  than  I  had  hoped,  priusquam 
speraueram  before  I  had  hoped,  aliter  quam  speraueram  differently 

from  what  I  had  hoped,  simiil  ut  uldi  eum  the  moment  I  saw  him. 

850  Or  some  phrase  may  precede  :  as,  eo  consilio  ut  te  terrerem 
with  the  design  that  I  might  frighten  you  or  of  frightening  you,  hac 
lege  ut  ne  rgdeas  with  the  condition  that  you  shall  not  return, 

851  Sometimes  the  relative  adverb  is  doubled :  as,  ultra  quam  ut 
uideam  beyond  seeing,  super  quam  quod  dissenserant  besides  the 

fact  that  they  had  disagreed. 

852  Sometimes  a  derivative  from  eo-  this  is  inserted  between  the 
preposition  and  the  relative  adverb  :  as,  post-ea-quam  after,  pro 

*  This  use  of  quam,  quod,  ut  is  probably  to  be  explained  on  the  prin- 
ciple on  which  Home  Tooke  has  explained  the  origin  of  the  English  con- 
junction that.  '  I  know  that  he  is  returned'  may  be  resolved  into  two 
sentences:  'He  is  returned,  I  know  that  fact.'  So,  in  Greek,  \eyu  &n 
T€Qvr]K€  '  I  say  this :  he  is  dead.'  The  quam,  quod,  ut  then  have,  in 
the  phrases  we  are  speaking  of,  the  signification  this  or  that ;  a  meaning 
which  accords  with  the  use  of  the  Greek  relative  in  Homer.  The  par- 
ticles in  question  enable  the  reader  to  pause  before  the  words  to  which 
they  refer.  So  long  as  we  have  only  a  preposition  and  noun,  no  such 
pause  is  requisite.  In  tbe  same  way  the  mathematician  reads  a  x  6, 
a  into  b ;  but  if  we  substitute  for  b  a  quantity  containing  more  than  one 
term,  a  pause  is  required  in  reading,  and  a  vinculum  in  writing :  as, 
a  x  b  +  c,  which  is  read,  a  into  .  .  .  .  b  +  c.  Precisely  in  the  same  way,  if 
a  long  infinitive  or  subjunctive  clause  be  employed  after  a  Latin  verb,  it 
adds  to  perspicuity  if  we  insert  near  tbe  main  verb  hoc,  ita  or  sic.  Thus 
Cicero  says,  Velim  ita  statutum  habeas,  me  tui  memoriam  cum  summa 
beniuolentia  tenere  (ad  F.  vi.  2. 1)  ;  and  again,  Sic  habeto,  neminem  esse 
qui  me  amet  quin  idem  te  amet  (ad  F.  xvi.  4.  4) :  and  Terence  (Andr.  i. 
5. 46)  says,  Hoc  scio,  esse  meritam  ut  memor  esses  sui.  Lastly,  the  French 
form  in  the  same  way  their  conjunctions  puis-que,  sans-que,  pour-quoi, 
par-ce-que ;  the  Germans,  in-dem,  nach-dem,  dar-aus  class ;  and  the 
English,  before  that,  beyond  what,  according  as.  See  '  Penny  Cyclo- 
paedia,' under  tbe  words  Article  and  Conjunction. 

f  Sometimes  tbe  preposition  is  separated  :  thus  we  might  say,  Ante 
erumpamus  quam  lux  nos  obprimat. 


106  CONJUNCTIONS. 

eo  iit  accordingly  as,  pro-inde  ut  just  as,  propter-ea  q\\6dforthe 
reason  that,  ex  eo  quSd/rora  the  fact  that,  In  eo  iit  in  the  act  of. 

853  Sometimes  the  particle  atqug*  or  ac  occupies  the  place  of  the 
relative.     Thus  we  may  say  simiil  iit  at  the  same  time  that,  as  soon 
as,  or  slmiil  atqug  as  soon  as;  and  in  familiar  Latin,  mai5r  atquS 
greater  than. 

854  Sometimes  the  relative  particle  is  omitted.     Thus  we  may  say 
simiil  ut  redilt  or  slmul  rgdilt  as  soon  as  he  returned, 

855  Very  frequently  the  prepositional  word  is  omitted,  and  a  soli- 
tary relative  adverb  performs  the  office  of  a  conjunction  :  as,  iit 
how,  when,  in  order  that,  quum  when,  quando  when,  quod  because. 

856  Or  the  relative  may  be  accompanied  by  its  noun  :  as  qua-re,  or 
abbreviated  cur,  why. 

857  Or  the  relative  adverb  may  have  an  enclitic  particle  attached 
to  it :  as,  quando-quldemf  since,  quon-iam  (=quom  iam)  since. 

858  These  relative  adverbs,  with  the  exception  of  quum  and  quod, 
are  used  in  direct  questions,  in  which  case  they  no  longer  perform 
the  office  of  conjunctions,  and  may  be  more  conveniently  called 
interrogative  adverbs  :   as,  quando  when  ?   cur  why  ?   iit  how  ? 
quoad  how  long  ?  &c. 

859  Many  conjunctions  have  correlative  adverbs  in  the  main  sen- 
tence which  point  to  them  ;  and  these,  in  one  sense,  may  also  be 
called  conjunctions.  I 

Thus,  Ita  so,  and  sic  so,  answer  to  iit  as;  tarn  so  much,  to  quam 
as  ;  turn  then,  to  quum  when  ;  tameii  vet,  to  quanquam  although  ; 
Ita  on  the  condition,  to  si  if;  sic  on  the  condition,  to  si  if;  £t  yet, 
to  si  if,  <fec. 

*  This  use  of  atque  grows  out  of  the  abbreviation  of  a  longer  phrase. 
Thus,  Aliud  ego  dico  atque  aliud  tu  diets  '  I  say  one  thing  and  you  say 
another,'  easily  degenerates  into  Aliud  ego  dico  atque  tu.  See  §  1148.  8. 

j-  Perhaps  this  word  was  pronounced  as  a  trisyllable,  quanddqaem, 
for  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  quidem  and  7*  represent  the  same 
word,  as  in  equidem  and  €70)76.  See '  Penny  Cyclopaedia,'  under  Terentian 
metres. 

£  In  fact,  they  are  to  their  conjunctions  what  the  antecedent  is  to  the 
relative  ;  and  the  relative  itself  is  the  great  conjunction  of  all  languages. 


157 


INTERJECTIONS. 

860  Interjections  are  abbreviated  sentences  which  denote  a  sudden 
and  hasty  emotion  of  the  mind.     They  are  commonly  inserted  in 
another  sentence  as  a  parenthesis. 

861  In  respect  of  form,  they  are  for  the  most  part  violently  cor- 
rupted from  what  they  were  ;  yet  a  few  admit  of  being  analysed. 
Thus,  the  formula,  so  may  such  a  deity  preserve  me,  is  the  source 
of  several. 

ItS  me  Hercules  adiiiuet  is  corrupted  into  meherciiles,  mcher- 
cule,  mehercle,  mercule,  hercle. 

ItS,  me  Deus  Fidius*  adiiiuet,  into  mSdius-ftdius. 
Ita  me  Deus  Pollux  adiuuet,  into  e'de'pol,  epol,  or  pol. 

And  similarly,  from  the  names  of  Castor,  luno,  Ceres,  there 
arise  the  interjections  mecastor  or  ecastor,  eiuno,  ece're. 

862  Some  of  the  more  common  interjections  are  : 
Ah,  a,  ah,  alas. 

Attat  (for  atatcit)  denoting  a  sudden  discovery,  ah  ah. 

Aut  don't,  have  done. 

EcceJ  behold. 

Ehem,  hem,  denoting  surprise,  ah,  often  best  translated  by 
repeating  the  word  which  caused  the  surprise. 

Eheu,  heu  alas. 

Eho§,  calling  a  person's  attention  to  a  question,  here,  answer 
me  this,  or  expressing  surprise,  what  ? 

EiS,  do  you  hear  ? 

En,  em,  hem  behold,  see. 

Eu  and  euge  good,  bravo  (eu  and  cvyc ,  theatrical  phrases). 

Ha  ha  or  ha  ha  ha  ha  ha  ha  (laughing). 

Hei  or  ei  alas. 


*  That  is, '  the  god  of  Faith,'  like  the  Greek  Zfvs  6picios  or  Zeus  TTJO-- 
TIOS.     Some  incorrectly  derive  this  phrase  from  Atos  Jilius,  i.  e.  Hercules. 
f  Perhaps  for  uufer  te  '  take  yourself  away.' 
£  Probably  the  imperative  of  an  old  verb. 
§  Probably  connected  with  ho  or  hue  '  hither/ 


158  INTERJECTIONS. 

Heus*  harkee,  holloa. 

Hui  bless  me  !  or  more  strictly  a  whistle. 

N"S  verily,  almost  always  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  and 
followed  by  a  pronoun. 

Oh,  o,  denotes  emotion,  oh. 

Ohe  (6)  avast. 

Papae  ye  gods. 

Prohf,  pro  avert  it  heaven,  oh. 

St  hist,  hush. 

Vae  woe,  as  uae  tibi  woe  to  you. 

Vah  has  various  senses,  depending  upon  the  tone  in  which  it 
is  uttered,  and  must  be  translated  according  to  the  context. 

863  There  are  also  several  neuter  adjectives  which  are  used  as  ex- 
clamations :    as,  malum  ill  betide  you,  the  deuce ;  infandum  un- 
utterable thought,  &c. 

864  A  few  unaltered  verbs  are  used  almost  as  interjections  :  as, 
age  quick,   quaeso  prithee,   amabo  please,   obsecro  by  all  that's 
sacred,  abi  that'll  do. 

865  The  preposition  pSr  with  its  accusative,  in  the  sense  of  im- 
ploring, belongs  to  the  class  of  interjections  :   as,  per  dextram 
hanc  by  this  right  hand.    (See  §  1350,.;'  and  k.) 

*  Probably  the  imperative  of  an  old  verb.  Comp.  the  root-syllable 
of  aits-culta-  '  listen.' 

t  Perhaps  for  prohibe  '  keep  off.' 


SYNTAX. 

866  SYNTAX  means  the  connection  of  words  in  a  sentence.     In 
treating  this  part  of  grammar  the  same  order  will  be  followed  as 
in  the  former  part. 

NOUNS. 
NOMINATIVE  CASE. 

867  The  nominative*  case  marks  the  quarter  from  which  an  actionf 
proceeds.     Hence  the  nominative  is  commonly  a  living  being  :  as, 

VipgrS,  llmam  momordit  (Phaedr.  vin.  5),  a  viper  lit  a  file. 
Aper  segetes  proculcat  (Ov.  Met.  vin.  290),  the  wild  boar  tram- 
ples down  tJie  crops. 

868  Instead  of  living  beings,  inanimate*  and  abstract  nouns  are 
often  used  as  the  nominative  :  as, 

Cursum  mutauit  amnis  (Hor.  ad  Pis.  67),  the  river  has  changed 

its  course. 

Dies  lenit  Iras  (Liv.  n.  45),  time  assuages  wrath. 
Verbe'r&t  imber  humum  (Virg.  A.  ix.  669),  lashes  the  ground 

the  rain. 

869  The  agent  may  act  upon  the  agent.     Hence  the  nominative  is 
used  with  reflective  verbs  :  as, 

Rhenus  septentrionali  oceano  miscetur  (Tac.  Ger.  i.),  the  Rhine 
mixes  (itself}  with  the  Northern  Ocean. 

870  As  the  use  of  the  passive  §  has  grown  out  of  that  of  the  reflec- 
tive, the  nominative  is  also  found  with  passive  verbs :  as, 

Insula  adpellatur  Mona  (Caes.  B.  G.  v.  13),  the  island  is  called 
Mono, — more  literally  :  calls  itself  Mona. 

*  See  §§  44,  48,  368,  381. 

f  The  active  verb  is  probably  the  oldest  form  of  the  verb. 
J  This  savours  of  poetry,  but  language  in  its  early  state  is  always  and 
of  necessity  what  we  call  poetical.  §  See  §§  379-382. 


T39  SYNTAX. 

871  As  verbs  of  a  static  character  have  generally  something  of 
action*  mixed  up  with  them,  the  nominative  is  used  before  static 
verbs  :  as, 

Ture  calent  arae  (Virg.  A.  i.  421),  with  incense  glow  the  altars. 

872  The  old  construction  of  verbs  of  feeling  is  seen  in  §  §  700,  889, 
&c.     But  a  large  number  of  verbs  which  denote  feeling  have  a 
nominative  like  other  static  verbs  :  as, 

Cicero  eum  gt  ainabat  et  ugrebatur  (Cic.  ad  Q.  F.  i.  3.  3),  Cicero 
both  loved  and  respected  him.\ 

872. 1    Impersonal  verbs  admit  a  nominative  of  a  neuter  pronoun,  just 
as  in  English  we  use  it,  there, 

Luciscit  hoc  (Ter.  Haut.  in.  1.1),  it  is  getting  light,  look. 
Non  te  haec  pudent  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  iv.  7.  36),  are  you  not  ashamed 
of  these  things  ? 

873  Thus  the  nominative  is  used  before  verbs  of  almost  every  kind. 
A  very  common  use  of  it  is  before  the  verb  signifying  '  be  :'  as, 

Tu  es  tristis  (Ter.  Ad.  v.  1.  6),  you  are  out  of  spirits. 
Senectus  ipsast  morbiis  (Ter.  Phor.  iv.  1.  9),  old  age  itself  is  a 


874  Some  grammarians  are  in  the  habit  of  treating  those  sentences 
which  have  the  verb  be  as  the  form  to  which  all  others  are  to  be 
reduced.  Hence  they  divide  a  sentence  into  three  parts  : 

The  Subject,  that  of  which  you  speak  ; 

The  Predicate,  that  which  you  say  of  the  subject ;  and 

The  Copula,  or  verb  be,  which  unites  the  subject  and  predicate. 

Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  sentence  or  proposition,  man  is  an 
animal,  man  is  the  subject,  animal  the  predicate,  is  the  copula. 

The  subject,  according  to  this  system,  is  the  nominative  case. 
When,  instead  of  the  verb  be,  another  verb  is  used,  they  resolve  it 
into  some  part  of  the  verb  be  and  a  participle.  Thus,  Cicero  writes 
a  letter  is  resolved  into  Cicero  is  writing  a  letter,  where  Cicero  is 
the  subject,  writing  a  letter  the  predicate,  is  the  copula. 

*  Thus,  he  who  sleeps  often  snores  or  drops  his  head,  or  dreams.  At 
any  rate,  the  going  to  sleep  is  commonly  preceded  by  certain  acts  of  pre- 
paration. 

f  The  old  writers  said  Cicero  eius  uerebaiur,  or  even  Ciceronem  eius 
uerebatur.  Nay,  Cicero  himself  has  quos  non  est  uerilum  (de  Fin.  n. 
13.  39). 


NOMINATIVE.  161 

875  The  substantive,  adjective,  or  participle  that  accompanies  the 
verb  be  as  a  predicate,  is  in  Latin  made  to  agree  in  case  with  the 
subject  nominative,  and  is  called  the  nominative  of  the  predicate.* 
Thus, 

SSpientia  est  rerum  dluinarum  §t  humanarum  scientia"  (Cic. 
de  Off.  i.  43.  153),  philosophy  is  the  knowledge  of  things 
divine  and  human. 

Insignls  annus  hiemg  nluosa  fuit  (Liv.  v.  13),  the  year  was  re- 
markable for  a  snowy  winter. 

Viae  clausae,  Tibgrfs  innaulgabllis  fuit  (Liv.  v.  13),  the  roads 
were  blocked  up,  the  Tiber  not  navigable. 

876  In  the  same  manner  other  verbs  have  at  times  a  nominative  in 
the  predicate  referring  to  and  agreeing  in  case  with  the  subject 
nominative  (see  §  1050)  :  as, 

Munltiones  intSgrae  mS/nebant  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  32),  the  forti- 
fications remained  untouched. 

Haud  inrltae  cecldere  minae  (Liv.  vi.  35),  the  threats  did  not 
fall  without  effect. 

876. 1  Although  a  noun  substantive  or  adjective  with  8s-  be  usually 
constitutes  the  predicate,  the  place  may  be  supplied  by  a  descrip- 
tive word  or  phrase  of  a  different  form :  as,  a.  a  genitive  or  ablative 
of  quality  (§§  928,  1010) ;  b.  dative  of  the  light  in  which  a  thing 
is  regarded  (§  983) ;  c.  a  prepositional  phrase ;  or  d.  an  adverb  :  as, 

a.  Nemo  e  decem  Sana  mente  est  (Cic.  de  Leg.  in.  10.  24),  not 

a  man  of  the  ten  is  of  sound  mind. 

Natura  humana  aeul  brguis  est  (Sal.  Jug.  1),  human  nature  is 
shortlived. 

b.  Cul  b&no  fuit  ?  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  30.  84),  to  whom  was  it 
beneficial  ? 

c.  Sunt  In  honorS  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  28.  77),  they  are  held  in 
honour. 

d.  Tuto  non  eris  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xv.  11),  you  witt  not  be  safe. 
See  also  §  1401. 

*  This  nominative  in  the  predicate  must  be  referred  to  what  gram- 
marians call '  attraction.'  The  German  language  in  such  cases  very  pro- 
perly divests  the  adjective  of  all  case :  Der  Mann  ist  gut,  not  outer.  See 
also  §  1060. 


162  SYNTAX. 

877  The  accusative  with  the  active  verb  becomes  a  nominative  with 
the  passive  :  as, 

Regem  eum  appellant,  they  salute  him  as  king — hence 

Rex  ab  suis  appellatiir  (Caes.  B.  G.  vii.  4),  he  is  saluted  king 
by  his  friends. 

Caium  Terentiuin  consulem  creant,  they  elect  C.  Terentius  con- 
sul— hence 

Cams  Tgrentius  consul  creatur  (Liv.  xxn.  35),  C.  Terentius  is 
elected  consul. 

Doctiorem  fScere  clultatem,  to  make  the  citizens  more  learned — 
hence 

Disciplma  doctior  factast  clultas  (Cic.  R.  P.  n.  19.  34),  by 
instruction  the  citizens  were  made  (or  became)  more  learned. 

878  Even  when  verbs  are  in  the  infinitive  mood  dependent  upon 
another  verb,  the  noun  in  the  predicate  referring  to  the  subject 
nominative  will  still  agree  in  case  with  the  subject  nominative,  if 
no  reflective  pronoun  in  the  accusative  be  interposed  :  as, 

HSmlues  minus  creduli  esse  coeperunt  (Cic.  de  Div.  n.  57. 117), 

men  began  to  be  less  credulous. 
Cum  omnibus  potius  quam  soli  perlrg  uSluerunt  (Cic.  in  Cat. 

iv.  7. 14),  they  resolved  to  perish  with  all  rather  than  to  perish 

alone. 
Vis  formosa*  uiderl  (Hor.  Od.  iv.  13.  3),  you  wish  to  appear 

beautiful. 

879  It  is  only  in  poetry  that  we  find  such  phrases  as 

Sensitf  delapsus  In  hostis  (Virg.  A.  n.  377),  he  perceived  that 
he  had  unwittingly  fallen  among  the  enemy. 

880  In  the  old  authors,  and  in  the  poets,  the  nominative  is  found 
for  the  vocative  :  as, 

Agedum  Pontlfex  Publlcus  praei  uerbS,  qulbus  me  pro  legio- 
nlbus  deuSueam  (Liv.  vm.  9),  come.  Priest  of  the  State,  re- 
peat (for  me  to  follow}  the  words  in  which  1  am  to  devote  'my- 
self for  the  legions. 

Almae  fllius  Maiae  (Hor.  Od.  i.  2.  42),  thou  son  of  fostering 
Maia. 

*  The  insertion  of  the  pronoun  te  would  require  a  change :  thus,  Vis 
te  formosam  uideri, '  you  wish  yourself  to  appear  beautiful.' 
f  In  prose  it  must  have  been  Sensit  se  delapsum  in  hostis. 


VOCATIVE.   ACCUSATIVE.  1C3 

881  In  inter] ectional  phrases  the  verb  is  often  understood  :  as, 
Ecc6  littgrae  (i.  e.  mlhi  traduntiir)  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xin.  16.  1), 

behold,  a  letter  is  all  at  once  put  into  my  hand.  * 

VOCATIVE. 

882  The  vocative  is  used  in  addressing  a  person  :  as, 

Die  MarcS  Tulll  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  7.  7),  speak,  Marcus  Tullius. 
88-2. 1    The  interjection  o  is  only  used  in  strong  exclamations  :  as, 

0  Dl  boni,  quid  est  in  hSminis  uita  diu  ?  (Cic.  de  Sen.  19.  69), 
good  heavens,  what  is  there  lasting  in  the  life  of  man  ? 

882.  2  The  vocative,  if  emphatic,  commences  the  sentence  ;  if  not,  it 
is  usually  preceded  by  a  few  words.  It  is  also  frequently  placed 
immediately  after  the  pronoun  of  the  second  person. 

883  In  the  old  writers,  and  in  the  poets,  the  vocative  is  sometnnes 
used  with  verbs  of  the  second  person,  instead  of  the  nomina- 
tive :  as, 

MactSf  uirtute  esto  (Liv.  iv.  14),  be  increased  in  virtue,  i.  e. 

go  on  in  thy  virtuous  course,  and  heaven  Hess  thee. 
Quo  mSriturg  ruis  ?  ( Virg.  A.  x.  811),  whither  dost  rush  to  die  ?% 

ACCUSATIVE. 

884  The  accusative  case  answers  to  the  question  whither.     Hence 
motion  to  towns§  or  small  islands  is  expressed  by  the  accusative  : 
as, 

Capuam  concessit  (Liv.  xxm.  18),  he  withdrew  to  Capua. 
Nauigabat  Syracusas  (Cic.  N.  D.  in.  34.  83),  he  was  sailing  to 
Syracusae. 

885  With  the  names  of  countries  the  preposition  %n  is  usually  em- 
ployed. ||     But  the  poets  use  the  simple  accusative  with  names  of 
countries,  and  even  other  words,  after  verbs  of  motion  :  as, 

*  For  the  nominative  in  apposition  see  below. 

f  The  Romans,  losing  sight  of  this  being  a  vocative,  retain  it  in  the 
construction  of  the  infinitive,  as,  luberem  made  uirtute  esse  (Liv.  n.  12). 

{  For  the  vocative  in  apposition,  &c.,  see  below. 

§  If  any  phrase  be  added  by  apposition  to  the  name  of  the  town,  the 
preposition  in  is  required  :  as,  Se  contulit  Tarquinios  in  urbem  Etruriae 
Jiorentissumam  (Cic.  R.  P.  n.  19.  34).  Peruenit  in  oppidum  Cirtam 
(Sal.  Jug.  102).  See  also  Sal.  Jug.  75. 

||  Thus,  Tarentum  in  Italiam  uenit, « he  came  to  Tarentum  in  Italy.' 


104  SYNTAX. 

Italiam  fato  prSfugus  Lauina'que  uenit  LittorS,  ( Virg.  A.  i.  6), 
to  Italia,  by  fate  an  outcast,  and  to  the  Lavine  leach  he  came. 

886  The  accusatives  dtfmum,  rus,  foras,  uenum,  and  in  the  old 
writers  infitias,  m&lam  rem,  are  used  after  verbs  of  motion  :  as, 

Domura  rguortere  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  37. 107),  they  returned  home. 

Rus  ibo  (Ter.  E.  11.  1. 10),  I  shall  go  into  the  country. 

Ecfugl  foras  (Ter.  E.  v.  4.  23),  I  escaped  into  the  street. 

Darg  uenum  (Liv.  xxiv.  47.  6),  literally  to  put  in  the  window 
(for  sale) — hence  to  sell. 

Infitias  ibit  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  2.  41),  he  will  have  recourse  to  subter- 
fuges. * 

Malain  rem  hinc  ibis  ?  (Ter.  E.  in.  3.  30),  will  you  go  and  be 
hanged  ? 

887  The  verbal  substantives  in  tu  (called  supines)  are  used  in  the 
accusative  after  verbs  of  motion  (see  also  §  1299)  :  as, 

Eo  pabulatum  ugnient  (Caes.  B.  G.  vii.  18),  they  will  come  here 

to  get  fodder. 
In  earn  spem  erecta  clultas  erat,  debellatum  Irl  (Liv.  xxix.  14), 

the  citizens  had  been  encouraged  to  hope  that  they  were  going 

to  finish  the  war. 

888  After  active  verbs  the  object  to  which  the  action  is  directed  is 
put  in  the  accusative  case  :  as, 

Domlnus  seruom  uerberauit,  the  master  Jlogged  the  slave. 

889  The  impersonal  verbs  of  feeling  have  the  accusative  of  the  per- 
son who  suffers  that  feeling  :  viz. 

Me  miseret  eiiis,  et  p*get ; 
Pudet  taedetque  ac  paenltet :  as, 

Eos  infamiae  suae  non  pudet  (Cic.  I.  Verr.  12.  35),  they  are  not 
ashamed  of  their  infamy. 

890  So  also  certain  other  impersonals  take  an  accusative  of  the 
person  v,  ho  suffers :  viz. 

Me  uel  te  iuuat  dgcetquS, 
Turn  praetSrit  f  iigit  latetqug, 
Falllt  oportet  dedgcetqug  :  as, 

*  The  usual  translation  is  '  deny  ;'  but  this  is  inconsistent  with  such 
a  passage  as  Liv,  vi.  40.4 :  Neque  nego  ne^ue  infitias  eo. 


ACCUSATIVE.  1 65 

Ngmmem  uostrum  praetSrit  (Cic.  II.  Verr.  in.  5.  11),  it  escapes 
no  one  among  you. 

891  Many  reflective  verbs,  called  transitive  deponents,  take  an 
accusative  :*  as, 

Naturam  sgquif  (Cic.  de  Off.  i.  28. 100),  to  follow  nature. 

892  The  so-called  perfect  participles  are  used,  particularly  by  the 
poets,  like  those  of  reflective  or  deponent  verbs,  and  so  take  an 
accusative  case :  as, 

MembrS,  sub  arbiito  Stratus  (Hor.  Od.  i.  1.  21),  having  spread 

his  limbs  under  an  arbute  tree. 
Aduersum  fSmur  tragula  ictusj  (Liv.  xxi.  7),  wounded  in  the 

front  of  the  thigh  with  a  tragle. 

893  Similarly,  some  verbs,  which  are  commonly  intransitive,  are 
occasionally  used  (by  the  poets  more  particularly)  with  an  accu- 
sative :  as, 

Ingrati  an!mi  crimen  horreo  (Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  2  A.  2),  1  shudder 

at  the  charge  of  ingratitude. 
Meum  casum  dSluerunt  (Cic.  p.  Sest.  69. 145),  they  lamented 

my  misfortune. 

894  Some  verbs,  commonly  intransitive,  take  an  accusative  of  a 
noun  related  to  the  verb  in  form  or  meaning  (called  the  cognate 
accusative),  often  in  order  to  attach  thereto  an  adjective  :  as, 

Mirum  s6mniaui  s6mnium  (Plant.   Rud.   in.  1.  5),  /  have 

dreamed  a  wonderful  dream. 
Amauti  hero  qui  seruitutem  seruit  (Plant.  Aul.  iv.  1.  6),  he 

who  is  in  the  service  of  a  master  that  is  in  love. 
Alium  cursum  petiuit  (Cic.  ad  Att.  in.  8.  2),  he  went  another 

route. 

895  Similarly,  the  verbs  of  smelling  and  taste,  and  a  few  others, 
take  an  accusative  which  defines  the  nature  :  as, 

Piscls  ipsum  marS  saplt  (Sen.  Q.  N.  in.  18),  the  fish  tastes  of 
the  very  sea. 

*  This  and  some  of  the  following  sections  have  been  anticipated.  See 
§§  400  to  404.  But  the  repetition  was  necessary  for  completeness. 

f  The  compound  obsequ-  (r.)  '  follow  the  wishes  of  any  one,  oblige/ 
requires  a  dative  of  the  person  obliged,  agreeing  thus  with  the  Greek  con- 
struction of  the  allied  word  eir-opai  (Aoriat  l- 

%  Ictus,  '  having  it  wounded.' 


16G  SYNTAX. 

Olet  pgregrinum  (Cic.  de  Or.  in.  12.  44),  it  has  a  foreign  smell. 
Redolet  antlqultatem  (Cic.  Brut.  21.  82),  it  savours  of  antiquity. 

896  Verbs  of  making,  creating,  electing,  have  aii  accusative  of  the 
new  condition  or  office  (called  the  factitive  accusative] ,  besides  the 
accusative  of  the  object :  as, 

Me  hebetem  molestiae  reddiderunt  (Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  17),  for 
myself,  troubles  have  made  me  dull  of  feeling. 

Recta  praua  faciunt  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  2. 6),  they  make  straight  things 
crooked. 

Ancum  Marcium  regem  popiilus  creauit*  (Liv.  I.  32),  the  citi- 
zens elected  Ancus  Marcius  king. 

897  So  also  verbs  of  calling,  thinking^,  showing,  seeing,  take  two 
accusatives  :  as, 

Octauium  sui  Caesarem  salutabant  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xiv.  12.  2), 

Octavius  his  own  friends  saluted  as  Ccesar. 
Socrates  totius  mundl  se  incolam  et  cluem  arbitrabatiir  (Cic. 

Tusc.  v.  37. 108),  Socrates  thought  himself  an  inhabitant  and 

citizen  of  the  universe. 
Gratum  me  praebeo  (Cic.  p.   Plane.  38.  91),  /  show  myself 

grateful. 

898  The  verbs  doce-  teach,  cela-  hide,  keep  in  the  dark,  may  have 
two  accusatives,  one  of  the  thing,  one  of  the  person  :  as, 

Quid  te  litteras  doceam  ?  (Cic.  in  Pis.  30.  73),  what,  am  I  to 

teach  you  your  letters  ? 
Non  te  celaul  sermonem  Ampl  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  IT.  16.  3),  I  did 

not  conceal  from  you  the  conversation  with  Ampius.% 

899  With  the  passives  of  these  verbs,  the  accusative  of  the  person 
becomes  the  nominative,  and  the  thing  taught  or  concealed  may 
be  in  the  accusative  :  as, 

*  There  is  a  sort  of  motion  to  in  this  construction :  '  They  put  him 
into  the  office.'  A  German  indeed  would  insert  the  preposition  signify- 
ing *  to  :'  as,  Sie  w'dhlen  ihn  zum  Fiihrer,  *  they  choose  him  leader.' 

f  With  verbs  of  thinking  the  ablatives  numero  and  loco,  and  the  pre- 
position pro,  are  also  used  :  as,  in  numero  hostium  eum  habeo,  in  loco 
hostis  habeo,  pro  hoste  habeo. 

%  These  two  verbs  are  also  used  with  de  of  the  matter  referred  to,  or 
with  an  ablative  alone  of  the  means  employed :  as,  celare  or  docere  de 
aliqua  re,  docere  fidibus. 


ACCUSATIVE. 

Celabar  (Cic.  in  Bull.  n.  5. 12),  I  was  kept  in  the  dark. 
Nosne  h6c  celatos  tamdiu  ?  (Ter.  Hec.  iv.  4.  23),  to  think  that 
we,  of  all  people,  should  have  been  kept  in  the  dark  about  this 

so  long. 
Dulcis  doctS  mSdos  (ffor.  Od.  in.  9. 10),  taught  sweet  measures. 

900        Some  transitive  verbs  of  motion,  compounded  with  trans,  cir- 
-  cum,  praeter,  *d,  may  have  two  accusatives,  one  of  the 
crossed  <fcc.,  one  of  what  is  conveyed  across  &c. :  as, 

Iberum  copias  traiecit  (Liv.  xxi.  23),  he  threw  his  forces  over 

the  Ebro. 
Equltatum  pontem  transducit  (Goes.  B.  G.  n.  10),  he  leads  t> 

cavalry  over  the  bridge. 
Idem  iusiurandum  adigit  Afranium  (Goes.  B.  C.  1.  76),  he 

pels  Afranius  to  take  the  same  oath. 
Arbltrum  (aliquem)  adlgere"  (Cic.  Top.  10.43),  to  force  (a  per 

son]  to  go  before  a  judge. 

901  The  thing  crossed,  &c.  may,  with  the  passive  verb,  be  an  ac- 
cusative :*  as, 

Belgae  Bhenum  transducuntiir  (Caes.  B.  G.  n.  4),  the  Belgae 

cross  the  Rhine. 
Scopulos  praeteruectS,  uidetiir  oratio  mea  (Cic.  p.  Gael.  21.  51), 

my  speech  seems  now  to  have  passed  by  the  rocks. 
Tune  deinde  cetgrS,  mandantur  iusiurandum  Sdactis  (Sen.  ep. 

95,  p.  602  C.),  then  and  not  till  then  the  other  duties  are 

intrusted  to  them  when  they  have  been  sworn. 

902  Many  verbs  of  asking,  begging,  demanding,  may  have  two  ac- 
cusatives, one  of  the  person,  the  other  of  the  thing  :  viz. 

Roga-  perconta-  (r.)  flagita-que, 
Pose-  rSposc-  mterrdga-que", 
Quacs-  6t  ora-  postiila-que  :  as, 

Pacem  te  poscimus  omnes  (Virg.  A.  xi.  362),  peace  ofthee  ask 
we  alL~\ 

*  Or,  so  far  as  traic-,  tramit  are  concerned,  in  the  nominative :  as, 
Rhodanus  traiectus  est,  '  the  Rhone  was  crossed.'     With  the  thing  co 
veyedthe  nominative  is  required  in  the  passive:  w,exercitus  trail 

*%  Pet-  '  beg,'  and  quaer-  *  ask,'  never  take  an  accusative  of  the  per- 
son, but  employ  a  preposition  ;  the  first  ab,  the  second  oft,  ex  o 


168  SYNTAX. 

Frumentum  Aeduos  flagitabat  (Goes.  B.  G.  I.  16),  he  kept  de- 
manding corn  of  the  Aedui. 

903  The  thing  asked  with  the  passive  verb  may  be  an  accusative  : 
as, 

Scito  me  non  essS  rbgatum  sententiam  (Cic.  ad  Att.  i.  13.  2>, 
you  must  know  I  was  not  asked  my  opinion. 

904  Many  verbs  which  are  originally  intransitive*  become  transi- 
tive when  compounded :  as,  from  i-  go  is  formed  co-i-  go  together 
or  meety  and  hence 

CoirS  sScietatem  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  10.  24),  to  form  a  partnership,  t 
So,  from  uersa-rl  to  turn  is  formed  a-uersa-r!  to  turn  away  (in 
Jwrror) :  and  hence, 

Filium  auersatus  (Liv.  vm.  7),  turning  away  in  horror  from 

his  son. 

Auersatur  sceliis  (Curt.  vi.  7),  he  turns  away  in  horror  from  the 
(proposed)  crime. 

905  Some  transitive  verbs,  when  compounded,  slightly  change  their 
meaning,  and  thus  have  a  changed  construction  :  as,  from  sparg-J 
scatter,  sprinkle,  spargere  Squam  to  sprinkle  water;  but  consper- 
gSre§  Sliquem  Squa  to  besprinkle  any  one  with  water. 

906  Hence  some  compound  verbs  have  a  double  construction!],  one 
derived  from  the  simple  verb,  one  from  the  changed  meaning  of 
the  compound,  viz. 

Adsperg-  St  insperg-  indu-o-que', 
Exu-  circtimda-  inperti-o-que', 
AddS  circumftid-  ins&r-o-que. 

907  Abstract  nouns  from  verbs  occasionally  follow  the  construction 
of  the  verb,  and  take  an  accusative  :  as, 

D8mum  reditionis  spe  sublata  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  5),  the  hope  of 
returning  home  being  taken  away. 

Quid  tibi  hanc  curatiost  rem  ?  (Plaut.  Am.  i.  3.  21),  what  busi- 
ness have  you  to  trouble  yourself  about  this  matter  ? 

*  See  §  403. 

f  Hence  in  the  passive  societas  coitur,  '  a  partnership  is  formed.' 

J  Only  the  poets,  and  their  prose  imitators,  use  sparg-  in  the  sense  of 
'besprinkle.' 

§  The  same  difference  exists  between  spu-  and  conspu-,  between  ser- 
and  conser-  or  obser-. 

||  See  §404. 


ACCUSATIVE.  1G9 

Quid  tibi  istunc  tactiost  ?  (Plant.  Cas.  n.  6.  54)  what  business 
have  you  to  touch  that  person  ? 

908  The  adjectives  propior-  and  proxumo-,  and  the  adverbs  prSpius 
and  proxume,  from  the  preposition  propg,  sometimes,  like  that 
preposition,  take  an  accusative  (as  well  as  a  dative)  :  as, 

Exercltum  habere'  quam  proxiime  hostem  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vi.  5. 3), 
to  keep  the  army  as  near  as  possible  to  the  enemy. 

LSconlctis  Sger  proxlmus  finem  eoruna  est  (Liv.  xxxv.  27),  the 
territory  of  the  Lacones  is  nearest  tv  their  frontier. 

909  The  neuters   of  pronouns  and  of  adjectives  or  substantives 
which  denote  quantity  are  often  used  in  the  accusative  where 
other  nouns  in  the  accusative  would  be  rare,  or  even  inadmissible. 
In  these  cases  the  English  language  often  requires  the  insertion  of 
a  preposition  : 

Id  tibi  suscensui  (Plant.  Pers.  in.  3. 26),  it  was  at  this  1  took 

offence. 
Vnum  omnes  studetls  (Cic.  Phil.  vi.  7. 18),  you  are  all  eager 

for  one  object. 
Cetera  assentior  Crasso  (CYe.de  Or.  i.  9.35),  as  to  the  other 

points  I  agree  with  Cras&tfs. 
lam  hoc  aliud  est  quod  gaudeamus  (Ter.  E.  v.  8.  11),  then 

again  we  have  this  other  matter  to  rejoice  at. 
Id  Speram  do  (Ter.  And.  i.  1. 130),  lam  labouring  at  this. 
Vtrumque  laetor  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  1. 1),  I  am  delighted  at  both 


Quid  lacrumas  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  iv.  5.45)  what  are  you  crying  for  ? 

Idne  estis  auctores.  mihi  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  v.  8. 16)  is  this  what  you 
recommend  to  me  ? 

Bgniflcio  isto  nihll  utltiir  (Cic.  in  Hull.  n.  23.  61),  that  ad- 
vantage you  offer  he  makes  no  use  of. 

ES,  quae  ab  natura  mSuemur  (Cic.  de  Am.  24.  88),  those  warn- 
ings which  we  receive  from  nature. 
And  even  unconnected  with  a  verb  :  as, 

Id  temporls  (Cic.  de  Fin.  v.  1. 1),  at  that  time. 

HSmlnes  Id  aetatis*  (Cic.  de  Or.  i.  47.  207),  men  at  that  age. 

Ego  istiic  aetatis  (Ter.  Haut.  i.  1.  58),  I  at  your  time  of  life. 

*  The  phrase  hoc  aetatis  was  at  last  corrupted  to  hoc  aetate.  See 
Nonius,  p.  192 ;  and  compare  mage,  uerere,  for  magis,  uererts.  In  Plant. 
Trin.  iv.  3.  83.  we  should  read  hoc  aetate,  not  hac  aetate.  Compare  also 
illuc  aetatis  qui  sit,  PL  Mil.  in.  1.  56 ;  quid  tibi  ego  aetatis  uideor?  PI. 
Merc.  n.  2.  19. 


170  SYNTAX. 

>)10  The  possessive  pronouns  in  a  which  accompany  the  impersonal 
verbs  refert  and  interest  are  in  origin  accusatives  feminine  singular. 
Thus, 

Mea  refert,  it  concerns  me,  is  a  corruption  of  meam  rem  fert,  it 

carries  with  it  something  belonging  to  me.     So, 
Nostra*  interest  is  a  corruption  of  nostram  inter  rem  est,  it  is 
in  the  midst  of  and  consequently  mixed  up  with  something 
belonging  to  us. 

911        After  many  active  verbs,  instead  of  a  single  word,  a  whole  sen- 
tence may  take  the  place  of  the  object,  in  which  case  the  secondary 
verb  is  put  in  the  infinitive  mood,  and  the  agent  or  subject  of  that 
verb  is  put  in  the  accusative,  called  the  subject  accusative.     Thus, 
Caesar  redilt,  Caesar  is  returned. 

Nuntiant  Caescirem  rediisse,  they  bring  word  that  Caesar  is  re- 
turned.^ 

For  other  remarks  on  the  construction  of  the  accusative  and 
infinitive  see  below. 

012  Similarly,  when  a  subordinate  sentence  is  attached  to  a  verb 
as  its  accusative,  the  nominative  of  that  sentence  is  sometimes 
picked  out  and  made  the  accusative  of  that  verbj  :  as, 

Nosti  Marcellum  quam  tardus  sit  (Caes.  ap.  Cic.  ad  Fam.  viu. 

10.  3),  you  know  how  slow  Marcellus  is. 
Istam  times  ne  ilium  talem  praerlpiat  tlbi  (Ter.  E.  i.  2.  80), 

*  The  use  of  re-  in  this  sense  of '  interest'  is  common  :  thus  we  find 
mea  res  agitur,  '  my  interest  is  at  stake  ;'  in  rem  meam  est,  '  it  is  to  my 
advantage  ;'  e  re  mea  est^ '  it  is  suggested  by  my  interest.'  The  expla- 
nation above  given  applies  equally  to  the  use  of  the  genitive  of  the  per- 
son, as  Ciceronis  refert,  Ciceronis  interest ;  as  well  as  the  genitive  of 
the  value,  as  magni  refert.  The  long  quantity  of  the  a  is  proved  by 
Ter.  Ph.  v.  7. 47.  and  Haut.  iv.  5. 45.  Similarly,  posted,  from  posteam, 
lengthens  the  a  when  the  m  is  discarded.  See  also  §§  409,  787,  802. 

f  A  mathematician  might  have  expressed  this  by — Ferunt  (Caesar  re- 
diit}em,  attaching  the  symbol  of  the  accusative  case  to  the  clause.  As 
the  Romans  were  afraid  to  do  this,  adopting  what  under  the  circumstances 
was  perhaps  the  best  make-shift,  they  selected  for  the  addition  of  the 
suffix  the  chief  substantive.  Again,  the  passive  construction  should  have 
been  (Caesar  rediit)s  fertur ;  but  here  again,  by  a  similar  make-shift, 
they  wrote  Caesar  rediisse  fertur ;  and  even  in  the  first  person,  ego  rediisse 
feror. 

%  Hence  even  in  the  passive  voice,  an  dea  sim  dubitor  (Ov.  Met.  vi. 
208),  'it  is  doubted  whether  I  am  a  goddess.'  So  Cic.  N.  D.  u.  44. 115, 
intellegi  qualia  sint  non  possunt ;  and  59.  147,  ex  quo  scientia  intellegitur 
qualis  sit. 


ACCUSATIVE.  171 

you  are  afraid  that  that  girl  you  speak  of  will  cut  you  out 

with  that  fine  gentleman. 
Impurum  uide  Quantum  ualet  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  7.  93),  see  how 

strong  the  scoundrel  is. 
Non  satis  me  pernosti  etiam  qualis  sim  (Ter.  And.  in.  2.  23), 

you  do  not  quite  thoroughly  understand  even  yet  what  sort  of 

person  I  am. 
Virtus  tu&  me  faclt  ut  te  audacter  moneam  (Ter.  Haut.  i.  1. 4), 

your  own  worth  makes  me  boldly  warn  you. 
Fac  me  ut  sciam  (Ter.  Haut.  i.  1.  32),  mind  you  let  me  know. 

912. 1  Although  the  employment  of  the  accusative  as  the  agent  or 
subject  of  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  should,  according  to  the  ex- 
planation above  given  (§  911),  be  limited  to  the  case  where  such 
a  clause  follows  a  transitive  verb  as  its  object,  this  use  of  an  accu- 
sative before  an  infinitive  mood  became  general  (see  §§  1239, 1240, 
1246),  and  even  when  not  expressed  affected  the  case  of  words 
referring  to  it*  :  as, 

Vlsumst  utilius  solum  quam  cum  altero  regnare  (Cic.  de  Off.  in. 
10.  41),  it  was  thought  better  for  one  to  hold  royal  power  alone 
than  to  share  it  with  another — where  in  the  indicative  we 
should  have  had  solus  regnat. 

913  The  prepositions  in  and  sub  sometimes  require  the  accusative, 
and  always  after  a  verb  of  motion  :  as, 

In  urbe  est,  he  is  in  the  city ;  but,  In  urbem  uenit,  he  came 

into  the  city. 
Sub  muro  stat,  he  stands  under  the  wall ;  but,  Sub  murum 

uenit,  he  came  up  to  the  wall. 

914  The  majority  of  the  other  prepositions,  which  do  not  imply 
'motion  from,'  also  govern  the  accusative.     See  Prepositionsf. 

915  Extent  of  place  or  time  or  degree  is  commonly  expressed  in 
the  accusative!  :  as, 

*  But  see  §  878. 

f  Those  prepositions  which  require  the  ablative  are  included  in  the 
first  two  of  the  following  lines ;  those  which  are  found  with  both,  in  the 
third  line.     All  others  have  the  accusative  alone. 
Absque  cum  sine,  ab  coramque, 
Prae  pro  de  tenus,  ec  palamque  ; 
Both,  super  in  sub,  subter  clamque. 
But  the  use  of  clam  with  an  ablative  seems  doubtful. 

J  Where  a  point  of  space  is  fixed  by  a  distance  from  another  point, 


172  SYNTAX. 

A  recta  conscientia  non  trausuorsurn  unguem  disced!  t  (Cic.  ad 

Att.  xin.  20. 4),  he  departs  not  a  nail's  breadth  from  a  right 

conscience. 
Fossa  quindecim  pedes  lata  (Goes.  B.  G.  vii.  72),  a  ditch  fifteen 

feet  broad. 
Decem  annos  urbs  oppugnata  est  (Liv.  v.  4),  for  ten  years  was 

the  city  besieged. 

«/  <7 

Vndeulginti  annos  natus  (Cic.  Brut.  64.  229),  nineteen  years  old. 
Maximam  partem  lactS  uluunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv.  I),  for  the  most 
part  they  live  on  milk. 

916  The  accusative  is  occasionally  used  by  the  poets  in  connection 
with  an  adjective,  to  define  the  particular  part,  and  is  often  called 
the  Greek  accusative.     Cetera  in  other  respects  is  so  used  even  in 
prose  writers  (Sallust,  Livy,  Velleius). 

Ecus  tremit  artus  ( Virg.  G.  in.  84),  the  horse  trembles  in  his 
limbs. 

Vir  cetera  egregiiis  (Liv.  i.  35),  a  man  in  other  respects  of  dis- 
tinguished merit. 

Os  humerosque  deo  similis  (Virg.  A.  i.  593),  in  face  and 
shoulders  like  a  god. 

917  The  accusatives  ulcem*  turn,  lot,  genus  kind,  and  secus  sex^ 
are  often  used  in  an  independent  manner  :  as, 

Stupentis  et  suam  iam  uicem  magis  anxios  quam  illlus  (Liv. 

vin.  35),  amazed  and  now  more  anxious  about  their  own 

than  the  other's  position. 

In  id  genus  uerbls  ( Var.  L.  L.  x.  5. 180),  in  words  of  that  class. 
Scis  me  aliquld  id  genus  solltum  scrlbgrS  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xin. 

12. 3),  you  know  that  1  am  in  the  habit  of  writing  something 

of  that  kind. 
LibeYorum  capltum  ulrlle  sgciis  ad  decem  miliS,  captS,  (Liv. 

xxvi.  47),  of  free  persons  of  the  male  sex  full  10,000  were 

taken. 

917.  1    The  accusative  partim  is  used  even  as  a  nominative  to  a  verb  : 

as, 

Partim  e  nobis  tlmldi  sunt,  partim  a  republica  auersl  (Cic. 

the  ablative  is  used  by  good  writers,  and  sometimes  with  the  preposition 
ab.     See  also  §  1018. 1. 

*  The  equivalent  perhaps  in  form  and  meaning  of  the  German  wegen. 


GENITIVE.  173 

Phil.  viii.  11.  32),  some  of  us  are  timid,  some  Hi-disposed  to 
•          our  country. 

918  In  sentences  of  exclamation  the  accusative  often  appears,  the 
word  with  which  it  should  have  been  connected  being  suppressed  : 
as, 

Me  caecum*  qui  haec  ante  non  uide'rim  (Cic.  ad  Att.  x.  10. 1), 

my  blindness,  not  to  have  seen  all  this  before. 
Quo  mi,  inquit,  mutam  speciemf,  si  uincor  sono  ?  (Phaedr.  in. 

18.9),  what  good,  says  she,  is  dumb  beauty  to  me,  if  in  song 

I  am  worsted  ? 
Hem  Dauom  tibij  (Ter.  And.  v.  2. 1),  look,  here  is  Davus  at 

your  service. 
BenS  te  pater§  (Ov.  Fast.  n.  637),  a  blessing  on  thee,  sire. 

GENITIVE. 

919  The  genitive,  like  the  nominative,  denotes  *  from.'    The  dif- 
ference between  their  uses  is  this,  that  the  nominative  denotes 
the  source  of  the  action  expressed  by  a  verb,  while  the  genitive  is 
used  chiefly  in  connection  with  substantives.   It  will  often  be  found 
that  the  preposition  de  with  the  ablative  may  be  substituted  for 
the  genitive,  and  sometimes  Sb  or  ex||. 

GENITIVE  WITH  SUBSTANTIVES. 

920  The  genitive  is  attached  to  another  substantive  to  denote  the 
origin  of  an  action,  and  may  be  translated  by  from,  of,  or  the 
English  genitive  in  s :  as, 

Consiilis  iussu  (Cic.  in  Cat.  1. 1.  2),  by  an  order  from  the  consul, 
by  order  of  the  consul,  by  the  consul's  order. 

921  This  phrase  corresponds  to  consul  iussit,  where  consul  would 
be  called  the  subject  of  the  verb  iussit.    Hence  this  genitive  is 
often  called  the  subjective  genitive. 

*  Perhaps  dico  understood. 

t  Perhaps  das  understood.  Literally  thus  :  *  To  what  end  do  ye  give 
me  beauty  ?' 

J  Perhaps  hem  itself  (§  862)  is  an  old  verb. 

§  Perhaps  Di  adiuuent  understood. 

II  Hence  the  substitution  of  de,  or  a  word  like  it,  in  all  the  European 
languages  derived  from  the  Latin.  In  our  own  language  too  of  appears 
to  be  only  a  variety  of  the  preposition  off. 


174  SYNTAX. 

022  When  of  or  from  a  whole  a  certain  part  only  is  taken,  that 
whole  is  expressed  by  the  genitive.*  This  is  often  called  the  par- 
titiv.  genitive  :  as, 

Pars  mill  turn  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  40),  a  part  of  tlie  soldiers. 

Oratorum  praestantissiimi  (Cic.  Opt.  Gen.  Or.  4. 13),  the  most 
distinguished  of  orators. 

Vis  auri  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  32. 91),  a  quantity  of  gold. 

Nemo  nostrum  (Cic.  de  Fin.  n.  8.  23),  not  one  of  us. 

Qu!  eorum  curulis  gesserant  m&gistratus  (Liv.  v.  41),  suck  of 
them  as  had  held  curule  magistracies. 

Rellquom  ultae  (Liv.  xxxix.  13),  the  rest  of  his  life. 

Delect!  peditum  (Liv.  xxvi.  5),  men  chosen  from  among  the  in- 
fantry, or  a  picked  body  of  infantry. 

Exlguom  campi  (Liv.  xxvii.  27),  a  small  portion  of  the  plain. 

Vltuma  Celtiberiae  (Liv.  XL.  47),  the  farthest  parts  of  Celtiberia. 

Decemulri  agro  Appulo,  qu5d  eius  publicum  populi  Romani 
grat,  dluidendo  (Liv.  xxxi.  4),  ten  commissioners  for  divid- 
ing the  Apulian  territory,  i.  e.  so  much  of  it  as  was  the  public 
property  of  the  people  of  Rome. 

Id  nggoti  (Ter.  And.  Prol.  2),  that  piece  of  business,  or  that 
business. 

Allquid  noul  (Cic.  ad  Att.  v.  6.  2),  something  of  new  matter,  or 
some  news. 

Quodt  eius  fScere  possum  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xi.  12.  4 ;  ad  Fam.  m. 
2.  2,  and  v.  8. 5 ;  and  de  Inv.  n.  6.  20),  so  much  of  it  as  I 
can,  or  so  far  as  is  in  my  power. 

Obs.  When  the  whole  are  included,  the  genitive  in  Latin  can- 
not be  used,  although  in  English  we  still  use  the  word  cof.'  Thus, 
'  Three  hundred  of  us  have  sworn' — if  three  hundred  form  the  whole 
— must  be  expressed  by  Trecent!  coniurauimus  (Liv.  n.  12). 
922. 1  Still,  as  the  pronouns  quisqug  and  uterquS  deal  with  each 
unit  of  the  whole  number  separately,  though  ultimately  including 
the  whole,  they  are  entitled  to  a  genitive  of  the  whole  :  as, 

Tuorum  quisque  necessariorum  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  I.  9.25),  every 
one  of  your  connections. 

*  Instead  of  this  partitive  genitive,  the  prepositions  of  kindred  mean- 
ing, such  as  ex  and  de,  are  often  used,  and  even  the  preposition  inter. 

f  In  this  construction  our  editions  have  quoad,  but  the  best  Mss.  quod. 


GENITIVE.  17J 

VtriquS  nostrum  gratum  fecMs  (Cic.  de  Am.  4.  16),  you  will 

oblige  both  of  us. 
Vterque  eorum  exercltum  educunt  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  30),  loth 

lead  their  armies  out. 

923  The  same  partitive  use  of  the  genitive  is  found  with  adverbs  : 
as, 

Vblnam  gentium  ?  (Plant.  Merc.  n.  3.  97),  where  among  the 
nations  ?  in  what  part  of  the  whole  world  ? 

Eo  consuetudlnis  re's  adductast  (Liv.  xxv.  8),  the  thing  was 
brought  to  that  degree  of  habit. 

Nescirg  uldeminl  quo  amentiae  progress!  sitis  (Liv.  xxvin.  27), 
you  seem  not  to  know  to  what  a  degree  of  madness  you  have 
advanced. 

Intgrea  15ci  (Ter.  Haut.  n.  3. 16),  in  the  meanwhile. 

Sulpicius  omnium  nobilium  maxume  Graecis  litte'ris  studuit 
(Cic.  Brut.  20. 78),  Sulpicius  of  all  our  nobles  applied  him- 
self most  zealously  to  Greek  literature. 

924  When  a  thing  is  said  to  belong  to  a  person,  it  has  generally 
come  from  him.     Hence  the  owner  to  whom  any  thing  belongs  is 
in  the  genitive,  which  is  then  called  the  possessive  genitive :  as, 

Thebae  popull  Roman!  iurg  belli  factae  sunt  (Liv.  xxxni.  13), 

Thebes  became  the  property  of  the  Roman  people  by  right  of 

war. 

PropS  Caesarls  hortos  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  9. 18),  near  Ccesar's  park. 
Omnia  hostium  grant  (Liv.  xxi.  11.  ad  fin.),  the  whole  country 

belonged  to  the  enemy. 
Plebs  Hanuibalis  tota  erat  (Liv.  xxm.  14),  the  commonalty 

were  entirely  at  the  disposal  of  Hannibal.* 

925  The  possessive  or  partitivet  genitive  is  very  common  in  speak- 
ing of  a  characteristic,  office,  part,  duty$  :  as, 

*  Instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  the  possessive 
adjectives  are  required :  as,  est  tunm  uidere,  quid  agatur  (Cic.  p.  Mur. 
38.  83),  '  it  does  belong  to  you  to  see  what  is  going  on  ;'  nos  nostri  sumus 
(Plant.  Mil.  Gl.  n.  5.21), '  we  belong  to  ourselves,  we  are  our  own  mas- 
ters.' So  also  humanum,  alienum,  imperatorium,  muliebre^  regium,  &c. 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  genitives  of  the  nouns  whence  they  jare  derived. 

f  The  term  '  partitive'  has  been  used,  because  in  all  these  cases  the 
notion  of  a  partis  perceptible.  'To  make  mistakes  is  one  element  in 
the  character  of  man.'  So  again,  *  it  is  one  element  towards  constituting 
a  perfect  judge  to'  &c. 

J  A  term  for  part,  duty,  &c.  is  often  expressed :  as,  munus,  negotium. 


170  SYNTAX. 

Ciiiusuls  homlnls  est  errarg*,  nullius  nisi  inslpientls  In  errorS 
persSuerare'  (Cic.  Phil.  xn.  2.  5),  it  is  in  the  character  of 
every  man  to  make  a  mistake,  of  none  but  a  fool  to  persist  in 
a  mistake. 

Sapientis  iudlcls*  est,  quid  lex  cogat,  cogitare  (Cic.  p.  Clu.  58. 
159),  it  is  the  duty  of  a  wise  judge  to  consider  what  the  law 
requires."^ 

926  The  genitive  of  connection  is  not  unfrequent :  as, 

Sororis  suae  uirum  (Cic.  in  Cat.  iv.  6.13),  his  sister's  husband. 
Hums  Sub's  Lentiill  (ibid.),  the  grandfather  of  this  Lentulus. 
Dluom  pater  atque  hoinlnum  rex  (Virg.  A.  i.  65),  sire  of  gods 
and  king  of  men. 

926.1    A  genitive  is  occasionally  found  where  a  case  in  apposition 
might  have  been  expected  (genitive  of  definition)  :  as, 

Haec  uox  Vtfluptatls  (Cic.  de  Fin.  n.  2.  6),  this  word  'pleasure.' 
Aliis  uirtutibus — contlnentiae,  iustltiae,  ftdei  —  te  consulatu 
dignissumum  iudlcaul  (Cic.  p.  Mur.  10.23),  in  respect  of 
other  good  qualities,  as  those  of  integrity,  justice,  honour,  I 
thought  you  thoroughly  fitted  for  the  consular  office. 
Vnum  ggnus  est  infestum  nobis,  eorum  quos  Clod!  furor  raplnis 
pauit  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  2.3),  one  class  and  but  one  regards  us 
with  deadly  hostility,  I  mean  those  whom  the  demon  of  Clodius 
has  fattened  on  rapine. 

927  The  genitive  of  the  quality  or  quantity  requires  an  adjective  or 
participle  with  it :  as, 

Vlr  et  consill  magni  et  uirtutis  (Caes.  B.  G.  in.  5),  a  man  of 

great  talent  and  great  courage. 

Quattuor  iugerum  Sggr  (Liv.  in.  26),  a  farm  of  'four  jugers. 
FossS,  quindecim  pedum  (Caes.  B.  G.  v.  42),  a  ditch  of  fifteen 

feet  (in  width}. 

Frumentum  dierum  tnginta  (Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  71),  30  days'  corn. 
Hannibal,  annorum  ferme  nouem  (Liv.  xxi.  1),  Hannibal,  a 


qfficium,  proprium,  &c.  ;  but  it  is  idle  to  talk  of  an  ellipsis  when  no  such 
noun  is  expressed. 

*  See  note  f  P-  175.  t  See  note  *  p.  175. 

J  See  also  the  ablative  of  the  quality,  §  1010.  The  use  of  the  geni- 
tive in  this  sense  is  less  common  than  that  of  the  ablative,  and  limited  to 


GENITIVE.  177 

928  The  objective  genitive  is  that  where  the  genitive  takes  the  placo 
of  what  would  be  the  object  after  a  verb.*      In  this  case  the 
English  often  requires  the  substitution  of  another  preposition!  for 
1  of:'  as, 

Lectio  librorum  (Cic.  Acad.  Pr.  n.  2. 4),  the  reading  of  books. 
Cuplditates  immensae  dluitiarum,  gloriae,  domlnationis  (Cic. 
de  Fin.  I.  18.59),  boundless  desires,  as  for  wealth,  for  glory, 
for  power. 
Iniuria  mulierum  Sabmarumt  (Liv.  I.  13),  the  wrong  done  to 

the  Sabine  women. 

Which  phrases  severally  correspond  to  llbros  legere  ;  dlultias,  glo- 
riam,  dSminationem  cupere'  ;  mulieres  iniuria  afficere. 

928.1    In  the  construction  of  the  objective  genitive,  mel,  tul,  sul, 
nostrl,  uestrl  are  required. 

GratS,  mihi  uehemente'r  est  mgnicria  nostrl  tua  ( Cic.  ad  Fam. 
xn.  17),  I  am  exceedingly  pleased  with  your  remembering  us. 
Habetis  diicem  mSmorem  uestri,  oblltum  sul  (Cic.  in  Cat.  iv. 
9. 19),  you  have  a  general  who  thinks  of  you,  and  forgets  him- 
self. 
MagnS,  mei  imago  (  Virg.  A.  iv.  654),  a  great  image  of  me. 

GENITIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES. 

929  Adjectives  and  participles  are  sometimes  followed  by  a  genitive 
of  the  cause\  in  the  poets  and  later  writers  :  as, 

Lassus  marls  (Hor.  Od.  n.  6.  7),  weary  of  the  sea. 
Interrltus  let!  (Ov.  Met.  x.  616),  not  frightened  at  death. 
Inuictus  laboiis  (Tac.  Ann.  I.  20),  unconquered  by  toil. 

permanent  qualities ;  the  ablative  denotes  both  permanent  and  temporary 
conditions. 

*  Yet  such  phrases  as  amor  uirtutis,  taedium  laboris,  can  scarcely  be 
considered  as  objective  phrases,  seeing  that  the  virtue  and  the  labour  are 
the  causes  or  origin  of  the  amor  and  the  taedium. 

t  This  objective  genitive  is  far  removed  from  the  true  meaning  of  the 
case ;  hence  it  is  not  surprising  that  our  own  language  does  not  follow  it. 

J  Sometimes  the  subjective  and  objective  genitives  are  at  once  attached 
to  the  same  noun  :  as,  Heluetiorum  iniuriae  populi  Romani  (Caes.  B.  G. 
i.  30), '  the  wrongs  done  by  the  Helvetii  to  the  Roman  state;'  where  Hel- 
uetiorum is  the  subjective,  populi  the  objective  comes,  as  usual,  last. 

§  More  commonly  an  ablative  of  the  cause  is  preferred. 


178  SYNTAX. 

930        Adjectives  or  participles  which  denote  removal  or  separation 
may  be  followed  by  a  genitive  in  the  poets  :*  as, 

Opgrura  solutus  (Hor.  Od.  in.  17. 16),  set  loose  from  work. 
Liber  laborum  (Hor.  ad  Pis.  212),  free  from  toils. 
Scelgris  puriis  (Hor.  Od.  i.  22. 1),  dear  of  crime. 
Vacuas  caedis  mantis  (Ov.  A.  A.  i.  6. 42),  hands  free  from  blood- 
shed. 

031        Adjectives  of  fulness  may  be  followed  by  a  genitive  :  as, 

Domus  plena  ebriorum  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  27.67),  a  house  full  of 

drunken  men. 
Lactls  abundanst  (  Virg.  Buc.  II.  20),  abounding  in  milk. 

932        Some  adjectives,  formed  from  substantives,  retain  the  substan- 
tive's power  of  being  attended  by  a  genitive  :  as, 

Stiidiosus  equorum  (Ov.  Met.  xiv.  321),  fond  of  horses. 
Expers  erudltionis  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  1.1),  without  any  share  of 

education. 

Consors  laborls  (Cic.  Brut.  1.2),  having  a  common  lot  of  labour. 
Securus  famae  (Ov.  Trist.  i.  1.49),  without  regard  for  what  the 


933  Adjectives  denoting  accusation,  guilt,  or  innocence ,  are  fol- 
lowed by  a  genitive  :  as, 

Reus  Suarltiae  (Cic.  p.  Flac.  3.  7),  charged  with  avarice. 
Sanguinis  insons  (Ov.  Met.  xin.  149),  guiltless  of  blood. 

934  Many  adjectives  from  verbs,  and  participles  imperfect,  are  used 
as  substantives^,  and  followed  by  an  objective  genitive  :  as, 

Ciipldus  ueritatls  (Cic.  de  Or.  i.  11.  47),  eager  for  truth. 
Auldus  gloriae  (Cic.  p.  Marc.  8.  25),  greedy  of  glory. 
TSnax  prdpSsItl  (Hor.  Od.  in.  3.1),  ever  clinging  to  his  purpose. 
Edax  rerum  (Ov.  Met.  xv.  234),  devouring  all  things. 
Efflciens  uoluptatis  (Cic.  de  Off.  in.  33. 116),  productive  of 
pleasure. 

*  More  commonly  an  ablative  with  or  without  ab  is  preferred. 

t  This  and  many  such  adjectives  prefer  an  ablative  of  the  cause. 

J  Observe  the  difference  between  laborem  contemnens^  *  despising  the 
labour/  and  laboris  contemnens^ '  a  despiser  of  labour;'  the  former  speak- 
ing of  the  single  occasion,  the  latter  of  an  habitual  feeling  ;  which  is  the 
usual  distinction  between  a  participle  and  an  adjective. 


GENITIVE.  179 

GSrens  negotl  (Cic.  p.  Quinct.  19.  62),  engaged  in  business  as  a 
merchant. 

935  Adjectives,  more  particularly  in  the  later  writers,  take  a  geni- 
tive which  may  be  translated  by  in,  in  respect  to,  in  point  of*  :  as, 

V&lldus  Spurn  (Tac.  Hist.  n.  19),  strong  in  resources. 
Strenuus  inllitiae  (Tac.  Hist.  in.  42),  energetic  in  war. 
Integer  ultae  (Hor.  Od.  I.  22.1),  pure  (in  point)  of  life. 

936  Some  adjectives,  which  commonly  govern  the  dative,  being 
used  as  masculine  or  feminine  substantives,  take  a  genitive  :  viz. 

Socio-,  superstit-  affini-que. 
Flnit'mo-,  cognat  (o-)  aequali-que. 
PrSpinquo-,  sim'li-  consort\-que. 
Par-,  fam'liari-  ulcino-que. 
Ngcessario-  contrario-que'. 
Amic(o-)  et  inuid(o-)  aemiilo-que'.t 

937  In  the  same  way  some  neuter  adjectives  have  become  substan- 
tives, and  as  such  take  a  genitive  :  viz. 

Par,  prSprium,  simile  and  commune'. 

GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS. 

938  The  impersonal  verbs  of  feeling  (see  ^  889),  together  with  the 

*  An  ablative  with  or  without  in  is  preferred  by  the  older  and  better 
writers.  Ruddiman  ( Stallbaum's  ed.  n.  73)  has  given  from  Johnson  a 
list  of  adjectives  found  with  the  genitive  in  addition  to  those  which  fall 
under  his  seven  defined  classes.  In  this  list  133  are  of  that  kind  which 
are  to  be  translated  by  '  in'  or  '  in  point  of.'  But  not  one  of  these  is  from 
Terence,  Lucretius,  or  Cicero,  and  only  five  from  Plautus  ;  whereas, 
among  the  later  writers,  there  are  twenty-six  from  Tacitus,  and  forty-four 
from  Silius.  Again,  of  the  whole  133,  not  less  than  fifty-five  have  the 
one  word  animi.  For  instance,  of  the  five  examples  from  Plautus,  four 
have  this  word,  one  passage  having  also  mentis  (Trin.  n.  4. 53,  and  this 
evidently  corrupt) ;  and  of  sixteen  quoted  from  Apuleius,  thirteen  have 
the  same.  From  these  facts  we  are  inclined  to  infer,  that  animi  is  in 
truth,  what  the  sense  requires,  a  dative  (see  §  114),  as  it  certainly  is  when 
used  with  the  verb  excrucior,  &c.  (see  §  952),  and  that  the  use  of  the 
genitive  with  this  sense  in  later  writers  grew  out  of  a  false  analogy  from 
animi,  and  words  of  like  form,  aided  by  the  ambiguity  between  the  two 
cases  in  the  first  declension  (see  §  951).  Virg.  A.  ix.  255.  has  integer 
aeui ;  Albinovanus,  HI.  5,  integer  aeuo. 

f  That  many  of  these  are  substantives  is  confirmed  by  the  fact,  that 
they  admit  the  possessive  pronouns  :  as,  inuidos  meos.  Even  their  super- 
latives are  so  used  as  substantives :  as,  inimicissumum  suum,  Cic.  p.  Mil. 
9.25  ;  meus  familiarissumus,  Cic.  ad  Fam.  xin.  35. 1. 


180  SYNTAX. 

personal  verbs  misere-  (r.)  and  mlseresc-,  take  a  genitive  of  the 
moving  cause  :  as, 

Si  duarum  paeniteblt,  addentur  duae  (Plant.  St.  iv.  1.45),  if 

you  think  two  not  enough,  two  more  shall  be  added. 
Hunc  nostrum  copiarum  suppaenitet  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vii.  14),  our 

friend  here  half  thinks  that  he  has  not  force  en.onyh. 
Fratris  me  pudet  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  3.  37).  Fm  ashamed  of  my  brother. 
,  Piidet  deorum  hominumque  (Liv.  in.  19),  I  feel  ashamed  before 
heaven  and  before  man.  * 

939  Occasionally  in  the  older  poets  a  genitive  is  found  with  other 
personal  verbs  of  feeling  :  as, 

Fastidit  me!  (Plant.  Aul.  n.  2.  67),  he  has  taken  a  dislike  to  me. 
Stfidet  tul  (quoted  by  Cic.  N.  D.  in.  29.  72),  he  is  fond  of  you. 
Quae  non  uereturfuiri  (Afran.  ap.  Non.  ix.  3),  who  has  no 

respect  for  her  husband. 
lustitiaene  prius  mlrert  belling  laborum  ?  (Firg.  A.  xi.  126) 

thy  justice  first  should  I  admire  or  toils  of  war  ? 
Nee  ueterum  memini  laetoruSf  m&lorum  (I'irg.  A.   xi.   280), 

nor  their  old  griefs  remember  I  or  glory  in. 

Neque  ille 
Seposltl  clceris  nee  longae  inuidlt  auenae  (Hor.  Sat.  n.  6.  84), 

nor  hoarded  vetch  nor  taper  oat  he  grudged. 

940  Occasionally  verbs  of  removal  or  separation  have  a  genitive  of 
the  whence  in  old  writers  and  in  poetry  J  :  as, 

Abstlneto  irarum  calidaeque  rixae  (Hor.  Od.  in.  27.  69),  abstain 

shalt  thoufrom  wrath  and  heated  fray. 
Desine  mollium  tandem  querelarum  (Hor.  01  u.  9.  17),  cease 

at  last  from  plaints  unmanly. 
Tempus  desiste're  pugnae  (Virg.  A.  x.  411),  'tis  time  to  desist 

from  battle. 

*  The  genitive  of  the  person  with  pudet  may  be  either  one  who  has 
acted  shamefully  or  one  who  has  been  <!e;ilt  with  shamefully,  so  that  the 
sight  of  him  in  either  case  raises  the  feeling  of  shame. 

f  The  reflective  form  of  these  verbs  proves  that  the  construction  with 
an  accusative  could  not  originally  have  belonged  to  them.  The  idea  of  a 
Grecism  is  unnecessary.  The  genitive  is  the  very  case  that  might  have 
been  expected  from  the  nature  of  the  idea. 

£  The  legal  language  here,  as  in  so  many  cases,  retained  traces  of  the 
old  construction  :  as,  liberare  tutelac  ( Dig.  xx\n.  50.  2). 


GENITIVE.  181 

Manu  signlftcarS  coepit,  ut  quiescgrent  pugnae  (Quadrig.  ap. 

Gell.  ix.  13),  he  began  to  make  a  signal  with  his  hand  that 

they  should  rest  from  battle. 
Me  6mnium  iam  laborum  leuas  (Plant.  Rud.  I.  4.  27),  you  at 

last  relieve  me  of  all  my  troubles. 
Nee  sermonis  fallebar  tamen  (Plant.  Ep.  n.  2.  55),  nor  yet  was 

I  cheated  out  of  what  they  said. 
Miror  morb!  purgatum  te  illius  (Hor.  Sat.  n.  3.  27),  /  wonder 

thou  art  cleansed  of  that  disease. 

941  Some  verbs  of  fulness,  want,  and  need,  may  have  a  partitive 
genitive  (as  well  as  an  ablative)  :  as, 

Ollam  denariorum  implore"  non  pete's  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  18. 4), 

you  cannot  fill  the  pitcher  with  denaries. 
Completus  iam  mercatorum  career  Srat  (Cic.  II.  Verr.  v.  57. 147), 

the  prison  was  at  last  filled  with  captains  of  trading  ships. 
Non  tarn  artis  indigent  quam  laboris  (Cic.  de  Or.  i.  34.  156), 

it  is  not  so  much  skill  they  are  in  need  of  as  industry. 

942  The  verb  p5ti-*  (r.)  make  oneself  master  has  a  genitive  (as  well 
as  an  ablative) :  as, 

Si  exploration  tibi  est,  posse  te  illlus  regm  potlrl  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 

i.   7.  5),  if  you  have  ascertained  that  you  really  can  make 

yourself  master  of  that  kingdom. 
Hi  qul  potiuntur  rerum  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  i.  8.  4),  those  who  are 

now  masters  of  every  thing. 

943  Verbs  of  memory,  although  they  take  an  accusative  of  the  thing 
actually  remembered,  have  a  genitivet  of  that  about  which  the 
memory  is  concerned*  :  as, 

M8mlni  Cinnam  (Cic.  Phil.  v.  6.  17),  /  remember  Cinna  (i.  e. 

his  per  son). 
Memlnl  uluorum  (Cic.  de  Fin.  v.  1.3),  I  remember  or  think  of 

the  living. 

*  If  the  adjective  poti-  was  ever  used  as  a  substantive,  signifying  '  the 
powerful  one,  the  master,'  as  potenti-  in  fact  was,  the  verb  would  natu- 
rally take  the  genitive.  Tacitus  uses  a  genitive  with  the  reflective  verbs 
apisc-  (Ann.  vi.  45)  and  adipisc-  (Ann.  in.  55). 

t  De  with  the  ablative  is  also  very  common. 

J  Hence  verbs  of  reminding,'  'making  mention,'  must  have  a  geni- 
tive of  the  thing  brought  to  mind,  unless  indeed  it  be  a  neuter  pronoun. 
(See  §  909.) 


182  SYNTAX. 

ISTeque  unquam  oblluiscar  noctls  illlus  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  42. 101), 

nor  shall  I  ever  forget  (the  occurrences}  of  that  night. 
Vgnit  mihi  PIStdnis  in  mentem  (Cic.  de  Fin.  v.  1.  2),  the  thought 

of  Plato  comes  across  me. 
Flagltiorum  suorum  rgcordabltiir  (Cic.  in  Pis.  6. 12),  he  will 

remember  his  scandalous  proceedings. 
Dulcis  rgminiscitur  Argos  ( Virg.  A.  x.  782),  he  remembers  sweet 

Argi. 

944  Verbs*  of  accusing,  convicting,  acquitting,  take  a  genitive  f  of 
the  offence  charged  :  as, 

Altgrum  ambitus  accussat  (Cic.  p.  Gael.  7. 16),  he  accuses  another 

of  bribery. 
Potestne  heres  furti  agere  ?  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  22)  can  an  heir 

bring  an  action  for  theft  ? 
Proditionls  eum  inslmulabant  (Caes.  B.  G.  vu.  20),  they  were 

inclined  to  accuse  him  of  treachery. 

045        The  penalty  is  expressed  in  the  genitive  in  a  few  phrases  :  as, 
ArcessSrg  capltisj  (CYc.p.Deiot.  11.30),  to  bring  a  charge  affect- 
ing a  person's  status  as  a  citizen. 

Octupli§  dampnatust  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  in.  12.  29),  he  was  con- 
demned to  a  payment  of  eightfold. 
Dampiiatus  l£borls  (Hor.  Od.  u.  14. 19),  condemned  to  toil. 

946  With  verbs  of  buying,  selling,  costing,  the  price  is  expressed  by 
the  genitives  tantl§,  quanti,  minoris,  pluiis ;  in  all  other  cases  by 
an  ablative.  (See  Ablative.) 

*  For  adjectives  of  this  class  see  §  933. 

•f  Or  de  with  the  ablative,  which  in  some  phrases  is  necessary,  or  at 
least  more  common  :  as,  de  ui,  de  moribus^  de  testantento.  Cicero  (p. 
Clu.  41.114)  says  de  pecuniis  repetundis ;  Tacitus  (Ann.  in.  33)  repe- 
tundarum  without  the  substantive. 

J  Also  capite  dampnare  (Cic.  Tusc.  i.  22. 50). 

§  We  have  called  these  genitives,  in  deference  to  common  opinion, 
but  they  are  perhaps  old  datives;  a  supposition  which  will  account  for  the 
use  of  the  forms  in  o  (see  following  note),  and  remove  the  strange  con- 
tradiction of  idioms  which  appears  in  Hor.  Sat.  n.  3. 156  : 

Quanti  emptae  ?  Paruo.     Quanti  ergo  ?  Octussibus. 
The  phrase  too  in  Catullus  (xvn.  17),  nee  plli  facit  uni,  will  no  longer 
have  a  license  in  the  last  word.     If  our  theory  be  right,  minoris,  plu  •/$, 
Indus  and  assis  will  afford  another  instance  of  an  anomaly  growing  out 
of  a  false  analogy  (see  §  935). 


DATIVE.  183 

947  The  worth  or  value  is  expressed  by  the  same  genitives,  and  also 
by  parul,  magui,  mlnumi,  maxuml,  and  pluruini,*  as  well  as  the 
following,  which  generally  are  strengthened  by  the  addition  of  a 
negative:  viz. 

Huius  et  assis,  flocc!  plllque, 
Naucl  nlhlll,  teruncilque.  t 

948  With  the  verbs  refert  and  interest  are  employed  tanti,  quant! , 
parul,  magnl,  besides  the  ordinary  adverbs  of  quantity. 

949  Of  being  so  commonly  the  translation  of  the  genitive,  it  may 
be  a  useful  caution  to  observe  that  the  English  phrases  signifying 
to  talk  of,  to  think  of,  are  to  be  translated  with  the  preposition  de. 
Still  certior  fieri,  to  be  informed,  often  takes  a  genitive. 

DATIVE.  J 

950  The  dative  case  answers  to  the  question  where?  in  or  near 
what  place  ?  and  to  the  time  when  ?     Hence  its  place  is  often 
supplied  by  such  words  as  In  or  cum  with  the  ablative,  or  by  the 
ablative  alone,  seeing  that  the  ablative  is  often  only  another  form 
of  the  dative. 

951  At  a  town  or  in  a  small  island  is  expressed  by  the  dative  j  but 
in  the  o  (or  second)  declension  the  old  dative  in  I  is  very  generally 
preferred  :  as, 

Romae  (Liv.  xxi.  6),  at  Roma  (or  Rome)  ; 

Athenls  (Cic.  de  Sen.  13.  43),  at  Athenae  (or  Athens)  ; 

T&renti§  (Cic.  de  Sen.  12.39),  at  Tarentum  ; 

*  Ablatives  however  are  occasionally  found,  even  in  Cicero  :  as,  in 
ii.  Verr.  iv.  7- 13,  ista  permayno  aestuma* ;  de  Fin.  iv.  23.  62,  non  nihilo 
aestumandum.  Festus  has  bos  centussibus,  ouis  decussibus  aestimaretur ; 
and  asse  carum  est  is  an  old  phrase. 

f  We  have  not  added pensi,  because  the  phrase  neque  quid  quam  pensi 
habebat  is  equivalent  to  neque  quidquam  pendebat^  the  word  pensi  being, 
according  to  the  common  idiom,  attached  to  the  neuter  pronoun  (§  922). 
Aequi  boni  consulere,  '  to  take  in  good  part,'  has  never,  so  far  as  the  writei 
knows,  been  satisfactorily  explained. 

£  As  the  order  of  the  paragraphs  under  this  head  has  been  much 
altered,  the  numbers  of  the  sections  will  not  correspond  with  those  of  the 
previous  edition. 

§  In  the  phrase  habitat  Mileti  (Ter.  Ad.  iv.  5.20)  Donatus  saw  no 
genitive  case ;  he  calls  it  aduerbium  locale.  The  dative  of  nouns  in  o 
ended  at  one  time,  like  the  Greek  ot/cot,  hoycp  &c.  in  the  diphthong  oi, 
of  which  the  old  dative  quoi  is  an  example  ;  and  from  this  diphthong 
arose  the  two  forms  of  the  case,  seen  in  nullo  and  nulli. 


184 


SYNTAX, 


Tyro  (Virg.  A.  iv.  36),  at  Tyre; 
Laulnio  (Liv.  v.  52),  at  Lavinium  ; 
Ptiteolis  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xvi.  14.  1),  at  Puteoli ; 
Tibim*  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xvi.  3. 1),  at  Tibur  (or  Tivoli)  ; 
Curlbus  (Liv.  I.  18),  at  Cures; 
Ithacae  (Cic.  de  Off.  in.  28.  97),  in  Ithaca  ; 
Lemnlf  (Ter.  Ph.  iv.  3.  75),  in  Lemnos  ; 
Karthaginl*  NSuae  (Epit.  of  Liv.  XXVIIL— for  so  the  Mss.),  'at 
New  Carthage*% 

952  The  dative   signifying  wJtere?    maintained  itself  in    certain 
words  in  spite  of  the  increasing  tendency  to  express  this  idea  by 
In  and  an  ablative.     Such  datives  are  :  huml  on  the  ground,  terrae 
(Virg.  A.  xi.  87)  on  the  ground,  dtfmi  at  home,  ruri  in  the  country 
(in  poetry  also  rure),  forls  out  of  doors,  Acherunt!  (Plant.  Capt. 
in.  5.  31)  in  Acheron  or  Tartarus,  comiths  at  the  election,  ludls 
at  the  games,  Latmls  (sc.  ferns)  at  the  Latin  festival,  gladiato- 
rlbus  at  the  gladiatorial  exhibition,  anlmi  in  the  mind  (pi.  anl- 
mis). 

953  The  so-called  adverbs  in  bi  and  i,  which  denote  where,  as,  ubi 
where,  ibi  there,  &c.  (§  366,  col.  2),  are  all  datives  in  origin. 

954  The  time  when  is  put  in  the  dative  in  certain  words  :   as, 
hSrl  (also  herg)  yesterday,  man!  (or  mane)  in  the  morning,  ues- 
pgri  (or  uespere)  in  the  evening,  lucl  in  the  daylight,  die  quinti 
(or  quinte)  074  the  fifth  day  (see  Gell.  x.  24),  die  pristlni  the  day 
before,  die  crastinl  tomorrow,  idibus  martils  on  the  ides  (or  15th) 
of  March,  belli  in  war,  inllitiae  on  military  service,  ubi  when, 
Ibi  then,  &c. 

955  Adjectives  which  denote  nearness  take  a  dative  :  as, 

*  The  poets  take  the  liberty  of  shortening  such  forms  as  Tiburl  to 
Tibure  (see  §  990). 

f  See  note  §,  p.  183. 

J  If  the  word  urb-  or  oppido-  be  expressed,  the  preposition  in  must 
be  used,  as,  Milites  Albae  constiterunt  in  urbe  munitu  (Cio.  Phil.  iv.  2.  6'), 
Ciuis  Romanos  Neapoli  in  celeberrumo  oppido  cum  mitella  uidimus  (Cic. 
p.  Rab.  Post.  10  26).  '  In  a  country'  or  'in  a  large  island'  is  commonly 
expressed  by  in  with  the  ablative  ;  yet  there  are  passages  where  the  dative 
is  found,  especially  in  the  poets,  as  Crctae  (\riry.  A.  in.  IG'2),  Libyae 
(Virg.  A.  iv.  36),  and  late  prose  writers,  as  the  Pseudo-Nepos,  Cher- 
sonesi  (Milt.  2),  Cypri  (Chabr.  3).  The  passage  in  Cic.  R.  P.  in.  9.  14 
is  not  an  example,  for  there  Graeciae,  as  Madv  ig  has  pointed  out,  is  a 
genitive  in  connection  with  delulra. 


DATIVE.  185 

Belgae  proxlml  sunt  Germanls  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  1),  the  Belgae  are 

nearest  to  the  Germans. 
Heu  quam  ulclna  est  ultima  terra  mihi  (Ov.  Trist.  in.  4. 52), 

alas,  how  near  is  the  end  of  the  world  to  me. 
Tlbi  generg  prSpinqul  (Sal.  Jug.  10),  those  near  akin  to  you. 

956  Verbs  which  denote  nearness  take  a  dative  :  as, 

Parere"*  uoluntati  architect!  (Cic.  N.  D.  I.  8.  19),  to  wait  upon 

the  will  of  the  architect. 
Ciultates  amlcltia  Caesar!  conciliate  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  55),  to 

unite  states  in  friendship  with  Caesar. 
Si  pSpiilus  Romanus  foedSre'  iungeretur  regl  (Liv.  xxvi.  24. 

13),  if  the  people  of  Rome  should  be  united  to  the  king  by 

treaty. 
Curru  iunglt  Halaesus  Squos  (Virg.  A.  vu.  724),  to  his  car 

Halaeso  yokes  the  steeds. 
Nescit  equo  haereref  (Hor.  Od.  in.  24.  54),  he  knows  not  how 

to  cling  to  steed. 
Fort!  miscebat  mellS,  Falerno  (Hor.  Sat.  n.  4.  24),  with  strong 

Fakrnian  he  would  honey  mix. 
Luctantem  Icariis  fluctlbus  (Hor.  Od.  i.  1. 15),  wrestling  with 

Icarian  waves. 
Solus  tibi  certet  Amyntas  (  Virg.  Buc.  5.  8),  let  Amyntas  alone 

contend  with  thee. 

957  Adjectives  compounded  with  prepositions  of  rest  take  a  dative 
dependent  upon  that  preposition  :  as, 

Qui  mihi  consciiis  esse  soles  (Cic.  ad  Att.  I.  18.  1),  you  who  are 

wont  to  share  my  secrets  with  me. 
Mihi  conscius  sum  (Cic.  Tusc.  n.  4. 10),  I  share  the  knowledge 

with  myself  (alone) — or  /  am  conscious. 
Eius  mors  consentanea  ultae  fuit  (Cic.  Phil.  ix.  7.  15),  his 

death  was  in  agreement  with  his  life. 
Coenisqug  trlbus  iam  pernS,  superstes  (Mart.  x.  48. 17),  and  a 

ham  that  had  survived  three  dinners. 

*  That  '  to  be  present,'  '  to  wait  upon,'  rather  than  '  to  obey,"  is  the 
true  meaning  of  this  verb,  to  say  nothing  of  other  evidence,  is  shown  by 
the  use  of  the  verb  appare-  with  such  a  dative  as  magistratibus,  and  by 
the  noun  apparitor-  '  an  officer  in  waiting.' 

f  This  use  of  the  dative  with  many  of  these  verbs  is  limited  to  the 
poets  :  Cicero  would  rather  have  said  haerere  in  equo,  miscere  cum 
Falerno,  luctari  cum  fluctibus,  certare  tecum. 


186  SYNTAX. 

958  Verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  of  rest  take  a  dative* 
dependent  upon  that  preposition. 

Quern  quondam  loni  luno  custodem  addidit  (Plant.  Aul.  in. 

6. 20),  whom  Juno  of  yore  set  as  a  watch  o'er  lo. 
Hi  scrlbendo  affuerunt  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vm.  8.  6),  the  following 

were  present  at  the  registration. 
ludices  sibi  constarg  debuerunt  (Cic.  p.  Clu.  22.60),  the  jury 

ought  to  have  been  consistent  with  themselves. 
Til  meo  infellci  errorl  solus  illacrumast!  (Liv.  XL.  56),  you 

alone,  have  wept  over  my  unfortunate  mistake. 
Campus  interiScens  Tibgri  ac  moenibus  Romanls  (Liv.  xxi. 

30),  the  plain  that  lies  between  the  Tiber  and  the  walls  of 

Rome. 
Piidor  non  obest  oration!  (Cic.  de  Or.  T.  26. 122),  modesty  does 

not  stand  in  the  way  of  a  speech,  or  is  not  prejudicial  to  it. 
Omnibus  eius  consiliis  obstltl  (Cic.  in  Cat.  in.  7),  all  his  plans 

I  have  thwarted. 
Qul  classibus  praeerant  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  25).  those  who  were  in 

command  of  the  fleets. 
Homines  bestiis  praestant  (Cic.  de  Inv.  i.  4. 5),  men  stand  before 

(or  excel)  beasts. 
Magnltudine  Snlml  pfltest  repugnar!  fortunae  ( Cic.  de  Fin.  iv. 

7.  17),  with  magnanimity  a  battle  may  be  maintained  against 

fortune. 
Siiperfuit  patrl  (Liv.  I.  34),  he  survived  his  father. 

959  In  the  examples  just  quoted  the  verbs  are  of  a  static  cha- 
racter ;  but  even  after  verbs  of  motion,  when  the  resulting  position 
rather  than  the  movement  to  attain  it  is  before  the  mind,  the 
dative  is  still  used  (see  §  1336  k)  :  as, 

Antgtulissem  uoluntatem  tuam  commodo  meo  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v. 
20. 1),  I  should  have  preferred  your  wishes  to  my  own  advan- 
tage. 

*  Thus  the  Latin  here  agrees  with  other  languages  in  attaching  a 
dative  to  prepositions  of  rest.  So  we  have  in  the  old  language  postibi 
and  interibi)  the  latter  of  which  was  eventually  corrupted  to  inter-im. 
So  too  in  postquam,  antequam  &c.,  the  quam  is  probably  a  dative  in 
origin  rather  than  an  accusative,  as  is  admittedly  the  case  in  the  parallel 
forms  of  the  German  nach-dem  &c.  It  is  thus  too  that  we  find  a  dative 
in  auro  contra,  §  1320/. 


DATIVE.  187 

Contionantl  eircumfuridSbatur  multitude  (Liv.  xxu.  14),  as 
he  went  on  haranguing^  a  mob  kept  pouring  round  him. 

Vfiaieiiti  occurrltS  morbo  (Pers.  in.  64),  hasten  to  meet  the  com- 
ing disease. 

Ora  ipsa  oculis  proponite  (Cic.  p.  Sest.  7.  17),  place  their  very 
faces  before  your  eyes. 

Dura  circurauento  ftlio  subuenit,  interflcitur  (Caes.  B.  G.  v. 
35),  as  he  advances  to  support  his  son  ivho  was  surrounded, 
he  is  killed. 

Anatum  oua  gallinis  saepe  supponlmus  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  48. 124), 
we  often  put  ducks'  eggs  under  hens.  * 

960  Even  simple  verbs  at  times  take  a  dative  to  express  the  where : 
as, 

DumiioYIgl  custodes  ponlt  ut  quae  agat  scirS  possit  (Caes.  B.  G. 

I.  20),  he  places  men  about  the  person  of  Dumnorix  to  watch 

him,  that  he  may  know  what  he  is  doing. 
Gustos  frumento  publlco  est  pSsItus  (Cic.  p.  Flac.  19.  45),  he 

was  set  as  sentinel  over  the  public  corn. 
Flnem  oration!  f£cere  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  n.  48. 118),  to  set  a  limit  to 

a  speech. 

961  Adjectives,  being  in  their  very  nature  static,  express  the  rela- 
tion to  an  object  by  a  dative  :  as, 

Collls  aduersfis  huic  et  contrarius  (Caes.  B.  G.  u.  18),  a  Kill 

facing  and  opposite  to  this. 
Slta  Anticyra  est  laeua  parts  sinum  Corinthiacum  intrantibus 

(Liv.  xxvi.  26),  Anticyra  lies  on  the  left  as  you  enter  the  bay 

of  Corinth. 
Aptum  est  tempori  et  personae  (Cic.  Or.  22.74),  it  is  adapted 

to  the  time  and  to  the  person. 
Verbum  Latinum  par  Graeco  (Cic.  de  Fin.  II.  4. 13),  a  Latin 

word  equal  in  force  to  the  Greek  one. 

Fllius  pair!  slmllis  (Cic.  de  Fin.  v.  5. 12),  a  son  like  his  father. 
Nihil  tarn  disslmil€  quam  CottS,  Sulplcio  (Cic.  Brut.  56.  204), 

there  is  nothing  so  unlike  as  Cotta  to  Sulpicius. 
Lluius  Ennio  aequalis  fuit  (Cic.  Brut.  18. 73),  Livius  was  of  the 

same  age  with  Ennius. 

*  But  some  verbs  so  compounded,  especially  with  a</,  are  occasionally 
regarded  as  transitive  verbs,  taking  an  accusative :  as,  allabitur  aures 
(Virg.  A.  IX.  474),  cum  Tiberi  genua  aduolueretur  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  13). 


188  SYNTAX. 

Quod  ill!  caussae  max  time  est  Slienum  (Cic.  p.  Caec.  9.  24), 
what  is  most  unfavorable  for  that  side. 

Is  dolor  communis  uobis  mecum  est  (Cic.  de  Prov.  Cons.  1.  2), 
indignation  at  this  is  common  to  you  with  me. 

Eius  caput  lou!  sacrum  esto  (Liv.  in.  55),  that  man's  head  shall 
be  devoted  to  Jupiter. 

Id  uero  mllitibus  fuit  pergratum  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  86),  this  indeed 
was  most  acceptable  to  the  soldiers. 

Htfmines  omnibus  Inlqul  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  16.  40),  men  unfriendly 
to  every  one. 

Virtus  fructuosa  alhs,  ipsl  l&boriosa  aut  pgrlculosa  aut  certe 
gratuita  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  85.346),  energy  full  of  fruit  for  others, 
for  himself  full  of  suffering  or  danger,  or  at  best  without  re- 
ward. 

Neque  adco  tibi  uilis  mta  esset  meS,  (Liv.  XL.  9),  nor  would 
my  life  have  been  so  cheap  in  your  eyes. 

Nequaquam  specie  aestumantibus  pares  (Liv.  vn.  10),  by  no 
means  equal  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  judged  of  them  from  out- 
ward appearance. 

Homerus  Sceptra  pStltus  eadem  S,liis*  sopltii  quietest  (Lucr. 
in.  1038),  e'en  Homer,  who  won  our  sceptre,  was  drugged  by 
the  same  sleep  (of  death}  with  others. 

962  Similarly  adverbs  may  have  a  dative  of  relation  :  as, 
Conuenieuter  naturae  uiuere  (Cic.  de  Off.  in.  3. 13),  to  live  agree- 
ably to  nature. 

Quam  slbi  constanter  dicat,  non  ISborat  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  9.  26), 
how  far  he  talks  consistently  with  himself,  he  heeds  not. 

Improbo  et  stulto  et  Inert!  nemlni  bene  esse  ptftest  (Cic.  Parad. 
2. 19),  with  a  villain  or  a  fool  or  a  sluggard  things  cannot  be 
well. 

963  Static  verbs  express  their  relation  to  an  object  by  a  dative  :  as, 
Hoc  unum  Caesar!  defuit  (Caes,  B.  G.  iv.  26),  this  one  thing  was 

wanting  to  Caesar. 
Qu!  dlligebant  hunc,  ill!  fauebant  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Com.  10.  29), 

those  who  esteemed  this  man  wished  well  to  the  other. 
Aeduorum  ciultat!  praeclpue  indulse'rat  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  10),  he 

hod  been  particularly  indulgent  to  the  state  of  the  Aedui. 

*  This  construction  occurs  onlv  in  poets. 


DATIVE.  189 

Irasci  amicis  non  tSmSre  s51eo  (Cic.  Phil.  viu.  5. 16),  I  am  not 
wont  with  light  cause  to  be  angry  with  friends. 

NullS.  fuit  cluitas  quin  Caesar!  pareret  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  8.1), 
there  was  not  a  single  state  bui  was  obedient  to  Caesar,  or  ready 
to  obey  his  orders. 

Hoc  omnibus  patet  (Cic.  p.  Mur.  13.  28),  this  is  open  to  all. 

Non  placet  Antonio  consulatus  metis,  at  plScuit  P.  Seruilio 
(Cic.  Phil.  IT.  5. 12),  my  consulship  does  not  find  favour  with 
Antony ',  true,  yet  it  found  favour  with  Publius  Servilius. 

Qul  nee  sibi  nee  alter!  prosunt  (Cic.  de  Off.  n.  10.36),  men  who 
are  useful  neither  to  themselves  nor  to  their  neighbour. 

Sic  noster  hie  rector  studuerit  legibus  cognoscendls  (Cic.  R.  P. 
v.  3),  so  let  this  ruler  cf  ours  first  devote  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  laws. 

Adulescentl  nihll  est  quod  suscenseam(77(?r.  Ph.  n.  3.  14),  with 
the  young  man  I  have  no  reason  to  be  offended. 

Quod  tibi  lubst,  id  mihi  lubet  (Plant.  Most.  i.  3.  138),  what 
pleases  you,  that  pleases  me. 

Catonl  licuit  Tuscul!  se  delectare  (Cic.  R.  P.  i.  1),  it  was  per- 
mitted to  Cato  to  amuse  himself  at  Tusculum. 

964  In  the  older  writers  dScet  admitted  a  dative  of  the  person, 
unless  an  infinitive  followed  the  verb  ;   but  in  other  writers  an 
accusative  of  the  person  is  alone  admissible. 

Istuc  facinus,  quod  tu  insimulas,  n6stro  generi  n6n  decet 
(Plaut.  Am.  n.  2. 188),  an  act,  such  as  that  you  complain 
of,  would  not  be  becoming  in  our  family. 

965  Some  verbs  compounded  with  dls,  which  often  require  an  Eng- 
lish translation  by/rora,  and  in  Latin  are  usually  accompanied  by 
the  prepositions  ab  or  inter  or  cum,  occasionally  in  the  poets  take 
a  dative*  :  as, 

LongS  mea  discrepat  istis  Et  uox  et  r&tio  (ffor.  Sat.  i.  6.  92), 
my  words ,  my  views  are  wholly  out  of  harmony  with  them. 

Pedg  certo  Differt  sermon!  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  4.  48),  by  the  fixed 
rhythm  alone  from  prose  it  differs. 

Quantum  Hypanis  dissidgt  Eridano  (Prop.  i.  12.  4),  far  as  the 
Hypanisfrom  the  Eridanus  is  distant. 

*  This  construction  is  like  that  of  the  dative  in  connection  with  such 
adjectives  as  dissimili-,  dispar-. 


190  SYNTAX. 

Scurrae  dist&t  amlcus  (Hor.  Kp.  i.  18.  4),  from  the.  buffoon  far 
different  the  friend. 

966  The  verb  es-  lie  stands  out  from  among  other  static  verbs  by  its 
frequent  use  of  a  dative  of  the  person  to  denote  relationship,  con- 
nection of  office  and  ownership. 

Natura  tu  illi  pater  es  (Ter.  Ad.  I.  2.  46),  by  nature  you  are  his 
father. 

Mihi  quaestor  iniperatori  fugrat  (Cic.  post  red.  in  S.  4.  35),  he 
had  been  my  quaestor  when  I  was  commander-in-chief. 

Quibfis  opes  nullae  sunt  (Sal.  Cat.  37),  those  who  have  no  pro- 
perty. 

967  From  this  idea  of  c  having'  comes  the  use  of  es-  with  a  dative 
of  the  person  in  connection  with  a  perfect  participle  and  a  gerun- 
dive ;  a  use  which  was  extended  to  phrases  of  apposition  where 
the  verb  es-  is  no  longer  expressed. 

Quicquid  mihi  susceptumst  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  24. 71),  whatever  1 
have  undertaken, — less  accurately,  whatever  has  been  under- 
taken by  me. 

Legendus  mihi  saepius  est  Cato  maior  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xiv.  21), 
I  have  to  read  again  and  again  the  (  de  SenectuteJ — less  ac- 
curately, it  must  be  read  by  me,  or  /  must  read  it. 

967. 1  Participles  often  become  virtually  adjectives,  and  as  such  are 
entitled  to  a  dative  of  relation  :  as, 

Pinnas  in  litttfre  pandunt  Dllectae  Thgtidi  alcyones  ( Virg.  G. 
I.  399),  their  feathers  on  the  beach  spread  out  the  kingfishers 
to  Thetis  dear. 
Notus  mihi  nomine  tantum  (Hor.  Sat.  I.  9.  3),  known  to  me  by 

name  alone. 

963  It  is  rare,  even  in  the  poets,  for  a  dative  to  be  used  of  the 
agent  with  imperfect  tenses  of  a  passive.  Some  passages  in  prose 
writers,  which  seem  to  fall  under  this  head,  admit  of  a  different 
explanation. 

CarmlnS,  quae  scrlbuntur  aquae  potorlbus  (Hor.  Ep.  I.  19.  3), 
verses  that  are  written  in  the  realm  of  water-drinkers. 

Scrlberis  Vario  fortls  (Hor.  Od.  I.  6. 1),  thy  bravery  shall  be  told 
in  Varius'  page. 

Hoc  in  laborlbus  uluentl  non  intellegitur  (Cic.  de  Sen.  11.38), 
this  to  one  living  immersed  in  labour  is  not  perceptible. 


DATIVE.  191 

Barb&rus  hie  8g5  sum,  quia"  non  intellegoY  ulli  (Ov.  Trist.  v. 
10. 35),  a  barbarian  here  am  7,  for  to  no  one  am  lintelligible. 

969  Even  substantives  take  a  dative  to  denote  the  object  referred 
to :  as, 

E  bestiarum  corporibus  multS,  remgdia"  morbls  et  uolnerlbus 
eligimiis  (do.  N.  D.  IT.  64. 161),  from  the  bodies  of  beasts  we 
select  many  remedies  for  diseases  and  wounds. 

NSque  mihi  ex  cfiiusquam  altltudlne  aut  praesidia  pSrlciilis  aut 
adiumenta  honorfbus  quaere  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  24. 70),  nor 
do  I  seek  in  the  exalted  condition  of  any  one  whatever  either 
protection  against  danger ',  or  aid  to  political  advancement. 

TggtonentS  galeis  mllltes  ex  uiminibus  fS,cgrg  iiibet  (Caes.  B.  C. 
in.  62),  he  bids  the  soldiers  make  coverings  for  their  helmets 
of  the  osiers. 

Equltatum  auxllio  Caes&ri  mise'rant  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  18),  they 
had  sent  a  body  of  cavalry  as  an  aid  to  Caesar. 

970  Where  an  habitual  state  of  things  is  expressed,  a  dative  of  the 
person  is  sometimes  used  to  define  those  with  whom  the  habit 
prevails:  as, 

BarbSrls  ex  fortuna  pendet  fides  (Liv.  xxvni.  17),  with  bar- 
barians fidelity  depends  upon  fortune. 

Honesta"  btfnis  ulris,  non  occults,  quaeruntur  (Cic.  de  Off.  in. 
9. 38),  with  good  men  the  honourable,  not  the  mysterious,  is 
the  object  sought. 

Etiam  sapientlbus  cupido  gloriae  nSuissIma  exultur  (Tac.  Hist, 
iv.  6),  even  among  the  wise  the  love  of  glory  is  the  last  thing 
discarded. 

971  Verbs  of  habitual  action  may  in  one  sense  be  regarded  as  static, 
and  so  have  a  dative  of  the  person  to  whom  the  habitual  action 
refers.     Such  verbs  are  often  reflectives. 

Appius  mihi  blanditur  (Cic.  ad  Q.  Fr.  n.  12.  2),  Appius performs 
the  part  of  the ( blandus  homo9  to  me, — is  all  smoothness  to  me. 

Ne  quid  pars  altera"  gratlftcar!  ptfpiilo  Romano*  posset  (Liv. 
xxi.  9),  for  fear  that  the  other  party  should  do  the  obliging  to 

*  Instead  of  populo  Romano  the  Mss.  have  pro  Romanis^  which, 
though  nonsense,  is  retained  in  all  the  editions.  Populo  Romano  was 
shortened  as  usual  to  -p-ro^  and  then  mistaken  for  pro,  which  of  course 
needed  a  noun,  and  to  supply  this  need  Romania  was  added. 


192  SYNTAX. 

the  Roman  people,  i.  e.  should  sacrifice  any  matter  to  oblige 

Rome. 
CaesSri  supplicabo  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vi.  14.  3),  I  will  play  the  part 

of  suppliant  to  Caesar. 
Alii  gloriae  seruiunt,  &lil  pecuniae  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  3.  9),  some  are 

slaves  to  glory  ^  some  to  money. 

972  Where  an  action  is  done  to  part  of  the  body,  the  party  suffer- 
ing is  expressed  by  the  dative  (though  the  English  language  pre- 
fers a  possessive  pronoun  or  possessive  case) :  as, 

Cui  ego  iam  linguam  praecidara  atque  6culos  ecfodiam  domi 

(Plant.  Aul.  n.  2.12),  I  will  at  once  cut  off  her  tongue,  and 

dig  her  eyes  out  here  in  tJie  house. 
Tuo  ulro  Scull  dolent  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  8.  64),  your  husband's  eyes 

aclie. 
Quid  uis  tibi  dari  in  raanum?  (Ter.  Ph.  iv.  3.29)  how  much 

do  you  wish  paid  down  into  your  hand  ? 
Tibi  sicS,  de  minibus  extortast  (Cic.  Cat.  i.  6. 16),  the  dagger 

was  wrested  out  of  your  hands. 

973  Thus  verbs  alike  of  giving  and  taking  away  have  a  dative  of 
the  person  ;    but  it  must  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  either 
motion  to  or  motion  from  is  really  expressed  by  the  dative. 

D8di  ad  te  liberto  tuo  littgras  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vi.  3. 1),  I  gave  a 

letter  to  your  freedman  (to  be  delivered)  to  you. 
Reddidit  mihi  litteras  (Cic.  ad  Att.  v.  21),  he  delivered  the  letter 

to  me. 
Ingens*  cut  lume'n  ademptum  (Virg.  A.  in.  658),  from  whom  a 

monstrous  eye  had  been  taken  away. 
Id  totum  eripere  uobis  conatust  (Cic.  in  Rull.  11.  7. 19),  all  this 

he  has  endeavoured  to  tear  from  you. 

974  Verbs  of  trusting,  for  to  trust  is  to  put  a  thing  into  a  person's 
handsf,  have  a  dative  of  the  person  in  whom  the  trust  is  placed  : 
as, 

*  That  inqens  is  the  epithet  of  lumen  is  shown  partly  by  the  same 
epithet  having  been  given  to  lumen  in  v.  636,  tclo  lumen  terebramus  acuto 
Ingens ;  partly  by  Virgil's  habit  of  making  the  relative  in  this  part  of  his 
verse  an  enclitic  attached  to  the  preceding  word.  See  §  1463  note.  I 
had  to  thank  a  friend  and  then  colleague  for  the  suggestion. 

•f*  Indeed  cre-do,  cre-didi,  cre-ditum,  and  the  old  subjunctive  cre-duim, 
evidently  belong  to  a  compound  of  do. 


DATIVE.  193 

Se"  su£que  omnia  alienissumis  crediderunt  (Goes.  B.  G.  vi.  31), 
they  trusted  themselves  and  all  their  property  to  perfect  stran- 
gers. 

Credon  tibi  hoc  ?  (Ter.  And.  in.  2. 17)  am  I  to  believe  this  that 
you  tell  me  ? 

Mihi  credg  (Cic.  in  Cat.  I.  3.  6),  take  my  word  for  it. 

QuI  slbl  fidlt*  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  19. 22),  who  in  himself  confides. 

Multitude  hostium  nulll  re!  praeterquam  numgro  freta"*  (Liv. 
vi.  13),  the  mob  constituting  the  enemy's  force,  trusting  U 
nothing  but  their  numbers. 

975  Some  verbs  of  giving  are  used  with  a  dative  of  the  person  in 
the  sense  of  doing  something  out  of  regard  to  that  person,  par- 
ticularly in  cases  of  forgiveness  or  concession :  as, 

PraetgritS,  fratrl  condonat  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  20),  the  past  doings 
(of  Dumnorix)  lie  forgives  out  of  regard  to  his  brother  (Divi- 
tiacus). 

Peccata  llberum  parentum  mlserlcordiae  concesserunt  (Cic.  p. 
Clu.  69.195),  they  have  passed  over  the  offences  of  sons  out  of 
pity  to  their  parents. 

Tu  Inimicltias  reipublicae  donasti  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  4),  you  haes 
dropped  your  enmities  out  of  regard  to  the  public  welfare. 

Mgmoriam  slmultatum  patriae  rSmittltt  (Liv.  ix.  38),  he  for- 
gets his  private  quarrels  out  of  regard  to  his  country. 

Quantum  consuetudinl  famaeque  dandum  sit  (Cic.  Tusc.  i.  45. 
109),  how  far  we  ought  to  make  allowance  for  custom  and  what 
the  world  may  say. 

976  Many  verbs  which  denote  an  act  done  in  the  presence  of  or  in 
reference  to  another  concerned  therein,  take  a  dative  of  the  per- 
son, in  addition  to  the  accusative  of  the  thing,  especially  verbs  of 
showing  and  telling. 

AltSr!  monstrant  uiam  (Enn.  ap.  Cic.  de  Div.  i.  58. 132),  they 
show  a  fellow-creature  the  way. 

*  See  also  §  1002. 

f  Literally  '  lets  go  back,'  '  sends  back.'  The  idea  of  punishment  in 
the  Latin  language  generally  takes  the  form  of  a  fine.  The  offender  dot, 
pendit,  soluit  poenam,  '  pays  the  fine  ;'  the  injured  party  sumit^  exigit 
poenam,  '  takes,  exacts  the  fine;'  or  should  any  common  friend  succeed 
in  assuaging  his  anger,  then  the  offended  party  remittit  poenam  interces- 
sor^ '  returns  the  fine  to  the  interceding  party,'  that  the  offender  receiving 
it  from  him  may  know  to  whose  kind  offices  he  is  indebted. 


1!)4  SYNTAX. 

Haec  hgro  dicam  (Plant.  Am.  i.  1.304),  all  this  I  will  tell  (to) 

my  master. 
Virgo  nupsit  Mgtello  (Cic.  de  Div.  i.  46.104),  the  maiden  took 

tiie  veil*  to  Metellus,  i.  e.  married  him. 

077  This  dative  of  the  person  often  denotes  for  his  advantage  or  on 
his  account,  and  is  translated  by  for  :  as, 

Sic  uos  non  uobis  melliftcatfs  apes  ( Virg.  in  uita),  so  ye  too, 

bees.,  not  for  yourselves  are  honey-makers. 
Non  solum  nobis  dluites  esse  uoltimus,  sed  liberis,  propinquis, 

Smicis,  maxumeque'  reipublicae  (Cic.  de  Off.  in.  15.  63),  it  is 

not  merely  for  ourselves  we  wish  to  be  rich,  but  for  our  children, 

our  relations,  our  friends,  and  above  all  our  country. 
Tu  fors  quid  me  fiat  parui  pendis,  dum  illi  consulas  (Ter.  Haut. 

iv.  3. 37),  you  perhaps  care  little  what  becomes  of  me,  so  you 

provide  for  him. 
Tlbi  tlmul  (Ter.  Haut.  in.  2.  20),  I  was  alarmed  for  you,  or  on 

your  account. 
M81ius  el  cS,uere  uolo  quam  ipse  aliis  solet  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  in. 

1. 3),  I  am  determined  to  take  better  security  for  him  than  he 

himself  is  wont  for  others. 
Nee  tet  tua  funerS,  mater  Produxl  pressiue  Sculos  aut  uolngrS, 

laui  (Virg.  A.  ix.  486),  nor  for  thee  led  thine  own  mother 

forth  the  funeral  pomp,  or  closed  thine  eyes,  or  lathed  thy 

wounds. 

078  The  dative  of  the  personal  pronouns  more  particularly,  is  used 
to  denote  an  interest  of  the  party  (datiuus  ethicus),  and  often 
ironically.     In  this  case  much  latitude  of  translation  is  requisite 
to  give  the  shade  of  meaning  :  as, 

Tongilium  mihi  eduxit  (Cic.  in  Cat.  n.  2. 4),  Tongilius  he  has 
done  me  the  favour  to  take  out  (of  Rome)  with  him. 

At  tlbi  repents  uenit  ad  me  Canmius  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  2. 1), 
but  (what  think  you)  all  at  once  there  comes  to  my  house  your 
friend  Caninius. 


*  The  flame- coloured  veil,  flammeolum,  used  in  the  ceremony  of 
marriage. 

f  TV  a  dative,  and  tua  a  nominative,  the  two  pronouns  being  thrown 
together  for  the  sake  of  emphasis.  Another  instance  of  te  as  a  dative  is 
seen  in  Ter.  Haut.  v.  2.  34,  te  indulgebant.  See  also  p.  197,  note  f- 


DATIVE.  195 

Hacc  uobis  istorum  militiS,  fuit  (Liv.  xx.  60),  this  was  the  mill- 
\          tary  service  you  have  to  thank  your  petitioners  for. 

970  A  dative  and  accusative  seem  to  be  rivals  with  each  other  in 
the  construction  of  some  verbs.  The  cases  of  this  nature  fall  for 
the  most  part  into  two  classes :  a.  those  of  older  writers,  who, 
adhering  to  the  original  meaning  of  a  verb,  employ  a  dative,  which 
in  later  writers  gives  place  to  an  accusative ;  or  the  two  construc- 
tions may  even  coexist  with  a  slight  difference  of  meaning  in  the 
verb  :  b.  those  where,  the  verb  being  entitled  originally  to  a  dative 
of  the  person  and  accusative  of  the  thing,  the  thing  is  in  a  man- 
ner personified,  and  so  put  in  the  dative. 

Adula-ri,  '  to  wag  the  tail  at/  hence  '  to  wheedle*,  fawn  on.' 
Pfltenti  Sdulatus  est  (Nep.  in  Attico,  25),  he  fawned  on  the 

powerful  man. 
Praesentibus  &dulando  (Liv.  xxxvi.  7.4),  by  fawning  on  those 


Aemula-ri,  e  to  play  the  rival,'  hence  '  to  rival,  envy.' 

His  aemulamur,  qui  ea  h&bent,  quae  nos  habere  cupimtis  (Cic. 

Tusc.  i.  19. 44),  we  envy  those  who  possess  what  we  are  eager 

topossess.l 

Ignosc-e're',  literally  f  to  forget'§ ,  and  hence  '  to  forgive,'  strictly 
with  ace.  of  offence  forgiven,  dat.  of  person. 

Vt  eis  delicta  ignoscas  (Plaut.  Bacch.  v.  2.  68),  that  you  may 

forgive  them  their  shortcomings. 

Hoc  ignoscant  di  immortales  u61im  pSpulo  Romano  (Cic.  Phil. 
I.  6.  13),  for  this  I  would  pray  the  immortal  gods  to  forgive 
the  Roman  people. 

Inuide-rg, '  to  regard  with  an  evil  eye,'  hence  '  to  envy,  grudge  ;' 
originally  it  would  appear  with  an  ace.  of  the  thing  envied  and  a 
dat.  of  the  owner. 

*  Observe  that  the  German  verb  wedel-n  means  'to  wag  the  tail.' 
f  So  again  plebi  a.,  Liv.  in.  69.  In  Cic.  in  Pis.  41.  89,  omnibus  a.  is 
justly  preferred  by  Lambinus.  But  in  later  writers  the  ace  is  used  :  as, 
canes  furem  a.,  Col.  VH.  12 ;  principem,  Tac.  Hist.  I.  32,  aut  quern 
alium,  Ann.  xvi.  19  ;  dominum,  Sen.  de  Ira,  n.  31.  Hence  in  Quint. 
ix.  3,  huic  non  hunc  adulari  iam  dicitur,  the  words  huic  and  hunc  should 
be  transposed. 

t  But  Pindarum  ae.,Hor.  Od.  iv.  2. 1 ;  uirtutes,  Tac.  Agr.  15  ;  uint/m, 
Plin.  xiv.  2. 4. 

§  '  To  un-know,'  if  we  had  the  word,  v^ould  best  suit. 


196  SYNTAX. 

lamprldem  nobis  caeli  te  regi&,  Caesar,  Inuidet  ( Virg.  G.  i.  503), 
long,  long  has  the  palace  of  the  sky  envied  us  thy  presence, 
Caesar. 

Afrlcae  solo  oleum  et  ulnum  Natura  inuldit  (Plin.  xv.  2.  3), 
nature  grudged  the  soil  of  Africa  oil  and  wine.* 

MSdica-rl  and  mede-ri,  literally  '  to  act  the  physician/  hence 
1  to  cure,  heal,  remedy,'  with  a  dat.  of  the  patient  or  ace.  of  the 
disease. 

Ego  possum  in  hac  re  medicari  mihi  (Ter.  And.  v.  4. 41),  in 
this  matter  I  can  play  the  part  of  physician  to  myself ; — but 

Ego  istum  lepide  medicaborf  metum  (Plaut.  Most.  n.  1. 40), 
I  will  cure  that  fear  nicely. 

Dies  stultis  quoque  mederl  solet  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  28. 3),  time 
is  wont  to  cure  even  fools  ; — but 

Eiusmodi  .  . .  cupiditates,  Quas  quum  res  aduorsae  sient,  pau!6 
mederi  possis  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  4.  2),  desires  of  such  a  kind  that 
when  things  go  wrong,  you  can  cure  them  at  little  cost. 

M5de'ra-ri,  'to  act  as  a  limit  or  check  (to)',  hence  'to  check, 
moderate,'  and  so  generally  '  to  govern,  control.' 

N6n  uinum  hominibus  moderari,  sed  uino  homines  assolent 
(Plaut.  True.  iv.  3.57),  it  is  not  the  bottle  for  the  most  part 
that  has  control  over  the  man,  but  the  man  that  has  control 
over  the  bottle ; — so  at  least  the  unfairly  abused  bottle  would 
say  if  it  could  speak. 

MSderari  et  ammo  et  oration!  quum  sis  Iratus,  est  uon  medio- 
cris  ingenl  (Cic.  ad  Q.  Fr.  i.  1. 13.  38),  to  check  both  one's 
feelings  and  one's  words  when  one  is  angry,  is  indeed  the  act 
of  no  ordinary  character.  I 

Parc-Si'S,  { to  save,  to  spare,'  originally  with  ace.  of  the  thing 
and  dat.  of  the  person  for  whom. 

Argenti  atque  aurl  memSras  quae  multS,  talenta  Gnatis  parcg 

*  Thus  i.florem  liberum  (=Ziberorum)  in  Alt.  ap.  Cic.  Tusc.  in.  9.20  ; 
i.  nobis  naluram  (as  an  instructress),  Cic.  Tusc.  in.  2  3,  if  the  text  be  sound. 
As  the  evil  eye  might  also  be  directed  upon  the  owner  himself,  an  ace. 
would  not  have  been  out  of  place  ;  and  so  we  have  an  explanation  of  the 
forms  inuideor  '  I  am  envied,'  Hor.  Ep.  n.  3.  56,  and  the  participles  in- 
uiso-  '  envied,'  inuidendo-  '  enviable.' 

f  Some  good  Mss.  with  Ritschl  medicabo. 

£  In  the  general  sense  of 'governing'  an  ace.  is  common  in  Cicero  ;  but 
even  in  the  sense  of '  checking'  an  ace.  is>  found  in  later  writers,  as  Tac.  and 
Suet. 


DATIVE  197 

tuls  (Virg.  A.  x.  532),  the  silvery  aye  and  gold  of  which  thou 
speakest,  all  for  thy  children  save. 

Suade-re',  literally  '  to  sweeten'*,  hence  '  to  recommend,  give 
advice/  with  ace.  of  thing  recommended,  dat.  of  person  to  whom 
the  advice  is  given.f 

Quod  tibi  suadeam,  suadeam  me6  patri  (Plant.  Capt.  n.  1. 40), 
any  thing  1  would  recommend  to  you,  I  would  recommend  to 
my  own  father. 

Tempera-re, $  '  to  act  as  a  limit,  to  set  bounds  (to)',  hence 
'  to  check,  spare,'  and  so  '  to  regulate,  govern,  mix  in  due  propor- 
tion ;'  originally,  it  would  seem,  only  with  a  dat. 

Linguae  tempera  (Plant.  Rud.  iv.  7.  28),  set  limits  to  your 
tongue, 

NSque  slbi  homines  feros  tempSraturos  existlmabat  quin  &c. 
(Caes.  B.  G.  I.  33),  nor  did  he  think  that,  savages  as  they 
were,  they  would  keep  a  check  upon  themselves  so  as  not  <&c. 

Eum  sibi  credls  a  mendacio  tempeYaturum  (Auct.  ad  Her.  iv. 
8.  25),  this  man  you  suppose  will  refrain  from  a  lie. 

Si  culquam  ulla  in  re  unquam  tempgraue'rit,  ut  uos  quSque  el 
tempgraretls  (Cic.  11.  Verr.  11.  6. 17),  that  if  he  ever  spared 
any  one  in  any  thing,  you  also  should  spare  him.  § 

980        Of  the  extension  of  the  dative  from  the  person  to  the  thing 
the  following  are  examples  : 

Ignoscas  uelim  huic  festlnatioul  (Cic.  ad  Fain.  v.  12.  \),  pray 
forgive  my  present  haste. 

*  From  suaui-  'sweet,'  Greek  o5u-.  Advice  is  often  represented 
under  the  idea  of  medicine,  wholesome,  yet  bitter  and  so  needing  some 
sweet  to  disguise  it,  as  in  Lucr.  i.  936,  sed  ueluti  pueris  &c. 

•f*  In  quis  te  persuasit  (Enn.  ap.  Serv.  ad  Aen.  x.  10)  te  is  a  dative. 
But  an  ace.  of  the  person  was  eventually  used,  as  uxorem  eius  suasi,  Apnl. 
Met.  ix.  p.  288.  Hence  in  the  passive,  animus  persuasus  uidetur  esse^ 
Auct.  ad  Her.  i.  6 ;  persuasus  erit,  Ov.  A.  A.  in.  679  ;  persuasa  est. 
Phaedr.  i.  8. 

J  Perhaps  originally,  like  modera-ri,  a  reflective  verb.  In  the  sense 
of  'regulate,  mix  in  due  proportion,'  an  ace.  was  soon  used :  as,  rempub- 
licam,  Cic.  de  Div.  i.  43.  96  ;  acuta  cum  grauibus,  Cic.  R.  P.  vi.  18  ;  iras^ 
Virg.  A.  i.  61. 

§  That  imita-ri  'to  make  oneself  like  (to)',  and  segu-i  'to  attach 
oneself  (to)',  must  in  some  olden  times  have  had  a  dative,  seems  to  fol- 
low from  their  reflective  form,  as  well  as  from  the  meaning.  Thus  the 
Greek  lirevQai  and  Germ,  folg-en  always  take  a  dat. 


108 


SYNTAX. 


Honor!  inmderunt  meo  (Cic.  in  Rull.  n.  3".  103),  they  looked 

with  envy  on  the  office  1  held. 
Cum  capltl  mgderl  debeo,  reduuiam  euro  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am. 

44. 128),  when  I  ought  to  be  doctoring  the  head,  lam  dressing 

an  agnail. 
R5go  sumptu  ne  parcas  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xvi.  4),  I  leg  you  not  to 

spare  expense. 
Teque  his  eripe  flammis  (Virg.  A.  u.  289),  and  thyself  too  rescue 

from  these  flames. 

When  the  active  or  simple  verb  requires  a  dative,  care  must 
be  taken  to  use  the  passive  as  an  impersonal. 

Bins  testlmonio  credi  oportet  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  in.  71.166),  his 
evidence  ought  to  be  believed.  * 

Omnes  deprecatores  quibus  non  Srat  ignotum,  Stiam  quibiis 
erat,  In  Africam  dicuntur  nauigaturl  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xi.  14. 1), 
all  the  intercessors  who  have  not  been  forgiven,  even  those  who 
have  been,  are  about  to  sail  it  is  said  for  Africa. 

Inuidetur  enim  commodls  hominum  ipsorum  (Cic.  de  Or.  n. 
51.  207),  for  even  the  advantages  they  themselves  enjoy  are  re- 
garded with  an  evil  eye. 

Mihi  nihll  ab  istis  noceri  pStest  (Cic.  in  Cat.  in.  12.  27),  / 
cannot  be  injured  by  your  friends  in  any  way. 

Cui  6nim  pare!  potuit  ?  (Liv.  xxi.  14)  for  who  could  have  been 
spared  ? 

Dicto  paretur  (Liv.  ix.  32),  the  order  is  obeyed. 

His  persuaderi  ut  diutius  morarentur  non  poterat  (Caes.  B.  G. 
n.  10),  they  could  not  be  persuaded  to  stay  any  longer. ,f 

082  In  Roman  book-keeping,  the  account  where  an  item  was  to  be 
entered  was  expressed  by  a  dative.  Hence  in  phrases  of  this 
class  two  datives  often  present  themselves,  one  pointing  to  the 
account,  the  other  to  the  side  of  the  account,  whether  Cr.  or  Dr. 


*  It  is  useful  for  beginners  to  translate  verbs  of  this  class  by  phrases 
which  include  a  substantive  and  verb :  as,  cred-  '  give  credit,'  ignosc- '  grant 
pardon,'  noce-  *  do  damage.'  By  this  contrivance  an  impersonal  transla- 
tion is  obtained  for  the  passive:  creditur1  credit  is  given,'  ignoscitur  '  par- 
don is  granted,'  nocetur  "  damage  is  done ;'  and  thus  a  hint  is  given  for 
putting  the  person  '  to  whom'  in  the  dative. 

f  Still,  exceptions  occur:  as,  credemur,  Ov.  Fast.  HI.  351  ;  creditus, 
Ov.  Met.  vn.  98.  See  also  p.  196,  note  «,  and  p.  197,  note  t. 


DATIVE.  190 

Minus  DolabellS  Vend  acceptum  retttilit,*  quam  VcrrSs  illi  ex- 

pensum  talent  (Cic.  II.  Verr.  i.  39. 100),  Dolaletta  placed  to 

the  credit  of  Verres  a  smaller  mm  tlian  Verres  placed  to  his 

(Dolabella's)  debit. 
Quern  fors  dierura  cumque  dabit,  liicro  Appone  (Hor.  Od.  I. 

9. 14),  every  day  that  fate  shall  give,  set  down  to  profit. 
Postulare  id  gratiae  apponi  sibi  (Ter.  And.  IT.  1. 32),  to  expect 

that  it  should  be  set  down  to  his  credit  as  a  favour  received. 
Hoc  uitio  nrihi  dant  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xi.  28.  2),  this  they  set  down 

against  me  as  a  fault. 
Nostram  culpam  illi  (so.  terrae)  imputamusf  (Plin.  xvm.  1. 1. 

2),  we  debit  her  for  our  own  misconduct. 

983  Hence  a  dative^  is  used  to  denote  in  what  light  a  thing  is  re- 
garded, what  it  serves  as. 

Nee  earn  rem  habuit  religion!  (Cic.  de  Div.  i.  35.  77),  nor  did 
he  regard  this  as  a  warning  from  heaven. 

Vt  sint  reliquis  documents  (Caes.  B.  G.  vit.  4),  that  they  mat/ 
serve  as  a  lesson  to  the  rest. 

Vos  eritis  indices  Laudin  an  uitio  duci  id  factum  op6rtuit  (Ter. 
Ad.  prol.  5),  you  shall  be  judges  whether  this  act  a  fault  or 
credit  should  be  deemed. 

Cui§  bouo  fuit  ?  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  30.  84),  to  whom  was  it  an 
advantage  ?  or  who  was  the  gainer  by  it  ? 

Matronis  persuasit  ne  sibi  uitio  uertgreut  quod  abesset  a  pStria 
(Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  6),  she  persuaded  the  matrons  not  to  inter- 
pret her  absence  from  her  fatherland  as  a  fault  in  her. 

984  Hence  again  the  dative  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  pur- 
pose :  as, 

*  The  first  entries  being  made  into  the  day-book  (aduersaria),  are 
thence  carried  to  the  proper  heads  in  the  ledger  (tabulae).  Hence  the 
compound  re-fer-  used  of  the  second  entry.  Acceptum  and  expensum 
mean  '  received'  and  '  spent'  by  the  book-keeper. 

f  Literally  '  score  against/ 

t  For  this  dative  may  be  substituted  pro  or  in  loco.  Often  a  mere 
nominative  or  accusative  may  be  used ;  but  the  dative  softens  the  phrase. 
&unt  reliquis  documentum  (Q.  Curt.  viu.  14.26)  is,  '  they  are  a  lesson  to 
the  rest.'  Still,  in  the  English  translation  of  this  dative  the  '  as'  is  often 
omitted  for  brevity. 

§  The  favourite  test  of  the  old  lawyer  Cassius  for  discovering  the 
author  of  a  secret  crime.  A  ridiculous  blunder  commonly  marks  the 
modern  use  of  this  quotation. 


200 


SYNTAX. 


Quinqug  cohortis  castris  praesldio  rellquit  (Caes.  B.  G.  vii.  60), 

he  left  five  battalions  as  a  garrison  for  the  camp,  or  to  guard 

the  camp. 
Hunc  slbi  dSmMlio  15cum  delegerunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  n.  29),  this 

place  they  selected  as  (or  for)  a  residence. 
Hie  nuptiis  dictust  dies  (Ter.  And.  1. 1.  75),  this  is  the  day  fixed 

for  the  marriage. 
Triumuir  re!  publlcae  constltuendae*  (Nep.  in  Attico,  12),  one 

of  three  commissioners  for  regulating  the  state. 

985  The  dative  of  a  name  is  often  used  by  attraction!  to  the  dative 
of  the  object  named  :  as, 

Nomen  Arctur6st+  mihi  (Plant.  Rud.  prol.  5),  my  name  is  Arc- 

turo. 
Cui  nunc  cognomen  luloj  Addltiir  ( Virg.  A.  1. 271),  to  whom 

the  surname  lulo  now  is  added. 

Leges  qulbus  tabulis  duSdecim  est  nomen  (Liv.  in.  57),  the 
laws  which  have  the  name  of  the  l  twelve  tables. '§ 

086  The  phrase  soluendo  non  grat,  *  he  was  not  able  to  pay,  he  was 
insolvent,'  as  in  Cic.  ad  Fam.  in.  8.  2,  seems  difficult  of  explana- 
tion. 

987  The  poets  use  the  dative  (especially  in  nouns  of  the  o  declen- 
sion) after  verbs  of  motion  :  as, 

It  clamor  caelo||  (Virg.  A.  v.  451),  rises  the  shout  to  heaven. 

ABLATIVE. 

989  The  ablative  appears  to  unite  in  itself  two  cases  of  different 
origin,  one  similar  in  form  and  power  to  the  dative,  the  other 
originally  ending  in  a  final  dt  signifying  from.  We  commence 
with  the  former. 

*  Written  briefly  IIIVIR-  R-  P-  O 

f  Other  instances  of  similar  attraction  arc  to  be  seen  in  §  1060. 

J  Can  this  .construction  have  grown  out  of  the  use  of  the  crude  form, 
which  in  reason  should  have  been  used  in  such  phrases  ? 

§  Sometimes  the  name  is  in  the  same  case  as  nomen.  But  in  Cicero 
it.  Verr.  iv.  53. 118,/ons  cui  nomen  Arethusaest,  the  letters  si  alone  per- 
haps constitute  the  verb,  leaving  a  dative  Arethusae. 

||  Can  this  be  a  corruption  of  an  accusative  caelom^  as  the  so-called 
adverbs  quo,  eo9  &c.  have  also  probably  lost  a  final  m.  See  also  tenus, 
§  1384  b.  note. 


ABLATIVE. 


201 


990  At  a  town  or  in  a  small  island  the  poets  express  by  an  ablative 
when  the  metre  requires  it,  which  can  be  only  in  the  third  or  con- 
sonant declension  :  as, 

Dard&niumquS  diicem  Tyria  Karthagine*  qu!  nunc  Expectat 
(  Virg.  A.  iv.  224),  and  the  Dardan  chief  at  Tyrian  Carthage 
who  Now  loitereth. 

991  The  place  where  in  some  other  phrases  may  also  be  expressed 
in  the  ablative,  as  rure  in  the  country.     Not  unfrequently  it  is 
better  to  insert  the  preposition  in.     But  this  may  be  omitted  at 
times,  particularly  if  an  adjective  accompany  the  substantive. 
When  that  adjective  is  toto-  whole,  it  would  be  wrong  to  use  the 
preposition. 

992  Time  when  is  commonly  expressed  in  the  ablative  :  as, 
Bellum  eodem  tempSre  mihi  qu5que  indixit  (Oic.  Phil.  II.  1.1), 

he  declared  war  at  the  same  time  against  me  too. 

993  The  time  within  which  any  thing  occurs  is  expressed  by  the 
ablative,  whether  the  whole  or  any  part  be  meant  :  as, 

Saturn!  stella  triginta  fere  annis  cursum  suum  conftdt  (Cic. 

N.  D.  II.  20.  52),  the  star  of  Saturn  completes  its  course  in 

about  thirty  years. 
Vrbes  Afrfcae  amiisf  prSpS  quinquaginta  nullum  Romanum 

exercltum  ulderant  (Liv.  xxix.  28),  the  cities  of  the  Afri 

during  a  space  of  nearly  fifty  years  had  seen  no  Eaman 

army. 

994  Hence  the  interval  within  which  one  event  follows  another  may 
be  expressed  by  ablatives  :  as, 

Mors  Rose!  quatriduo  quoj  Is  occisust  Chrysogono  nuntiatiir 
(Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  36. 105),  the  news  of  the  death  ofltoscius 
is  brought  to  Chrysogonus  within  four  days  after  he  is  killed. 

*  See  Dative,  §  951.  That  the  ablative  is  only  a  license  is  stated  by 
Servius  on  this  passage :  "  Carthagine  pro  Carthagini  .  .  .  Sic  Horatius  : 
Romae  Tybur  amem,  uentosus  Tybure  Romam,  pro  Tyburi."  In  Livy  the 
best  Mss.,  where  reported,  have  Karthagini  &c. 

f  Hence  the  ablative  is  occasionally  used  when  the  accusative  might 
have  been  expected.  See  §  1018. 1. 

J  Literally  'the  death  of  R.  is  reported  to  C.  in  the  same  four  days 
in  which  he  was  killed,'  the  death  occurring  near  the  commencement  ot 
that  period,  the  communication  near  the  end  of  it. 


202  SYNTAX. 

095        Hence 

Testamentum  fecit,  atque  his  diebus  paucis  est  mortua  (Cic.  p. 
Clu.  7. 22),  she  made  a  will,  and  a  few  days  after  this  died. 

996  From  the  notion  of  where,  the  ablative  is  used  with  the  prepo- 
sitions in  and  siib  if  there  be  no  motion  implied,  and  also  with 
prae,  pro,  &c.    (See  §  914,  note.) 

997  In,  in  point  of,  in  respect  to,  is  often  the  meaning  of  the  abla- 
tive where  it  is  used  to  define  or  limit  the  sense  of  any  word  or 
phrase  :  as, 

Ennius  fuit  maior  natu*  quam  Plautus  (Cic.  Tusc.  L    1.  3), 

Ennius  was  older  than  Plautus. 
Scelere  par  est  illi,  industria  infgriSr  (Cic.  Phil.  iv.  6. 15),  in 

wickedness  he  is  equal  to  the  other,  in  industry  below  him. 
Sunt  enim  quidam  homines  non  re  sed  nomine  (Cic.  de  Off.  I. 

30.  105),  for  there  are,  it  must  be  confessed,  some  who  are 

human  beings  not  in  reality,  but  in  name. 
Lepore  omnibus  praestitit  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  67.  270),  in  wit  he 

excelled  all. 
Victoria  sua  gloriantur  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  14),  they  pride  themselves 

on  their  victory. 

998  The  ablatives  of  verbals  in  tu,  called  supines  passive,  are  often 
so  used  with  adjectives,  though  the  more  familiar  translation  is 
by  an  English  infinitive  :  as, 

Pleraque  dictu  quam  re  sunt  fftciliora  (Liv.  xxxi.  38),  most 
things  are  easier  in  the  saying  than  in  the  reality,  i.  e.  easier 
to  say  than  to  do. 

Quid  est  tarn  iucundum  cognltu  atque  audltu  ?  (Cic.  de  Or.  i. 
8.  31)  what  is  so  delightful  to  see  and  to  hear  ? 

999  The  substantive  opes-  (11.)  work,  and  occasionally  usu-  (m.) 
advantage,  have  an  ablativet  to  express  the  object  which  it  is 
necessary  to  obtain  :  as, 

Opust  fuit  Hirtio  conuerito  (Cic.  ad  Att.  x.  4.11),  it  was  neces- 
sary to  have  an  interview  with  Hirtius. 

*  Literally  '  greater  in  point  of  birth.' 

f  The  nominative  is  also  found  in  this  construction,  more  particularly 
if  it  be  a  neuter  pronoun.  (See  §  909.) 

J  *  The  work  to  be  done  consisted  in  seeing  Hirtius,'  which  accom- 
plished, other  things  might  follow.  This  might  have  been  expressed  by 


ABLATIVE.  203 

PrlmumSratnihil,  cur  propgrato  5pus  esset  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  19.49), 

in  the  first  place  there  was  nothing  which  made  it  necessary  to 

hurry. 
Vbi  saeua  ortast  tempestas,  turn  gubernatore*  Spust  (Liv.  xxiv. 

8),  when  rough  weather  springs  up,  then  there  is  need  of  a 

pilot. 

1000  By,  with,  or  from,  &c.  is  frequently  the  translation  of  the  ab- 
lative when  it  denotes  the  instrument,  means,  or  cause  :  as, 

Cornlbus  tauri,  aprl  dentlbus  se  tutantur  (Cic.  N.  D.  IT.  50. 

127),  with  his  horns  the  bull,  the  boar  with  his  tush  defends 

himself. 
Patriae  ignl  ferroqug  minitatur  (Cic.  Phil.   xm.  21.  47),   he 

threatens  his  country  with  fire  and  sword.  ,f 
Etesiarum  flatu  nlmii  temperantur  calores  (Cic.  K  D.  IT.  53. 

131),  ly  the  Uowing  of  the  Etesian  winds  the  excessive  heat  is 

moderated. 

1001  The  ablative  of  the  means  accompanies  the  five  reflective  verbs, 
ut-%,  nit-,  uesc-,  fru-,  pasc-  :  as, 

Pellibus  utuntur  (Goes.  B.  G.  vi.  21),  they  use  skins. 

Pura  qui  nititiir  hasta  (Virg.  A.  vi.  760),  who  rests  him  on  a 

simple  shaft. 

Lactg  uescebantur  (Sal.  Jug.  89),  they  lived  upon  milk. 
Luce  fruimur  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  45.  131),  we  enjoy  the  light  of 

day. 
Frondibus  pascuntiir  (Virg.  G.  in.  528),  they  feed  themselves 

with  branches. 

1002  The  ablative  of  the  means  in  the  same  way  accompanies  the 
verbs,  uiu-  live,  fid-  trust,  and  the  participle  freto-  relying  :  as, 


a  somewhat  similar  phrase  in  Greek  :  as,  cpyov  t\v  avyy^effQat  ets  \oyovs 


*  Perhaps  such  a  phrase  as  this  had  originally  its  participle  also,  as, 
for  instance,  inuento. 

f  '  Fire  and  iron'  would  be  a  more  precise  translation,  the  latter  re- 
ferring to  the  destructive  axe  quite  as  much  as  to  the  sword. 


(used  in  speaking  of  animals  and  slaves). 


204 


SYNTAX. 


Lactg  uluunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv.  1),  they  live  upon  milk. 
Prudentia  consllioque  fldens  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  23.  81),  trusting 

in  foresight  and  mental  power. 
Ingenio  freti*  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  24. 103),  relying  upon  their  talent. 

1003  The  ablativef  of  the  means  is  used  with  the  verbs  f£c-  or  fSci- 
make  or  do,  fi-  become,  and  fu-  be,  especially  in  the  participle 
future- . 

Nescit  quid  faciat  auro  (Plant.  Bac.  n.  3. 100),  lie  knows  not 

what  to  do  with  the  gold. 
Quid  hoc  homing  faciatls  ?  (Cic.  II.  Verr.  I.  16.  42)  what  are 

you  to  do  with  this  fellow  ? 
Tuo  quid  factumst  pallio  ?  (Plaut.  Gas.  v.  4.  9)  what  is  become 

of  your  cloak  ? 
Quid  TulliSla  mea  ftet  ?  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xiv.  4.  3)  what  will 

become  of  my  little  Tullia  ? 

Si  quid  eo  fugrit  (Plaut.  Trin.  I.  2.  120),  if  any  thing  happen 
to  him. 

1.004  The  ablative  of  the  means  often  accompanies  verbs  or  adjec- 
tives of  tilling,  increasing,  mixing,  joining,  <fcc.  :  as, 

Nauis  coloms  pastorlbusque  complet  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  56),  he  fills 

the  ships  with  farm-labourers  and  shepherds. 
Macte  uirtute  esto  (Liv.  iv.  14),  heaven  bless  thy  noble  deeds.l 
Villa  Sbundat§  lactg,  caseo,  mellg  (Cic.  de  Sen.  16.  56),  the  farm- 
house abounds  in  milk  and  cheese  and  honey. 
L&pldlbusll  pluuit  (Liv.  I.  31),  it  rained  stones. 

1005  The  price  is  the  means  by  which  any  thing  is  obtained^  in 
purchase,  and  hence  the  ablative  accompanies  verbs  and  adjectives 
of  buying,  selling,  bidding  and  valuing  :**  as, 

*  Literally  'supported  hySfreto-  being  in  origin  a  participle  of  fer- 
'  bear.' 

t  In  these  phrases  the  preposition  de  is  often  used,  as  quid  de  me 
ftet  ? 

J  Literally  '  be  increased  by  thy  manliness.' 

§  This  should  perhaps  have  been  referred  to  §  997. 

||  The  accusative  also  is  found. 

^[  Em-,  commonly  translated  '  buy,'  means  properly  '  take,'  as  is  seen 
in  the  compounds  dem-,  exim-,  sum-,  &c.     See  §  544. 

**  Or  it  would  perhaps  be  more  correct  to  be  guided  by  the  English 
preposition  a/,  defining  the  point  at  which  the  price  stands  at  a  given 


ABLATIVE. 


205 


Emere  Squae  sextarium  coguntur  mina  (Cic.  de  Off.  IT.  16. 56), 
they  are  compelled  to  buy  a  pint  of  water  for  a  mina. 

Multo  sanguinS  Poenis  uictOriS,  stetit  (Liv.  xxm.  30),  the  vic- 
tory cost  the  Carthaginians  much  blood.* 

Quod  non  6piis  est,  assS  carum  est  (Cato  ap.  Sen.  Ep.  94),  what 

you  don't  want  is  dear  at  a  farthing. 

1005. 1    To  affix  a  penalty  implies  an  estimation  of  a  crime.     Hence 
the  amount  of  penalties,  like  prices,  is  in  the  ablative  :t  as, 

Decem  mllibus  aeris  dampnatus  (Liv.  vn  16),  sentenced  to  pay 
a  penalty  of  10,000  pieces  of  money. 

Multare  uitia  hominum  dampnis,  ignominiis,  uinculis,  uerbg- 
ribiis,  exiliis,  roortS  (Cic.  de  Or.  I.  43.194),  to  punish  the 
vices  of  men  with  fine,  degradation,  imprisonment,  flogging, 
exile,  death. 

1006  Verbs  of  sacrificing  often  take  an  ablative  of  the  victim,  that 
is,  the  means  employed  :  as, 

Cum  faciam  uittila  pro  frugibus,  ipsS  uSnlto  (Virg.  Buc.  in. 
77),  when  I  offer  a  calf  for  my  crops,  thyself  shall  come. 

Quinquaginta  ckpris  sacrlflcaruntt  (Liv.  XLV.  16),  they  sacri- 
ficed fifty  goats. 

1007  Verbs  signifying  to  accustom,  take  an  ablative  of  the  means, 
though  in  English  the  preposition  to  is  prefixed  :  as, 

Homines  labore  adslduo  et  quotldiano  adsuStl§  (Cic.  de  Or. 

in.  15.  58),  accustomed  as  they  are  to  constant  and  daily 

labour. 
Credere"  regil  genus  pugnae  quo  assuerant  forg  (Liv.  xxxi.  35), 

the  king's  troops  thought  the  battle  would  be  of  the  kind  they 

were  accustomed  to. 

1008  The  road  by  which  any  thing  is  moved  is  also  a  means,  and 
therefore  expressed  by  the  ablative :  as, 

Frumentum  flumlne  Ararl  naulbus  subuexerat  (Caes.  B.  G.  i. 
16),  he  had  conveyed  corn  in  ships  up  the  river  Arar. 

moment.  We  often  talk  of  prices  rising,  falling,  and  being  stationary. 
'  I  bought  consols  at  63,  and  sold  out  at  94.' 

*  Literally  '  stood  them  in  much  blood.' 

f  See  also  §  945.  J  The  accusative  is  also  used. 

§  The  dative  also  occurs  after  this  word,  as  well  as  ad  with  the  accu- 
sative. 


206  SYNTAX. 

1009  The  attending  circumstances,  manner,  feelings,  are  expressed 
by  the  ablative  :  as, 

Summa  contentions  dixit  (Cic.  Brut.  20.  80),  he  spoke  with  the 

exertion  of  all  his  power. 
Infestis  armis  concurrunt  (Liv.  I.  25),  they  run  together  with 

their  arms  aimed  at  each  other. 
Expedite*  exercltu  Iter  feel  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xv.  4.8),  I  proceeded 

with  my  army  in  light  marching  order. 
Id  aequo  Snimot  non  feret  ciuitas  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  33. 144),  this 

the  citizens  will  not  bear  calmly. 
Duarum  cohortium  dampno  exercitum  reducerS  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi. 

44),  to  lead  the  army  back  with  the  loss  of  two  battalions. 

1009. 1  In  this  construction,  if  no  adjective  accompany  the  noun,  the 
preposition  cum  is  commonly  added,  as  summa  cura  with  the 
greatest  care,  or  cum  cura  with  care.  Yet  certain  ablatives  have 
become  virtually  adverbs,  and  so  are  used  without  either  adjective 
or  preposition  :  as,  ordJne  in  order,  ration  e  rationally,  iure  justly, 
iniuria  without  reason,  more  according  to  custom,  fraude  fraudu- 
lently, ui  forcibly,  uitio  unduly,  sllentio  silently  (but  also  cum 
sileutio),  sSreno  with  a  cloudless  sky,  austro  with  a  south  wind. 

J010  The  ablative  t  of  quality  is  the  name  usually  given  to  that  use 
of  the  case  which  denotes  a  condition  of  mind  or  body,  &c.  But 
it  is  essential  that  an  adjective  accompany  this  ablative  : 

Tanta  est  eloquentia  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  13.  55),  he  is  so  eloquent. 
Qua  facie  fuit  ?    Crassis  suris,  magno  caplte,  admodum  magnis 
pedlbiis  (Plaut.  Ps.  iv.  7. 119),  how  was  he  made  ?    He  had 
thick  calves,  a  great  head,  and  very  great  feet. 
Spelunca  infinita  altltudinS  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  48. 107),  a  cavern 

of  boundless  depth. 
HSmlnes  emerltis  stipendils  (Sal.  Jug.  84),  veterans  who  have 

served  out  their  time. 

1011  This  ablative  is  occasionally  used  when  the  state  is  not  a  per- 
manent one  :  as, 

Nullo  frigSre  adducltur,  ut  caplte  operto  sit  (Cic.  de  Sen.  10. 
34),  no  cold  weather  ever  induces  him  to  go  with  his  head 
covered. 

*  Literally  '  unencumbered.'  f  '  With  a  level  or  calm  mind.' 

J  See  also  genitive  of  quality,  §  927. 


ABLATIVE.  207 

Magno  tlmorg  sum  (Cic.  ad  Att.  v.  14.  2),  lam  in  great  alarm. 

1012  Similar  to  this  is  the  addition  of  the  ablative  of  the  name  of 
the  tribe  or  city  to  which  a  person  belongs  :  as, 

Ser.  Sulpicius  Q.F.*  Lemoniat  Rufus  (Cic.  Phil.  ix.  7.15), 
Servius  Sulpicius  Rufus,  son  of  Quintus,  of  the  Lemonian 
tribe. 

Cn.  Magius  Cremona?  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  24),  Cneius  Magius  of 
Cremona. 

1013  Ablative  absolute  is  the  name  commonly  employed  when  an 
ablative  of  a  noun  is  accompanied  by  a  substantive,  adjective,  or 
participle,  to  denote  the  time  when,  the  means  by  which,  or  any 
attending  circumstances.     It  therefore  belongs  properly  to  the 
heads  already  given.     There  is  however  this  peculiarity  of  trans- 
lation, that  the  English  often  requires  no  preposition  :  as, 

Abl.  abs.  of  time  when:  Is,  M.§  Messala,  M.§  Plsone  coss.§ 
coniurationeni  fecit  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  2),  this,  man  in  tJie  con- 
sulship^ of  Marcus  Messala  and  Marcus  Piso  formed  a  con- 
spiracy. 

Abl.  abs.  of  means  :  CStapultis  dispSsitis  muros  defensorlbus 
nudauerat  (Liv.  xxi.  11),  by  his  catapults  placed  at  different 
points  he  had  cleared  the  wall  of  its  defenders,  or  he  had 
placed  his  catapults  at  different  points  and  so  had  cleared  &c. 

Abl.  abs.  of  circumstances  :  Natura  duce  errarl  nullo  pacto 
p5test  (Cic.  de  Leg.  I.  6.  20),  with  nature  for  our  guide,  the 
path  can  no  way  be  mistaken. 

Quid  dicam  hac  iiiuentutS  ?  (Cic.  ad  Att.  x.  11.  3)  what  am  1 
to  say  with  such  young  men  as  we  have  now-a~days  ? 

Voluntas  tacitis  nobislf  intelleg!  non  pSterat  (Cic.  p.  Caec.  18. 
53),  our  wish  could  not  have  been  understood,  had  we  been 


1014        That  by  which  any  thing  is  measured  is  a  means  of  measure- 
ment, and  therefore  in  the  ablative  :  as, 

*  Quintifilius.  f  Tribu  understood. 

J  Or  the  same  might  have  been  expressed  by  an  adjective,  Cremo~ 
nensis. 

§  To  be  read,  Marco,  Marco,  consulibus. 
||  Literally  « M.  Messala,  M.  Piso  (being)  consuls.' 
^f  Literally  *  we  (being)  silent.' 


SYNTAX. 

Voluptate  omnia"  dlrigere*  (Cic.  de  Fin.  n.  22.  71),  to  test  every 
thing  by  pleasure. 

Non  numgro  haec  iudlcautur,  sed  ponderg  (Cic.  de  Off.  u.  22. 
79),  it  is  not  by  number  that  these  things  are  estimated,  but  by 
weight. 

Discriptus  pSpulus  censu,  ordlnibus,  aetatlbus  (Cic.  de  Leg. 
in.  19.  44),  the  people  distributed  into  different  classes  accord- 
ing to  income  and  rank  and  age. 

1015  The  comparative  takes  an  ablative  of  the  object  with  which 
the  comparisonf  is  made  :  as, 

Vllius  argentumst  auro,  uirtutlbus  aurum  (Hor.  Ep.  I.  1.52), 
silver  than  gold  is  cheaper,  gold  than  virtue. 

1016  Similarly  the  adjectives  digno-  indigno-  and  the  verbs  formed 
therefrom,  take  an  ablative  of  the  object  with  which  the  compari- 
son is  made  :  as, 

Eum  omnes  cognltione  §t  hospltio  dignum  existumarunt  (Cic. 

p.  Arch.  3.  5),  this  (foreigner)  all  deemed  worthy  of  their 

acquaintance  and  friendship. 
Haud  Squidem  tali  me  dign<5r  honore  ( Virg.  A.  I.  339),  not  in 

truth  of  such  an  honour  do  I  deem  me  worthy. 

1017  The  amount  of  distance  or  difference  in  time,  space,  or  quan- 
tity is  commonly  expressed  in  the  ablative. 

Id  ulgiuti  an ni s  ante  apud  nos  fecerat  Coriolanus  (Cic.  de  Am. 
12.  42),  this  Coriolanus  had  done  among  us  twenty  years  be- 
fore. 

llaec  est  aetas  decem  annis  minor  quam  consularls  (Cic.  Phil. 
v.  17.48),  this  age  is  ten  years  less  than  that  required  for  a 
consul. 

Tribus  tantis  illij  minus  redit  quam  obseueris  (Plaut.  Trin  11. 


*  Literally  '  to  keep  in  a  straight  line  as  a  carpenter  does  by  apply- 
ing his  rule.' 

f  A  comparison  implies  proximity  of  the  things  compared.  Hence 
this  use  of  the  ablative  flows  easily  from  the  original  meaning  of  the  da- 
tive. Observe  too  that  all  the  verbs  denoting  comparison  signify  strictly 
the  bringing  together,  as  corn-para-,  cori-fer-,  con-tend-,  com-pos-.  So 
also  the  prepositions  of  proximity,  ad  (§  1304  &.),  prae  (§  1356  of.),  pro 
(§  1361  g.),  are  used  in  comparisons. 

±  The  adverb. 


ABLATIVE.  209 

4. 128),  for  every  bushel  you  sow  on  that  land,  you  lose  three 
bushels  in  the  return.* 

Mlllbus  passuum  sex  a  Caesaris  castris  consedit  (Caes.  B.  Q.  I. 
48),  lie  took  a  position  six  miles  from  Caesar's  camp. 

10 i«j        The  ablativest  of  pronouns  and  adjectives  of  quantity  are  much 
used  in  this  way  with  comparatives  :  as, 

ViS,  quanto  tutior,  tanto  fere  longiSr  (Liv.  ix.  2),  a,  road  longer 

in  about  the  same  proportion  as  it  was  safer. 
Quo  maio'r  est  In  anlmis  praestantia,  eo  maiore  indigent  dlli- 
gentia  (Cic.  Tusc.  iv.  27.  58),  the  greater  the  excellence  in  the. 
soul,  the  more  attention  it  needs. 

1018. 1    An  ablative  is  occasionally  used  instead  of  an  accusative  (§  915) 
to  denote  duration  of  time. 

Quinque  horis  proelium  sustinue'rant  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  47),  they 

had  kept  up  the  battle  for  five  hours. 
Octoginta  annis  uixit  (Sen.  Ep.  93),  he  lived  to  the  age  of  eight)/. 

1019  The  form  of  an  ablative  is  sometimes  found  in  inscriptions,  old 
writers,  and  certain  phrases,  where  a  dative  would  be  expected  : 
as, 

IOVE  OPTVMO  MAXSVMO  (Inscr.  Grut.  xvi.  8),  to  Jupiter,  the  best, 

the  greatest. 
Postquam  morte  datust  Plautus,  comoediS,  luget  (Plaut.'S),  now 

that  Plautus  is  given  to  Death,  Comedy  is  in  mourning. 
Triumulri  auro  argento  aerg  flando  fe'riundo  (Inscr.  Orell.  569), 

the  three  commissioners  for  smelting  and  stamping  gold,  silver 

and  bronze. 

1020  Hence  the  poets,  to  accommodate  their  metres,  occasionally 
substitute  the  form  of  the  ablative  where  a  dative  might  have 
been  expected  :  as, 

At  si  uirglneum  suffuderit  or8  rtiborem, 

Ventus  erit  ( Virg.  G.  I.  430), 

But  if  a  maiden's  blush  s/ie§  pour  from  beneath  upon  her  cheek, 
Wind  will  there  be. 

*  Literally  '  less  by  three  times  as  much.'    Thus  the  extravagance 
of  the  phrase  runs  beyond  possibility, 
f  But  see  §  789,  note. 

J  First  verse  of  the  epitaph  written  by  Plautus  for  himself.  Gell.  n.  24. 
§  i.e.* the  moon.' 

P 


210  SYNTAX. 

MollS  Calenum 
PorrecturS  ulro  miscet  sltiente — rubetam  (Juv.  i.  69), 

Mild  Calene  about  to  hand 
To  her  thirsting  lord,  she  mixes  therein — a  toad. 

1021  A  true  ablative  ending  in  the  letter  d*  belonged  to  the  old 
language,  and  the  loss  of  this  d  led  to  a  form  very  similar  to  the 
weakened  dative  commonly  called  the  ablative.     Hence,  from  a, 
town  is  sometimes  expressed  by  a  mere  ablative  :  as, 

C&rinthot  fugit  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  37.109),  he  fled  from  Corinth. 

1022  Similarly  the  ablatives  rurS  and  domo  are  used  :  as, 

ClbariS,  sibi  quemqug  dSmo  efferre  iiibeiit  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  5), 
they  bid  them  bring  food  from  home,  every  man  for  himself. 

Peiter  rure  redht  (Ter.  E.  in.  5.  63),  my  father  is  returned  from 
the  country. 

1023  Verbs  and  adjectives  of  removal  and  separation  are  followed  by 
an  ablative :  as, 

Signum  non  potSrat  mouere  loco  (Cic.  de  Div.  i.  35.  77),  he 

could  not  move  the  standard  from  where  it  was. 
Tuos  culpa  libero  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xm.  22.  3),  I  free  your  people 

from  blame. 
Praetura  se  abdicatj  (Cic.  in  Cat.  iv.  3.  5),  he  lays  down  the 

office  of  Praetor. 
Defunctl§  regis  imperio  (Liv.  i.  4),  having  discharged  the  king's 

order. 
His  Squa  atque  igni  interdixerat  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  44),  these  he 

had  forbidden  fire  and  water. 
Inuldet  igne  rogi  mlserls  (Lucr.  vn.  798),  he  grudges  the  poor 

wretches  tliefire  of  a  funeral  pile. 

*  As,  for  example,  on  one  of  the  epitaphs  of  the  Scipios  (Orelli  550), 
Gnaiuod  patre  prognatns  for  Cnaeo  &c. 

f  More  commonly  a  Corintho,  as  a  Gergouia  discessit  (Caes.  B.  G. 
vn.  59).  When  a  word  denoting  town  is  added,  a  preposition  is  neces- 
sary, as  Expellitur  ex  oppido  Geryouia  (Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  4);  Generis 
antiquitatem  Tusculo  ex  clarissumo  municipio  profectam  (Cic.  p.  Font. 
.41).  See  also  §§  884  note,  and  951  note  J. 

$  Literally  *  he  unbinds  himself  from,'  the  office  being  a  sort  of  charge 
-'•  burden  which  for  security  he  had  fastened  to  his  person. 

§  The  reflectire  verbs  fung->  defung-,  probably  meant  original!;'  to 
relieve  oneself;  and  the  burden,  as  with  abdico  me,  will  for  the  same 
reason  be  in  the  ablative.  Hence  the  word  'discharge,'  i.e.  'unload.' 
will  be  literally  correct. 


NUMBER  OF  SUBSTANTIVES.  211 

Roma  caremtis  (Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  19. 1),  we  are  deprived  of  Rome. 

1024  The  verbs  or  participles  which  denote  birth  or  origin  take  an 
ablative :  as, 

Mercurius,  louS  natfis  et  Maia  (Cic.  N.  D.  in.  22. 56),  Mercury 
born  of  Jupiter  and  Maia. 

1025  The  prepositions  which  signify  removal  or  separation  have  an 
ablative  :  as,  8c,  de,  ab,  slnS,  absqug,  clam.     See  §  914,  note. 

NUMBER  OF  SUBSTANTIVES. 

1026  Some  substantives  are  used  in  the  plural  where  the  English 
translation  has  a  singular*  :  as, 

Cassi  adipesf  (Cic.  in  Cat.  in.  7.16),  the  fat  of  Cassius. 
Inlmlcltiae  cum  Roscils  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  6. 17),  a  quarrel 

with  the  Roscii. 
Ceruicest  se'cur!  subiecit  (Cic.  Phil.  u.  21. 51),  he  presented  his 

neck  to  the  hatchet. 

1027  The  terms  of  weather  are  sometimes  used  in  the  plural  where 
the  English  language  would  almost  require  the  singular  :  as,  ca- 
lores,  frigSrS,  grandmSs,  imbres,  nlues,  pluuiae,  pruinae.     Thus, 

Terrere  animos  fulntinibus,  nfrilbus,  grandlulbus  (Cic.  N.  D.  IT. 

5. 14),  to  frighten  the  minds  of  men  with  thunder,  and  snow, 

and  hail. 
Transcendere  Apenninum  intSlerandis  frlgoYSbiis  (Liv.  xxn.  1), 

to  cross  the  Apennines  when  the  frost  was  unbearable. 

1028  The  plural  is  preferred  in  general  truths,  where  the  English 
has  commonly  a  singular  :  as, 

Vfri  In  uxores  ultae  ngcisque  h&bent  pStestatem  (Caes.  B.  G. 
vi.  19),  the  husband  (in  that  country)  has  the  power  of  life 
and  death  over  the  wife. 

1029  The  singular  of  some  words  is  found  where  the  English  trans- 
lation requires  a  plural :  as, 

Vlta§  illustrium  (Nepos),  the  lives  of  illustrious  men. 

*  See  also  §  152. 

f  Editions  commonly  have  erroneously  and  contrary  to  the  Mss.  the 
singular.  See  Steinmetz. 

$  Ceruic-  probably  meant  a  single  vertebra. 

§  See  Servius  Aen.  i.  372.  See  also  Fischer's  Pseudo-Nepos,  Pre- 
face, near  the  end. 


212  SYNTAX. 

1030  The  singular  is  preferred  with  animals  and  vegetables  where 
there  is  an  allusion  to  the  table,  because  they  are  considered  in 
the  mass,  not  counted :  as, 

Villa  £bundat  porco,  haedo,  agno,  gallina  (Cic.  de  Sen.  16.  56), 

the  farm-house  abounds  with  pork  and  kid  and  lamb*  and 

fowl. 
Leporem  et  gallmam  et  anserem  gustare  fas  non  piitant  (Caes. 

B.  G.  v.  12),  hare  and  fowl  and  goose  they  think  it  an  act  of 

impiety  to  taste. 
Pythagorlcls  interdictum  grat  ne  fSba  uescerentiir(Cfo.  deDiv. 

I.  30.  62),  the  Pythagoreans  were  forbidden  to  eat  beans. 

1031  So  also  with  other  words  where  the  mass  does  not  admit  of 
numeration  :  as, 

Pululnus  rosa  fartus  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  v.  11.  27),  a  pillow  stuffed 

with  rose-leaves. 
In  uiola  aut  in  rosa  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  26.73),  on  violets  or  roses 

(meaning  the  gathered  flowers). 

1032  In  military  language  the  singular  is  used  at  times  for  a  plural : 
as, 

Quo&d  inse'qui  pgdest  potuit  (Liv.  II.  25),  as  far  as  the  infantry 

could  pursue. 
Eques  eos  ad  castra  egit  (Liv.  IT.  25),  the  cavalry  drove  them  to 

their  camp. 
Hie  miles  magis  pl&cuit  (Liv.  xxn.  57),  a  soldiery  of  this  kind 

was  preferred. 
Eomanus  Ira  odioque  pugnabat  (Liv.  in.  2),  the  Romans  fougkt 

under  a  feeling  of  indignation  and  hatred. 

DEFECTIVE  SUBSTANTIVES. 

1032.1  Undeclined  substantives  (§  187)  can  only  be  used  as  nomina- 
tives or  accusatives.  But  the  names  of  the  letters,  and  generally 
words  spoken  of  as  words,  may  be  used  as  genitives,  datives  or 
ablatives,  if  an  adjective  or  substantive  in  apposition  fix  the  case. 

*  Observe  that  the  omission  of  the  indefinite  article  in  English  makes 
the  distinction  between  the  animal  for  table  and  the  living  animal. 

f  The  singular  however  has  its  force,  drawing  attention  to  the  indi- 
vidual. Thus,  in  the  last  phrase, '  each  individual  soldier  has  his  own 
feelings  of  anger;'  so  again  in  the  first  sentence,  'a  foot-soldier'  would 
have  been  an  equally  good  translation,  signifying  '  inasmuch  as  he  was  a 
foot-soldier.' 


ELLIPSIS  OP  SUBSTANTIVES.  213 

OMISSION  OR  ELLIPSIS  OP  SUBSTANTIVES. 

1033  The  masculine  adjective  is  often  used  in  speaking  of  men,  the 
neuter  in  speaking  of  things  ;  especially  where  the  gender  is  dis- 
tinguished in  the  termination.     See  §  1044. 

1034  Some  adjectives  used  as  substantives  may  be  seen  in  §  210 ; 
and  to  these  may  be  added, 

Statiua,  hlberna,  <fec.  (castrS,  understood). 
Tertiana-,  quartana-,  &c.  (fSbri-  understood). 
Circenses,  Saeculares,  &c.  (ludl  understood). 
Trlremi-,  actuaria-,  &c.  (naui-  understood). 
Suburbauo-,  Tusctilano-,  &c.  (praedio-  [n.]  understood). 
Eepetundaruin  (rerum  understood). 
Centensumae,  &c.  (usurae  understood). 
AgonaliS,,  LiberaliS,,  &c.  (sS,crS  understood). 
Primae,  sScundae  (partes  understood). 
Tertia-,  quarta-,  <fec.  (parti-  understood). 
In  posterum  (diem  understood). 

1035  The  genitive  of  a  deity  is  often  used  with  prepositions,  the 
proper  case  of  aedi-  a  temple  being  understood. 

Habitabat  rex  ad  louis*  StS,toiis  (aedem  understood)  (Liv.  i. 

41),  the  king  resided  near  ike  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator. 
A  Vestae  (aede  understood)  ductast  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xiv.  2.  2), 

she  was  taken  away  from  the  temple  of  Vesta. 

1036  But  the  Latin  language  does  not  copy  the  English  in  the  use 
of  the  genitive  of  a  person's  name,  meaning  his  house ;  but  either 
inserts  the  word  for  house,  or  uses  a  preposition  with  the  name  of 
the  person  :f  as, 

Veuisti  in  dSmum  Laecae  (Cic.  in  Cat.  i.  4.  8),  you  came  to 

Laeca^s. 
Domi  Caesaris  deprensust  (Cic.  ad  Att.  i.  12.  3),  he  was  caught 

at  Caesar's. 
1036. 1    When  a  sentence  contains  two  corresponding  genitives  governed 

*  This  is  like  our  own  phrase, '  St.  Paul's'  for  '  St.  Paul's  Church.' 
f  The  use  of  the  prepositions  is  as  follows:— to  Cicero's  house,  ad 

Ciceronem  or  domum  ad  Ciceronem  ;  at  Cicero's  house,  apud  Ciceronem  ; 

from  Cicero's  house,  a  Cicerone  or  a  Cicerone  domo ;  and  this  even  though 

Cicero  be  known  to  be  absent.    See  these  prepositions,  §S  1305.  o  ;  1311.  c  ; 

1303.  /. 


214 


SYNTAX. 


by  the  same  substantive,  this  substantive  need  for  the  most  part 
only  be  expressed  with  the  first  genitive  :  as, 

Flebat  pater  de  fill  mortg,  de  patris  filius  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  i.  30. 
76),  the  father  was  weeping  for  the  death  of  his  son,  the  son 
for  that  of  his  father. 

Quls  est  qui  possit  conferre  uitam  Trebon!  cum  Dolabellae  ? 
(Cic.  Phil.  xi.  4.  9)  who  is  there  who  can  compare  the  life  of 
Trebonius  with  that  of  Dolabella  ? 

Meo  iudlcio  stare"  malo  quam  omnium  rellquorum  (Cic.  ad  Att. 
xn.  21.  5),  I  choose  to  abide  by  my  own  judgment,  rather  than 
by  that  of  all  the  rest. 

1036.  2  As  a  wife,  son,  daughter  or  slave  may  be  said  to  belong  to  a 
man,  the  genitive  of  the  possessor  is  occasionally  used  without 
the  substantives  denoting  those  relations  :  as, 

Hasdriibal  Gisgonls  (Liv.  xxv.  37),  Hasdrubal,  the  son  ofGisgo. 
Verania  Pisonis  (Plin.  Ep.  n.  20),  Verania,  the  wife  of  Piso, 

more  literally  Piso's  Verania. 
Flaccus  Claudl  (Ter.  And.  tit.),  Flaccus,  Claudius's  slave. 

ADJECTIVES,  &c. 

1037  Adjectives  and  participles  are  attracted  into  the  same  case, 
gender  and  number  as  the  substantive  to  which  they  refer. 

Thus,  from  docto-  or  docta-  learned,  and  hdrntfn-  man  ;  bSno- 
or  b5na-  good,  muliSr-  woman  ;  grS,ui-  heavy,  5nes-  load,  we  have  : 


SINGULAR. 

N,     doctiis  h5mo. 
I",     docte  homo. 
Ac.   doctum  hSmlnem. 

bonS  muliSr. 
bonS,  miilie'r. 
bonam  muligrem. 

gr§,ue  5nus. 
graue  5nus. 
graue  onus. 

G.     docti  hSminis. 
D.     docto  hominl. 
Ab.  docto  htfmlnS. 

bonae  mulierls. 
bSnae  mulierl. 
b5na  muligrg. 

grauls  onerls. 
grSui  ongrl. 
gr&ui  tfne're. 

PLURAL. 

N.     docti  hSmlnes. 
V.     docti  homines. 
Ac.   doctos  homines. 
G.     doctorum  hSmluum. 
D.A.doctls  homluibus. 

b5nae  miilie'res. 
b5nae  muliSrgs. 
bSnas  miiliSres. 
bSnarum  muli^rum. 
bonis  miilieribus. 

gi-Suia  5nerS. 
gr^uia  5uera 
grftuia  Snerci. 
gr2,uium  Snerurn. 
graulbus  5uerlbus. 

ADJECTIVES.  215 

1038  Sometimes  the  gender  and  number  of  the  adjective  or  participle 
are  determined  by  the  sense*  rather  than  the  form  of  the  substan- 
tive :  as, 

Omirfs  aetas  curre're  obuii  (Liv.  xxvu.  51),  all  ages  i.  e.  persons 

of  every  age  kept  running  to  meet  him. 
Capita  coiiiuratiouis  uirgls  caesi  ac  securi  percuss!  sunt  (Liv. 

x.  1),  the  heads  of  the  conspiracy  were  flogged  and  beheaded. 
Concursus  pSpull  mlrantium  quid  rei  esset  (Liv.  I.  41),  a  run- 
ning together  of  the  citizens,  who  wondered  what  was  the 

matter. 
Ed  numerost  qul  semper  sancti  sunt  habltl  (Cic.  p.  Arch.  12. 

31),  he  is  one  of  a  class  who  have  ever  been  accounted  sacred. 
Cetera  multitude  decimus  quisque  ad  supplicium  lecti  (Liv.  11. 

59),  of  the  great  mass  remaining,  every  tenth  man  was  selected 

for  punishment. 

1039  If  a  relative  or  other  pronoun  be  the  subject  of  a  sentence 
which  itself  contains  a  predicative  substantive,  the  gender  and 
number  of  the  pronoun  are  commonly  determined  by  the  latter : 
as, 

Thebae,  quod  Boeotiae  cSput  est  (Liv.  XLII.  44),  Thebes,  which 

is  the  capital  of  Boeotia. 
lusta  gloriS,,  qui  est  fructus  uerae  uirtutls  (Cic.  in  Pis.  24.  57), 

the  genuine  glory,  which  is  the  fruit  of  true  merit. 
ES,t  qu&terna  milia  erant  (Liv.  xxi.  17),  these  Regions)  were 

each  4000  strong. 
Hoc  5pus,  hie  labor  est  (Virg.  A.  vi.  129),  this  is  the  task,  this 

the  labour. 

1040  If  an  adjective  or  participle  refer  to  several  nouns  of  different 
gender  or  number,  the  gender  and  number  are  commonly  deter- 
mined by  one  of  the  three  rules  following  : 

a.  Most  commonly  the  adjective  agrees  in  number  and  gender 
with  the  noun  to  which  it  is  nearest ; 

b.  Or,  if  the  nouns  be  living  beings,  the  masculine  plural  may 
be  used ; 

c.  Or,  if  they  be  things  without  life,  the  neuter  plural  may  be 
used  :  as, 

*  This  is  called  the  construct™  ad  synesim. 

f  Nay,  we  find  in  Livy,  xxi.  55,  Duodeuiginti  milia  Romano,  erant, 
'  the  Romans  amounted  to  18,000  ;'  for  so  all  the  best  Mss. 


216 


SYNTAX. 


a.  Mens  St  5,nlmus  et  consllium  et  sententiS,  clultatis  po'sitast 

in  leglbus  (Cic.  p.  Clu.  53. 146),  the  intellect,  and  soul,  and 

forethought,  and  feelings  of  a  state  reside  in  the  laws. 
CingStSrigl  princlpatus  atque  impgrium  est  tradltum  (Caes. 

B.  G.  vi.  8),  the  chief  post  and  the  supreme  command  were 

handed  over  to  Cingetorix. 
Niimldas  magis  pedes  quam  armS,  tuta  sunt  (Sal.  Jug.  74), 

the  Numidians  owed  their  safety  rather  to  their  feet  than 

their  arms. 

b.  PSter  mi  et  mater  mortal  sunt  (Ter.  E.  in.  3. 12),  my  father 

and  mother  are  dead. 

c.  L5,bor  uoluptasque,  dissimilllmS,  natura,  s<5cietate  quadnm 

inter  se  naturali  sunt  iuncta  (Liv.  v.  3),  toil  and  pleasure, 
utterly  unlike  as  they  are  in  nature,  are  still  joined  together 
in  a  sort  of  natural  partnership. 

1041  As  a  plural  adjective  may  be  distributed  between  two  substan- 
tives, so  may  a  plural  substantive  between  two  adjectives.    Thus, 

Quarta  et  Martia"  Iggiones  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xi.  19),  the  fourth  and 
the  Martian  legions.* 

1042  Many  words  which  were  originally  adjectives  or  participles  are 
at  times  used  as  substantives,  and  as  such  may  have  adjectives  or 
genitives  attached  to  them  :  as, 

Natalis  metis  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  5.  3),  my  birthday. 
VStus  uicmiis  (Cic.  p.  Mur.  27.  56),  an  old  neighbour. 
Imquissumi  mel  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  v.  69. 177),  my  greatest  enemies. 
Paternus  inlmlciis  (Cic.  p.  Scauro,  2. 45.  h.),  an  hereditary  enemy. 
Publlcum  m&lum  (Sal.  Cat.  57),  public  misfortune. 
Praeclarum  responsum  (Cic.  de  Sen.  5. 13),  a  glorious  answer. 
SummS,  pectSrfs  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  i.  9. 15),  the  highest  parts  of  the 

breast. 
OccultS,  tempi!  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  105),  the  hidden  recesses  of  the 

temple. 

Summum  mentis  (Sal.  Jug.  93),  the  summit  of  the  mountain. 
Medium  diel  (Liv.  xxvi.  45),  the  middle  of  the  day. 

1043  The  neuter  adjective  often  found  in  the  predicate  of  a  sentence, 

*  Not  unlike  this  is  the  use  of  two  praenomina  with  the  gens  in  the 
plural :  as,  C.  et  L.  Caepasii,  i.  e.  Caius  et  Lucius  Caepasii  (Cic.  Brut. 
69.  242),  *  the  two  Caepasii,  Caius  and  Lucius.1 


ADJECTIVES.  217 

when  the  subject  is  not  of  that  gender,  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
substantive.     Thus, 

TristS  lupus  stabiills  (  Virg.  Buc.  in.  80),  a  sad  thing  is  the  wolf 

unto  the  stall. 
Varium  et  mutabllS  semper  FemlnS,  ( Virg.  A.  iv.  569),  a  thing 

of  motley  hue  and  ever  changeable  is  woman. 

1043. 1    A  neuter  of  an  adjective  is  often  used  with  prepositions,  espe- 
cially to  form  adverbial  phrases  :  as. 

Stare  in  occulto  (Cic.  p.  Clu.  28.  78),  to  stand  in  some  dark 

corner. 

In  postgrum  prouiderunt  (Cic.  in  Hull.  n.  33. 91),  they  provided 
for  the  future. 

50  also  de  improulso  unexpectedly,  de  intSgro  afresh,  sing  dubio 
without  doubt. 

1044  There  is  greater  freedom  in  using  as  substantives  those  parts 
of  an  adjective  which  show  their  gender ;  as,  for  instance,  the  no- 
minative and  accusative  of  neuters.    Thus  the  genitives  of  neuters 
of  the  third  declension  should  be  avoided  in  this  construction,  un- 
less some  other  genitive  less  ambiguous  accompany  them.     For 
example,  we  may  say, 

Nil  humanl  (Ter.  Haut.  i.  1. 25),  nothing  like  the  conduct  of  a 
man,  where  humanl  is  virtually  a  substantive  ;  or, 

Nil  humanum,  where  hiimanum  is  an  adjective. 

But  if  the  adjective  be  of  the  i  declension,  as  cluili-,  then  we 
have  no  choice  but  nil  ciullg,  nothing  like  the  conduct  of  a  citizen  ; 
unless  indeed  two  adjectives  are  united,  as  : 

51  quidquam  in  uobis,  non  dlco  clullis  sgd  humani  esset  (Liv. 

v.  3),  if  there  had  been  aught  in  you  of  the  feelings,  I  do  not 
say  of  a  citizen,  but  of  a  man. 

Potior  utllis  quarn  h5nestl  cura  (Liv.  XLII.  47),  it  is  better  to 
concern  oneself  about  the  useful  than  the  honourable. 

1045  When  the  gender  is  not  at  once  determined  by  the  termination 
of  the  adjective,  it  is  commonly  better  to  use  a  substantive  with 
the  adjective :  as, 

Multls  homlnlbus  or  multis  rebus,  rather  than  multls  alone. 

1046  The  Roman  gentile  names,  that  is,  the  second  names  in  io,  are 
really  adjectives,  and  hence  are  at  times  found  with  substantives 
of  various  genders  attached  to  them  :  as, 


218  SYNTAX. 

Sulplcia  horrea  (Hor.  Od.  iv.  12.18),  the  Sulpician  granaries. 
Octauia  portlcus  (Velle.  i.  11),  the  Octavian  portico. 
lulia  lex  (CYc.  p.  Balbo,  8.21),  the  Julian  law. 
Cornelia  castra  (Caes.  B.  C.  n.  37),  the  Cornelian  camp. 

1047  The  Romans  use  possessive  adjectives  formed  from  proper 
names  instead  of  the  genitive  :  as, 

Extendltur  una 
lion-Ida  per  latos  acies  Volcania  campos  (Virg.  A.  x.  407), 

Spreads  unbroken 

O'er  the  wide  plain  the  bristling  host  of  Vulcan. 
Henlis  fllius  (Ter.  Ph.  i.  1.5),  master's  son. 
Pompeianiis  exercitus  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  99),  Pompetfs  army. 

1048  Possessive  adjectives  include  the  notion  of  a  genitive,  and 
hence  an  adjective  or  participle,  with  or  without  a  substantive, 
in  the  genitive  case,  is  often  attached  to  them  ;  or  it  may  be  a 
relative  sentence,  referring  to  the  noun  implied  in  the  adjective  : 
as, 

Quoi  nomen  meum  absentis  honor!  fuisset,  el  meas  praesentis 
prSces  non  pittas  profuissS  ?  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  10.  26)  do  you 
think  the  prayers  which  I  addressed  in  person  were  of  no  ser- 
vice to  one  to  whom  my  mere  name  in  my  absence  had  been  an 
honour ? 

Vt  mea  defunctae  molliter  ossa"  cubent  (Ov.  Am.  i.  8.108),  that 
my  bones  when  1  am  dead  may  softly  lie. 

Meam  legem  contemnit,  hominis  Inlmic!  (Cic.  p.  Sest.  64.135), 
lie  treats  my  law  with  contempt,  but  then  I  am  his  enemy. 

VestrS,  cousilia  accusantur,  qul  mihi  summum  hSnorem  im- 
pSsuistis  (Sal.  Jug.  80),  it  is  your  wisdom  which  is  im- 
peached, for  it  was  you  who  imposed  upon  me  the  highest 
office. 

Vestra,  qul  cum  summa  integritatS  uixistls,  hoc  maxume  in- 
tgrest  (Cic.  p.  Sull.  28.  79),  you  who  have  lived  with  the 
greatest  integrity  are  most  concerned  in  this. 

"Veiens*  bellum  ortumst,  qulbus  Sabini  armS,  coniunxerant 
(Liv.  n.  53),  a  war  with  Veii  arose,  with  which  city  the 
Sabines  had  united  their  arms. 

1049  An  adjective  in  agreement  with  the  nominative  often  accom- 
panies a  verb  where  the  English  has  commonly  an  adverb  :  as, 

*  '  Of  or  belonging  to  Veii.' 


ADJECTIVES.  219 

Et  tibi  Lubens  bene  faxim  (Ter.  Ad.  v.  5.5),  and  I  would  gladly 

serve  you. 
In  physlcis  totust  aliSuiis  (Cic.  de  Fin.  i.  6. 17),  in  natural 

philosophy  he  is  altogether  out  of  his  element. 
Lupus  greglbus  nocturnus  obambiilat  ( Virg.  G.  in.  538),  the 

wolf  in  presence  of  the  flocks  by  night  walks  to  and  fro. 
Phlld'timus  nullus  uenit  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xi.  24.  4),  Philotimus 

has  not  made  his  appearance  at  all. 

1050  The  adjectives  prior-,  primo-,  postremo-,  princlp-,  solo-  &c. 
are  used  in  immediate  connection  with  verbs  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  English  translation  often  requires  the  insertion  of  the 
verb  Ss-  be  and  the  relative,  or  some  other  periphrasis  :  as, 

PrlmS  SicIliS,  prouinciast  adpellatS  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  n.  1.  2), 
Sicily  was  the  first  that  was  called  a  province. 

Hispania  postrema  omnium  prouinciarum  perdtfmltast  (Liv. 
xxvin.  12),  Spain  was  the  last  of  all  the  provinces  to  be 
thoroughly  subdued. 

StoicI  soli  ex  omnibus  elSquentiam  uirtutem  esse  dixerunt 
(Cic.  de  Or.  in.  18.  65),  the  /Stoics  are  the  only  sect  of  the 
whole  number  who  have  declared  eloquence  to  be  a  virtue. 

1051  A  neuter  adjective  is  often  used  as  an  adverb.     Thus, 

Hb'die  aut  summum  eras  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xm.  21.  2),  to-day  or  at 


Dulce*  ridentem  (Hor.  Od.  i.  22.  23),  sweetly  laughing^ 

1052  When  substantives  signifying  agents  have  one  form  for  the 
masculine,  another  for  the  feminine,  they  so  far  take  the  charac- 
ter of  adjectives,  that  they  must  agree  in  number,  gender  and 
case  with  the  word  to  which  they  refer  :  as, 

Legis  aeternae  uis,  quae  quasi  dux  uitae  et  magistra  offlciorum 
est  (Cic.  N.  D.  i.  15.40),  the  force  of  an  eternal  law,  which 
is  as  it  were  the  guide  of  life  and  the  instructress  in  duty. 

Timor,  non  diuturnus  magistgr  offlcl  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  36.90), 
/ear,  no  permanent  instructor  in  duty. 

1053  Other  words  commonly  treated  as  substantives  take  a  similar 
liberty  between  neuters  and  masculines  :  as, 

*  This  is  carried  to  a  great  extent  by  the  poets,  who  use  even  the 
plural  neuter  in  this  way.  The  comparative  neuter  is  the  only  foim  for 
a  comparative  adverb. 


220  SYNTAX. 

Mare  Oce&num  (Caes.  B.  G.  in.  7),  the  sea  called  Oceanus. 
Flumen  Rhenum  (Nor.  ad  Pis.  18),  the  river  Rfienus  or  Rhine. 
Eiid&num  ostium  (Plin.  in.  16),  the  mouth  of  the  Eridanus. 
Volturniis  amnis  (Liv.  xxin.  19),  the  river  Volturnus. 
Volturnum  oppldum  (Plin.  H.  N.  in.  5.9),  the  town  Volturnum. 

1054  Although  a  substantive  in  Latin  has  commonly  but  one  adjec- 
tive attached  to  it,  except  where  conjunctions  are  employed,  this 
restriction  does  not  apply,  a.  to  pronominal  adjectives,  b.  to  nu- 
merals, c.  to  adjectives  of  quantity,  d.  to  those  which  accompany 
verbs  as  part  of  the  predicate,  e.  to  the  possessive  adjectives,  such 
as  Plutonia  (see  §  1047),/.  to  three  or  more  adjectives,  with  pauses 
to  supply  the  place  of  conjunctions  (see  §  1435  I.} :  as, 

a.  Eadem  ilia  indluldua  et  solida  corpora  (Cic.  de  Fin.  i.  6.18), 

those  same  indivisible  and  solid  bodies. 

b.  Duo'decim  milia  Attica  talenta  dato  (Liv.  xxxvni.  38),  he 

shall  pay  12,000  Attic  talents. 

c.  Omnes  rectae  res  atque  laudabiles  eo  referuntur  (Cic.&e  Fin. 

i.  12. 42),  all  right  and  praiseworthy  things  are  referred  to 
this  standard. 

d.  Princepsque  declma  legio  ei  gratias  egit  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  41), 

and  the  tenth  legion  was  the  first  to  thank  1dm. 

e.  Et  domus  exllis  Plutonia  (Hor.  Od.  i.  4. 17),  and  Pluto  s 

shadowy  house. 

f.  Ea  uoluptaria,  delicata,  mollis  habetur  discIpllnS,  (Cic.  de 

Fin.  i.   11.37),  this  is  accounted  a   voluptuous,   tender, 
effeminate  school  of  philosophy. 

COMPARATIVES. 

1055  The  second  of  the  objects  compared  is  expressed  by  the  abla- 
tive in  short  and  simple  phrases  (§  1015),  but  quam  is  employed 
for  this  purpose  in  longer  or  more  complicated  phrases,  or  when 
greater  emphasis  is  desired.     Thus, 

a.  When  the  comparative  adjective  (or  adverb)  does  n  t  belong 
immediately  to  the  two  objects  compared,  quam  is  required  :  as, 

Filium  frequentiorem  cum  illis  quam  secum  cernebat  (Liv. 
xxxix.  53),  he  saw  that  his  son  was  more  frequently  in  their 
company  than  in  his  own. 

b.  But  suppose  that  the  adjective  does  belong  to  both,  still  if 


COMPARATIVES.  221 

the  first  object  be  governed  by  a  word  which  does  not  govern  the 
second,  the  second  should  be  in  a  distinct  proposition  of  its  own 
preceded  by  quam  :  as, 

Meliorem  quam  eg6  sum  suppono  tibi  (Plant.  Cure.  n.  2. 6),  / 

give  you  as  a  substitute  a  better  than  myself. 
HSmini  non  gratiosiorl  quam  Calidius  est,  Curidio  argentum 
reddldisti  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  20. 44),  you  paid  the  money  to 
Curidius,  a  man  not  more  influential  than  Calidius. 
Pompeius   dixit  se  munltiorem  forg  quam  Africanus  fuisset 
(Cic.  ad  Q.  Fr.  n.  3. 3),  Pompey  said  that  he  should  be  better 
guarded  than  Africanus  was.* 

Obs.  Yet  even  in  this  case,  if  the  first  object  be  an  accusative, 
the  second  is  often,  though  illogically,  put  in  the  accusative  by 
attraction  :  as, 

Patrem  tain  pl&cldum  reddo  quam  Suemf  (Ter.  Ad.  iv.  1.18), 
I  make  your  father  as  quiet  as  a  lamb.  J 

c.  But  even  when  the  two  objects  are  under  the  same  con- 
struction, quam  should  still  be  used  with  other  cases  than  the 
nominative  or  accusative. 

G.  Albauo  non  plus  ctnXmi  grat  quam  ftdel  (Liv.  i.  27),  the 
Alban  had  no  more  courage  than  honour. 

D.  His  Igitur  quam  physicis  potius  credendum  existumas  ? 
(Cic.  de  Div.  n.  16.37)  do  you  think  then  that  we  ought 
to  trust  these  rather  than  the  natural  philosophers  ? 

All.  Absoluerunt  admirationg  magis  uirtutis  quamiurg  caussae 
(Liv.  i.  26),  they  acquitted  (him)  rather  from  admiration 
of  his  valour  than  for  the  goodness  of  his  cause. 

d.  But  N.  Elephanto  beluarum  nulls,  prudentiSr  (Cic.  N.  D.  i. 

35.97),  not  one  of  all  the  great  beasts  has  more  intelligence 
than  the  elephant. 

Ex  eius  lingua  melle  dulcior  fluebat  6ratio(CVc.  de  Sen.  10.31), 
from  his  tongue  flowed  words  sweeter  than 


*  Here  the  difference  of  time,  the  one  being  future  and  the  other 
past,  made  quam  desirable. 

+  For  quam  ouis  est. 

%  Examples  of  both  these  constructions  occur  in  7W,  multo  maiori 
quam  Africanus  fuit,  me  non  multo  minorem  quam  Laelium,  et  in  repub- 
lica  et  in  amicitia  adiunctum  esse  patere  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  7.  3),  where 
Laelium  stands  for  quam  Laelius  fuit. 


222  SYNTAX. 

Melior  est  certa  pax  quam  speratS,  uictovia  (Liv.  xxx.  30),  a 
certain  peace  is  better  than  a  hoped-for  victory. 

Pluris  est  oculatus  testis  unus  quam  auriti  decem  (Plant.  True. 
II.  6.  8),  one  eye-witness  is  worth  more  than  ten  ear-wit- 
nesses. 

Ace.  Sapiens  humana  omnia  infSriorS,  uirtute  duclt  (Cic.  Tusc. 
iv.  26.  57),  a  wise  man  looks  upon  all  human  things  as 
inferior  to  virtue. 

Quo  grauiorem  Inlmlcum  non  habul  (Q.  Curt.  vi.  43),  a  greater 
enemy  than  whom  I  never  had.* 

Ita  sentio,  Latmam  linguara  locupletiorem  esse  quain  Graecam 
(Cic.  de  Fin.  i.  3.10),  my  feeling  is  this,  that  the  Latin 
language  is  richer  than  the  Greek. 

1055. 1  The  adjectives  of  dimension,  such  as  maior-,  minor-,  longior-, 
latior-,  altior-f,  and  the  adverbs  plus,  minus,  amplius,  are  often 
used  without  quam,  yet  so  as  not  to  affect  the  construction  of  the 
numerical  phrase  attached  to  them  :  as, 

Plus  septingentl  capti  (Liv.  XLI.  12),  more  than  700  were  taken 

prisoners. 
Quinctius  tecum  plus  annum  uixit  (Cic.  p.  Quinct.  12.41), 

Quinctius  lived  with  you  more  than  a  year. 
Constabat  non  minus  ducentos  fuissS  (Liv.  xxix.  34),  it  was 

clear  that  there  had  been  not  less  than  200. 
NSque  longius  mllia  passuum  octo  aberant  (Caes.  B.  G.  v.  53), 

nor  were  they  more  than  eight  miles  off. 
Spatium  non  amplius  pedum  sescentorum  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  38), 

an  interval  of  not  more  than  600  feet. 
Obsldes  uiginti  dato,  ne  minores  octonum  denum  neu  maiores 

qulnum  quadraggnum  (Liv.  xxxviii.  38),  hostages  he  shall 

give  twenty  in  number,  not  younger  than  eighteen  years  of 

age,  nor  older  than  forty-Jive. 
Plus  tertia  parte  interfecta  (Caes.  B.  G.  in.  6),  more  than  a 

third  part  having  been  slain. 
A  Caecllio  prSpinqui  mlnore   centensiimis  nummum  mSuere' 

non  possunt  (Cic.  ad  Att.  I.  12.1),  from  Caecilius  his  own 

immediate  connections  cannot  get  a  sixpence  at  less  than 

*  With  the  relative  the  use  of  the  ablative  is  alone  admissible. 
f  Altior  (Lucr.  iv.  415). 


COMPARATIVES.  223 

twelve  per  cent  per  annum  (literally,  one  in  a  hundred  per 


1055. 2    A  comparison  of  two  qualities  in  the  same  object  is  expressed 
either  by  two  comparatives,  or  by  magis  and  two  positives  :  as, 
Paulli  contio  fuit  uerior  quam  gratior  popiilo  (Liv.  xxn.  38), 
the  harangue  of  Paullus  was  more  true  than  agreeable  to  the 
citizens. 
Bella  fortius  quam  felicius  gerere  (Liv.  v.  43),  to  conduct  wars 

with  more  courage  than  good  fortune. 

Artem  iurls  h&bebltis  magis  magnam  quam  diffMlem  ( Cic.  de 
Or.  i.  42. 190),  you  will  then  have  a  treatise  on  law  rather 
bulky  than  difficult. 

1055.  3  For  the  sake  of  brevity  an  ablative  is  sometimes  used  where 
the  correct  expression  of  the  idea  would  require  many  words, 
especially  with  spe,  tfpmidne',  iusto,  aequo. 

Caesar  opinion^  celerius  uSniet  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xiv.  23),  Caesar 
will  come  more  quickly  than  was  expected. 

Amnis  solito  cltatior  (Liv.  xxm.  19),  the  river  running  with 

greater  rapidity  than  usual. 

1056  *  Too  great  in  proportion  to  something'  is  expressed  by  a  com- 
parative and  quam  pro :  as, 

PuluSrem  maiorem  quam  pro  niimero  excitabant  (Liv.  x.  41), 
they  raised  a  cloud  of  dust  greater  than  might  have  been  ex- 
pected from  their  number. 

Proelium  atrocius  quam  pro  numgro  pugnantium  (Liv.  xxi. 
29),  a  battle  more  furious  than  was  to  have  been  expected  from 
the  number  of  combatants. 

1056. 1  '  Too  great  for  something'  is  expressed  by  a  comparative  and 
quam  qul or  quam  ut :  as, 

Maius  gaudium  grat  quam  quod  homines  c&pgrent  (Liv.  xxxiii. 

32),  the  joy  was  too  great  for  human  beings  to  contain. 
Campani  maiora  deliquSrant  quam  qulbus  ignosci  posset  (Liv. 

xxvi.  12),  the  people  of  Capua  had  been  guilty  of  misconduct 

too  grave  to  be  pardoned. 

1056.2  'Too  great' generally,  without  formal  reference  to  a  purpose 

*  Observe  that  all  these  constructions  would  remain  correct  in  La- 
tinity,  even  if  the  comparatives  were  struck  out. 


224  SYNTAX. 

or  standard,  may  be  expressed  by  nlmls  and  the  positive,  or  by  a 
comparative  with  the  ablative  aequo  or  iusto,  or  thirdly  by  a  sim- 
ple comparative  :  as, 

VSluptas  quum  maior  atque  longior  est,  omne  airiml  lumen 

extingult  (Cic.  de  Sen.  12.41),  when  pleasure  is  too  intense 

and  continued  too  long,  it  put*  out  the  whole  light  of  the  soul. 

Llberius  si  Dix6r5  quid  (Hor.  Sat.  I.  4. 103),  too  freely  if  I 

aught  express. 

1056.  3  The  simple  comparative  sometimes  denotes  only  an  excess  be- 
yond the  average,  and  may  then  be  translated  by  '  somewhat'  or 
'rather,'  or  by  one  of  our  diminutival  adjectives  in  ish.  In  this 
sense  the  Latin  comparative  with  a  diminutival  suffix  in  culo  is 
also  used,  although  it  may  also  be  used  as  a  comparative. 

Senectus  est  natura  IdquaciSr  (Cic.  de  Sen.  16.  55),  old  age  is 

naturally  rather  talkative. 
Virgo  grandiusculS  (Ter.  And.   iv.  5.19),  a  girl  pretty  well 

grown  up  ;  a  biggish  girl, 
Thais  quam  ego  sum  maiusctilast  (Ter.  E.  in.  3.21),  Thais  is 

a  little  older  than  I  am. 

1056.  4  Atqug  and  ac  in  old  writers  and  in  poets  are  at  times  used  in 
place  of  quam  after  comparatives  :  as, 

K6n  Apollinis  magis  uerum  atque  h6c  responsumst  (Ter.  And. 
iv.  2. 14),  not  Apollo  gives  a  truer  answer  from  his  oracle 
than  this. 
Haud  minus  ac  iussl  fSciunt  ( Virg.  A.  in.  561),  not  less  than 

ordered  do  they. 

1056.  5  The  degree  of  excess  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  of  substan- 
tives (see  §  1017),  and  by  the  ablatives  eo  or  hoc  and  quo,  tanto 
and  quanto,  multo  and  paulo,  aliquanto  and  nihilo ;  also  by  the 
numerical  ablatives  altero-tanto  or  duplo,  as  much  again  ;  sesqui,* 
half  as  much  again,  &c.  (see  §  1018).  But  the  accusatival  forms 

*  This  word  is  probably  an  ablative,  whose  full  form  may  have  been 
semi-sequi,  the  latter  part  being  the  ablative  of  the  obsolete  positive  segui-, 
whence  the  comparative  sequior-  (but  observe  the  different  quantity),  in 
the  sense  of  *  following,  second,  inferior.'  Thus  semis-sequis  contracted 
into  sesquis  would  be  like  the  German  anderthalb  or  Ig,  just  as  semis- 
tertius  contracted  into  sestertius  is  equal  to  the  German  drittehalb  or  2£. 
See  §  272.  It  may  be  added  that  the  assumed  meaning  of  sequi-  would 
account  both  for  its  being  superseded  by  the  comparative  and  also  for  its 
having  no  superlative. 


SUPERLATIVES.  225 

in  um  are  not  uncommon  :  as,  multum  imprSbiSr  (Plant.  Most. 
in.  2. 139),  Sllquantum  amplior  (Liv.  i.  7),  quantum  magls  (Liv. 
in.  15). 

SUPERLATIVES. 

1 057        The  use  of  the  superlative  is  chiefly  in  such  constructions  as 
the  following : 

a.  ConsIliS,  sua  optumo  quoiquS  prSbant*  (Cic.  p.  Sest.  45.  96), 

they  satisfy  all  the  lest  men  of  the  excellence  of  their  mea- 
sures. 

Renuntiarunt  ludos  I5u!  prlmot  quoque  die  faciundos  (Liv. 
XLII.  20),  they  reported  that  games  should  be  celebrated  in 
honour  of  Jupiter  on  the  earliest  possible  day. 

Multi  mortales  conuenerS,  maxime  proximi  qulquSJ,  Caeni- 
nenses,  Crustiimini,  Antemnates  (Liv.  i.  9),  a  large  num- 
ber of  people  came  to  the  meeting,  chiefly  the  inhabitants  of 
the  several  nearest  states,  Caenina  and  CrustumeriUm  and 
Antemna. 

b.  Optiimus  quisquS  maxiimS  postgrltatl  seruit  (Cic.  Tusc.  i. 

15.35),  the  best  men  always  do  the  most  to  serve  posterity. 

c.  Vt  quisque  optiime  diclt,  ita  maxume  dicendl  difficultatem 

pertlmesclt  (Cic.  de  Or.  i.  26.120),  the  nearer  a  man  ap- 
proaches perfection  in  speaking,  the  more  is  he  alarmed  at 
the  difficulty  of  speaking. 

ItS,  quam  quisqug  pessume  fecit,  tarn  maxume  tutust  (Sal. 
Jug.  31),  thus,  the  worse  a  man  acts,  tJie  safer  is  he. 

d.  Tarn  sum  mltis  quam  qui  lenissumus  (Cic.  p.  Sul.  31.87),  / 

am  as  mild  as  the  gentlest  man  on  earth. 
Tarn  sum  §,micus  relpubllcae  quam  qui  maxume  (Cic.  ad 

Fam.  v.  2.  6),  /  am  as  attached  to  the  country  as  any  one 

living. 
Hulc  commendationl  tan  turn  tribue're'  quantum  quoi  trlbuisti 

plurumum  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xin.  22),  to  attach  as  much  weight 

to  this  recommendation  as  you  ever  did  to  any  one. 

*  Literally  '  make  them  to  appear  good.' 

f  This  phrase  should  be  contrasted  with  altero  quoque  die,  tertio  qua- 
que  die,  &c.  which  imply  the  passing  over  one,  two,  &c.  days  every  time. 
Primo  quoque  die  therefore  signifies  '  the  first  day  of  all ;'  if  that  be  im- 
possible, then  the  next,  and  so  on,  allowing  not  a  day  to  pass  without  an 
attempt. 

J  Plural,  because  each  single  state  furnished  a  number. 
Q 


Te  sic  tuebor  ut  quern  dillgentissume  (Cic.  ad  Fain.  xin. 
62),  /  shall  watch  your  interests  with  as  much  care  as  I 
ever  did  those  of  any  friend. 

DSmus  celebratur  ita  ut  cum  maxume  (Cic.  ad  Q.  F.  n.  6. 6), 
my  house  is  thronged  as  much  as  ever  it  was. 

Mater  nunc  cum*  maxume  f ilium  interfectum  cuplt  (Cic. 
p.  Clu.  5. 12),  she  desires  the  death  of  her  son  now  as  much 
as  ever. 

t.  Quam  potul  maxiimis  Stine'ribus  ad  Amanum  exercitum 
duxl  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xv.  4.7),  lied  the  army  to  the  Ama- 
nus  by  the  greatest  possible  marches. 

Statue  Sllquem  confectum  tantis  dolorlbus  quanti  in  homl- 
nem  maxumi  c£dere  possunt  (Cic.  de  Fin.  i.  12. 41),  pic- 
ture to  yourself  any  one  exhausted  by  the  greatest  sufferings 
man's  nature  is  capable  of. 

Quantam  maximam  potest  uastltatem  consul!  ostendlt  (Liv. 
xxu.  3),  he  exhibits  before  the  consul's  eyes  the  greatest  pos- 
sible devastation. 

Vt  p8tui  accuratisstime  te  tutatus  sum  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v. 
17.  2),  I  have  protected  your  interests  with  the  greatest  care 
in  my  power. 

f.  Quam  maxumas,  quam  primum,  quam  saepissume  gratias 
aget  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xin  b.  6),  he  will  express  his  gratitude 
in  the  strongest  possible  terms,  at  the  first  possible  opportu- 
nity, as  often  as  possible. 

</.  Quern  unum  nostrae  ciultatis  praestantissumum  aucleo  dicerS 
(Cic.  de  Am.  1.1),  whom  /venture  to  pronounce  of  all  men 
in  our  country  the  most  excellent. 

h.  Ex  Brltannis  omnibus  longe  sunt  humamsslm!  (Caes.  B.  G. 
v.  14),  of  all  the  Britons  they  are  by  far  the  most  civilised. 

Multo  maxumS,  pars  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  18.  54),  by  far  the 
greatest  part. 

In  fidibus  aures  uel  miimmS,  sentiunt  (Cic.  de  Off.  i.  41. 
146),  in  the  strings  of  musical  instruments  the  ear  perceives 
the  very  slightest  differences  of  note. 

i.  The  superlatives  which  denote  place  or  time,  together  with 
me'dio-,  which  in  power  is  a  superlative,  are  used  in  agreement 

*  One  might  have  expected  nunc  ut  cum  maxume. 


APPOSITION  AND  ATTRACTION.  227 

with  a  substantive  to  specify  the  part  of  it  to  which  the  superla- 
tive applies  :  as, 

Summus  mons  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  22),  the  top  of  the  mountain. 

In  extreme  llbro  tertio  (Cic.  de  Off.  in.  2. 9),  at  the  end  of  the 

third  look. 

Prima  lucg  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  22),  at  daybreak, 
k.  A  superlative  which  in  English  would  stand  in  the  antece- 
dent clause,  in  Latin  is  attached  to  the  relative  clause  :  as, 

P.  Scipioni  ex  multis  diebus  quos  in  ulta  laetissiimos  uidit, 
1118  dies  clarissumus  fuit  (Cic.  de  Am.  3.12),  of  the  many 
joyous  days  which  Publius  Scipio  saw  in  the  course  of  his  life, 
that  day  was  the  brightest. 

APPOSITION  AND  ATTRACTION. 

1058  When  one  substantive  is  attached  by  way  of  explanation  to 
another,  it  must  agree  with  it  always  in  case,  and  generally  in 
number,  and  when  practicable  in  gender  :  as, 

P.  VSrius,  uir  fortissumus  atque  optumus  cluls  (Cic.  p.  Mil. 
27. 74),  Publius  Varius,  a  most  gallant  gentleman  and  excel- 
lent citizen. 

Duae  urbes  ptftentissiimae,  Karthago  atqug  Numantia"  (Cic.  p. 
leg.  Man.  20.  60),  two  most  powerful  cities,  Carthage  and 
Numantia. 
Dellciae  meae  Dlcaearchus  (Cic.  Tusc.  I.  31.77),  my  darling 

Dicaearchus. 

Ptfpulus  Romanus  uictor  dSminusque  omnium  gentium  (Cic. 
Phil.  vi.  5. 12),  the  Roman  people,  the  conqueror  and  lord  of 
all  nations. 

Omitto  illas  omnium  doctnnarum  inuentrlcis  Athenas  (Cic.  de 
Or.  i.  4. 13),  /  omit  that  great  inventress  of  every  science, 
Athens. 

Ant6  me  consulem  (Cic.  Brut.  15. 60),  before  1  was  consul. 
10."  9        When  the  logical  connection  is  lost  sight  of,  and  the  construc- 
tion is  affected  by  the  proximity  of  some  connected  word  or  idea, 
it  is  called  attraction.  * 

*  Observe  that  the  German  is  logically  correct  in  giving  no  termina- 
tion to  the  adjective  in  the  predicate.  Still  more  logical  would  it  have 
been  to  have  given  the  adjective  one  fixed  form  under  all  circumstances. 
Cases  and  number  and  gender  strictly  belong  to  the  substantive  alone. 


228  SYNTAX. 

1060        It  is  thus  that  the  adjective  or  substantive  in  the  predicate  is 
made  to  agree  with  the  substantive  in  the  subject :  as, 

N.  Volo  gt  esse  et  haberl  gratus  (Cic.  de  Fiu.  n.  22. 72),  IwMt 

both  to  be  and  to  be  thought  grateful. 

Ace.  Creditur  Pythag5rae  audltorem  fuisse  Numam  (Liv.  XL. 
29),  it  is  believed  that  Numa  was  a  pupil  of  Pythagoras. 
G.  Captluorum  numgrus  fuit  septem  milium  ac  diicentorura 

(Liv.  x.  36),  the  number  of  prisoners  was  7200. 
Messi  clarum  geniis  Osci*  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  5.  54),  Messio's  glori- 
ous race  was  Oscan. 
D.  Vobis  necessest  fortibus  ulrls  esse  (Liv.  xxi.  44),  you  have 

no  choice  but  to  be  brave. 

Fons  aquae  dulcis  quoi  nomgn  Arethusae'stt  (Cic.  n.  Verr. 
iv.  53. 118),  a  spring  of  fresh  water  the  name  of  which  is 
Arethusa. 

Vti  mllitibiis  exaequatus  cum  imperatore  labos  uolentibus 

esset  (Sal.  Jug.  c.  4),  in  order  that  the  general's  taking 

an  equal  share  in  the  labour  might  be  gratifying  to  the 

soldiers."^ 

All.  Fllio  suo  m§,gistro  equitum  create  (Liv.  iv.  46),  his  son 

having  been  appointed  master  of  the  horse. 
Consiilibus  certiorlbus  factls  (Liv.  iv.  46),  the  consuls  hu?- 


V.  RuiS  mihl  frustra  credlte  Smlce  (Catul.  77. 1),  Rufus  i,i 

vain  believed  to  be  my  friend. 

1061        An  attraction  of  case  and  gender  is  seen  at  times  with  the 
relative :  as, 

Raptim  qulbus  quisqug  potgrat  elatis,  agmen  impleuerat  uias 
(Liv.  i.  29),  hastily  carrying  off  what  each  could,  a  line  of 
people  in  motion  had  filled  the  roach. 
Animal  hoc  quern  uScamus  htfnrtnem  (Cic.  de  Leg.  I.  7.22), 

this  animal  which  we  call  man. 

But  the  different  examples  of  attraction  are  also  given  in  their 
several  places. 

*  Some  editors  would  make  Osci  here  a  nom.  pi. 

f  For  so  we  should  read,  and  not  Arethusa  est. 

\  So  again  c.  84,  Neque  plebi  militia  uolenti  putabatur ;  Tac.  Agr. 
18,  Vt  quibus  bellum  uolentlbus  erat ;  Macr.  Sat.  i.  7,  Si  uobis  uolentibus 
crit.  The  idiom  is  possibly  borrowed  from  the  Greek  :  as,  TW  irA^flet  ov 
v  Mr]va.i(av  afyiaraaOai,  Thuc.  II.  3.  Tills  from  Cortins. 


229 


NUMERALS.* 

1062        Vno-  one  is  used  in  the  plural  when  a  plural  substantive  con- 
stitutes a  new  unit.t 

Vni  ex  transrhenanis  legates  mlserant  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv.  16), 
they  were  the  only  people  of  those  beyond  the  Rhine  who  had 
sent  ambassadors. 
Ex  uuis  geniinas  mihi  conficies  nuptias  (Ter.  And.  iv.  1.  50), 

out  of  one  marriage  you  will  make  me  a  brace  of  marriages. 
Vm\e  atque  alterae  scalae  comminutae  (Sal.  Jug.  60),  first  one 
and  then  another  ladder  was  broken  to  pieces. 

10(53        Sescento-  six  hundred  is  often  used  vaguely  for  a  very  large 
number. 

In  quo  multS  molesta,  discessus  noster,  belli  pgriculum,  mill- 
turn  improbitas,  sescenta  praetgrea  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vi.  4. 1), 
in  which  there  are  many  vexatious  matters,  our  leaving  the 
country,  the  danger  of  war,  the  violence  of  the  soldiery,  and 
a  thousand  things  besides. 

1064  Mill-  a  thousand  in  the  singular  is  commonly  an  adjective  ;  in 
the  plural  perhaps  always  a  substantive. 

Mille  equites  Gallia  eodem  uersa  in  Punlcum  bellum  h&buit 
(Liv.  xxi.  17),  Gallia  lying  in  the  same  direction  had  a 
thousand  horse  as  a  protection  against  an  attack  from  the 
Carthaginians. 

Quo  in  fundo  facile7  mille  hominum  uersfibatur  (Cic.  p.  Mil. 
20.  53),  on  which  land  full  a  thousand  men  were  engaged. 

Decem  miliS,  talentum  Gablnio  sunt  prcmissa"  (Cic.  p.  Rab.  Post. 
8.  21),  ten  thousand  talents  were  promised  to  Gabinius.  • 

1065  If  a  smaller  numeral  be  added  to  the  thousands,  then  the  con- 
struction of  an  adjective  is  preferred  :  as, 

Philippe!  nummi  duodgcim  miliS,  quadringentl  ulgintl  du5 
(Liv.  xxxix.  5),  12422  golden  Philips. 

*  Some  remarks  upon  the  construction  of  numerals  have  been  made 
in  the  first  part  (§§  253-272). 

f  Thus,  many  human  beings  make  up  one  people  ;  many  letters  of 
the  alphabet  go  to  a  single  letter  or  epistle.  Sometimes  the  singular  of  a 
word  happens  not  to  be  in  use,  and  it  may  then  be  difficult  to  decide 
what  was  its  meaning.  Thus  it  is  a  question  what  was  that  meaning  of 
castro-  in  the  singular  which  caused  its  plural  to  signify  '  a  camp.' 


230  SYNTAX. 

But  the  genitive  is  still  found  at  times  :  as, 

Philippeorum  uummorum  sedgcim  miliS,  trgcenti  uiginti  (Liv. 
xxxix.  7),  of  golden  Philips  16320. 

1065. 1    An  ordinal  number  is  sometimes  used  elliptically,  so  as  to  im- 
ply an  addition  to  the  cardinal  number  immediately  preceding  :  as, 

a.  Where  a  nominative  of  an  ordinal  forms  part  of  a  predicate : 
as, 

Tu  qutftus  essS  uelis  rescribe  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  5.  30),  be  it  yours  to 

say  how  many  you  wish  to  be. 
Die  quStus  et  quant!  ciipias  cenare  (Mart.  xiv.  217),  say  what 

you  wish  to  be  the  number  to  dine  together,  what  the  charge 

per  head.* 

b.  Where  the  ordinal  is  attached  to  one  of  the  fractional  divi- 
sions of  the  as  (§§  270,  272)  :  as,  semis  tertius,  contracted  to  ses- 
tertius, half  of  the  third  unift,  meaning  altogether  2£.     Thus, 

Trientem  tertium  pondo  corouam  auream  dgdit  I5ul  donum 
(T.  Quintius  ap.  Fest.  v.  trientem),  he  gave  as  a  gift  to 
Jupiter  a  gold:  crown  weighing  2J  Ibs. 

Lignum  bes  altgrum  (Fest.  ibid.),  a  log  20 J  inches  in  diameter, 
or  more  idiomatically,  a  20-inck  log. 

Quartus  quadrans  (Fest.  ibid.),  3£. 

c.  With  tantum  as  much,  expressed,  or  more  commonly  un- 
derstood :  as, 

Immo  etiamsi  alterum  Tantum  §  perdundumst,  perdam  potius 
quam  sinam  (Plaut.  Ep.  in.  4.  81),  nay  though  I  must  lose 
as  much  again,  lose  it  I  will  rather  than  permit  this. 

Ex  eode^n  semine  Sliubi  cum  decimo[|  rgdit,  S,liubi  cum  quin- 
todeclmo  ut  In  Hgtruria.  In  Sybarltano  dicunt  8tiam  cum 
centeusimo  redlrg  s51itum  (Varr.  R.  R.  I.  14. 1),  from  the 

*  Compare  the  corresponding  Greek  phrase  :  a-rpa-r-nyos  T\V  s,evoK\fiSr)s 
irf/j.TTTos  ai/Tos,  Thuc.  i.  46;  or  ijpedt]  irpfcrfievTris  SeKaros  avTos,Xen.  Hist. 
Gr.  n.  2.17. 

f  See  note  to  §  1056. 

J  More  literally  '  If  feet  broad.'  The  fuller  phrase  would  be  besxrm 
alterum  latum ,  or  less"1  alterum  I. 

§  Literally  '  a  second  as  much.' 

II  For  cum  decimo  tanto,  i.e.  literally  '  with  a  tenth  as  much.'  The 
use  of  tantum  'as  much'  in  the  measure  of  crops  is  seen  in  Plaut.  Trin. 
n.  4. 129,  Tribus  tdntis  illi  minus  redit  quam  obseueris* 


NUMERALS.  231 

same  seed  there  is  in  some  lands  a  tenfold  return,  in  others 
fifteen/old,  as  in  Hetruria.  In  the  district  of  Sybaris  they 
say  that  the  usual  return  is  even  a  hundred  for  one. 

Ager  (Leontlnus)  ecflcit  cum  octauo,  bene  tit  agatur,  uerum  tit 
omnes  di  aditiuent,  curn  dectimo  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  in.  47.112), 
a  return  of  eightfold  from  the  land  of  Lentini  is  satisfactory  ; 
but  it  needs  the  united  blessing  of  all  the  gods  to  bring  about  a 
return  of  ten  for  one. 

FrumentS,  maiorg  quldem  parti  Italiae  quando  cum  quarto 
responderint  uix  meminisse  possumtis  (Col.  in.  3.  4),  we 
can  scarcely  remember  a  time  when  corn,  so  far  at  least  as  the 
greater  part  of  Italy  is  concerned,  gave  a  return  of  four  for 
one. 

1066  The  distributive  numerals  are  often  used  in  pairs  :  as, 
Singulos  singtill  pSptili  lictores  de'derunt  (Liv.  I.  8),  each  of  tne 

(twelve)  states  provided  one  lictor. 

Quma  den£  iugera  agrl  data  in  singtilos  pgdites  sunt  (Lin. 
xxxv.  40),  fifteen  jugers  of  land  were  given  to  every  foot- 
soldier. 

1 067  The  particular  distributive  bino-,  like  ggmlno-*,  is  often  used 
of  but  two  things  when  they  match  one  another  :  as, 

Binds  habebat  scyphos  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  14. 32),  he  had  a  pair 
of  cups. 

1068  The  distributives  bino-,  trino-t  &c.  are  used,  like  the  plural 
of  uno-,  with  plural  substantives  that  have  a  singular  sense  :  as, 

Quinis  castris  oppldum  circumde'dit  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  9),  he  sur- 
rounded the  town  with  five  camps. 

Littgras  reddldit  trlnas  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xi.  17. 1),  she  delivered 
three  letters. 

Trinis  catenis  uinctus  trahebatur  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  53),  he  was 
being  dragged  along  bound  with  three  sets  of  chains.* 

*  Duplici-  in  its  original  sense  is  used  where  the  two  things  lie  flat 
against  each  other,  as  duplices  palmae,  the  joined  hands  in  the  act  of 
prayer,  and  duplices  tabellae  'folded  tablets.' 

f  Not  terno-  nor  singulo-. 

I  Even  in  speaking  of  one  person  the  phrases  are  inicere  catenas 
alicui,  conicere  in  catenas,  esse  cum  catenis,  as  indeed  the  English  phrase 
is  also  plural.  Hence  in  Hor.  Od.  HI.  4.  80  we  should  probably  read 
Trecenae  Pirithoum  cohibent  catenae. 


232  SYNTAX. 

1069  The  poets  occasionally  use  a  distributive  in  place  of  the  simple 
number,  and  that  both  in  the  plural  and  singular  :  as, 

Dispar  septenis  fistulS,  cannis  (Ov.  Met.  n.  682),  an  unequal- 
pipe  of  seven  reeds. 

Gurglte  septeno  rapldus  marS  subm5u8t  amnis  (Lucan,  vui. 
445),  with,  sevenfold  flood  the  rapid  river  bids  the  sea  with- 
draw. 

1070  The  word  sestertio-,  which  is  strictly  only  a  numeral,  2£,  is 
commonly  used  in  reference  to  money,  and  in  that  sense  signified 
originally  2£  asses  or  Ibs.  of  bronze  ;  but  as  the  weight  of  Roman 
money  decreased  to  a  great  extent,  and  silver  coin  came  into  use, 
sestertio-  (or  sestertio-  nummo-,  or  nummo-  alone)  was  eventually* 
the  name  of  a  small  silver  coin  worth  about  2£c?,f  of  our  money, 
and  was  the  ordinary  unit  of  money.     It  is  also  used  as  an  insig- 
nificant sum  of  money. 

PrStium  constitutumst  in  m5dios  singulos  HSJ  III  (Cic.  u. 

Verr.  in.  70.163),  the  price  fixed  was  three  sesterces  the  bushel. 
Sestertium  sescentS,  quadraginta  miliS,  deferri  ad  se  domum 

iussit  (Cic.  p.  Clu.  25. 69),  he  ordered  640,000  sesterces  to  be 

carried  down  to  his  house. 
Ecquis  est  qul  bonS.  Posturnl  nummo  sestertio  sibi  addici  uelit  ? 

(Cic.  p.  Rab.  Post.  17.45)  is  there  any  one  who  would  be 

willing  to  have  the  whole  property  of  Postumus  knocked  down 

to  him  for  a  single  groat  ? 

1071  A  million  sesterces  fall  short  of  10,000£.     Hence  the  numbers 
required,  when  the  sesterce  is  the  unit,  soon  became  inconveniently 
large,  and  the  only  mode  the  Romans  had  of  expressing  numbers 
above  100,000  was  by  means  of  the  numeral  adverbs  :  thus, 

AccepI  uiciens  ducentS,  trlginta  quinque  mllia,  quadringentos 
septendecim  nummos  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  I.  14.  36),  7  received 
2,235,417  sesterces. 

Sestertium  deciens  centenK  miliS,  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  I.  10.  28),  one 
million  sesterces. 

*  Towards  the  close  of  the  republic. 

f  This  would  make  the  denarius  about  9eT,  which  is  slightly  above 
the  usual  estimate.  But  our  antiquarians  commit  the  strange  error  of 
taking  the  average  of  existing  denarii  instead  of  the  very  largest  for  the 
standard,  as  though  coins  could  have  gained  weight  by  time. 

J  To  be  read  perhaps  sestertii  terni ;  but  the  Mss.  have  nearly  all 
the  mere  symbols.  See  §  272. 


NUMERALS.  233 

1072  By  way  of  brevity  centena  miliS,  was  dropped  with  the  adverbs, 
causing  no  ambiguity,  because  the  adverbs  could  only  be  used  with 
sestertium  in  this  sense  :  thus, 

Sestertium  quadringentiens  abstulit  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  i.  10. 27),  he 

carried  off  forty  million  sesterces. 
Et  eum  tu  accussas  auarltiae,  quern  dlcis  sestertium  ulciens 

uSluisse  perderS  ?  (Cic.  p.  Flac.  33.  83)  and  do  you  accuse 

of  avarice  one  who  you  say  wished  to  throw  away  two  million 

sesterces  ? 

1073  Although  sestertium  as  used  with  milia  was  in  fact  a  genitive, 
it  was  found  convenient  to  treat  it  as  a  neuter-substantive  ;  so  that 
sestertia*  was  used  as  a  nom.  or  ace.  pi.,  and  signified  so  many 
thousand  sesterces. 

Capit  ille  ex  suis  praediis  sescenS,  sestertia,  ego  centena  ex  mels 
(Cic.  Parad.  vi.  3.  49),  yonder  man  draws,  let  us  suppose, 
600,000  sesterces  per  annum  from  his  estates,  1 100,000  from 
mine. 

1074  Similarly  with  the  adverbs  it  was  found  convenient  to  give  to 
sestertium  a  genitive  and  ablative  singular. 

Decem  pondo  auri  et  argenti  ad  summam  sestertii  dgciens  In 
aerarium  rettulit  (Liv.  XLV.  4),  he  paid  into  the  treasury  ten 
pound  weight  of  gold,  and  of  silver  to  the  amount  of  a  million 
sesterces. 

NSque  in  sestertio  uiciens  p&rum  se  splendlde  gessit,  n§que  in 
sestertio  centiens  affluentius  uixit  quam  instltuerat  (Nepos 
in  Attico  14),  as  his  establishment  was  sufficiently  handsome 
when  his  income  was  two  million  sesterces,  so  he  lived  with  no 
greater  luxury  than  at  first  when  his  income  was  ten  millions. 

1075  The  construction  of  pondot  by  weight  or  pound,  and  libra-m 
pound,  in  denoting  weight,  is  very  anomalous,  the  first  having 

*  The  word  sestertium  (nom.)  is  sometimes  said  to  have  been  a  coin. 
There  in  fact  was  no  such  coin  and  no  such  word.  There  is  perhaps 
something  parallel  to  the  anomaly  mentioned  in  the  text  in  the  practice 
of  declining  the  genitive  cuius  of  the  relative  as  though  it  had  been  an 
adjective. 

f  Pondo  would  appear  to  have  been  originally  an  ablative  '  by  weight ;' 
libram,  libras,  seem  inexplicable.  But  in  Liv.  iv.  20  all  the  best  Mss. 
have  libra,  which  would  admit  a  simple  explanation  « by  the  scales,'  and 
so,  like  pondo,  come  in  a  secondary  sense  to  signify  '  a  lb'.' 


234  SYNTAX. 

always  the  same  form,  the  second  being  always  an  ace.  singular 

or  plural. 

Paterae  aureae  fuerunt  ducentae  septuaginla  sex  libras  ferine 
omnes  pondo,  argentl  decem  gt  octo  mllia  et  trecentS,  pondo 
(Liv.  xxvi.  47),  there  were  276  golden  bowls  all  about  a  pound 
in  weight,  and  of  silver  bullion  18,300  Us. 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

1076  The  nominatives  of  the  personal  pronouns  are  not  commonly 
used,  because  the  terminations  of  the  verb  already  express  the 
notion  ;  but  if  there  be  any  emphasis,  then  they  are  required. 

Quis  tu  h5mo  es  ?  (Ter.  And.  iv.  1. 11)  who  are  you  ? 

Ego  istum  iuugnem  d5ml  tenendum  censed  (Liv.  xxi.  3),  I  for 

my  part  think  that  this  stripling  of  yours  should  be  kept  at 

home. 
Natura  tu  ill!  pSter  es,  consllils  ego  (Ter.  Ad.  i.  2.46),  by  nature 

you  are  his  father,  as  guardian  I. 

1077  Similarly  he,  she,  it,  they,  if  emphatic,  must  be  expressed  by 
the  proper  pronoun,  i-,  ho-,  isto-,  or  illo-  (see  below). 

1078  These  nominatives  appear  however  at  times  to  be  required 
when  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  emphasis  upon  them.     Thus, 
in  repeating  a  person's  words  in  surprise,  it  is  usual  to  insert  the 
omitted  nominative : 

M.  Quid  fecit?  D.  Quid  ille  fecerit?  (Ter.  Ad.  i.  2.4)  M.  What 

has  he  done  ?    D.  What  has  he  done,  ask  you  ? 
Where  the  words  what  and  done  seem  to  require  the  special  em- 
phasis. 

1079  So  in  confirming  an  assertion  or  answering  a  question,  the 
nominative  of  the  pronoun  is  required. 

Ego  uero  utar  pror5gation8  die!  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xin.  43),  yes,  my 
friend,  you  are  right,  /shall  avail  myself  of  the  postponement. 
Where  the  word  shall  is  emphatic,  not  the  pronoun. 
108C        So  again  where  quldem  it  is  true  introduces  a  word  preparatory 
to  a  sed  but :  as, 

Deinde  tul  munMpes,  sunt  ill!  quldem  splendldissumi  hSmlnes, 
set  tamen  pauci  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  8.  21),  then  as  to  your  fellow- 
townsmen,  they  are,  1  grant,  men  of  the  highest  station,  but 
still  only  few  in  number. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  235 

Oratorias  exercitationes,  non  tu  quid  em  rellquistl,  sed  phl!5s5- 
phiam  illls  antepSsuistl  (Cic.  de  Fato,  2.  3),  your  exercises 
in  oratory  you  have  not  abandoned,  it  is  true,  but  you  have 
given  philosophy  the  preference  over  them. 

Nos  sclto  de  uetere  ilia  nostra  sententia  pr5pg  iam  essS  depulsos, 
non  nos  quidem  ut  nostrae  digmtatis  simus  obliti,  s6d  ut 
habeamus  rationem  aliquando  etiam  salutis  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 
I.  7. 7),  we,  you  must  understand,  have  been  almost  weaned  at 
last  from  those  old  opinions  of  ours,  not  indeed  so  far  as  to 
forget  our  dignity ',  but  so  as  sometimes  to  take  account  of  our 
safety  also. 

1081  The  singular  tu  and  plural  uos*  being  commonly  translated  by 
the  same  word  you,  it  is  often  useful  to  insert  some  plural  vocative 
or  other  phrase  with  the  latter,  so  as  to  prevent  ambiguity. 

Si  quid  est  quod  mea  tfpeYa  5pus  sit  uobls,  ut  tu  plus  uldes, 
Manebo  (Ter.  And.  iv.  3.  23),  if  there  be  any  thing  in  which 
you  (and  your  young  master)  have  occasion  for  my  assistance, 
as  you  (Davus)  understand  matters  better  than  I  do,  I  will 
stay. 

1082  The  use  of  a  first  person  plural  for  the  singular— nos  for  ggo, 
noste'r  for  metis — is  occasionally  met  with  in  Latin,  but  more  from 
a  feeling  of  modesty  than  pride.     See  dlcamus  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man. 
16.  47),  and  cohortat!  sumiis— potulmus — arbltraremiir — ostendK- 
miis  (Cic.  de  Div.  n.  1.1). 

Se9  suo-,  &c. 

1083  The  reflective  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  both  substantive 
and  adjective,  are  variously  translated  according  to  the  word  they 
refer  to.    This  word  is  commonly  the  nominative  of  the  sentence  : 
as, 

Ea  praedia  aliis  coluit,  non  sibi  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  17.49), 

these  farms  he  cultivated  for  others,  not  for  himself. 
Turn  ilia  reiecit  se  in  eum  (Ter.  And.  i.  1. 108),  then  the  other 

threw  herself  back  into  his  arms. 
lustitia  propter  se  est  colenda  (Cic.  de  Off.  n.  12.42),  justice  is 

to  be  cultivated  for  itself. 
Non  sul  conseruandi  caussa  profugerunt  (Cic.  in  Cat.  I.  3. 7), 

it  was  not  to  save  themselves  that  they  ran  off. 

*  The  same  ambiguity  exists  between  the  possessive  adjectives  tuo- 
and  uostero-,  and  may  be  removed  in  the  same  way. 


236  SYNTAX. 

Sua  quae  narrat  facinora?  (Ter.  Haut.  u.  1.8)  what  doings  of 

his  own  does  he  recount  ? 
Vtne  haec  ignoraret  suom  patrem  ?  (Ter,  Ph.  v.  6.  34)  the  idea 

of  this  woman  not  knowing  her  own  father  ! 
AlienS,  mSlius  dliudlcant,  quam  sua  (Ter.  Haut.  TIL  1.95),  they 

judge  letter  of  other  people's  affairs  than  their  own. 

1084  Se  <fec.  and  suo-,  in  a  secondary  sentence,  may  of  course  refer 
to  the  nominative  or  subject  of  that  secondary  sentence.     They 
sometimes  however  refer  to  the  agent  of  the  main  sentence,  parti- 
cularly if  the  secondary  sentence  express  something  in  the  mind 
of  that  agent  :  as, 

Vir  bonus  nihil  quoiquam  quod  in  se  transferat  detrahet  (Cic. 

de  Off.  in.  19. 75),  a  good  man  will  not  force  any  thing  from 

any  one  to  transfer  it  to  himself. 
Sentit  animus  se  ul  sua,  non  aliena  moueri  (Cic.  Tusc.  I.  23.55), 

the  mind  feels  that  it  is  acted  upon  by  a  force  of  its  own,  not 

one  from  without.* 

1085  Se  &c.  and  suo-  sometimes  refer  to  a  noun  not  in  the  nomi- 
native, if  that  noun  be  substantially  the  subject :  as, 

A  Caesare  inuitorf,  sibi  ut  sim  legatus  (Cic.  ad  Att.  n.  18.3), 

/  am  invited  by  Caesar  to  be  legate  to  him. 
Faustiilo  spes  fueratt,  regiam  stirpem  apud  se  educarl  (Liv.  I. 

5),  Faustulus  had  entertained  the  hope  that  the  children  at 

nurse  in  his  cottage  were  of  royal  stock. 

1086  Se  <fec.  and  suo-  sometimes  refer  to  nouns  not  in  the  nomina- 
tive, if  placed  near  them  :  as, 

Furuium  per  se  uldl  lubeutissume  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  x.  3.1),  Fur- 
niuSj  so  far  as  he  himself  is  concerned,  I  saw  with  the  greatest 
pleasure. 

Ratio  gt  oratio  conclliat  inter  se  homines  (Cic.  de  Off.  1. 16.50), 
reason  and  speech  unite  men  to  one  another. 

*  In  Caes.  B.  G.  I.  36,  ad  haec  Ariouistus  respondit  &c.,  which 
chapter  is  all  one  sentence,  there  is  much  freedom  in  the  use  of  these 
pronouns.  Thus,  in  the  last  clause,  quod  sibi  Caesar  denuntiaret  se 
Aeduorum  iniurias  non  neylecturum,  neminem  secum  sine  sua  pernicie 
contendisse, — sibi  and  secnm  refer  to  Ariouistus,  se  to  Caesar,  sua  to 
neminem. 

f  Equivalent  to  Caesar  me  inuitat. 

£  Equivalent  to  Faustulus  spe.tn  habuerat. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  237 

Suas  res  Syr&cusanis  restltuit  (Liv.  xxix.  1),  he  restored  to  the 

Syracusans  what  belonged  to  them. 
Placet  Stolcis  suo  quamqug  rem  nomine  adpellarg  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 

ix.  22. 1),  it  is  a  law  with  the  Stoics  to  call  every  thing  by  its 

own  name. 
Magonem  eum  classe  sua  In  Hispaniam  mittunt  (Liv.  xxin.  32), 

they  send  Mago  with  his  fleet  to  Spain. 
Rgdlmendl  se  captluis  copiam  f&cgre  (Liv.  xxn.  58),  to  give  the 

prisoners  an  opportunity  of  ransoming  themselves. 

1087  Inter  se  is  used  with  active  verbs  for  se  inter  se  :  as, 

Inter  se  adsplciebant  (Cic.  in  Cat.  in.  5. 13),  they  kept  looking 
at  one  another. 

1088  The  possessive  pronouns  often  denote  what  is  favourable  to  the 
party,  especially  in  connexion  with  nouns  signifying  time  or  place  : 

,  as, 

Rbgo  ut  ngque  occasion!  tuae  desis,  ngqug  suam  occasionem 
host!  des  (Liv.  xxn.  39),  /  ask  you  neither  to  be  wanting  to 
an  opportunity  favourable  to  yourself,  nor  to  give  to  the  enemy 
one  favourable  to  him. 

1089  The  possessive  pronouns  are  often  omitted  in  Latin  where  they 
are  expressed  in  English  :  as, 

Non  dubiumst  quin  ux6rem  nolit  filius  (Ter.  And.  I.  2. 1), 
there  is  no  doubt  that  my  son  is  unwilling  to  marry. 

Et  eri  semper  lenitas,  uerebar  quorsum  euaderet  (Ter.  And.  I. 
2.4),  and  my  master's*  constant  gentleness ,  I  was  afraid  what 
it  would  end  in. 

Ipso-. 

1090  Ipso-  is  used  with  the  personal  pronouns  and  other  nouns  to 
denote  emphasis : 

Calpurnius  custodia  militar!  cinctus  extingultur ;  Priscus  se 
ipsef  interfecit  (Tac.  Hist.  iv.  11),  Calpurnius  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  guard  of  soldiers  and  put  to  death  ;  Priscus 


Fratrem  suum,  de!n  se  ipsumf  interfecit  (Tac.  Hist.  in.  51), 

he  killed  his  brother,  and  then  himself. 

*  So  in  English  we  say  *  master,  father,'  &c.  for  '  my  master,  my 
father.' 

t  Observe  the  difference  between  these  two  phrases. 


238  SYNTAX. 

Triennio  ipso  minor  quam  Autouius  (Cic.  Brut.  43. 161),  exactly 

three  years  younger  than  Antonius. 
Ipsae  defluebaut  coronae  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  21.  62),  the  wreaths  kept 

slipping  down  of  themselves. 
Is,  8t  ipse  Alpiuus  anmis,  difflcilllmus  transltu  est  (Liv.  xxi. 

31),  this,  itself  too  an  Alpine  river,  is  most  difficult  to  cross.* 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1091  Ho-,  isto-,  illo-,  are  called  demonstratives,  because  the  speaker 
in  using  them  points  to  the  things  he  speaks  of. 

Ho-  is  the  demonstrative  of  the  first  person,  and  points  to  what 
is  near  me. 

Isto-  is  the  demonstrative  of  the  second  person,  and  points  to 
what  is  near  you. 

Illo-  is  the  demonstrative  of  the  third  person,  and  points  to 
what  is  distant  from  both  of  us. 

1092  Ho-  this  has  the  following  uses  :  First,  it  points  to  something 
near  the  speaker  :  as, 

Set  quid  hoc  ?  Puer  hercle'st.  Mulier,  tu  aposuisti  hunc  ? 
(Ter.  And.  iv.  4.  2)  but  what  is  this  (at  my  feet)  ?  Faith, 
it's  a  baby.  Woman,  was  it  you  put  this  baby  down  here  ? 

Hie  uersus  Plautl  non  est,  hie  est  (Serv.  ap.  Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix. 
16. 4),  this  verse  is  not  Plautus's,  this  is. 

1093  Hence  hie  hSmo  may  mean  ego,  the  speaker  :  as, 

Vah,  solus  hie  homost,  qui  sciat  diuinitus  (Plant.  Cure.  n.  1. 33), 
bah,  your  humble  servant  has  not  his  match  as  a  prophet. 

1094  Secondly,  ho-  refers  to  present  time  :  as, 

Ab  illis  homlnlbiis  ad  hanc  h5mmum  lubidinem  ac  llcentiam 
me  abducls  ?  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  in.  90.  210)  do  you  propose  to 
draw  me  away  from  the  men  of  those  days  to  the  self-indul- 
gence and  intemperance  of  the  present  race  ? 

Quid  hoc  p5piilo  obtlneii  pStest  ?  (Cic.  de  Leg.  in.  16.  37), 
what  measure  can  be  carried  with  such  citizens  as  we  have 
now-a- 


*  Whenever  ipso-  is  used,  the  student  should  ask  himself  to  what  it 
is  opposed. 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PEONOUNS.  239 

1095  Ho-  may  also  be  used  logically  :  First,  at  the  beginning  of  a 
sentence  referring  to  something  immediately  preceding  :  as, 

Est  genus  hominum,  qui  esse  primos  se  6mnium  rerum  uolunt, 
Ne'e  sunt — Hos  cons6ctor  (Ter.  E.  n.  2. 17),  there  is,  you  must 
know,  a  class  of  people  who  will  have  it  that  they  are  first  in 
every  thing,  but  are  not  so — These  are  the  game  I  hunt  down. 

1096  Secondly,  as  a  so-called  antecedent  to  a  relative,  when  placed 
after  that  relative  :  thus, 

Quam  quisque  norit  artem,  in  hac  se  exerceat  (ap.  Cic.  Tusc. 
i.  18. 41),  whatever  art  each  knows,  in  that  let  him  exercise 
himself. 

1097  Thirdly,  when  referring  to  what  is  coming  :  as, 

Quorum  dperum  haec  erat  r£tio  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  25),  of  these 
works  the  following  was  the  plan. 

Hoc  S,nlmo  scito  omiiis  sanos  ut  mortem  seruXtuti  antSponant 
(Cic.  ad  Fam.  x.  27),  you  must  know  that  all  men  in  their 
senses  have  determined  upon  this,  to  prefer  death  to  slavery. 

1098  Isto-  that  (connected  with  you]  has  the  following  uses  :  First, 
it  points  to  something  near  the  person  spoken  to  :  as, 

Istam  quam  hSbes  unde  hSbes  uestem  ?  (Ter.  E.  iv.  4.  28),  that 
dress  which  you  have  got  on,  where  did  you  get  it  from  ? 

Tu  tibi  istas  posthac  comprimito  mSnus  (Ter.  Haut.  in.  3.29), 
you,  sir,  must  keep  those  hands  for  the  future  to  yourself. 

1099  Secondly,  isto-  refers  to  the  second  person,  though  there  is  no 
pointing  :  as, 

S.  Hoclne  Sgis  annon  ?  D.  Ego  uero  istuc  (Ter.  And.  i.  2. 15), 
S.  Do  you  attend  to  what  1  am  saying  or  not  ?  D.  Tes,  sir, 
1  do  attend  to  what  you  say. 

1JOO  Isto-  signifies  in  itself  neither  praise  nor  blame,  neither  love 
nor  hatred.  The  context  may  imply  one  or  the  other  : 

B5no  &nmio  fac  sis  SostratS ;  6t  istam  quod  p5tes  fac  consolere 
(Ter.  Ad.  in.  5. 1),  keep  up  your  spirits,  Sostrata ;  and  do 
your  best  to  comfort  your  poor  daughter  there. 

Istuc  est  s&perS  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  3.32),  there  you  show  true  wis- 
dom, sir. 

Video  de  istis  qui  se  p5pularls  h&bert  uSlunt,  abessS  non  nem*- 
nem  (Cic.  in  Cat.  iv.  5.10),  1  perceive  that  of  your  would-be- 
thought  friends  of  the  people,  a  certain  gentleman  is  absent 


240  SYNTAX. 

1101  Illo-  yonder,  distant,  former,  other,  points  to  something  com- 
paratively distant  :  as, 

Tolle  hanc  patlnam.    Aufgr  illam  offam  porclnam  (Plant.  Mil. 

Gl.  in.  1. 164),  take  away  this  dish.     Remove  yonder  rissole 

de  pore. 
Set  quis  illic  est  prociil  quern  uideo?  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  3.84)  but 

who  is  yonder  man  there,  whom  I  see  in  the  distance  ? 

1102  Referring  to  something  distant,  though  not  visible  :  as, 

Ille  suam  semper  egit  uitam  in  6tio,  in  conuiuiis  (Ter.  Ad.  v. 
4. !)),  my  brother  there  has  always  passed  his  time  in  idleness, 
vi  society. 

1103  Illo-,  like  ho-,  may  be  used  logically ;  that  is,  refer  to  the  words 
of  a  sentence.     When  they  are  used  together,  ho-  refers  to  the 
nearer  word,  illo-  to  the  farther :  as, 

Melius  de  quibusdam  acerbi  inimici  merentur  quam  hi  amid 
qu!  dulces  uidentur.  111!  uerum,  saepg  dicunt ;  hi.  nun- 
quam  (Cic.  de  Am.  24.  90),  litter  enemies  deserve  letter  of 
some  persons  than  those  friends  who  seem  to  be  all  sweetness. 
The  former  often  speak  the  truth,  the  latter  never. 

1104  Sometimes  not  the  nearer  word  but  the  nearer*  thing  is  marked 
by  ho-,  the  more  distant  thing  by  illo- :  as, 

Melior  est  certa  pax  quam  sperata  uictoriS,.  Haec  in  tua,  ilia 
in  Deorum  mSnu  est  (Liv.  xxx.  30),  certain  peace  is  better 
than  hoped-for  victory.  The  one  (peace)  is  in  your  own  hands, 
the  other  (victory)  in  those  of  the  gods. 

1105  A  change  of  person  is  often  marked  by  illo-,  in  which  case  the 
word  other  is  often  the  best  translation  :  as, 

Vercingetorix  obuiam  Caesar!  proftciscitur.  Ille  oppldum  No- 
uiodunum  obpugnare  instltuerat  (Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  12),  Ver- 
cingetorix sets  out  to  meet  Caesar.  The  other  (viz.  Caesar)  had 
begun  to  besiege  Noviodunum. 

Aeolus  luctantis  uentos  impgrio  premit.  111!  circum  claustrS, 
fremunt  (Virg.  A.  I.  56),  Aeolus  the  struggling  winds  with 
sovereign  sway  restrains.  They  thus  restrained  around  the 
barriers  roar. 

*  In  this  way  are  to  be  explained  all  those  passages  where  illo-  is  said 
to  be  referred  to  the  nearer  word,  and  ho-  to  the  farther  word :  as,  for 
example,  in  Liv.  xxv.  29,  where  ille  and  illius  refer  to  Hiero  as  long 
dead,  hie  and  huius  to  Hieronymus  as  only  recently  dead. 


DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS.  241 

1108  Illo-  also  introduces  something  about  to  be  mentioned,  in  op- 
position to  what  has  been  just  mentioned  :  as, 

Horum  Sg5  sermon^  non  m5uebS,r.  Illud,  uerS  dicam,  me 
mSuet,  Sbessg  tris  cohortis  (Oic.  ad  Fam.  in.  6.  5),  by  what 
these  men  said  to  one  another  I  was  not  annoyed.  One  thing 
however  (1  will  be  candid  with  you)  does  annoy  me,  and  that 
is,  that  three  battalions  are  absent. 

Illud  tibi  promitto,  quicquld  erlt  a  te  factum,  id  sgnatum  com- 
probaturum  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  x.  16. 2),  one  thing  I  promise  you, 
whatever  you  do,  that  the  senate  will  fully  approve. 

1107  Illo-  expresses  distance  in  time,  past  or  future :  first  past  time : 

as, 

Quid  ille,  iibi  est  Mllesius  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  iv.  5.  68)  well,  and  that 

gentleman  from  Miletus  you  were  speaking  of,  where  is  he  ? 
Hei  mlhl  quails  erat  ?  quantum  mutatiis  S,b  illo  Hectorg  qui 

rgdlt  exuuias  indutiis  Achilli  (  Virg.  A.  n.  274),  alas,  what 

was  he  like  ?    How  changed  from  that  Hector  of  other  days 

returning  clad  in  Achilles'  spoils  ! 
Ille  ego  liber,  ille  ferox,  tacui  (Ov.  Met.  i.  757),  /once  so  free, 

so  proud,  was  silent. 

1108  Hence  illo-  is  applied  to  well-known  personages  of  past  times  : 

as, 

C.  Sequ£r,  tit  instltui,  dluinum  ilium  ulrum. 

A.  Platonem  uidellcet  dlcls.     C.  Istum  ipsum,  Attlce  (Cic.  de 

Leg.  in.  1.1), 

C.  I  will  follow,  as  I  have  begun,  that  heaven-inspired  man. 
A.  You  mean  Plato,  no  doubt.    C.  The  very  same,  Atticus. 

1109  Also  to  proverbs  :  as, 

Verum  illud  uerbumst,  u61go  quod  dici  solet, 

Omnis  sibi  'sse  melius  malle  quam  alteri  (Ter.  And.  u.  5. 15), 

Too  true  's  the  old  saying  in  every  body's  mouth, 

All  men  wish  better  to  themselves  than  to  their  neighbour. 

11 10  Ho-  and  illo-  are  used  together  to  mark  the  connection  of  some- 
thing present  with  something  past :  as, 

Atat  hoc  illud  est ; 

Hinc  illae  lacrumae,  haec  illast  miseric6rdia  (Ter.  And.  1. 1.98), 
Ah,  ah  !  then,  this  explains  that  matter  ; 
Hence  all  that  weeping,  hence  that  sympathy. 


242 
1111        Illo-  is  also  applied  to  future  time  :  as, 

Hie  dSmus  Aeneae  cunctis  dominabltur  oris 

Et  n*ti  ntoum,  et  qui  nascentur  ab  ilhs  (Ft*.  A.  m.  97), 

Here  shall  JEneas1  house  o'er  every  border  rule, 

His  children's  children  and  their  children  too. 


U12  LOGICAL  PRONOUNS. 


eo- 


a.  i-,  «o-,  &c. 

,rtw,  «»<»«,  <*••  fe'  sAe>  *> 
e  and  conse.uenUy  it  never 

it  always  refers  to  some  word  or  words  in  the 
1)  13        Commonly  i-  refers  to  a  word  preceding  :  as, 

EuntI  mihi  Antium,  uSnit  obuiam  tuos  puer.    Is  mihi  1 

abs  te  reddldit  (Cic.  ad  Att.  11.  1.  1),  «  /•"  S™9  '°  A^ 
^  there  CM  ««-  ««  ^  —  ''     TO"  «"«"'  l°r 
Ju)  gam  me  a  letter  from  you. 
Vnam  rem  expllcabo  eamquS  maziimam  (0*.  de  Fin.  I.  8.  28), 

on*  thing  I  will  explain,  and  that  the  nost  important, 
1114        I-  also  refers  to  what  follows  :  as, 


long  m  your  presmt  painfvl  situation  there. 

1U5  I-  is  often  used  as  an  antecedent  to  a  relative,  and  then  may 
often  ta  translated  by  the  words  a,  one,  a  ™n,  *o.,  espec.ally  d 
a  reason  be  implied  : 

Si  In  eos  quos  speramus  nobis  pr5ffituros,  non  dubltamus 
Ce7fflci&  qnales  to  eos  essSdebemus  quliam  profuemnt 
terre  onic    ,  q  ood 


edition. 


3  esse  aeoemus  ^ui  icnu  ^*- 

we  do  not  hesitate  to  bestow  our  good 

those  by  whom  we  have  already  been 

stls  apua  maiuico  Mw-JSlBul  ^PVP. 

i si-     j    r\ff  i   10  '^7^  f)f  whom  we  now  caw  peic 

^aAlA^^^1^ 

.  The  passage  in  Pla»tu8  (Mere.  Prol.  91)  is  corrupt.    See  Bothe', 

l-i/An 


LOGICAL  PRONOUNS.  243 

Mm  time  conuSnlt  ex  eo  agro  qul  Caesaris  iussu  dluidatur,  eum 
m8ueri  qul  Caesaris  benlficio  s&iator  sit  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xui. 
5.  2),  it  is  altogether  inconsistent  that  a  man  who  is  a  senator 
by  Caesar's  favour  should  be  ejected  from  land  which  is  in 
course  of  distribution  under  Caesar's  order. 

Nam  quo  redibo  ore  ad  earn  quam  contempserim  ?  (Ter.  Ph.  v. 
7.  24)  for  with  what  face  shall  I  go  back  to  a  woman  whom  I 
have  thoroughly  insulted  ? 

1117  The  relative  clause  often  precedes,  in  which  case  this  second 
pronoun  is  emphatic : 

Hoc  qui  admlratur,  is  se  quid  sit  uir  bonus  nescirS  fateatur 
(Cic.  de  Off.  in.  19. 75),  if  any  one  wonder  at  this,  let  that 
man  confess  that  he  knows  not  what  a  good  man  is. 

Non  est  consentaneum,  qui  mgtu  non  frangatur,  eum  frangi 
cupldltate  (Cic.  de  Off.  i.  20. 68),  it  is  an  inconsistency  for 
a  man  to  be  proof  against  fear,  and  then  not  to  be  proof 
against  temptation. 

1118  I-  is  used  before  a  relative  in  such  a  manner  as  to  denote  the 
belonging  to  a  class,  and  is  to  be  translated  by  such,  the  sort  of 
person,  one  of  those,  the  man  to  — ,  so  —  as  to  :  thus, 

NgquS  tu  Is  es  qui  quid  sis  nescias  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  12. 6),  nor 
are  you  the  person  not  to  know  what  you  are. 

1119  In  this  sense  i-  is  often  followed  by  ut :  thus, 

In  eum  res  rSdiit  iam  IScum,  ut  sit  nScessum  (Ter.  Haut.  n. 
3. 118),  matters  are  at  last  come  to  such  a  state  that  it  is  neces- 
sary. 

b.  qui-,  quo-,  &c. 

1120  The  relative  quo-  or  qua-  and  qui-  agrees  like  other  adjectives 
with  its  noun  if  expressed  :  as, 

Intellexit  diem  instarg  quo  die  frumentum  metiri  Sporteret 
(Caes.  B.  G.  i.  16),  he  saw  that  the  day  was  close  at  hand, 
on  which  day  it  was  required  that  he  should  measure  out  the 
corn. 

Caussam  diclt  ea  legg  qua  lege  sSnatores  soli  tgnentur  (Cic.  p. 
Clu.  57. 156),  he  is  making  his  defence  under  a  law  by  which 
law  senators  alone  are  bound. 


244  SYNTAX. 

1121        In  the  sentences  just  given  the  noun  is  expressed  twice  over. 
This  repetition  is  unnecessary  ;   and  commonly  the  noun  which 
should  accompany  the  relative  is  omitted,  so  that,  the  relative 
agrees  with  the  antecedent  noun  in  number  and  gender,  bi 
its  case  determined  by  its  own  clause  :  as, 

Ab  reliquis  princlpibus  qui  hanc  temptandam  fortunam  non 
existimabant  (Goes.  B.  G.  vn.  4),  by  the  other  chiefs  who 
thought  that  this  risk  ought  not  to  be  run. 

Intromissis  equttlbus,  quos  arcessendos  curauerat  (Goes.  B.  G. 
v.  56),  horsemen  having  been  let  into  the  place,  whom  he  had 
sent  for. 

Adeunt  per  Aeduos  quorum  antiquitus  erat  in  fide  ciuitas 
(Goes.  B.  G.  vi.  4),  thsy  make  their  approach  by  means  of 
the  Aedui  under  whose  protection  the  state  had  been  from  of 

Quid  uos  hanc  miseram  sectumlm  praedam,  quibus  licet  iam 
essg  fortunatissimis?  (Goes.  B.  G.  vi.  35)  why  do  yon  pursue 
this  wretched  booty,  you  who  have  it  in  your  power  now  to  be 
the  most  fortunate  of  men  ? 

Aduersarios  suos  a  quibus  paulo  ante  erat  eiectiis  (Cats.  B.  O. 
vii.  4).  his  opponents  by  whom  he  had  been  a  little  befor 
expelled. 

1122        The  relative  may  have  a  different  noun  from  the  sentence  to 
which  it  is  attached  :  as, 

Erat  lima  plena,  qui  dies  maritlmos  aestus  rcaximos 

consueuit  (Goes.  B.  G.  iv.  29),  it  was  full  moon,  which  day 
usually  makes  the  sea-tides  the  greatest. 
Cumae,  quam  Graeci  turn  urbem  tenebant  (Liv.  iv.  44),  Gumae, 

which  city  Greeks  then  occupied. 

1123        A  very  common  construction  consists  of  the  relative  and  its 
"   so-called  antecedent  divided  by  the  other  words  of  the  relative 
clause  :  as, 

Habetis  quam  pgtistis  facultatem*  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  8),  you  have 


now 


*   In  sentences  such  as  these  it  is  a  common  habit  in  modern  printing 
to  plac  "the  relative  clause  between  commas,  whereas  the  connection  is  a 
dose  as  between  an  ordinary  adjective  and  ita  noun.     Indeed  it ^ ^us efu^ 
to  translate  such  sentences  in  the  exact  order  of   he  word  . .  thus,    1 
the-which-followed  winter;'  '  The-which-you-sought  opportui 


LOGICAL  PRONOUNS.  245 

Ea  quae  sgcuta  est  higmg  (Goes.  B.  G.  iv.  1),  in  the  winter 

which  followed. 

Ad  eas  quas  dixlmus  munltiones  (Caes.  B.  G.  in.  26),  to  the 
fortifications  which  we  have  mentioned. 

1124  In  the  first  and  last  of  the  phrases  just  quoted  the  noun  be- 
longs equally  to  both  clauses.     In  the  following  it  belongs  to  the 
relative  clause  : 

Quos  in  praesentia  tribunos  mllitum  circum  se  ha"bebat,  se 
sSqui  iiibet  (Caes.  B.  G.  v.  37),  such  tribunes  of  the  soldiers 
as  he  had  about  him  at  the  moment,  he  orders  to  follow  him. 

1 125  Thus,  sometimes  the  noun  of  the  main  clause,  more  commonly 
that  of  the  relative  clause,  is  omitted.     But  if  the  noun  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  main  verb  by  the  relative  clause,  it  sometimes 
takes  its  case  from  the  relative  clause,  to  which  it.  is  nearer  :  as, 

Populo  ut  placerent  quas  fecisset  fabulas  (Ter.  And.  prol.  3), 
that  the  plays  he  might  write  should  please  the  people. 

Vrbem  quam  st&tuo  uestrast  (Virg.  A.  i.  577),  the  city  which  1 
am  setting  up  is  yours. 

1 1 20        An  antecedent  is  not  always  necessary  :  as, 

Nee  erat  quod  scribe'rem  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xn.  9),  nor  was  there  any 

thing  to  write.    • 
AssSquere  quod  uls  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xi.  7. 3),  you  will  obtain  what 

you  wish. 
llabebis  quoi  des  littgras  (Cic.  ad  Att.  XT.  13.  5),  you  will  have 

some  one  to  send  a  letter  by. 
Interuenit  Suim  quoi  m&tuisti  credo  ne  saluo  caplte  nggarS 

non  posse's  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  38.  99),  for  there  suddenly  stepped 

forward  one,  to  whom  you  were  afraid,  I  suppose,  you  could 

not  say  no  without  getting  your  head  broken. 
Par  to*  quSd  auebas  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  1.  94),  having  acquired  what 

you  longed  for. 
Bgne  est  cu!  Deus  obtulit  parca  quod  satis  est  m&nu  (Hor.  Od. 

in.  16.  43),  'tis  well  with  him  to  whom  the  Deity  has  offered 

with  frugal  hand  what  is  enough. 
Dies  deindg  praestltutS,  capitalisquS  poenS,  qul  non  remigrasset 

Romam  singulos  m8tu  suo  quemque  Sbedientls  fecit  (Liv. 

*  Here  quod  auebas  may  be  considered  as  a  noun  in  the  ablative. 


246  SYNTAX. 

vi.  4),  a  day  was  then  named,  and  capital  punishment  held 
out  to  any  one  who  should  not  by  that  day  have  returned  to 
Rome  there  to  live,  and  this  decisive  measure  made  them  all 
obedient,  each  individual  being  influenced  by  fear  for  himself. 
Praemia  atque  honores  qu!  milltare  secum  uSluissent  proposuit 
(Lit),  xxin.  15),  he  held  out  rewards  and  honours  to  such  as 
should  be  willing  to  serve  under  him.* 

1127  Such  omissions  fall  for  the  most  part  under  the  four  following 
heads  :  a.  where  the  antecedent,  if  expressed,  would  be  in  the 
same  case  as  the  relative ;  b.  where  the  verb  immediately  precedes 
or  follows,  and  thus  shows  the  connection ;    c.  short  relative 
phrases,  where  the  antecedent  would  be  a  nominative  or  accusa- 
tive ;  d.  an  antecedent  dative  before  qui.t 

1128  The  relative  in  short  phrases  sometimes  adapts  its  case  to  the 
main  sentence  :  as, 

Quern  uidebitur  praeftcigs  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vi.  3.  2),  you  will  place 
at  the  head  of  the  business  whom  you  think  proper. 

Quo  consuerat  interuallo  hostis  sequitiir  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  22),  he 
follows  the  enemy  at  the  interval  he  was  accustomed  to.  t 

Raptim  qulbus  quisqug  pSterat  elatis  (Liv.  I.  29),  each  hastily 
carrying  out  what  he  could. 

1129  When  a  relative  referring  to  the  preceding  sentence  is  sepa- 
rated from  its  verb  (or  other  governing  word)  by  a  conjunction  or 
relative,  it  is  convenient  in  the  translation  to  substitute  for  the 
relative  some  proper  form  of  the  pronoun  i  he'  or  '  this,'  with  an 
English  conjunction  if  need  be  :  as, 

Quod  postquam  barbari  fieri  animaduerterunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  in. 

15),  but  when  the  barbarians  saw  that  this  was  being  done. 
Quod  ubi  auditum  est  (Caes.  B.  G.  in.  18),  and  when  this  was 

lieard. 

1130  When  a  relative  is  connected  in  meaning  with  two  clauses,  it 
generally  adapts  its  case  to  the  secondary  clause,  if  that  precedes 
the  main  clause  :  as, 

*  See  also  examples  under  §  1226,  and  Liv.  in.  19.  6. 

t  This  was  probably  at  first  owing  to  the  similarity  in  sound  between 
qui  and  cui  or  quoi,  so  that  the  case  d  would  be  virtually  included  in  a  ; 
and  then  extended  to  the  plural. 

J  The  English  often  omit  the  relative,  which  however  must  always  be 
supplied  in  translating  into  Latin. 


LOGICAL  PllOXOUNS.  247 

Is  enim  fueram,  quoi*  cum  llceret  magiios  ex  otio  fructus  ca- 
pSrg,  non  diibitauerim  me  grauissumis  tempestatlbus  ob- 
uium  ferre  (Cic.  R.  P.  I.  4. 7),  for  I  had  been  one,  who  having 
it  in  my  power  to  derive  great  advantages  from  repose,  still 
did  not  hesitate  to  face  the  most  fearful  storms. 

Nam  quid  de  me  dlcam,  quoi  ut  omnia  contingant  quae  uolo, 
le'varl  non  possum  ?  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xn.  23.4)/ar  what  should 
I  say  of  myself,  when,  though  every  thing  should  befall  me  that 
I  wish,  still  I  could  not  be  relieved  ? 

Is  quit  albus  aterng  fuerit  ignoras  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  16.41),  one  of 
whom  you  cannot  say  whether  he  was  white  or  black. 

Quern  nisi  Saguntmum  scelus  agitaret,  resplceret  prSfecto  &c. 
(Liv.  xxi.  41),  and  if  Heaven's  curse  for  his  crimes  at  Sagun- 
tum  had  not  been  pursuing  him,  assuredly  he  would  have  looked 
back  at  <&c. 

1130. 1  When  two  relative  clauses  are  combined  (as  by  gt,  qug,  &c.), 
and  the  cases  of  the  two  relatives  should  strictly  speaking  be  dif- 
ferent, the  second  may  sometimes  be  omitted,  when  it  would  be  a 
nominative  or  accusative  :  as, 

Bocchus  cum  pgdltlbus  quos  Volux  adduxSrat,  ngque  in  priorS 
pugna  affuerant,  postremam  Romanorum  aciem  inuadunt 
(Sal.  Jug.  101),  Bocchus,  with  the  infantry  which  Volux  had 
brought  up,  and  who  had  not  been  present  in  the  preceding 
battle,  attack  the  rear  of  the  Roman  army.  J 

1130.  2  The  adjectives  tali-,  tanto-,  and  t5t,  as  also  the  adverbs  tain 
and  turn,  are  used  as  antecedents  to  the  respective  relatives  quali-, 
quanto-,  quot,  quam  and  quum. 

1131  The  relative  §  is  often  used  in  parentheses  with  the  sense  of 
the  logical  pronoun  i-  or  eo- :  as, 

*  Rather  than  gui  cum  mihi  liceret,  &c.  Hence  probably  we  should 
read  in  Phil.  n.  7. 17,  hoc  uero  ne  P.  quidem  Clodius  dixit  unquam,  quoi 
quia  iure  fui  inimicus,  doleo  a  te  omnibus  uitiis  iam  esse  superatum. 

f  Had  the  ignoras  preceded  albus,  the  phrase  would  have  been  quern 
ignoras,  &c. 

I  Sometimes  the  proper  case  of  i-  is  supplied  in  the  second  clause, 
as  eos  in  Cic.  de  Clar.  Or.  74.  258. 

§  So  also  the  relative  adverb  ut  is  used -for  sic  or  ita  in  Ter.  Ph.  v.  2. 
9,  Haud  scio  hercle  (ut  homost]  an  mutet  animum,  '  I  am  only  too  much 
afraid  faith  (knowing  the  fellow's  character)  he  may  change  his  mind.' 
Compare  Hec.  in.  5. 10,  Sic  sum,  'it  is  my  way.' 


248  SYNTAX. 

Quod  si  mihi  permlsisses,  qul  metis  am5r  in  te  est,  confecisscm 
(Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  2. 1),  whereas  if  you  had  left  thi;  m 
altogether  to  me,  such  is  my  affection  for  you,  I  should  Iiave 
settled  it. 

Quod  si  f&cit,  qua  impudentiast  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Com.  15. 45),  if 
he  does  this  (and  he  has  impudence  enough  to  do  it),  <&c. 

1131. 1  Logical  pronouns, — and  we  here  include,  besides  i-  or  eo-,  all 
the  pronouns  so  used,  as  ho-  (§  1095),  illo-  (§  1103),  and  quo- 
(§  1131), — are  at  times  used  in  immediate  agreement  with  a  sub- 
stantive, where  a  genitive  of  the  pronoun  with  rel  might  have  been 
expected  :  as, 

Hoc  mgtu  latins  uagfiri  prohlbebat  (Caes.  B.  G.  v.  19),  by  the 
alarm  which  thence  arose,  he  prevented  (the  troops  from)  wan- 
dering about  to  any  great  distance. 

Haec  quldem  est  perf&cllis  defonsio  (Cic.  de  Fin.  TIL  11.36), 
the  defence  of  this  at  any  rate  is  a  very  easy  matter. 

1132  I-dem. 

I-dem  same  is  employed  in  many  constructions,  the  chief  of 
which  are  the  following  : 

Imperl  nostrl  terrarumque  illarum  Idem  est  extrgmum  (Cic. 

de  Prov.  Con.  13.  33),  our  empire  and  that  country  have  now 

the  same  boundary. 
Quaerlttir  Idemng  sit  pertlnacia  et  pers8ue"ranti£  (Cic.  Top.  23. 

87),  the  question  is,  whether  obstinacy  and  perseverance  be  the 

same  thing. 
Acadgmlcus  6t  Idem  rhettfr  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  1.1),  an  academician 

and  at  the  same  time  a  professed  speaker. 

Animus  te  erga  est  Idem  ac  fuit  (Ter.  Haut.  n.  3.  24),  my  feel- 
ing towards  you  is  the  same  as  it  was. 
Idem  abeunt  qul  uene>ant  (Cic.  de  Fin.  iv.  3.  7),  they  go  away 

the  same  that  they  come.* 
Eodem  16co  res  est  qu&si  ea  pScunia  IggatS,  non  esset  (Cic.  de 

Leg.  ii.  21.53),  the  matter  stands  in  the  same  position  as  if 

the  said  money  had  never  been  left. 
Idem  nSgas  quidquam  certl  posse"  rBpSrlrl,  Idem  te  compe'risse' 

dixistl  (Cic.  Acad.  Pr.  n.  19.63),  on  the  one  hand  you  sat/ 

*  With  their  opinions  unaltered. 


INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS.  240 

that  nothing  certain  can  be  found  ~by  man,  and  yet  on  the  other 
hand  you  also  said  that  you  had  discovered  so  and  so, 
N8que  ego  ftlltgr  accepi ;  intellexl  tS,m8n  idem  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 
ix.  15.3),  nor  did  I  take  it  otherwise  ;  I  saw  however  at  tfa 
same  time  &c. 

1133  The  construction  with  a  dative  or  with  cum  belongs  to  the 
poets  and  the  later  writers  :  as, 

Eodem  mecum  p&tre  gSnltiis  (Tac.  Ann.  xv.  2),  sprung  from  the 

same  father  as  myself. 
Inuitum  qul  seru&t,  Idem  fScIt  occidentl  (Hor.  ad  Pis.  467), 

who  saves  a  man  against  his  will  does  the  same  as  one  who 

kills  him. 

INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1134  The  use  of  the  interrogative  pronouns  qui-,  utgro-  &c.  falls 
under  the  two  heads  of  direct*  and  indirect  questions ;  the  former 
having  commonly  the  indicative,  t  the  latter  nearly  always  the 
subjunctive  :  as, 

Direct  questions  : 

Quis  tu  es  ?  (Ter.  And.  iv.  1.11)  who  are  you  ? 
Quid  Igltur  slbi  uolt  pS,ter  ?  (Ter.  And.  n.  3. 1)  what  does  my 

father  mean  then  ? 

Indirect  questions  : 
Quid  rgtmeat  per  tg  mSmlnit,  non  quid  amisgrit  (Cic.  p.  Deiot. 

13.  35),  he  remembers  what  he  retains  through  you,  not  what 

he  has  lost. 
Qualis  sit  Snlmus,  ipse  S-nlmus  nescit  (Cic.  Tusc.  I.   22.  53), 

what  sort  of  thing  the  soul  is,  the  soul  itself  knows  not. 

*  In  the  direct  question  the  English  language  puts  the  nominative 
after  the  verb  or  its  auxiliary,  except  indeed  when  the  question  is  about 
the  nominative  itself  and  begins  with  *  who,'  *  which,'  or  '  what.'  Secondly, 
an  interrogative  pronoun  or  particle  commences  the  sentence,  unless  in- 
deed the  question  be  about  the  act  itself,  in  which  case  the  verb  or  its 
auxiliary  comes  first.  Thirdly,  the  mark  of  interrogation  (?)  is  placed  at 
the  end  of  the  sentence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  indirect  interrogative  is 
always  attached  to  some  word  or  phrase,  generally  to  a  verb.  Secondly, 
the  nominative,  as  in  ordinary  sentences,  always  precedes  its  verb.  Thirdly, 
it  is  not  entitled  to  the  mark  of  interrogation. 

f  See  below. 


250  SYNTAX. 

Both  : 

Quid  facturl  fuistis  ?   Quamquam  quid  facturi  fugrltis  dubltem, 
cum  uldeam  quid  fecgrltls  ?  (Cic.  p.  Lig.  8.  24)  what  would 
you  have  done  ?    And  yet  am  I  to  doubt  what  you  would  have 
done,  when  I  see  what  you  actually  have  done  ? 
Both  : 

Quid  nuiic  flet  ?  Quid  fiat  rogas  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  1. 1)  what  will 
become  of  us  now  ?  What  will  become  of  us,  ask  you  ? 

11  •'>.">        A  question  is  sometimes  asked  with  a  participle  dependent 

upon  the  main  verb,  in  which  case  it  is  commonly  necessary  for 

the  English  translator  to  substitute  a  verb  for  that  participle,  and 

at  the  same  time  to  insert  a  relative  before  the  original  verb  :  as, 

VndS  pgtltum  hoc  in  me  iSds  ?  (Hor.  Sat.  I.  4. 79)  whence  didst 

thou  get  this  stone  (which)  thou  throwest  at  me  ? 
Quibus  mos  und8  deductus  AinazSnia  sScurl  dextras  Sbarmet, 
quaereYS  distull  (Hor.  Od.  iv.  4.18),  but  whence  derived  the 
custom  which  with  Amazonian  axe  equips  their  arm,  I  ask 
not  now. 

Cogltatg  quantis  l&boribus  fundatum  impe'rium,  quanta  uirtutS 
stSMitam  libertatem  unS,  nox  paeng  demerit  (Cic.  in  Cat. 
iv.  9. 19),  consider  what  labour  was  employed  to  found  that 
empire,  what  valour  to  establish  that  liberty  which  a  single 
night  has  almost  annihilated. 

1136  Occasionally  two  questions  are  included  in  one  sentence,  and 
require  to  be  separated  in  the  translation  :  as, 

Nihil  iam  aliud  quaergrg  debetis,  nisi  utgr  titri  insldias  fec&rit 
(Cic.  p.  Mil.  9.  23),  you  have  now  nothing  else  to  inquire  into 
but  this,  which  of  the  two  plotted  against  the  other's  life,  which 
had  his  life  so  endangered. 

Cetgrorum  mis8rab!li(5r  oratio  fuit  commgmSrantium  ex  quantis 
flplbus  quo  reccldissent  Karthaglniensium  res  (Liv.  xxx. 
42),  the  language  of  the  rest  was  still  more  affecting,  as  they 
dwelt  upon  the  powerful  station  from  which,  and  the  low  depth 
to  which  the  state  of  Carthage  was  fallen. 

1137  It  may  be  observed,  that  the  Latin  language  employs  the  in- 
direct interrogation  much  more  frequently  than  the  English,  which 
often  prefers  a  mere  relative  with  an  antecedent  substantive,  or  a 
substantive  alone  :  as, 


INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS.  2.51 

Nunc  quid  agendum  sit  conslde'ratg  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  2.6), 
consider  now  the  business  which  you  have  to  transact. 

Non  sum  praedlcaturus  quantas  illS  res  domi  mllltiaequg  ges- 
s6rit  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  16. 48),  I  am  not  going  to  proclaim 
the  greatness  of  his  achievements  at  home  and  abroad. 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS,  &c. 

1138  The  simple  qui-  any  is  an  enclitic,*  and  cannot  occupy  the 
first  place  in  a  sentence. 

Omnia  semper  quae  magistrates  illg  dlcet,  secundls  aurlbus, 
quae  ab  nostrum  quo  dicentur  aduersls  accfpietls  ?  (Liv.  vi. 
40)  will  you  always  receive  with  a  favourable  ear  what  those 
magistrates  say,  and  with  an  unfavourable  ear  what  is  said 
by  any  of  us  ? 

1139  The  use  of  this  word  is  frequent  in  sentences  beginning  with 
the  relative  or  relative  adverbs,  and  after  si,  nisi,  ne,  num  :  as, 

lam  illis  promissis  standum  non  est,  quae  coacttis  quis  m6tu 
promlsit  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  10.  32),  lastly,  there  is  another  class 
of  promises  which  are  not  binding,  viz.  those  which  one  makes 
under  the  compulsion  of  fear. 

Quo  quis  uersutior  est,  hoc  inulsior  (Cic.  de  Off.  n.  9.  34),  the 
more  crafty  a  man  is,  the  more  is  he  disliked. 

Vbi  sgmel  quis  pgigrauMt,  e!  credi  postea  non  oportet  (Cic.  p. 
Rab.  Post.  13. 36),  when  a  man  has  once  forsworn  himself, 
he  should  not  afterwards  be  believed. 

Num  quod  e'lo'quentiae  uestigium  apparet  ?  (Cic.  de  Or.  I.  9. 
37)  is  there  any  trace  of  eloquence  to  be  seen  ? 

Habent  leglbus  sanctum,  si  quis  quid  de  rS  publlca  fama  ac- 
cSpgrlt,  iiti  ad  magistratum  defgrat,  nSug  cum  quo  alio 
communlcet  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  19),  they  have  it  provided  for 
by  law,  that  if  any  one  hear  any  thing  by  report  on  matters 
of  state,  he  shall  lay  it  before  the  authorities,  and  not  com- 
municate it  to  any  other  person. 

Si  qui  grauiorS  uolngre  accepto  6quo  decIdSrat,  circumsistebant 
(Caes.  B.  G.  I.  48),  whenever  any  one  at  all  severely  wounded 
fell  from  his  horse,  they  formed  around  him. 

*  This  of  course  does  not  prevent  the  compounds  siqui-,  negui-,  &c. 
from  being  emphatic. 


252  SYNTAX. 

1140  In  the  phrases  with  sJ-qui-,  the  main  sentence  has  no  connect- 
ing pronoun,  the  sl-qui-  clause  itself  performing  the  office  of  a 
noun :  as, 

Si  quid  est  paMli*  obruunt  nlues  (Liv.  xxi.  37),  what  fodder 
there  is,  is  buried  under  the  snow. 

1141  Allqui-  some,  any,  is  always  emphatic,  and  is  opposed  to  such 
words  as  all,  much,  none :  as, 

Vnum  allquem  nominate  (Cic.  p.  Clu.  66. 185),  name  some  one 

or  other. 
Si  nos  &d  Sllquam  allcuius  commo'di  allquando  reciiperandi 

spem  fortuna  reseruauit,  minus  est  erratum  a  nobls  (Cic. 

ad  Fam.  xiv.  4. 1),  if  fortune  has  reserved  us  for  any  chance 

(however  small)  of  recovering  at  any  time  (however  distant) 

ant/  thing  desirable  (in  the  slightest  degree],  then  our  error 

has  been  less. 
Est  istuc  quldem  Sllquid,  sed  nequaquam  In  isto  sunt  omniS, 

(Cic.  de  Sen.  3. 8).  what  you  say  is,  I  grant,  something,  but 

it  by  no  means  includes  the  whole, 
Si  uis  esse  allquldf  (Juv.  i.  74),  if  thou  wishest  to  be  somebody 

in  the  world. 

1142  The  substantive!  qui-quam  and  adjective  ullo-  signify  any  (if 
only  one,  and  no  matter  what  that  one  may  be),  and  are  used  in 
negative,  interrogative,  conditional  and  comparative  sentences  : 
as, 

Sing  sociis  nemo  quidquam  tale  conatiir  (Cic.  de  Am.  12. 42), 
without  companions  no  one  attempts  any  such  thing. 

Idcirco  caplte  et  siiperclliis  est  rasis,  ne  ullum  piluin  uiri  btfui 
hSberg  dicatiir  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Com.  7.  20),  he  goes  with  his 
head  and  his  eyebrows  shaved,  that,  he  may  not  be  said  to  have 
a  single  hair  of  respectability  about  him. 

Et  quisquam  lunonis  numen  &doret  Praeterea?  ( Virg.  A.  1.  52) 
and  is  any  one  after  this  to  worship  the  divinity  of  Juno  ? 

*  Thus,  si  quid  est  pabuli  may  be  considered  to  be  the  accusative  case 
after  the  verb  obruunt. 

•f  So  Juvenal,  if  we  inav  trust  the  best  and  the  majority  of  the  Mss. 
(Madvig.) — Cicero  uses  both  sum  aliguis  and  sum  aliquid. 

+  Qui-quam  however  is  at  times  an  adjective,  and  ullo-  at  times  a 
substantive,  in  speaking  of  persons  :  as,  qui-quam,  Ter.  Haut.  i.  1  29, 
Plant.  Ps.  in.  2.  G2  ;  ullo-,  Caes.  B.  G.  i.  8.  3,  Liv.  v.  40,  Cic.  ad  Fain, 
xiii.  26. 1. 


INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS.  253 

Num.  censes  ullum  animal,  quod  sangulnem  habeat,  sine  corde 

essS  possS  ?  (Cic.  de  Div.  I.  52.119)  now  do  you  think  that 

any  animal  that  has  blood  can  exist  without  a  heart  ? 
Si  ulla  mea  apud  te  commendatio  ualuit,  haec  ut  ualeat  rogo 

(Cic.  ad  Fam.  xiir.  40),  if  any  recommendation  of  mine  ever 

had  weight  with  you,  I  beg  that  this  may. 
Quamdiu  quisquam  erit,  qu!  te  defende're  audeat,  uiues  (Cic. 

in  Cat.  I.  2.  6),  as  long  as  there  is  a  single  living  being  who 

dares  to  defend  you,  you  shall  live. 
Cuiuis  potest  accidere,  quod  cuiquam  potest  (Syr.  ap.  Sen.  de 

Tranq.  An.  11),  that  may  happen  to  every  one,  which  may 

happen  to  any  one. 
Nihil  est  exitiosius  cluitatibus  quam  quidquam  agi  per  uiin 

(Cic.  de  Leg.  in.  18.  42),  nothing  is  more  pernicious  to  a  state 

than  that  violence  should  be  resorted  to  in  any  thing. 

1143  Qui-piam  is  used  like  aliqui-  :* 

Quaeret  quispiam  (Cic.  in  Hull.  n.  8.  20),  some  one  will  ask. 

Forsitan  Sllquis  aliquando  eiusmo'di  quidpiam  fScSrft  (Cic.  u. 
Verr.  n.  32.  78),  per/taps  some  one  will  some  time  or  other 
have  done  something  of  this  kind. 

Pecuniam  si  quoipiam  fortuna  a"demit,  aut  si  Slicuiiis  erlpuit 
iniuria,  tamen  consolatur  honestas  Sgestatem  (Cic.  p. 
Quinct.  15.  49),  if  money  be  taken  from  any  one  by  misfor- 
tune, or  wrested  from  him  by  the  violence  of  some  one,  still 
integrity  is  a  consolation  to  poverty. 

1144  Qui-uls  and  qui-lubet  any  you  please  are  universal  affirmatives, 
and  may  often  be  translated  by  every  one  :t  as, 

Abs  quiuis  ho'mlne  beuiflcium  accipSre  gaudeas  (Ter.  Ad.  ir. 

3. 1),  one  would  be  glad  to  receive  a  favour  from  any  one. 
Mihi  quiduis  sat  est  (Plant.  Mil.  Gl.  ill.  1. 155),  for  me  any 

thing  is  enough. 
Non  cuiuis  hSmlni  continglt  adire  Corinthum  (Hor.  Ep.  I.  17. 

36),  it  is  not  every  man's  lot  to  visit  Corinth. 

*  Except  that  it  has  never  the  meaning  of  '  something  important,' 
which  aliqui-  often  has. 

f  A  superlative  may  often  be  substituted  for  them ;  as  for  example 
in  the  following  sentences  :  '  the  greatest  stranger,' '  the  least  quantity,' 
'  only  the  most  fortunate.' 


254 


SYNTAX. 


Quern  sequar  ?  Quemlubet,  m5do  aliquem  (Cic.  Acad.  Pr.  n. 
43. 132),  whom  am  I  to  take  for  my  guide  ?  Any  body  you 
please,  provided  it  be  somebody. 

1 1 44. 1  Qui-qug  (N.  quisqug)  every,  all  taken  each  by  itself,  is  opposed 
to  unluerso-  all  united  as  a  whole.  See  examples  under  §  1057,  a, 
&,«.• 

1145  Qui-dam  some  is  used  both  generally,  and  in  reference  to  par- 
ticular objects  which  we  either  cannot  or  do  not  choose  accurately 
to  define.     Hence  it  is  often  employed  to  soften  some  strong  me- 
taphor or  epithet  : 

Sed  sunt  quldamf  itS,  uoce  absSni  iit  In  oratorum  numerum 
ugnirS  non  possint  (Cic.  de  Or.  i.  25. 115),  but  there  are  in 
fact  some  of  so  unmusical  a  voice  that  they  can  never  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  number  of  orators. 

Accurrit  quldam,  notus  mlhl  noming  tantum  (Hor.  Sat.  1.9.3), 
there  runs  up  a  certain  person  known  to  me  by  name  alone. 

Ngque  pugnas  narrat,  quod  quidamj  facit  (Ter.  E.  in.  2.  29), 
nor  does  he  talk  of  his  battles,  as  a  certain  person  does. 

HSbet  8nim  quendam  aculeum  contumeliS  quern  patl  ulr!  bonl 
difflcillumS  possunt  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  in.  41. 95),  for  insult  has 
in  fact  a  sort  of  sting  in  it,  which  a  gentleman  can  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  endure. 

Fuit  enim  mirificus  quldam  in  Crasso  pudSr  (Cic.  de  Or.  i.  26. 
122),  for  there  was  in  fact  in  Crassus  a  bashfulness  I  had 
almost  called  astounding. 

1146  Qui-cunquS  is  commonly  an  adjective,  and  is  used  in  three 
ways  (of  which  however  the  first  is  by  far  the  most  common) :  a, 
as  every  one  who,  in  the  same  way  as  the  ordinary  relative  is  used  ; 
6.  without  any  antecedent,  but  so  as  to  admit  the  insertion  of  such 
words  as  no  matter  before  the  who  ;  c.  in  the  sense  of  some  one  or 
other,  the  best  I  can. 

a.  Qutfd  erit  cumquS  uisum,  Sges  (Cic.  de  Fin.  iv    25.  69), 

wJiatever  you  think  proper,  you  will  do. 

b.  Quocunque  in  ISco  quls  est,  idem  est  el  sensus  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 

vi.  1. 1),  wherever  a  person  is,  his  feelings  are  the  same. 

*  See  also  §  349. 

t  Here  Cicero  has  no  particular  persons  in  view. 

J  Here  there  is  a  particular  person  in  view,  viz.  the  braggart  Thraso. 


INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS.  255 

c.  Quae  sanarl  pSterunt,  quacunque*  rS-tionS  sanabo  (Cic.  in 
Cat.  n.  5. 11),  what  parts  admit  of  being  healed,  I  will  heal 
in  the  best  way  I  can. 

1147  Qui-qui-f  is  commonly  a  substantive,  and  is  used  chiefly  in 
the  sense  of  no  matter  who,  &c.  ;  but  at  times  as  a  relative  in 
grammatical  connection  with  the  main  clause  : 

Ago  gratias,  quoquo  S,nimo  fads  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  13.  33),  /  thank 

you,  no  matter  with  what  feeling  you  do  it. 
Quicquld  auctorltatS  possum,  Id  omn8  tlbi  polllceor  (Cic.  p. 

leg.  Man.  24.69),  whatever  power  I  possess  in  my  name,  1 

promise  you  the  whole  of  it. 

1148  The  chief  constructions  of  alio-$  one,  some,  other,  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Aliiid  est  maledice're,  aliiid  accussarS  (Cic.  p.  Gael.  3. 6),  it  is 

one  thing  to  abuse,  one  to  accuse. 
Quae  minus  tuta  erant,  alia  fossis,  alia"  uallis,  alia"  turrlbus 

muniebat  (Liv.  xxxn.  5),  the  parts  which  were  less  protected, 

he  was  fortifying,  some  with  ditches,  some  with  palisades, 

some  with  towers. 

Ipsi  inter  se  alils  alii  prosunt  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  7. 22),  they  them- 
selves mutually  assist  one  another. 
Me  qutftldie  aliud  ex  alio  impedit  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  19),  for 

myself,  one  thing  after  another  hinders  me  every  day. 
Equltes  alii  alia  dllapsl  sunt  (Liv.  XLIV.  43),  the  cavalry  slipped 

off,  some  by  one  route,  some  by  another. 
lussit  alios  alibi  fSderS  (Liv.  XLIV.  33),  he  ordered  tfam  to  dig, 

some  in  one  place,  some  in  another. 
Quotannls  alium  atque  alium  domlnum  sortiuntur  (Liv.  xxxi. 

29),  they  take  the  chance  of  the  lot  every  year,  first  for  one 

master,  then  for  another. 
Tlmeo  ne  aliud  credam  atque  aliud§  nuntigs  (Ter.  Hec.  v.4.4), 

*  Potero  might  have  been  inserted. 

f  The  use  of  qui-qui-  in  the  sense  of  gui-que  is  very  rare,  at  any  rate 
in  the  best  writers. 

$  That  alio-  did  not  originally  mean  difference  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  aliqui-  is  connected  with  it,  and  that  its  other  derivative  altero-  in 
itself  never  signifies  difference. 

§  This  shows  the  way  in  which  atque  alone  came  to  be  used  after  alio-. 


250  SYNTAX. 

/  am  afraid  that  I  am  giving  credit  to  one  thing,  and  you 
asserting  another. 

Longe  alia  nobis  ac  tu  scripseras  mmtiantur  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xi. 
10.  2),  the  accounts  brought  to  us  differ  widely  from  what  you 
write. 

Non  aliiis  essem  atque  nunc  sum  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  i.  9.21),  / 
should  not  have  been  a  different  person  from  what  I  now  am. 

Lux  longe  aliast,  soils  et*  lychnorum  (Cic.  p.  Gael.  28.67),  there 
is  a  wide  difference  in  the  light  of  the  sun  and  of  a  lamp. 

Lutatio  quae  alia  res  quam  cele'rltas  uictoriam  dedit  ?  (Liv. 
xxn.  14)  what  else  but  rapidity  gave  Lutatius  the  victory  ? 

Quid  enim  aliud  quam  admSnendi  essetis  ut  morem  traditum 
a  p&tribus  seruaretis  ?  (Liv.  xxn.  60)  for  what  else  would 
there  ham  been  to  do  but  to  remind  you  of  the  duty  of  main- 
taining a  custom  handed  down  by  your  fathers  ? 

Quid  est  dlcere  aliud,  Quia  indignos  uestra  uoluntate  creaturl 
non  estis,  necessltatem  uobis  creandi  quos  non  uoltis  im- 
ponam  ?  (Liv.  vi.  40)  what  is  this  but  to  say :  Since  you  will 
not  willingly  elect  unworthy  persons,  1  will  impose  on  you  the 
necessity  of  electing  those  whom  you  do  not  like  ? 

Rogauit,  numquld  aliud  ferret  praeter  arcam  (Cic.  de  Or.  n. 
69.  279),  he  asked  whether  he  was  carrying  any  thing  else  be- 
sides a  chest. 

1149        Altero-  is  used  in  the  following  constructions,  being  always 
limited  to  one  of  two,  or  the  second  of  many  : 

Quorum  alter  exercltum  perdldit,  alter  uendldit  (Cic.  p.  Plane. 

35.  86),  of  whom  one  has  lost,  the  other  has  sold  an  army. 
Alterif  dlmlcant ;  alt£rl  uictorem  tlment  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vi.  3. 

4),  the  one  party  stake  all  upon  war,  the  other  look  with  terror 

to  the  conqueror. 
Miluo  est  quoddam  bellum  qu£sl  naturale  cum  coruo  ;  ergo 

altgr  altgriiis  oua  franglt  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  49.125),  between  the 

kite  and  the  crow  there  is,  as  it  were,  a  sort  of  natural  war  ; 

consequently  each  breaks  the  other's  eggs. 
Altgrif   alteros   allquantum   attriuerant  (Sal.  Jug.   79),  each 

nation  had  considerably  reduced  the  power  of  the  other. 

*  When  et  or  que  are  used  in  these  phrases,  the  things  compared  are 
brought  together.    A  pause  too  should  precede.    Atque  is  not  so  limited. 
f  See  the  note  to  §  324. 


PRONOMINAL  ADVERBS.  257 

Vterqug  nttmSrus  plenus,  altgr  altera  de  caussa  habetur  (Cic. 
Somn.  Sc.  2),  loth  numbers  are  accounted  full,  the  one  for 
one  reason,  the  other  for  another. 
Oinnes  quorum  In  alterius  mSnu  uitS,  ptfsltast  (Cic.  p.  Quinct. 

2.  6),  att  those  whose  lives  are  in  the  hands  of  another. 
Tu  nunc  grls  alter  ab  illo  (  Virg.  BUG.  v.  49),  thou  shalt  now  be 

next  after  him. 

Ad  Brutum  nostrum  hos  llbros  alteros  quinquS  mittemus  (Cic. 
Tusc.  v.  41. 121),  we  shall  send  to  our  friend  Brutus  this 
second  set  of  five  looks. 
Altgrum  tantum  gqultlbus  diulsit  (Liv.  x.  46),  he  gave  to  each 

horse-soldier  as  much  again. 

1149. 1  NemSn-  no  man,  no  one,  though  properly  a  substantive,  is 
found  with  appellations  of  persons,  as  nemo  cluls  no  citizen,  nemo 
Romanus  no  Roman,  nemo  quisquam  no  one  whatever,  where  how- 
ever ciuls,  Romanus,  quisquam,  may  be  regarded  themselves  as 
adjectives.  In  place  of  the  genitive  and  dative  nullius  and  nulli 
are  preferred. 

PRONOMINAL  ADVERBS. 

1150  The  pronominal  adverbs,*  especially  by  the  old  writers,  were 
often  used  as  adjectives  in  connection  with  nouns  :  as, 

Teque  Ibidem  peruoluam  in  liito  (Ter.  And.  iv.  4.38),  and  I 

will  give  you  a  good  rolling  in  the  same  mud. 
Quid  SgS  nunc  &gam  nisi  in  angiilum  allquo  SJbeam  ?  (Ter.  Ad. 

v.  2.  9)  what  am  I  to  do  now,  but  take  myself  off  into  some 

quiet  corner  ? 
Venit  meditatus  alicunde  ex  so!6  loco  (Ter.  And.  n.  4. 3),  he  is 

just  come,  after  conning  his  lesson,  from  some  solitary  place. 
Modo  quandam  uidi  uirginem  hie  uiciuiaef  (Ter.  Ph.  I.  2. 45), 

1  just  now  saw  a  maiden  in  this  neighbourhood. 
Quo  tendltls  inquit ;  Qul  geniis ;  undg  d5mo  ?  (  Virg.  A.  viu. 

113)  whither  haste  ye,  says  he;  who  ly  race;  from  what  home  ? 
Indldern  ex  Achaia  8riundl(Zw.  xxv.  15),  sprung  from  the  same 

Achaia. 
Indldemne  ex  Ameria  ?  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  27.  74)  what  from 

the  same  Ameria  ? 

»  Those  forms  of  course  being  selected  which  accord  with  the  relation 
of  place  expressed  in  the  accompanying  phrase. 

f  Hie  uiciniae,  both  datives.  See  §  952.  Nay  in  Plant.  Mil.  n.  3.  2, 
hie  proxumae  uiciniae,  for  so  the  Palimpsest  and  Mss.  C.  D. 


253  SYNTAX. 

1151  Tho  relative  adverbs,  like  the  relative  itself,  are  often  used 
without  an  expressed  antecedent :  as, 

Pergam  quo  coepi  hoc  Iter  (Ter.  Hec.  I.  2. 119),  1  will  continue 
this  journey  of  mine,  to  the  place  I  started  for. 

Si  rem  seruassem,  fuit  ubi  negotiosus  essem  (Plaut.  True.  i.  2. 
38),  if  I  had  saved  my  money,  I  should  have  had  something 
to  employ  myself  upon. 

Est,  dis  gratia,  unde  haec  fiant  (Ter.  Ad.  I.  2.41),  there  is, 
thanks  to  the  gods,  the  wherewithal  to  do  this. 

Vagarl  qua  uelit  (Cic.  de  Or.  i.  16.  70),  to  wander  along  what- 
ever road  he  pleases. 

1151.1  The  adverbs  of  all  pronouns  used  logically,  especially  those 
connected  with  the  relative,  may  refer  to  antecedents  of  any 
gender  or  number,  so  that  unde',  for  example,  stands  for  ab  or  ex 
quo,  qua  or  qulbus,  quo  for  In  or  ad  quern  &c.,  ubi  for  in  quo 
&c. :  as, 

Omnibus  unde  petltur,  hoc  consili  dederim  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn. 

11. 1),  to  all  defendants  in  a  suit  I  would  give  this  advice. 
PStest  fieri,  ut  Is  unde  te  audissS  dicls,  iratus  dixerit  (Cic.  de 
Or.  n.  70.  285),  it  may  be  that  the  person  from  whom  you 
say  you  heard  it  said  so  in  anger. 

Xequ8  praeter  te  quisquam  fuit,  ubi  nostrum  ius  contra  illos 
obtineremus  (Cic.  p.  Quinct.  9.  34),  nor  was  there  besides 
you  any  one  before  whom  we  could  maintain  our  right  against 
them. 

Htfmo  apud  eos  quo  se  contiilit  gratiosus  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  18. 
38),  a  man  of  influence  among  those  to  whom  he  betook  him- 
self. 

Omnia  qua  ulsus  grat  constrata  armls  (Sal.  Jug.  101),  all  the 
ground  along  which  the  eye  could  see  was  bestrewn  with  arms. 

VERB. 
PERSONS,  NUMBER,  &c. 

1152  The  verb  agrees  in  number  and  person  with  the  agent  (or  no- 
minative), and  where  it  contains  a  participle,  in  gender  also. 

1152. 1  Where  there  are  two  nominatives  to  a  verb,  the  verb  either,  a. 
adapts  itself  to  both,  taking  the  plural  form ;  or,  b.  to  the  nearer 
nominative. 


PERSONS,  NUMBER.  259 

a.  Haec  ngque  ego  neque  tu  feclmus*  (Ter.  Ad.  I.  2.  23),  true, 
neither  I  nor  you  ever  acted  thus. 

CastSr  et  Pollux  ex  equis  pugnarg  uisl  sunt  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  2.6), 
Castor  and  Pollux  appeared  fighting  on  horseback. 

b.  Et  tu  et  omnes  h5mlnes  sciunt  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xm.  8. 1),  you 
and  all  men  know. 

Sgnatus  popiilusque  Romanus  intellect  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  8.  2), 

the  senate  and  people  of  Home  perceive. 

Emissae  eo  cohortes  quattu5r  et  C.  Annius  praefectus  (Sal. 
Jug.  77),  there  were  sent  out  to  that  place  four  battalions  and 
C.  A  nnius  as  governor. 

1152.  2    But  of  course  when  the  compound  sentence  does  not  admit  of 
being  broken  up  into  separate  parts,  a  plural  verb  is  required  :  as, 
I  us  gt  iniuria  natura  diiudicantiir  (Cic.  de  Leg.  I.  16.44),  right 
and  wrong  are  naturally  distinguished  from  each  other. 

1152.  3  The  second  person,  as  in  English,  is  often  used  indefinitely, 
where  we  might  also  say  '  a  man.'  (See  §  1224.) 

]  152.  4  The  third  person  plural,  as  in  English,  is  often  used  indefinitely, 
especially  with  the  adverb  uolgo  promiscuously :  as,  aiunt  they  say., 
ferunt  they  carry  the  news  about,  they  report. 

1152. 5  The  compound  tenses  formed  with  fu-  are  rarely  used.  When 
found  beside  those  with  es~  they  denote  more  forcibly  precedence 
in  point  of  time  :  as, 

Leges,  quum  quae  latae  sunt,  turn  ue"ro  quae  promulgatae  fug- 
runt  (Cic.  p.  Sest.  25.  55),  both  those  laws  which  were  passed, 
and  above  all  those  which  (though  never  passed)  were  duly 
advertised. 

Anna  quae  fixa  in  parietlbus  fuerant,  ea  huml  sunt  inuentS, 
(Cic.  de  Div.  i.  34. 74),  arms,  which  had  previously  been  fixed 
up  on  the  walls,  were  found  on  the  ground. 
Ngque  allter  Carnutes  interftciendi  Tasgetil  consllium  fuisse 
captures,  neque  Eburones  ad  castrS,  uenturos  esse  (Caes.  R 
G.  v.  29),  but  for  this  (he  said}  neither  would  the  Carnutes 
have  conspired  (as  they  had  done)  to  put  Tasgetius^  to  death, 

*  It  need  scarcely  be  noticed  that  'we' has  a  twofold  meaning, includ- 
ing with  the  first  person  sometimes  the  second  person — ego  et  tu,  ego  et 
uos  ;  sometimes  the  third,  ego  et  hie.  So  also  *  you'  may  include  several 
persons  addressed  together,  tu  et  tu;  or  may  denote  'you'  and  '  he  '  •  you.1 
and' they,' &c.. 


260  SYNTAX. 

nor  would  the  Eburoties  have  been  marching  (as  they  then 
were}  to  the  camp. 

1152  6    F8rem  (fee.  is  used  in  compound  tenses  by  many  writers*  pre- 
cisely as  essem  is. 

1152.  7  The  compound  tenses  made  up  of  fu-  with  the  participles  in 
turo  and  endo  are  used  only  in  hypothetical  phrases  :  see  §§  709 
to  721,  and  1214. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

1152.8  The  indicative  is  employed  in  affirming,  denying,  and  asking 
questions.  The  chief  uses  of  this  mood  and  its  several  tenses  have 
been  already  stated.f  Moreover,  it  is  evidently  sufficient  to  point 
out  the  cases  where  the  other  moods  are  required.  Hence  all  fur- 
ther remark  upon  the  indicative  is  nearly  superfluous.  However, 
it  may  still  be  useful  to  draw  special  attention  to  those  cases  where 
error  is  not  uncommon. 

1153  Conditional  sentences  may  be  divided  into  two  general  heads  : 
1.  those  which  put  an  imaginary  case,  the  non-existence  of  which 
is  implied  in  the  very  terms,  and  which  are  here  called  hypothe- 
tical, such  as,  '  If  he  were  here,  he  would  tell  us,'  or  '  If  I  had 
been  ill,  I  should  have  consulted  the  physician  ;'  in  which  cases 
it  is  clearly  implied  that '  the  person  spoken  of  is  not  present, 'that 
'  I  was  not  ill. '     2.  Those  suppositions  which  may  be  the  fact  or 
not,  so  far  as  the  speaker  professes  to  know,  as,  '  If  I  receive  the 
letter,  I  will  forward  it.'     This  distinction  being  understood,  it 
may  be  stated  that  conditional  sentences  of  this  second  class  have 
nearly  always  the  indicative J  in  Latin  in  both  clauses,  although 
the  English  language  may  have  the  subjunctive  :  thus, 

Erras  si  id  credls  (Ter.  Haut.  I.  1.53),  you  are  mistaken  if  you 

believe  that. 
Perficietur  bellum,  si  urgemus  obsessos  (Liv.  v.  4),  the  war  will 

be  finished,  if  we  at  once  press  tJie  besieged. 
Si  qu5d  erat  grande  uas,  laeti  adferebant ;  si  minus  eiusmo'di 

quippiam  uenari  potuerant,  illS,  quldem  certe  pro  lepusciilis 

c&piebantur,  patellae  paterae  turlbulS  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv. 

*  As  Sallust,  Livy,  and  the  poets,  but  not  Cicero, 
f  See§§  45 1-478  and  575-591. 
J  But  see  below. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD.  261 

21.47),  if  any  great  vessel  fell  in  their  way,  they  brought  it 

to  him  with  joy ;  but  if  they  were  unable  to  run  down  any 

thing  of  that  sort,  then  at  any  rate  they  would  catch  him  as  a 

sort  of  leveret,  a  plate,  a  chalice,  a  censer. 
Apud  me  slquld  grit  eiusmtfdi,  me  imprudente  erffr  (Cic.  ad 

Att.  i.  19. 10),  in  my  writings,  if  any  thing  of  the  kind  exist, 

it  will  exist  without  my  knowledge. 
Si  qui  aut  priuatiis  aut  p5pultis  eorum  decreto  non  stetit,  s&- 

criflciis  interdicunt  (Caes.  B.   G.  vi.  13),  if  any  party, 

whether  an  individual  or  a  state,  abide  not  by  their  decision, 

they  forbid  them  the  sacrifices. 
Set  si  tu  negaris  ducere,  ibi  culpam  in  te  transferet  (Ter.  And. 

ii.  3.  5),  but  if  you  refuse  to  marry,  then  he'll  throw  the  blame 

on  you. 
Gratissumum  mihi  feceris,  si  &d  eum  ultro  ueneris  {Cic.  ad 

Fam.  vii.  21),  you  will  greatly  oblige  me  if  you  will  make 

the  first  move  and  call  upon  him.* 

1154  Often  the  indicative  mood  is  in  the  clause  of  condition,  fol- 
lowed by  an  imperative,  or  a  subjunctive  used  as  an  imperative  : 
as, 

Si  me  dillgis,  postridie  kSlendarum  coena  Spud  m5  (Cic.  ad 
Att.  iv.  12),  as  you  love  me,  dine  with  me  on  the  second. 

Si  quicquam  inueuies  me  mentitum,  occidito  (Ter.  And.  v.  2. 
22),  if  you  find  that  I  have  told  any  falsehood,  kill  me. 

Si  itast,  facturus  ut  sit  ofticium  suum,  Faciat ;  sin  aliter  de 
hac  re  est  eius  sententia,  Respondent  mi  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  5.4), 
if  the  fact  be  that  he  will  do  his  duty,  why  let  him  do  it ;  but 
if  his  purpose  in  this  matter  be  otherwise,  then  let  him  give 
me  an  answer. 

1155  The  indicative  mood  may  be  used  without  si  as  a  condition  or 
supposition :  thus, 

Negat  quis,t  nego ;  ait,  aio  (Ter.  E.  n.  2. 21),  a  man  says  no, 
I  say  no  ;  he  says  yes,  I  say  yes. 


*  It  will  be  here  seen  that  the  conjunction  may  be  used  with  every 
tense  of  the  indicative  ;  yet  it  is  a  common  assertion  in  Latin  grammars 
that  the  subjunctive  denotes  doubt  or  contingency,  and  that  si  takes  the 
subjunctive. 

f  A  mark  of  interrogation  is  often  inserted,  but  is  unnecessary. 


202  SYNTAX. 

115G        So  also  an  indicative  mood  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  often 

expresses  a  concession,  as  introductory  to  something  opposed  :  as, 

Triumphauit  Sulla"  de  Mithrldate,  sed  Xta  triumphauit,  ut  ille 

pulsus  regnaret  (Cic.  p.  leg.   Man.  3.  8),  true,  Sulla  did 

triumph  over  Mithridates,  but  his  triumph  was  of  such  a 

nature,  that  the  other,  though  defeated,  still  held  royal  power.t 

1157  So  also  the  double  slug  slug  has  the  indicative  mood  :  as, 
Homines  nobiles,  slue  reete  seu  perperam  fa"cerS  coeperunt,  In 

iitroque  excellunt  (Cic.  p.  Quinct.  8.  31),  men  of  family, 
whether  they  commence  a  course  of  good  or  lad  conduct,  in 
either  career  become  distinguished. 

1158  The  doubled  forms  of  the  relative,*  and  those  which  have 
cumque  attached  to  them,  take  the  indicative  :  as, 

Quidquid  erit,  scribes  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xiv.  1),  whatever  it  be,  you 
will  write. 

Tu  quantus-quantu'sf,  nil  nisi  sapientia's  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  3.  40), 
you,  every  inch  of  you,  are  nothing  but  philosophy. 

Quamquamst  scelestus,  non  committet  hodie  unquam  iterum 
ut  uapulet  (Ter.  Ad.  n.  1. 5),  be  he  ever  so  great  a  scoundrel, 
lie  will  not  run  the  risk  of  a  second  thrashing  today. 

Vtut  erat,  mansum  tameii  oportuit  (Ter.  Haut.  I.  2.  26),  no 
matter  how  it  was,  he  ought  still  to  have  staid. 

Hoc  quoquo  ibo  mecum  erit  (Plant.  Aul.  in.  3.1),  I  will  have 
this  with  me  wherever  1  go. 

Qulcur.que  Is  est,  el  me  profiteer  inlmlcum  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  x. 
31.  3),  whoever  that  man  may  be,  I  declare  myself  his  enemy. 

Deiotari  copias,  quantaecuuque  sunt,  nostras  essS  duco  (Cic. 
ad  Fam.  xv.  1.  6),  the  forces  of  Deiotarus,  in  their  full  ex- 
tent, I  look  upon  as  ours. 

Qui  ublcunque  terrarum  sunt,  Ibi  est  omne  relpubllcae  prae- 
sldium  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  44.113),  and  wherever  in  the  world  they 
are,  there  is  every  thing  that  is  to  guard  the  country. 

1158. 1  In  relative  propositions  which  limit  something  which  is  stated 
in  general  terms,  the  old  writers,  and  even  Cicero  at  times,  used 
the  indicative. 

*  See  §  353-358.  $  See  Addenda. 

f  Printed  in  the  editions  so  that  the  verb  wholly  disappears ;  a  com- 
mon error  in  the  text  of  Terence. 


INDICATIVE  MOOD.  203 

Catonem  uero  quis  nostrorum  oratorum,  qu!  quldem  nunc  sunt, 
legit  ?  (Cic.  Brut.  17.  65),  but  Cato — who  of  our  orators,  at 
least  those  now  living,  ever  reads  ? 

Ex  oriitoiibus  Attlcis  antiquissuml  sunt,  quorum  quldem  scripts, 
constant*,  PMcles  et  Alclblades  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  22.93),  of 
Athenian  orators  the  oldest,  at  least  among  those  whose  writ- 
ings are  authenticated,  are  Pericles  and  Alcibiades. 

Quae  tibi  mandaul,  uelim  cures,  quod^slng  tua  molestia  face're' 
poteris  (Cic.  ad  Att.  T.  5. 8),  these  commissions  I  icould  thank 
you  to  attend  to,  as  far  as  you  shall  be  able  without  inconveni- 
ence to  yourself. 

Tu  tiimen  uelim  ne  intermittas,  quod^eius  fS,cSr§  pSteris,  scrl- 
b§re  ad  me  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xi.  12. 4),  you  however  will  1  beg  of 
you  not  cease,  so  far  as  you  have  it  in  your  poiver,  to  write  to 
me. 

Erus,  quantum  audio,  uxore  excidit  (Ter.  And.  n.  5. 12),  mas- 
ter, from  what  I  hear,  has  lost  the  chance  of  a  wife. 

Nil  locist  socordiae,  Quantum  intellexi  modo  senis  sententiam 
(Ter.  And.  I.  3. 1),  there  is  no  room  for  stupidity,  to  judge 
from  ivhat  I  saw  just  now  of  the  old  man's  feelings.-^ 
1 J  59        Sentences  which  express  repeated  action  have  the  indicative  in 
the  secondary  clause  in  the  best  authors  :  as, 

Quum  uer  essS  coepgrat,  d&bat  se  labor!  (Cic.  II.  Verr.  v.  10. 
27),  at  the  beginning  of  every  spring  he  gave  himself  up  to 


Hostes  tibi  allquos  singulans  ex  naui  egredientis  conspexerant, 
iinpe'ditos  MSriebantur  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv.  26),  the  enemy,  when- 
ever tliey  saw  any  coming  out  of  a  ship  by  themselves,  fell  upon 
them  before  they  could  get  clear. 

Si  a  persequendo  hostis  deterrere  neqmue'rant,  disiectos  a  tergo 
circumuSniebant  (Sal.  Jug.  50),  if  they  could  not  deter  the 
enemy  from  pursuit,  as  soon  as  they  were  scattered,  they  kept 
them  on  the  rear. 


*  So  the  Mss.,  not  constent.  J  See  §  922,  last  example. 

f  In  such  phrases  as  :  non  ego  te,  quod  sciam,  nnquam  ante  hunc 
diem  uidi  (Plant.  Men.  in.  2. 35),  sciam  is  probably  an  old  indicative 
corresponding  to  inquam  ;  as  it  must  be  in  hand  sciam  an  ne  opus  sit 
quidem  (Cic.  de  Am.  14.51),  and  in  hand  sciam  an  iustissumo  triumpho 
(Liv.  ix.  15).  It  seems  not  unlikely  that  an  erroneous  interpretation  of 
this  sciam  led  to  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  in  the  parenthetic  phrases, 
quod  meminerim,  &c.  (See  §  1195.) 


2G4  SYNTAX. 

Vt  cuiusque  sors  exclderat,  alacgr  arina  capiebat  (Liv.*  xxi. 
42),  every  time  the  lot  of  any  one  fell  out  of  the  urn,  delighted 
he  took  his  arms. 

EPISTOLARY  TENSES. 

1160  The  use  of  the  tenses  in  epistolary  writing  is  occasionally  very 
peculiar.     The  letters  in  ancient  Italy  being  sent  nearly  always  by 
private  hand,  and  the  roads  with  the  facilities  for  travelling  being 
very  defective,  a  long  time  often  elapsed  between  the  writing  and 
the  receiving  a  letter.     Hence  it  was  not  uncommon  for  the  wri- 
ter to  make  allowance  for  this  interval,  and  to  use  those  tenses 
which  were  suited  to  the  time  when  the  letter  should  be  read :  as, 

Etsi  nil  sane  hdbebam\  n5ul,  quod  post  accidisset  quam  dedissem 
ad  te  PMlogSnl  litteras,  tamen  quum  Philotlmum  Romam 
remitterem,  scrlbendum  illiquid  ad  tefuit,  &c.  (Cic.  ad  Att. 
vi.  3. 1),  although  I  have  indeed  nothing  new  that  has  oc- 
curred, at  least  since  I  put  my  last  in  the  hands  of  Philo- 
genesforyou*  yet  as  1  am  sending  Philotimus  lack  to  Rome, 
1  am  bound  to  write  something  to  you. 

Hdbebam  acta  urbana  usque  ad  Nonas  Martias,  e  quibiis  intel- 
legebam  omniS,  pStitis  actum  irl  quam  de  prouincils  (Cic.  ad 
Att.  vi.  2.  6),  /have  the  proceedings  in  the  city  down  to  the 
7th  of  March,  from  which  I  am  disposed  to  infer  that  the 
question  of  the  provinces  will  be  postponed  sine  die. 

Litte'rarum  exemplum  qufis  ad  Pompeium  scrips!,  mlsl  tibi  (Cic. 
ad  Att.  in.  8.4),  1  enclose  you  a  copy  of  a  letter  I  have  just 
written  to  Pompey. 

1161  Such  terms  as  'yesterday,'  'today,'  'tomorrow,'  'here,'  are 
avoided  for  the  same  reason.     Besides,  it  was  far  from  the  ordi- 
nary practice  to  affix  a  date  of  time  and  place,  so  that  the  words 
might  have  been  unintelligible. 

Piiteolis  magnus  estj  rumor  Pttflgmaeum  esse  in  regno.  .  .  . 

*  Livy  is  not  consistent  in  this  construction.  Examples  of  a  sub- 
junctive in  him  are  :  ubi  dixisset  (i.  32),  quum  uidissent  (n.  27),  quem- 
cumque  prehendisset  (in.  11),  sicubi  conserta  nauis  esset  (xxi.  50),  ubi 
semel  procubuissent  (xxn.  2),  ubi  conuenissent  (xxn.  38). 

f  Otherwise  the  tenses  should  have  been,  habeo,  acciderit,  dederim^ 
remittam,  est. 

J  The  epistolary  tense  would  have  been  erat. 


IMPERATIVE.  265 

Pompeius  in  Cumanum  Parillbus  uenit.  Mlsit  ad  mg  st&- 
tim  qul  salutem  nuntiaret.  Ad  eum  postrldie  mang  udde- 
bam  quum  haec  scripsl  (Cic.  ad  Att.  iv.  10),  we  have  a  strong 
report  down  here  that  Ptolemy  has  been  restored  to  his  throne. 
....  Pompey  arrived  at  his  villa  yesterday.  He  forthwith 
sent  one  of  his  people  with  his  compliments  to  me.  lam  going 
to  pay  him  a  visit  this  morning. 

Puteoli,  April*  22. 

Trlginta  dies  erant  ipsl,  quum  has  ddbam  litteras,  per  quos  nul- 
las  a  uobis  acceperam  (Cic.  ad  Att.  in.  21\  it  is  now  exactly 
thirty  days  since  1  heard  from  you. 

\  162  Such  change  of  tenses  occurs  chiefly  at  the  beginning  and  end 
of  letters,  where  the  writer  has  it  more  forcibly  impressed  upon 
him  that  he  is  not  in  conversation.  It  is  also  confined  for  the 
most  part  to  those  matters  which  are  likely  to  be  affected  by  the 
interval  of  time  that  must  elapse  before  the  letter  is  read. 

IMPERATIVE. 

1163  The  chief  distinction  between  the  two  tenses  is  seen  in  §§  592, 
593.     The  future  is  chiefly  used  in  laws. 

Diuis  omnibus  pontlfices,  singulis  flammes  sunto  (apud  Cic. 
de  Leg.  u.  8. 2()),/or  the  gods  in  general  there  shall  be  a  col- 
lege of  pontifices,  each  separate  god  shall  liave  hisjlamen. 

1164  It  is  also  used  in  the  language  of  wills  :  as, 

Titius  filius  meus  mihi  heres  esto  (Gaius,  n.  179),  my  son 
Titius  shall  be  my  heir. 

1165  It  is  also  used  generally  in  reference  to  future  time,  more  par- 
ticularly if  that  time  be  fixed  by  any  condition  or  otherwise  :  as, 

Vbi  n6s  lauerimus,  si  uoles  lauato  (Ter.  E.  in.  5.48),  when  we 

have  bathed,  bathe  if  you  will. 
Quoquo  hie  spectabit,  e6  tu  spectat6  semul ; 
Si  quo  hie  gradietur,  pariter  tu  progrediminot  (PL  Ps.  in.  2. 69), 

*  The  Festival  of  Pales  was  on  the  21st. 

f  So  the  Mss.,  not  progrediminor ;  and  indeed  the  passage  requires 
the  singular.  Moreover  Madvig  has  proved,  what  Kvarup  already  main- 
tained, that  the  form  in  minor  does  not  exist.  That  in  mino  does  exist, 
and  belongs  to  the  singular.  See  Madvig,  Opusc.  n.  239. 


266 


SYNTAX. 


Where'er  he  looks,  thither  must  you  look  with  him  ; 

Where'er  he  marches,  march  you  too  forward  by  his  side. 

Cum  ualetudlnl  tuae  consiilugris,  turn  consulito  naulgatioul 
(Cic.  ad  Fam.  xvi.  4. 3),  when  you  have  taken  measures  for 
your  health,  then  and  not  till  then  take  measures  for  your 
voyage. 

1166  The  present  is  used  in  a  less  auth  ritative  manner,  and  is  ap- 
plied both  to  the  immediate  occasion  and  to  general  directions. 

luno  Lucina  fer  opem  {Ter.  And.  in.  1.15),  Juno  Lucina,  aid 

me,  I  implore  thee. 

Mihi  credS  {Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  16.  8),  take  my  word  for  it. 
lustltiam  cole  et  pietatem  {Cic.  Somn.  Sc.  3),  cultivate  justice 

and  affection. 
Vide  quam  rem  agas  {Ter.  Ad.  in.  2.45),  have  a  care  what  you 

are  after. 
Caue  sis  {Ter.  E.  iv.  7.  29),  be  on  your  guard,  if  you  please. 

1167  The  present  of  the  subjunctive  mood  is  often  used  as  an  im- 
mediate imperative  :  as, 

Ecferant*  quae  secum  hue  attulerunt  {Ter.  Haut.  iv.  4.  23), 
let  them  bring  out  what  they  brought  here  with  them. 

Quod  boni  d&tur,  fruargf  dum  licet  {Ter.  Haut.  n.  3.102),  all 
the  good  that  offers,  enjoy  while  you  may. 

1168  The  presents  cura  and  f&c  and  the  subjunctive  uelim  are  often 
prefixed  to  a  subjunctive  of  a  verb,  with  or  without  tit,  and  so 
express  more  forcibly  what  might  have  been  expressed  by  a  simple 
imperative  of  the  latter  verb  :  as, 

Qua  re  si  quod  constltutum  cum  po'da'gra  h&bes,  f&c  tit  in  alium 
diem  differas  {Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  4),  if  then  you  have  any 
engagement  with  the  gout,  mind  you  put  it  off  to  another  day. 

Fac  &put  te  ut  sies  {Ter.  And.  n.  4),  mind  you  have  your  wits 


*  This  subjunctive  is  due  to  an  ellipsis  of  a  verb  which  is  occasionally 
supplied:  as,  Treuiros  uites  censeo  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  13.2),  *  I  recom- 
mend you  to  fight  shy  of  the  Treviri.' 

f  Madvig  would  limit  this  use  of  the  second  person  to  the  cases  of  a 
general  nature,  where  '  you'  means  '  any  one.'  But  he  admits  that  there 
are  some  examples  where  'you'  is  used  in  its  definite  sense,  and  himself 
quotes  from  Terence,  Si  cerium  est  facere,  facias ;  uerum  ne  post  cul- 
pam  conferos  in  me,  *  If  you  are  resolved  to  do  it,  why  do  it ;  but  do  not 
afterwards  throw  the  blame  on  me.' 


IMPERATIVE.  267 

Cura  ut  quam  primum  uenias  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  iv.  10),  take  care 

and  come  as  soon  as  you  can. 
Tu  uelim  animo  sapient!  fortique  sis  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  12),  do 

you  meanwhile,  I  beg  you,  act  with  philosophy  and  firmness. 

llij'.)        An  affirmative  in  the  future  often  expresses  a  direction  with  a 
confidence  that  it  will  be  followed  :  as, 

Tu  interea  non  cessabis  et  ea  quae  habes  instltuta  perpSlies 
(Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  12. 10),  you  meanwhile  will  lose  no  time  in 
giving  the  last  polish  to  what  you  have  in  hand. 
Slquid  accident  noui,  fScies  ut  sciam  (Cic.  ad  Farn.  xiv.  8),  if 
any  thing  new  occurs,  you  will  let  me  know. 

1170  The  present  imperative  is  used  at  times  to  express  a  condition  : 
as, 

Tolle  hanc  opinionem,  luctum  sustuleris  (Cic.  Tusc.  I.  13.  30), 
once  put  an  end  to  this  opinion,  and  you  will  have  put  an 
end  to  all  mourning  for  the  dead. 

1171  A  question  may  be  so  asked  as  to  amount  to  an  order  :  as, 
Etiam  taces  ?*     Eg5  c&uebo  (Ter.  Ad.  iv.   2. 11),  hold  your 

tongue;  Syrus  will  be  on  his  guard. 
Quiii  con  seen  dim  usf  equos  ?   (Liv.  I.  57)  come,  come,  let  us 

mount  our  horses. 
Abiiit  hinc  in  malam  rem  cum  suspicione  istac,  scelus  ?  (Ter. 

And.  II.  1. 17)  go  and  be  hanged  with  your  suspicions,  you 

rascal. 
Non  tu  hinc  abis  ?  (Ter.  E.  iv.  7. 29)  be  off,  sir. 

1172  Hence  in  some  phrases,  such  as  those  just  quoted,  the  present 
imperative  takes  the  place  of  the  indicative  :  as, 

Etiam  §  tu  hoc  responde,  quid  istic  tibi  negotist?  Mihin  ?  Ita 
(Ter.  And.  v.  2. 8),  answer  me  this  at  once,  what  business  have 
you  in  that  cottage  (which  you  have  just  left)  ?  What  business 
have  I  ?  Yes,  you. 

*  Literally  '  Are  you  yet  silent?'  with  a  hint  that  he  will  soon  be 
made  so. 

f  Literally  '  Why  do  we  not  mount  our  horses  ?' 

J  Literally  'Are  you  going?  &c. ;  if  not,  I'll  help  you.'     Pronounce 

R,  a  in. 

§  Pronounce  etyam,  qu'istic,  ti  and  mm. 


268  SYNTAX. 

Quin*  die,  quid  est  (Ter.  And.  n.  6. 18),  come,  come,  sir,  tell  me 

what  it  is. 
Quin  tu  hoc  audl  (Ter.  And.  n.  2. 9),  come,  come,  listen  to  this. 

1173  Sentences  of  forbidding,  <fec.  are  variously  formed.     Ne  with 
the  future  imperative  is  used  in  laws,  and  occasionally  elsewhere  : 
as, 

NocturnS,  milligram  s&crlftciS,  ne  sunto,  praetgr  ollS,  quae  pro 
p5pulo  rite  flent ;  neue  Inltianto,  nisi  ut  assolet,  Cererl, 
Graeco  s&cro  (apud  Cic.  de  Leg.  n,  9.  21),  sacrifices  by  women 
at  night  there  shall  be  none,  save  those  which  are  duly  made 
for  the  state ;  nor  shall  they  celebrate  mysteries,  except  as  is 
wont,  to  Ceres,  according  to  the  Greek  rite. 

BSrea  flantg,  ue  arato,  semen  ne  i&clto  (apud  Plin.  xvm.  77), 
when  the  north  wind  blows,  plough  not,  sow  not. 

1 1 74  Ne  with  the  present  imperative  is  found  for  the  most  part  only 
in  the  old  writers  and  the  poets  :  as, 

Ah  ne  saeui  tant&pere  (Ter.  And.  v.  2. 27),  oh,  be  not  in  such 

a  passion. 
Quaeso  animum  ne  despondg  (Plaut.  Merc.  in.  4. 29),  I  prithee 

despond  not. 
Nlmium  ne  crede  color!  (Virg.  BUG.  n.  17),  trust  not  too  much 

to  the  outside. 

1175  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  forbidding,  &c.,  but  generally 
in  the  perfect  tense.     The  use  of  the  second  person  of  the  present 
subjunctive  is  rare,  except  when  that  person  is  used  indefinitely. t 

Nihll  ignoueris,  nihil  gratiae  caussa  fece'ris,  misericordia  coui- 
motus  ne  sis  (Cic.  p.  Mur.  SI.  Q5),  forgive  nothing  (they  say), 
do  nothing  to  oblige  a  friend,  be  proof  against  pity. 

Ne  transieris  Iberum,  ne  quid  rel  tXbi  sit  cum  S&guntinis  (Liv. 
xxi.  44),  cross  not  the  Ebro  (he  says),  have  nought  to  do  with 
the  people  of  Saguntum. 

Ne  me  istoc  posthac  n6mine  appellassis  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  1. 15),  do 
not  call  me  by  that  name  for  the  future. 

*  In  this  way  these  two  particles,  efiam  and  quin^  practically  acquire 
a  new  meaning,  just  as  quidni,  '  why  not,'  comes  to  signify  '  of  course.' 
Compare  too  the  secondary  meaning  of  OVKOVV  arising  from  its  use  in 
questions. 

f  These  qualifications  are  from  Maclvig. 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  263 

NO  quaeras  (Ter.  Haul.  iv.  4. 23),  ask  no  questions. 

Isto  bono  utarS  dum  adsit,  quum  absit  ne  rSqulras  (Cic.  da 

Sen.  10. 33),  enjoy  that  blessing  while  you  have  it ;  when  gone* 

grieve  not  for  it. 

176        The  verbs  cSu8,  noli,  nolim,  are  frequently  used  in  negative 
requests  :  as, 

Cauneas,  *.  e.  caug  ne  eas  (ap.  Cic.  de  Div.  II.  40. 84),  do  not  go. 
Caue  te  esse  tristem  sentiat  (Ter.  And.  u.  3.29),  take  care  he 

does  not  perceive  you  are  out  of  spirits. 
Caue  dixeris  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  4. 12),  say  it  not. 
Oolite  id  uellS  quod  fieri  non  pStest  (Cic.  Phil.  vn.  8.  25),  do 

not  wish  for  what  is  impossible. 
Hoc  nolim  me  iocarl  piites  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  15. 4),  do  not,  I 

pray  you,  suppose  that  I  am  joking  in  this. 

1177  The  poets  have  many  other  imperatives  used  in  negative  re- 
quests, as  fuge,  mitte,  parce,  &c. 

Quid  sit  futurum  eras,  fuge  quaergre  (Hor.  Od.  1.  9. 13),  what 

shall  be  tomorrow,  shun  to  ask. 
MittS  sectarl  (Hor.  Od.  I.  38.3),  cease  to  search. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.* 

1178  A  secondary  clause  or  subordinate  proposition  is  attached  to 
the  main  clause  or  proposition  in  four  ways :  a.  by  a  relative,  b. 
by  an  interrogative,  c.  by  an  accessary  conjunction,  or  d.  by  the 
construction  called  accusative  and  infinitive. 

1178.1  With  this  subordinate  relation  must  not  be  confounded  the 
relation  between  two  coordinate  clauses,  united  by  such  words  as 
et  or  qug  and,  or  else  placed  beside  each  other  without  any  con- 
junction.    Coordinate  propositions  are  either  both  main  propo- 
sitions, or  both  subordinate  clauses  attached  to  the  same  main 
proposition. 

1178.2  When  a  secondary  clause  beginning  with  a  conjunction  pre- 
cedes the  main  clause,  the  secondary  clause  is  called  the  protasis 
(putting  forward),  and  the  following  main  clause  the  apttddsfe 
(payment  of  a  debt). 

*  The  chief  uses  of  the  subjunctive  have  already  been  briefly  pointed 
out  in  §§  487-505  and  594-624. 


270  SYNTAX. 

1178.3  The  subjunctive  is  used  where  a  proposition  is  put  forward, 
not  as  a  fact,  but  as  a  conception  to  be  spoken  of.  Hence  it  is 
used  in  secondary  clauses  attached  to  the  main  clause  of  a  sentence 
by  a  conjunction,  or  relative,  or  interrogative  :  1st,  where  an  OD- 
ject  is  expressed  ;  2d,  where  the  assertions  or  thoughts  of  another 
than  the  speaker  are  stated ;  3d,  where  that  which  does  not  exist 
is  imagined,  <fec.  But  it  will  be  practically  more  useful  to  deal 
with  the  separate  cases. 

]  179  The  object*  or  purpose  of  an  action  may  be  expressed  by  an 
imperfect  of  the  subjunctive  and  the  conjunctions  ut,  quo,  qui, 
and  the  relative  ;  or  if  the  object  be  prevention,  by  ut  ne,  ne, 
quommus,  and  quln  :  as, 

Aliis  n5cent,  ut  In  alios  llbgrales  sint  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  14.  42), 

they  injure  some,  that  they  may  be  generous  to  others. 
Magis  mihi  ut  incommSdet  quam  tit  obsequatur  gnato  (Ter. 

And.  I.  1.135),  more  to  annoy  me  than  to  oblige  my  son. 
Slbi  quisqug  tendebat  ut  pgrlculo  prlmusf  euadgret  (Liv.  xxi. 

33),  every  one  for  himself  was  striving  to  be  the  first  to  get  out 

of  the  danger. 
Obducuntur  cortlcS  truncl  quo  sint  a  frigoribus  tutiores  (Cic. 

N.  D.  ii.  47.120),  the  trunk  of  a  tree  is  sheathed  with  bark, 

that  it  may  be  safer  from  the  cold. 
Verba  rgperta  sunt  quae  indicarent  uSluntatem  (Cic.  p.  Caec. 

18.  53),  words  were  invented  to  indicate  the  will. 
Galllnae  pullos  pennis  fouent  ne  frigore  laedantur  (Cic.  N.  D. 

II.  52. 129),  hens  warm  their  chickens  with  their  wings,  that 

they  may  not  be  hurt  by  the  cold. 
Vix  me  contlneo  quln  inuSlem  in  Capillum  (Ter.  E.  v.  2.20),  / 

with  difficulty  restrain  myself  from  flying  at  his  hair. 
Elefantos  in  primam  aciem  indue!  iussit,  si  quern  Inlce're  e<l  res 

tumultum  posset  (Liv.  xxvu.  14),  he  ordered  the  elephants 

to  be  led  into  the  first  line,  in  hopes  that  this  manoeuvre  might 

cause  some  confusion. 

1180  Hence  also  verbs  of  commanding,  advising,  begging,  wishing, 
compelling,  preventing,  permitting,  are  followed  by  an  imperfect 
of  the  subjunctive,  and  ut,  or  the  negatives,  ut  ne,  ne,  quomlnu?, 
quln : 

*  See  §§  599,  607. 

t  Prius  in  the  Mss..  altered  by  some  to  prior. 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  271 

Allobrogibus  impgrauit  ut  his  frumenti  copiam  f&cSrent  (Cacs. 
B.  G.  i.  28),  he  commanded  the  Allobroges  to  supply  tJicm 
with  corn. 

Monet  lit  in  relicum  tempus  omnis  suspiciones  ultet  (Caes. 
B.  G.  I.  20),  he  advises  him  for  the  future  to  avoid  all  sus- 
picion. 

Per  te  ego  deos  oro  ut  me  adiuues  (Ter.  And.  in.  3.  6),  by  the 
gods  1  beg  you  to  assist  me. 

Smite  orator  ut  sim*  (Ter.  Hec.  prol.  n.  2),  allow  me  to  be  an 
intercessor. 

1181  Not  unfrequently  the  ut  is  omitted  before  the  subjunctive  in 
short  phrases  :  as, 

Sine  me  expurgem  (Ter.  And.  v.  3. 29),  allow  me  to  clear  myself. 
Quo  die  Roma  te  exiturum  putes  uelim  ad  me  scrlbas  (Cic.  ad 
Att.  n.  5.  3),  I  would  wish  you  to  write  me  word  what  day 
you  think  you  shall  leave  Rome. 

1181. 1  But  verbs  of  wishing,  and  also  prohlbe-,  impgra-,  sin-,  iiibe-, 
pati-  (r.),  and  ueta-,  are  also  found  with  the  accusative  and  infini- 
tive, especially  the  passive  infinitive ;  and  indeed  the  last  three  of 
these  six  verbs  are  but  rarely  found  with  ut. 

1182  The  result^  is  expressed  by  the  subjunctive.    This  construction 
is  common  after  verbs,  &c.  of  accomplishing  and  happening  :  as, 

Tempgrautia  ecficlt  ut  appetltiones  rectae  rationl  pareant  (Cic. 
Tusc.  iv.  9.  22),  self-restraint  effects  this,  that  the  passions 
wait  upon  right  reason. 

Accidit  ut  primus  nuntiaret  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  34. 96),  it  hap- 
pened that  he  was  the  first  to  bring  word. 

Nunquam  accedo  qum  abs  te  £beam  doctior  (Ter.  E.  iv.  7. 21), 
1  never  go  near  you  without  leaving  you  the  wiser. 

Non  possunt  multl  rem  amitte're  ut  non*  plures  secum  in  ean- 
dem  calSmltatem  trahant  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  7.  19),  it  is 
impossible  for  many  persons  to  lose  their  property  without 
dragging  a  still  larger  number  into  the  same  calamity. 

*  This  has  been  altered  to  exorator  sim  by  those  who  did  not  know 
that  the  last  syllable  of  orator  might  be  long  in  Terence. 

f  The  formfaxo  is  used  only  parenthetically,  and  does  nut  affect  the 
mood  of  the  verb  which  accompanies  it,  which  is  always  the  future  of  the 
indicative.  Faxo  scies,  'you  shall  know,  trust  me  for  that.'  Tl'is  has 
been  shown  by  Madvig  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Opuscula. 

J  Non  is  required  where  the  result  is  expressed  ;  ne  would  be  wrong. 


*'*  SYNTAX. 

Illud  tlbi  affirmo,  si  rem  istarn  ex  sententia  gesseris,  fore  fit 
absens  a  multis,  cum  redierls  ab  omnibus  collauderS  (CVc. 
ad  Fam.  i.  7.  5),  of  one  thing  I  assure  you,  and  that  is  this, 
that  if  you  carry  the  matter  out  satisfactorily,  the  consequence 
will  be  that  even  in  your  absence  you  will  be  praised  by  many, 
and  when  you  return  you  will  be  lauded  to  the  skies  by  all. 

Tautum  opes  creuerant,  ut  mQuere  armS,  uec  Mezentius,  ngque 
ulli  alii  accolae  ausi  sint  (Liv.  i.  3),  so  greatly  had  their 
])o  wer  increased,  that  neither  Mezentius  nor  any  other  of  their 
neighbours  dared  to  draw  the  sword. 

1183  With  phrases  which  denote  hindrance,  opposition,  avoiding, 
omission,  doubt,  the  subjunctive  is  preceded  by  ne,  quominus  or 
quln,  but  by  the  last,  only  in  case  there  be  with  the  main  verb  a 
negative  to  express  the  non-existence  of  the  hindrance  :  as, 

Impgdior  dolore  anlm!  ne  plurS  dicam  (Cic.  p.  Sulla,  33.  92),  / 

am  prevented  by  indignation  from  saying  more. 
Per  me  stetit*  quo  minus  hae  fierent  nuptiae  (Ter.  And.  iv. 

2. 16),  it  was  my  fault  that  this  marriage  did  not  take  place. 
Neque  &best  susplcio  quln  ipsS  slbi  mortem  consciugrit  (Caes. 

B.  G.  i.  4),  nor  is  there  wanting  a  suspicion  that  he  was  the 

author  of  his  own  death. 
Prorsus  nihil  £best  quin  sim  miserrumus  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xi.  15.3), 

absolutely  nothing  is  now  wanting  to  complete  my  misery. 
Nuinquidt  uis  quln  £beam?  (Ter.  Ad.  n.  2.39)  is  there  any 

thing  else  I  can  do  for  you  before  I  go  ? 
FS,cerg  non  possum  quln  ad  te  mittam  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xn.  27.  3), 

/  cannot  but  send  to  you. 
Nou  dubito  quin  mlrerg  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xvi.  21),  /  do  not  doubt 

that  you  are  surprised. 
Quid  est  caussae  quin  c<51oniam  in  lanlculum  possint  deducere  ? 

(Cic.  in  Hull.  n.  27.74)  what  reason  is  there  to  prevent  them 

from  founding  a  colony  on  the  Janiculum  itself? 

1184  Impersonal  phrases  that  signify  an  addition,  &c.  are  generally 
followed  by  ut  and  the  subjunctive  :  as, 

*  Forcellini  is  inaccurate  in  making  per  me  stat  equivalent  to  sum  in 
caussa.  The  phrase  can  only  be  used  of  hindrances. 

f  A  question  is  often  equivalent  to  a  negative.  This,  or  a  shorter 
form,  numquid  uis  1  was  a  civil  mode  of  saying '  Good  bye1  (Plant.  Cap.  I. 
2.  88). 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  273 

Relicumst  ut  de  felicltatg  paucS,  diciimus  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  16. 

47),  it,  remains  for  us  to  say  a  few  words  on  good  fortune. 
Accessit*  eo  ut  milltes  eius  conclamarint  pacem  se  uelle  (Cic. 

ad  Fam.  x.  21.4),  there  was  added  to  att  this  that  his  soldiery 

cried  out  they  wished  for  peace. 

1185  In  the  same  way  ut  and  the  subjunctive  often  follow  the  verb 
est  with  or  without  a  substantive  or  neuter  adjective  :  as, 

SSd  est  mos  hSminum  ut  nolint  eundein  plurlbus  rebus  excel- 
led (Cic.  Brut.  21.84),  hit  it  is  in  fact  a  habit  with  the  world 
not  to  allow  that  the  same  person  excels  in  several  things. 

Verisimlle1  non  est  ut  monumentis  maidrum  pgcuniam  antepo- 
neret  (Gic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  6. 11),  it  is  not  likely  that  he  valued 
money  above  the  monuments  of  his  ancestors. 

Atque  e!  ne  iiitegrumf  quidem  erat  ut  clulbus  iura  redderet 
(Cic.  Tusc.  v.  21.62),  but  he  had  it  not  even  in  his  power 
then  to  restore  to  his  countrymen  their  rights,  t 

1186  Verbs  &c.  of  fearing  have  the  subjunctive,  with  ne  if  the  ob- 
ject be  not  desired,  with  ut  if  it  be  desired  :§  as, 

Vgreor  ne  hoc  serpat  longius  (Cic.  ad  Att.  i.  13. 3),  I  fear  that 
this  will  creep  further. 

Ornamenta  metuo  ut  possim  r6cipere  (Plaut.  Cure.  iv.  1. 3), 
the  ornaments  lam  afraid  I  shall  not  be  able  to  recover. 

HaudJI  sang  penculumst  ne  non  mortem  aut  optandam  aut 
certe  non  timendam  putet  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  40. 118),  tltere  is 
assuredly  no  risk  of  his  escaping  from  the  belief  that  death  is 
an  object  to  be  desired,  or  at  least  not  to  be  feared. 

*  Accedit  is  often  followed  by  quod  and  the  indicative,  particularly 
where  the  past  or  present  is  spoken  of.  So  also  adde  quod. 

f  Mihi  non  est  integrum,  '  the  thing  is  no  longer  entire  ;  I  have  taken 
a  step  in  it  by  which  I  am  committed  to  a  continuance  in  the  same  direc- 
tion.' 

|  In  such  phrases  as  the  preceding  a  notion  of  futurity  is  commonly 
implied,  and  hence  it  will  generally,  perhaps  in  good  writers  always,  be 
found  that  aji  imperfect  of  the  subjunctive  is  alone  admissible.  Even 
in  the  second  sentence  the  idea  is,  '  It  is  not  likely  we  shall  find  that 
&c.'  It  bhould  be  observed  too,  that  the  subjunctive  phrase  always  fol- 
lows. 

§  Observe  that  the  Latin  inserts  a  negative  where  the  English  has 
none,  and  vice  versa. 

||  This  is  an  example  of  a  practice  Common  in  Cicero,  the  crowding 
negatives  in  a  sentence. 


274  SYNTAX. 

1187  The  quality  or  quantity  is  often  expressed  by  the  subjunctive 
with  iit,  or  the  relative,  preceded  by  some  word  signifying  so  or 
such. 

Non  tarn  imperitust  rerum  ut  non  sclret  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  44),  he 

is  not  so  inexperienced  in  the  world  as  not  to  know. 
Res  eiusmodl  cuius  exitus  proulderl  possit  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vi.  4), 

a  matter  of  such  a  kind  that  the  issue  of  it  can  be  foreseen. 
Neque  enim  tu  Is  es  qul  quid  sis  nescias  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  12.  6), 

nor  indeed  are  you  the  sort  of  person  not  to  know  what  is  due 

to  you. 
TantS,  putabatiir  utilltas  perclpi  ex  bobus,  ut  eorum  uiscerlbus 

uescl  sceliis  hSberetiir  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  64. 159),  so  highly 

valued  were  the  advantages  derived  from  the  ox,  that  to  eat 

his  flesh  was  deemed  an  impiety. 

1188  Sometimes  the  pronominal  noun  or  adverb  is  omitted  in  the 
Latin,  but  the  subjunctive  still  retained  :  as, 

Plnarius  erat  ulr  acer  et  qu!  nihll  in  fide  Slculorum  r&poneret 
(Liv.  xxiv.  37),  Pinarius  was  a  man  of  energy,  and  not  one 
to  rely  at  all  on  the  honour  of  the  Sicilians. 

1189  In  indefinite  expressions  the  relative  preceded  by  a  verb  sig- 
nifying existence  is  followed  by  a  subjunctive*  :  as, 

Suiit  qul  censeant  (Cic.  Tusc.  I.  9. 18),  there  are  persons  who 
think. 

Inuenti  autem  multl  sunt  qui  gtiam  uitam  profunde're'  pro 
pS,tria  parati  essent  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  24. 84),  and  there  have 
been  found  many  who  were  ready  to  pour  out  their  very  life- 
blood  for  their  fatherland. 

Quis  est  quin  cernat  ?  (Cic.  Acad.  Pr.  n.  7. 20)  who  is  there 
who  does  not  see  ? 

Fuit  antea  tempus  quum  Germanos  Galii  uirtutS  sup^rarent 
(Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  24),  there  was  formerly  a  time  when  the  Ger- 
mans were  surpassed  in  valour  by  the  Galli. 

Est  quatenus  S,micltiae  dftrl  u6ui&  possit  (Cic.  de  Am.  17. 61), 
there  is  a  line  up  to  which  friendship  maybe  indulged. 

Est  iibi  id  uSleat  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  8.  23),  there  are  cases  where  this 
principle  avails. 

*  In  these  sentences  the  English  language  can  always  employ  the 
word  '  there.' 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


275 


Null*  dSmus  in  Slcllia  locuples  fuit,  ttbi  istg  non  textrlnum 
instituerit  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  26. 58),  there  was  not  a  wealthy 
house  in  Sicily,  but  what  that  man  set  up  in  it  a  cloth  manu- 
factory. 

Inuentus  est  scrlbS,  quldam  qui  cornicum  Settles  confixerit 
(Cic.  p.  Mur.  11.25),  there  turned  up  a  certain  clerk,  who 
caught  the  weasels  napping.* 

1190  There  are  many  phrases  apparently  similar  to  these  where  the 
indicative  is  found,  but  in  most  of  these  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
relative  clause  is  the  subject,  and  what  precedes  it  the  predicate  : 

£LS 

'  Quis  illic  est  qui  c6ntra  me  astat  ?  (Plant.  Pers.  I.  1. 13)  who 

is  the  man  yonder  who  stands  facing  me  ? 
Here  the  person  alluded  to  is  altogether  definite. 

Sunt  autem  multl  qui  eripiunt  aliis  quSd  aliis  largiantiir  (Cic. 
de  Off.  i.  14. 43),  and  indeed  those  who  rob  one  set  of  men  to 
lavish  what  they  thus  rob  on  another  set,  are  a  numerous  class. 

1191  Sometimes  est-qui,  sunt-quif  are  to  be  looked  upon  as  nouns, 
equivalent  to  nonnemo,  nonnulli,  and  are  then  followed  by  the 
indicative :  as, 

Set  6st-quod  suscense"t  tibi  (Ter.  And.  n.  6. 17),  but  he  is  an- 
noyed with  you  about  a  certain  matter. 

Sunt-quos  currlculo  pulue'rem  OlympXco 

CollegissS  iuvat  (Hor.  Od.  i.  1.3), 
To  some  on  Olympic  course  to  have  swept  up  dust  is  maddening 

j°y> 

Sunt-qui  ItS,  dicunt  imperil  Pisonis  superbS,  barbaros  ngqul- 
uissg  pati  (Sal.  Cat.  19),  some  do  say  that  the  barbarians  could 
not  bear  the  tyrannical  commands  of  Piso. 

Est-ubl  peccat  (Hor.  Ep.  n.  1.  63),  sometimes  (the  world)  goes 
wrong. 

1192  After  digno-,  idoneo-,  apto-,  uno-,  solo-,  primo-,  &c.,  what  is 
necessary  to  complete  the  predicate  is  expressed  by  the  relative  or 
ut  with  the  subjunctive  :£  as, 

*  Literally  '  pierced  the  eyes  of  the  crows.' 

f  Nay  Propertius  (in.  7. 17)  has  est-quibus  for  a  dative.  Compare 
too  the  Greek  eornvoi. 

t  But  an  infinitive  also  in  later  writers,  as  legi  dignus  (Quint,  x.  1. 96). 
See  also  §  1255. 


276  SYNTAX. 

Lmianae  fabulae  non  s£tis  dignae  sunt  quae  Iterum  legantur 

(Oic.  Brut.  18.71),  the  plays  of  Livius  do  not  deserve  a  second 

reading. 
Idoiieus  lion  est  qui  impe'tret  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  19. 57),  he  is 

not  a  Jit  person  to  obtain,  his  request. 
Solus  es,  Caesar,  cuius  in  uictoria  cecldgrit  nemo  nisi  armatus 

(Cic.  p.  Deiot.  12. 34),  you  are  the  only  conqueror,  Caesar,  in 

whose  victory  no.  one  fell  unless  armed. 

1 1 93  After  comparatives,  quam  qui-  or  quam  tit  is  followed  by  the 
subjunctive :  as, 

Maiores  arbores  caedebant  quam  quas  ferre1  cum  armis  miles 
posset  (Liv.  xxxni.  5),  they  were  cutting  down  trees  too  heavy 
for  a  soldier  to  carry  in  addition  to  his  arms. 

FerociSr  oratio  uisa  est  quam  quae  habenda  apud  regem  esset 
(Liv.  xxxi.  18),  the  speech  was  looked  upon  as  in  too  high  a 
tone  to  be  addressed  to  a  king. 

Nimis  laeta  res  est  uisS,  maiorquS  quam  tit  earn  st&tim  capgre 
Suimo  posset  (Liv.  xxii.  51),  the  suggestion  seemed  too  de- 
lightful and  too  grand  for  him  to  grasp  immediately. 

Senior  iam  et  infirmior  quam  ut  contentionem  dicendl  sustl- 
neret,  obmutuit  et  concidit  (Liv.  xxxni.  2),  being  now 
advanced  in  years  and  too  weak  to  support  any  violent  effort 
in  speaking,  he  suddenly  lost  his  voice  and  fell  to  the  ground. 

]  194  A  predicate  is  limited  and  explained  by  qui-  and  the  subjunc- 
tive :*  as, 

PeccassS  mini  uldeor  qui  a  te  discesscrim  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xvi. 

1.1),  I  did  wrong,  I  think,  in  leaving  you. 
Satin  sanu's,  me"  qui  id  r6gites  ?  (Ter.  And.  iv.  4. 10)  are  you 

quite  in  your  senses  to  ask  me  that  ? 

1195  So  also  a  relative  clause  with  a  subjunctive  (but  not  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  indicative)!  is  used  at  times  parenthetically  :  as, 

*  Quippe  qui-,  utpote  qui-^  ut  qui-,  are  also  used  in  this  way,  but 
with  greater  emphasis.  The  indicative  is  found  in  some  writers  in  these 
phrases. 

f  See  §  1158.1.  Many  passages  are  unduly  put  forward  as  examples 
under  this  head  by  both  Madvig(§  364,  Anm.  2)  and  Zumpt  (§  559) :  as, 
quod  sine  moles'ia  tua  fiat  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xin.  23),  qui  modo  tolerabili 
condicione  sit  (Cic.  in  Cat.  iv.  8. 16),  quod  suum  did  uellet  (Cic.  n.  Verr. 
iv.  16.36). 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  277 

RSfertae  sunt  orationes  centum  quinquaginta,  quas  quldem 
Sd hue  inuengrim  et  legSrim,  et  uerbls  et  rebus  illustrlbus 
{Cic.  Brut.  17.  65),  the  hundred  and  fifty  orations  are  replete, 
at  least  such  of  them  as  I  have  hitherto  come  across  and  read, 
with  brilliant  language  and  brilliant  matter. 

N8que  erat  In  exercitu,  qul  quldem  pgdestria  stipendia"  fecisset, 
uir  factis  nobllior  (Liv.  vn.  13),  nor  was  there  a  soldier  in 
the  army,  at  least  of  those  who  had  served  on  foot,  more  dis- 
tinguished for  his  deeds. 

1196  In  indirect  questions,  i.  e.  where  an  interrogative  pronoun  or 
conjunction  and  verb  are  attached  to  some  verb  or  phrase,  the 
verb  following  the  interrogative*  is  in  the  subjunctive  :  as, 

NaturS,  declarat  quid  uelit  (Cic.  de  Am.  24. 88),  Nature  pro- 
claims what  she  wishes. 

Teneo  quid  erret,  et  quid  &gam  h&beo  (Ter.  And.  m.  2. 18),  / 
twig  what  his  mistake  is,  and  know  what  to  do. 

Ex  captluis  cognouit  quo  in  18co  hostium  copiae  consedissent 
(Goes.  B.  G-.  v.  9),  he  learnt  from  the  prisoners  where  the 
enemy's  forces  were  posted. 

Ignorabat  rex  utSr  eorum  esset  Orestes  (Cic.  de  Am.  7.  24),  the 
king  knew  not  which  of  the  two  was  Orestes. 

Ex  hoc  quantum  b5ni  sit  In  Smicltia,  iudlcar!  ptftest  (Cic.  de 
Am.  7. 23),  from  this  a  judgment  may  be  formed,  how  much 
happiness  there  is  in  friendship. 

Existit  quaestio  num  quando  &m!cl  nSuI  uetgrlbus  sint  ante- 
ponendl  (Cic.  de  Am.  19.  67),  there  rises  the  question,  whether 
at  any  time  new  friends  are  to  be  preferred  to  old  friends. 

Cum  incertus  essem,  ubi  esses  (Cic.  ad  Att.  I.  9),  being  uncer- 
tain where  you  were. 

Discent  quemadmodum  haec  flant  (Cic.  de  Am.  12.41),  th?y 
will  learn  how  these  things  are  done. 

Diiblto  an  Vgnusiam  tendam  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xvi.  5.3),  I  am  at  a 
loss  whether  to  make  for  Venusia. 

Copias  suas,  iudlcionS  non  conduxgrit,  S,n  gqultum  aduentu 
prohlbltus,  dubiumst  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  31),  whether  it  was 

*  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  the  relative  and  interrogative. 
Scio  quid  quaeras  means,  '  I  know  the  question  you  wish  to  put ;'  but 
scio  quod  quaeris,  *  I  know  the  answer  to  it.'  Compare  Ter.  And.  in.  3. 4, 
et  quid  te  ego  uelim,  et  quod  tu  quaeris  scies. 


278  SYNTAX. 

from  design  that  he  omitted  to  collect  his  forces,  or  because  he 
was  prevented  by  the  arrival  of  our  cavalry,  is  doubtful. 

Ddleam  necng  doleam  nihll  interest  (Cic.  Tusc.  u.  12.  29), 
whether  I  am  hurt  or  not  hurt,  makes  no  difference. 

Id  uiso,  tun  &n  illi  insaniant  (Ter.  And.  in.  3.  3),  the  object  of 
my  visit  is  to  see  whether  it  be  you  or  they  that  are  mad. 

De  pueris  quid  agam,  nou  h&beo  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  19),  what  to 
do  with  the  boys,  I  know  not. 

Hanc  (paludem)  si  nostri  translrent,  hostes  expectabant  (Caes. 
B.  G.  ii.  9),  this  (morass)  the  enemy  were  waiting  to  see  whe- 
ther our  men  would  cross.* 

1197  In  the  older  writers,  and  occasionally  in  Horace  and  Virgil,  an 
indicative  is  found  in  indirect  questions  :  as, 

Si  nunc  memorarg  uelim,  quam  fideli  animo  In  illam  fui,  uere 
possum  (Ter.  Hec.  in.  5.21),  if  at  this  very  moment  I  wished 
to  mention  how  faithful  1  have  been  towards  her,  I  could  do 
so  with  truth. 

Vide  ut  discldit  labrum  (Ter.  Ad.  iv.  2.  20),  see  how  he  has  cut 
my  lip  open. 

Adspice  ut  antrum 
Siluestris  raris  sparsit  labruscS,  rScemis  (  Virg.  BUG.  v.  6), 

See  how  the  wild  labrusca\ 
Has  sprinkled  the  cave  with  scattered  grapes. 

1198  An  interrogative  clause  sometimes  accompanies  the  phrase  quid 
ais,  or  the  imperatives  die,  cgdo,  or  the  indicative  quaeso,  but 
without  being  dependent  on  them  :  as, 

Quid  aisj,  ubi  intellexeras  I'd  consilium  capere,  cur  non  dixti 
extemplo  Pamphilo  ?  (Ter.  And.  in.  2.  37)  just  tell  me  this  : 
When  you  saw  that  they  were  going  to  play  that  game,  why  did 
you  not  immediately  tell  Pamphilus  ? 

Dic§  mihi,  placetne  tlbi  edSre  iniussu  meo  ?  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xni. 

*  It  has  been  already  noticed  (§  495)  that  in  these  indirect  questions 
there  is  often  an  ambiguity  whether  the  existing  time  or  future  time  be 
meant.  Compare  §§  594  and  600. 

f  '  A  wild  vine.' 

j  The  phrase  quid  ais  is  also  used  in  expressing  surprise  at  something 
heard :  as, '  What  do  you  say  ?  surely  I  misunderstand  you,'  or  '  You 
don't  say  so.' 

§  This  die  mihi,  like  the  conjunction  eho,  is  merely  a  mode  of  inviting 
a  person's  special  attention  to  some  coming  question.  The  French  in  the 
same  wav  use  dis-moi. 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  279 

21.4)  be  so  good  as  to  answer  me  this:  Do  you  approve  of 

your  publishing  the  book  without  my  authority  ? 
CSdS,  quid  iurgiibit  tecum  ?  (Ter.  And.  n.  3.  15)  pray,  what 

quarrel  will  he  have  with  you  ? 
Quaeso,  quotiens  dlceudumst  tibi  ?  (Plant.  Most.  iv.  2.  32)  how 

often  must  I  tell  you,  prithee  ? 

1199  The  phrase  nescio-qui-  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  trisyllabic 
word  partaking  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective.     Hence  there  is  no 
irregularity  in  the  construction  with  an  indicative  :  as, 

Alii  nescio-quo  pacto  obduruerunt  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  15.2),  others 
somehow  or  other  have  become  hardened. 

1200  A  similar  union  accounts  for  the  indicative  in  such  phrases  as, 
Sales  in  dicendo  nimium-quantum*  ualent  (Cic.  Or.  26.  87), 

jokes  tell  immensely  in  oratory. 
Id  mirura-quantum*  profuit  ad  concordiam  ciuitatls  (Liv.  n. 

1),  this  conduced  wonderfully  to  harmony  among  the  citizens. 
Immane'-quantum  ilnimi  exarserg  (Sal.  ap.  Non.),  the  men  fired 

up  beyond  all  measure. 

Reported  Speech  or  Thoughts  (OBLIQUA  OEATIO). 

1201  When  the  words  or  thoughts  of  another  are  reported  and 
not  in  the  first  person,  it  is  called  the  obliqua  oratio,  and  all  se- 
condary clauses,  that  is,  clauses  dependent  upon  the  relative  or 
upon  conjunctions,  are  in  the  subjunctive  mood.     Compare  the 
following  passages  : 

Sgnatu  reiqug  publlcae  eg  8  non  dero,  si  audacter  sententias 
dlcere  uultis  ;  sin  CaesSrein  respicitts  atque  eius  gratiam 
sequimini,  ut  supgriorfbus  fecutis  tempSrlbus,  &go  mihi 
consllium  cdpiam,  ngquS  sgnatus  auctorltati  obtemperabo^  , 
I  will  not  be  wanting  to  the  senate  and  the  country,  if  you  are 
willing  to  express  your  opinions  boldly  ;  but  if  you  look  to 
Caesar,  and  make  his  favour  your  object,  as  you  have  done  on 
recent  occasions,  then  1  will  take  my  measures  for  myself,  and 
will  not  be  guided  by  the  authority  of  the  senate. 

*  Still  the  original  phrases  must  have  been,  nimium  est  quantum 
ualeant,  mirum  est  quantum  profuerit,  &c.     Compare  the  Greek  phrase 


t  See  Caesar,  B.  C.  i.  1. 


280  SYNTAX. 

Senatu  reique  publlcae  se  non  defuturumpollicetur,  si  audacter 
sententias  dlcerS  uelint ;  sin  Caesarem  respiciant  atque  eius 
gratiam  sgquantur,  ut  supSriorlbus  fecerint  temp5rlbus,  se 
sibi  consllium  capturum  neque  senatus  auctoiitati  obtempS- 
raturum,  he  promises  that  he  will  not  be  wanting  &c. 

1202  Or  the  tenses  might  be  thrown  into  past  time  (which  is  more 
commonly  used)  by  writing  pollicebatur  or  polllcltus  est,  uellent. 
resplcgrent,  sequerentiir,  fecissent 

1202. 1  In  the  obliqua  oratio,  as  compared  with  the  directa  oratio,  the 
changes  are  as  follows  : 

The  main  tenses,  which  are  indicatives  in  the  original  speech, 
are  changed  to  the  accusative  and  infinitive. 

Imperatives  are  changed  to  imperfects  of  the  subjunctive. 

Subjunctives  remain  subjunctives. 

Direct  interrogatives  in  the  indicative  are  changed  to  the  ac- 
cusative and  infinitive,  provided  the  person  was  either  the  first  or 
third ;  but  if  it  was  the  second  person,  then  the  subjunctive  is 
required.* 

With  regard  to  the  tenses,  imperfects  remain  imperfects,  and 
perfects  remain  perfects ;  but  which  of  the  imperfects  or  perfects 
is  to  be  preferred,  depends  upon  the  tense  of  the  indicative  verb 
to  which  the  whole  is  subjoined. 

The  pronouns  ho-  (in  its  original  sense)  and  isto-  have  no  place 
in  the  obliqua  oratio,  any  more  than  eg5,  tu,  nos,  uos,  (fee.  Illo- 
commonly  supplies  the  place  of  the  second  person.  See  Sal.  Jug. 
cc.  61,  62,  64,  65,  77. 

All  this  however  does  not  prevent  the  use  of  the  indicative 
mood  in  the  midst  of  the  obliqua  oratio,  where  the  writer  chooses 
to  say  something  of  his  own. 

1203  Sometimes  the  obliqua  oratio  is  introduced  by  a  verb  of  recom- 
mending &c.  with  the  subjunctive  mood,  and  this  is  followed  by 
an  infinitive  ;  before  which  in  the  English  some  word  signifying  to 
say  must  be  inserted  :  as, 

Censebant  ut  noctu  Iter  facerent,  possS  prius  ad  angustias 
u6nirl  quam  sentlrentiir  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  67),  they  recom- 
mended that  they  should  march  by  night,  observing  that  they 
might  make  tlieir  way  to  the  pass  before  they  were  perceived. 

*  See  Madvig'e  Opuscula,  vol.  ii.  p.  208. 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  281 

1204  At  other  times  the  obliqua  oratio  is  introduced  by  a  verb  of 
saying,  &c.  with  the  infinitive  mood,  and  this  is  followed  by  a 
subjunctive  ;  before  which  in  the  English  some  word  signifying  to 
recommend  &c.  must  be  inserted  :  as, 

Decent  sul  iudlcl  rem  non  essS ;  proinde  habeat  r&tionem  pos- 
teritatls  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  13),  they  point  out  that  it  is  not  a 
matter  for  them  to  decide  upon,  and  they  recommend  him 
therefore  at  once  to  consider  the  consequences. 

1205  Without  a  formal  use  of  the  obliqua  oratio >,  a  verb  in  a  depend- 
ent clause  may  be  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  when  it  expresses  the 
thoughts  or  words  or  alleged  reasons  of  another. 

Aristides,  nonne  ob  earn  caussam  expulsust  patria,  quod  praeter 

modum  iustiis  esset  ?*  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  36. 105)  Aristides  again, 

was  he  not  driven  from  his  country  on  tJie  very  ground  that 

he  was  just  beyond  measure  ? 
Fabio  dicta  dies  est,  quod  legattis  in  Gallos  pugnasset  (Liv.  vi. 

1),  notice  of  trial  was  given  to  Fabius,  for  having  fought 

against  the  Galli  when  ambassador. 
Aedem  deo  I5ul  uouit,  si  eo  die  hostes  fudisset  (Liv.  xxxi.  21), 

he  vowed  a  temple  to  the  god  Jupiter,  if  he  routed  the  enemy 

that  day. 

1206  In  these  cases  the  power  of  the  subjunctive  may  be  expressed 
by  inserting  such  words  as  they  said  or  they  thought :  for  example, 
in  the  last  sentence  but  one  the  English  might  have  been,  '  be- 
cause he  was  just  they  said  beyond  measure.' 

1207  Sometimes  the  verb  to  say  or  think  is  expressed  in  these  phrases, 
and  unnecessarily  put  into  the  subjunctive  mood  :  as, 

Ille  petere  contendit  ut  rglinqueretur,  partim  qued  mar8  tlrne- 
ret,  partim  quod  rellgionibtis  impedlr!  sese  dlceret  (Caes. 
B.  G.  v.  6),  the  other  zealously  entreated  to  be  left  behind, 
partly  because  he  was  afraid  of  the  sea,  partly  because  he  was 
prevented,  he  said,  by  religious  scruples. 

*  The  subjunctive  mood  may  be  thus  used,  when  the  writer  speaks  of 
a  feeling  which  moved  himself  at  a,  former  time:  as,  Mihi  Academiae 
consuetudo  non  ob  earn  caussam  solum  placuit,  quod  .  .  .  .,  sed  etiam  quod 
esset  ea  maxuma  dicendi  exerdtatio  (Cic.  Tusc.  n.  3.9),  'For  myself  the 
practice  of  the  Academy  pleased  me,  not  merely  because  .  .  .  .,  but  also 
because  it  afforded  the  best  exercise  in  speaking.'  (Madvig). — Occurrebant 
(mi hi)  colles  campique  et  Tiberis  et  hoc  caelum,  sub  quo  natus  educatusque 
essem  (Liv.  v.  54 J. 


282  SYNTAX. 

Here  impediretur  would  have  expressed  the  same,  though  less 
forcibly  ;  on  the  other  hand,  timeret  might  have  been  translated, 
*  he  was  afraid,  he  said. ' 

Cum  Hannlbalis  permissu  exisset  de  castris,  rSdiit  paulo  post, 
quod  se  oblltum  nescio-quid  dlceret  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  13. 40), 
after  leaving  the  camp  with  Hannibal's  permission,  he  returned 
shortly  after,  because  he  had  forgotten  something  or  other,  he 
said. 

Legatos  suos  multl  de  prouincia  decedere  iusserunt,  quod  illo- 
rum  culpa  se  minus  commSde  audlre  arbitrarentur  (Cic.  u. 
Verr.  HI.  58. 134),  many  (governors)  have  directed  their  lieu- 
tenants to  leave  a  province,  because  through  the  misconduct  of 
these  lieutenants  they  themselves,  they  thought,  had  got  a  lad 
name. 

Quern  qui  reprendit,  in  eo  rgprendit,  quod  gratum  praeter 
mo'dum  dicat  esse  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  33.  82),  and  he  who  cen- 
sures him,  censures  him  for  being,  he  says,  grateful  beyond 
measure. 

1208  It  has  been  said  above  that  the  subjunctive  is  used  in  speaking 
of  that  which  does  not  exist.  Thus,  what  is  denied  is  in  the  sub- 
junctive after  a  conjunction  :  as, 

Istos  tantum  Sbest  ut  ornem*,  ut  ecftci  non  possit  quin  eos 
oderim  (Cic.  Phil.  xi.  14.  36),  so  far  from  complimenting 
those  persons  you  speak  of,  I  cannot  be  prevented  from  hating 
them. 

Tantum  Sberat  ut  binos  scrlbSrent,  uix  singulos  confecerunt 
(Cic.  ad  Att.  xin.  21.  5),  so  far  from  copying  two  sets  (of  the 
work},  they  with  difficulty  completed  one. 

Piiglles  in  iactandis  caestlbus  mgemiscunt,  non  quod  doleant, 
sed  quiS,  profundenda  uoce  omng  corpus  intendltiir  (Cic. 
Tusc.  u.  23. 56),  the  boxer  in  throwing  out  the  caestus  utters 
a  groan,  not  because  he  is  in  pain,  but  because  by  sending  out 
the  voice  every  muscle  in  the  body  is  strained. 
Non  eo  dico  quo  mihi  uSniat  in  dubium  tuS,  fides  (Cic.  p. 
Quinct.  2.  5),  /  do  not  say  this  because  your  word  is  doubted 
by  me. 
Maiores  nostri  in  db'minum  dS  seruo  quaeri  nolugrunt,  non 

*  The  rule  applies  of  course  to  ornem,  not  to  the  other  subjunctives 
in  this  sentence. 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  283 

quiS,  nou  posset  uerum  inuenlrl,  sed  quiS,  uldfbatiir  indig- 
num  essS  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  22.  59),  our  ancestors  were  unwilling 
that  evidence  should  be  drawn  by  torture  from  a  slave  against 
his  master,  not  because  the  truth  could  not  be  got  at,  but  be- 
cause (in  this  case}  there  seemed  to  be  something  degrading. 
Non  quin  confiderem  dllfgentiae  tuae  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xvi.  24.1), 
not  that  I  in  any  way  distrusted  your  carefulness. 

1209  Another  example  of  the  subjunctive  employed  in  speaking  of 
what  does  not  exist,  is  seen  in  hypothetical*  sentences,  both  in  the 
clause  of  condition  and  the  clause  of  consequence.  These  sen- 
tences are  conveniently  divided  into  present  and  past. 

a.  Hoc  nee  scio,  nee  si  sciam,  dlcere  ausim  (Liv.  praef.),  this 

in  the  first  place  I  do  not  know,  and  secondly,  if  I  did  know, 
I  should  not  venture  to  say. 

Tu  si  hie  sis,  Sitter  sentias  (Ter.  And.  n.  1. 10),  you  yourself, 
if  you  were  in  my  situation,  would  feel  differently. 

b.  Quid  fftciam,  si  furtum  fecerit  ?  (Hor.  Sat.  I.  3.  94)  what 

should  I  do,  were  he  to  commit  a  theft  ? 

c.  Nonne  sapiens,  si  fame  ipse  conftciatur,  abstulerit  clbum 

alterl  ?  Mlnume  uero  (Cic.  de  Off.  m.  6. 29),  would  not  a 
wise  man,  if  he  were  himself  on  the  point  of  being  starved, 
rob  some  other  of  food?  Assuredly  not. 

d.  Id  si  accident,  simiis  armati  (Cic.  Tusc.  I.  32.  78),  if  that 

were  to  happen,  we  should  be  ready  armed. 

e.  Si  frater  esset,  qul  m&gis  morem  gereret  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  iv.  5. 

74)  if  he  had  been  a  brother,  how  could  he  have  been  more 
obliging  ? 

f.  Si  quis  hoc  gnato  tuo  Tuos  serutfs  faxetf,  qualem  haberes 

*  See  above,  §  1153  and  §§  496,  497,  498. 

t  Thatfaxit  is  inadmissible  here,  even  Madvig  would  allow,  although 
he  denies  the  existence  of  the  word  faxem.  Moreover  the  explanation 
of  the  form  faxo  given  in  §  566  is  confirmed  by  a  line  in  the  same  scene, 
Pol  si  tstucfaxis,  hau  sine  poena  feceris  ;  for  the  law  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage requires  that  the  two  verbs  should  here  be  in  the  same  tense  (see 
Madvig's  own  Gr.  §  340,  obs.  2),  and  the  difference  of  form  is  agreeable 
to  a  peculiarity  of,  the  iambic  senarius,  which,  while  it  admits  contracted 
forms  in  the  middle,  prefers  the  uncontracted  at  the  close  of  the  line,  as 
periclum  and  periculo^  Plant.  Cap.  in.  5.  82  ;  norit  and  nouerit,  Ter. 
And.  Prol.  10  ;  sit  and  sies  or  siet,  And.  11.  5. 13,  Haut.  in.  1.47;  fac 
generally,  but  face  at  the  end,  And.  iv.  1.56,  v.  1.2  ;  besides  a  large 
number  of  words  which  are  commonly  monosyllabic  in  pronunciation  ex- 
cept in  the  last  place,  as  mihi,  And.  iv.  4.  4,  Haut.  in.  1. 101.  Madvig's 


284  SYNTAX. 

gr&tiain  ?  (Plant.  Cap.  in.  5.  54)  if  any  slave  of  yours  had 

done  the  same  for  your  son,  what  would  your  gratitude  ham 

been  like  ? 
Si  has  inimicltias  cauere  pStuisset,  uiueret  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am. 

6.17),  if  he  had  been  able  to  guard  against  the  enmity  of 

this  party,  he  would  have  been  now  alive. 
g.  Absque  eo  esset,  recte  ggo  mihi  uldissem  (Ter.  Ph.  I.  4. 11),  if 

it  had  not  been  for  him,  1  should  have  taken  good  care  of 

myself. 
R6gnumne  hie  tu  p6ssides  ?    Si  p6ssiderem,  ornatus  esses  ex 

tuis  uirtutibus  (Ter.  Ad.  11.  1.21),  are  you  lord  paramount 

here  ?    If  I  had  been,  you  should  have  had  a  dressing  such 

as  your  special  merits  deserve.* 
h.  Ngcassem  te  uerberibus,  nisi — irattis  essem  (Cic.  R.  P.  i. 

38.  59),  /  should  have  flogged  you  to  death,  if  I  had  not — 

put  myself  in  a  passion. 
Deletus  exercltus  foret,  n!  fugientis  siluae  texissent  (Liv.  in. 

22),  the  army  would  have  been  annihilated,  had  not  the  woods 

covered  them  in  their  flight. 

1210  It  will  be  seen  that  in  hypothetical  sentences  with  the  present 
tenses  (whether  imperfect  or  perfect),  the  condition,  though  not 
fulfilled  at  the  present  moment,  is  not  an  impossibility,  for  it  may 
yet  perhaps  be  fulfilled. 

1211  The  past  tenses  in  hypothetical  sentences  (both  imperfect  and 
perfect)  allude  to  past  time,  or  at  any  rate  to  an  obstacle  in  past 
time  affecting  the  present  state  of  things.     In  either  case  it  is 
novv  too  late  to  alter  matters ;  and  therefore  these  tenses  often 
imply  not  only  the  non-existence  of  a  state  of  things,  but  also 
impossibility. 

1212  The  tenses  in  hypothetical  sentences  are  determined  in  the 
usual  way.     If  the  imperfect  be  used  in  the  conditional  clause, 
the  notion  of  the  verb  is  not  completed  before  that  in  the  clause 

view  is,  that/a^o  and  such  forms  are  the  equivalents  of  the  Greek  TW//W, 
irpalw,  and  consequently  simple,  not  perfect  futures.  See  his  Opuscula, 
vol.  ii.  p.  6'0,  &c.  This  is  clearly  wiong. 

*  It  should  be  remembered  that  in  the  oblir/ua  oratio  the  subjunctive 
will  be  found  after  si,  even  when  the  construction  is  not  that  which  we 
have  called  hypothetical,  but  the  ordinary  sentence  of  condition,  which 
in  the  directa  oratio  would  be  in  the  indicative. 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  265 

of  the  consequence.  Oh  the  other  hand,  a  perfect  tense  in  the 
conditional  clause  generally*  denotes  an  action  completed  before 
what  is  expressed  in  the  clause  of  the  consequence.  As  regards 
the  past  tenses  of  hypothetical  sentences,  in  the  clause  of  the  con- 
sequence the  past-imperfect  is  used  to  denote  a  continued  state  of 
things,  or  something  not  yet  completed,  whereas  a  single  occur- 
rence is  expressed  by  the  past-perfect. 

213  Thus  the  general  construction  of  sentences  containing  the  word 
if,  is,  that  the  hypothetical,  i.  e.  those  which  put  a  case,  the  non- 
existence  of  which  is  implied,  have  the  subjunctive  in  both  clauses, 
while  in  other  cases  the  indicative  is  required  in  both  clauses. 

1214  The  apparent  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  for  the  most  part  to 
be  explained  by  the  sentences  being  elliptical.  Thus  in  hypothe- 
tical sentences  the  participles  in  turo  and  endo  are  often  found  in 
the  clause  of  consequence ;  and,  if  so,  always  attended  by  an  in- 
dicative :  as, 

Si  me  triumpharg  prohlberent,  testis  cltaturust  fu!  rerum  a 
me  gestarum  (Liv.  xxxvni.  47),  if  they  had  attempted  to 
prevent  my  triumphing,  I  should  have  catted  up  witnesses  of 
my  achievements. 

Illi  ipsl  qui  remanserant  relicturi  agros  grant,  nisi  litteras  ml- 
sisset  (Cic.  u.  Verr.  in.  52. 121),  even  those  who  had  remained 
behind  would  have  abandoned  the  lands,  if  he  had  not  sent 
the  letter.  I 

Quid  quod  si  Andranodoro  consIliS,  processissent,  Heracleae 

cum  ceteris  fuit  seruiendum§,  nay,  if  the  plans  of  Andra- 

nodorus  had  succeeded,  Heraclea  must  have  become  a  slave  with 

the  rest  of  the  people. 

Si  prluatus  esset,  tSmgn  ad  tantum  bellum  Is  Srat  dellgendus 

*  This  word  is  inserted  with  a  view  to  such  a  sentence  as,fdsifecisses, 
f»er  mihi  gratnm  fecisses,  where  however  the  real  consequence  is  expressed 
in  pergratum,  *  I  should  have  been  greatly  your  debtor.' 

f  Literally  '  I  intended  to  call  them,'  for  which  our  translation  sub- 
stitutes, by  no  very  violent  inference,  '  I  should  have  done  so.'  The  lat- 
ter literally  translated  would  have  been  citauissem. 

I  That  is,  '  They  were  preparing  to  leave,  and'  (though  the  author 
omits  expressly  to  say  so)  '  no  doubt  would  have  done  so.' 

§  This  passage  occurs  in  Liv.  xxiv.  26,  with  the  alterations  required 
by  the  obliqua  oratio,  viz.  sibi  and  fuerit  in  place  of  Heracleae  and  fuit. 
Compare  a  similar  change  in  the  same  chapter  of  the  phrase,  Si  iffugium 
patuisset  in  publicum,  impleturae  urbem  tumultu /uerunt. 


286  SYNTAX. 

(Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  17. 50),  if  he  had  been  in  a  private  stati&f*, 
still  for  so  seriotis  a  war  he  was  the  man  who  ought  to  have 
been  selected. 

1215        A  similar  explanation  accounts  for  the  following  phrases  : — 

Ni  metuam  patrem,  h&beo  quod  moneam  probe  (Ter.  And.  v. 
4. 15),  if  I  were  not  afraid  of  my  father,  1  could  give  him  an 
excellent*  hint. 

Id  eg5,  si  tu  neges,  certo  sciot  (Ter.  Haut.  iv.  1. 19),  even  if 
you  were  to  deny  this,  I  know  it  for  certain  (and  consequently 
your  denial  of  it  would  be  fruitless). 

AdmSnebat  me  res  ut  intermissionem  elSquentiae  deplorarem, 
n!  uererer  ne  de  me  ipso  uldSrer  queri  (Cic.  de  Off.  u.  19. 
67),  /  was  reminded  by  the  matter  before  us  that  I  ought  to 
lament  the  disappearance  of  eloquence  from  among  us ;  and 
should  have  yielded  to  the  suggestion,  had  I  not  feared  that  I 
might  be  thought  to  be  urging  a  merely  personal  complaint. 

Si  per  Metellum  llcltum  esset,  matres  illorum,  uxores,  s5rores 
uSniebant  (Cic.  u.  Verr.  v.  49. 129),  their  mothers,  wives, 
sisters  were  coming  (and  would  actually  have  come),  if  Me- 
tellus  had  permitted. 

Multa  me  dehortantiir  a  uobis,  ni  studium  reipublicae  siiperet 
(Sal.  Jug.  31),  many  considerations  dissuade  me  from  trou- 
bling you  (and  they  would  probably  prevail),  if  my  love  for 
my  country  did  not  outweigh  them. 

Pons  Iter  paene  hostibus  de'dit,  ni  unus  uir  fuisset  (Liv.  n. 
10),  the  bridge  all  but  offered  a  passage  to  the  enemy,  (and 
would  have  done  so  completely,)  had  it  not  been  for  one  brave 
man. 

Quod  ni  prSpere  pernotuisset,  haud  multum  S,b  exltio  legati 
Sberant  (Tac.l  Ann.  i.  23),  and  if  this  had  not  speedily  be- 
come generally  known,  (they  would  have  put  an  end  to  the 
lieutenant-general,  for  even  as  it  was),  they  were  not  far  from 
so  doing. 

*  Literally  '  I  have  an  excellent  hint  to  give,  and  but  for  the  reason 
assigned  I  would  give  it.' 

f  Of  course  '  my  knowledge'  is  in  no  way  conditional  upon  '  your 
speaking  the  truth  or  not.' 

£  Tacitus  abounds  in  this  construction:  see  in  the  very  same  chapter, 
ferrum  parabant*  ni .  .  .  .  interiecisset. 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  287 

Such  sentences  as  the  following  are  mere  instances  of  ordinary 
exaggeration  forthwith  corrected*  : — 

Me  trunciis  illapsus  c£r5bro  Sustulerat,  nisi  Faunus  ictum 
Dextra  leuasset  (Hor.  Od.  n.  17.27),  Horace  a  trunk  down 
gliding  on  his  skull  had  carried  off,  (or  at  least  would  have 
done  so),  had  not  Faunus  with  his  hand  lightened  the  blow. 

1217  The  verbs  of  duty  and  power,  already  expressing  in  themselves 
what  is  less  forcibly  implied  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  generally 
retain  the  terminations  of  the  indicative  in  hypothetical  sentences : 

as, 

Ilunc  patris  ISco,  si  ulla  in  te  pietas  esset,  colerg  debebas  (Cic. 

Phil.  n.  38. 99),  this  man  you  ought  to  have  respected  as  a 
father,  if  you  had  had  any  affection  in  you. 
Consul  esse  qui  potui,  nisi  hunc  uitae  cursum  tenuissem  a 
pueritia?  (Cic.  R.  P.  I.  6.10)  how  could  I  have  been  consul, 
if  I  had  not  kept  strictly  to  this  course  of  life  from  my  boy- 
hood ? 

1218  In  the  same  way  the  verb  *  to  bej  in  the  indicative  is  accom- 
panied by  adjectivesf,  and  occasionally  substantives,  when  the 
hypothetical  form  of  the  sentence  might  have  suggested  the  sub- 
junctive :  as, 

Longumst  si  tlbi  narrem  quamobrem  id  fSciam  (Ter.  Haut.  n. 

3.  94),  it  would  be  tedious  if  I  were  to  tell  you  why  I  do  so. 
Aequius  erat  id  uoluntate'  fieri  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  9. 28),  it  would 

have  been  better  if  it  had  been  done  willingly. 
Nonne  fuit  s&tius  tilstis  Amaryllidls  Iras  Atqug  superbS,  p&ti 

fastldia1  ?  (  Virg.  Buc.  n.  14)  had  it  not  better  been  Amaryllis' 

bitter  wrath  and  haughty  whims  to  brook  ? 
Quanto  melius  fueratt  in  hoc  promissum  patris  non  essg  serua- 

tum  ?  (Cic.  de  Off.  in.  25.  94)  how  much  better  would  it  have 

been,  if  in  his  case  his  father's  promise  had  not  been  kept  ? 

1219  The  conjunction  in  hypothetical  sentences  is  sometimes  omitted, 
as  in  English  ;  but  in  this  case  the  verb  is  commonly  placed  first : 
as, 

*  It  should  be  observed,  that  in  sentences  of  this  character  the  nisi 
or  si  commonly  follows. 

f  Particularly  adjectives  of  propriety. 

£  The  past-perfect  tense  in  place  -f  a  simple  perfect  is  common  in 
such  phrases,  and  also  with  the  verbs  of  duty  and  power. 


288  SYNTAX. 

RSges  me,  nihil  fortassg  respondeam  (Cic.  N.  D.  i.  21. 57),  were 
you  to  ask  me,  I  should  perhaps  make  no  answer. 

Dares  hanc  uim  Crasso,  in  ford  saltaret  (Cic.  de  Off.  in.  19.75), 
had  you  offered  this  power  to  Croesus,  he  would  have  danced 
in  the  forum. 

1220  Very  frequently  the  conditional  clause  is  omitted  :  as, 

Stare  piites,  &deo  procedunt  tempSrS,  tarde  (Ov.  Trist.  v.  10. 5), 
you  would  think  (if  you  were  here)  that  time  was  standing 
still,  so  slowly  does  it  advance. 

Reos  dlcSres  (Liv.  n.  35),  you  would  have  said  they  were  on 
their  trial  (had you  been  there}. 

Hoc  confirmauerim,  elSquentiam  rem  unam  esse  omnium  dif- 
ftcillumam  (Cic.  Brut.  6,25),  this  I  would  maintain  (if  there 
were  occasion},  that  eloquence  is  the  one  thing  of  all  most  dif- 
•icult  to  attain. 

1221  Thus,  malim  I should  prefer ,  nolim  1  should  be  unwitting,  uelim 
1  should  wish,  are  modest  expressions,  not  partaking  of  the  rude- 
ness of  malo  I  prefer,  nolo  /  won't,  uolo  I insist ;  while  mallem, 
nollem,  uellem,  signify  I  should  have  preferred  &c.,  and  refer  either 
to  past  time,  or  to  what  is  now  impossible.     Hence, 

Nollem*  factum  (Ter.  Ad.  n.  1. 11),  7  wish  it  had  never  been 
done,  i.e.  I  beg  your  pardon. 

1222  The  consequence  also  is  at  times  omitted  :  as, 

0  si  Sub  rastro  crgpet  argent!  iniM  seriS,  (Pers.  II.  10),  oh,  if 
neath  the  harrow  ajar  of  silver  were  to  crack  for  me. 

1223  The  consequencet  again  is  generally  omitted  in  sentences  con- 
taining quS,sI  as  if,  or  equivalent  words  :  as, 

Qu&sl  uero  consili  sit  re's  (Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  38),  as  if  forsooth 
it  were  matter  for  deliberation. 

Me  iuuat,  uelut  si  ipse  in  parts  l&boris  fugrim,  ad  finem  belli 
peruenissg  (Liv.  xxxi.  1),  7  am  delighted,  as  though  I  had 
myself  shared  the  toil,  to  have  arrived  at  the  close  of  the  war. 

*  Literally  *  I  should  have  wished  it  not  done.'  The  suppressed  con- 
dition may  have  been,  Si  optando  potuissem  quae  facto,  sunt  infecta  red- 
dere.  Natim  factum  would  signify, '  I  should  be  sorry  to  have  it  done.' 

t  Thus  in  the  second  sentence  the  fuller  form  would  have  been,  *  I 
am  ii8  much  delighted  as  I  should  have  been  if  &c.' 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  289 

Eius  cr&delltatem,  uelut  si  coram  adesset,  horrebant  (Goes.  B. 

Ch  I.  32),  they  kept  shuddering  at  this  man's  bloodthirstiness, 

as  though  he  had  been  present. 
Sic  quaesttfr  est  factus,  quam  si  esset  summo  loco  natiis  (Cic. 

p.  Plane.  25.60),  he  was  made  quaestor  with  the  same  facility, 

as  if  he  had  been  born  in  the  highest  station.  * 

1221  When  the  second  personf  is  used  to  denote  generally  one,  a 
man,  the  subjunctive  commonly  enters  into  secondary  clauses, 
whether  preceded  by  a  relative  or  conjunction  :  as, 

In  excitando  plurumum  uSlet,  si  laudes  eum  quern  cohortere 
(Cic.  ad  Fam.  xv.  21.5),  in  rousing  to  action,  the  greatest 
effect  is  produced,  if  one  praises  the  person  whom  one  is  en- 
couraging. 
BSnus  segnior  fit,  iibi  neglegas  (Sal.  Jug.  31),  the  good  man 

becomes  less  active,  when  you  neglect  him. 

Tantum  remanet,  quod  rectS  factis  consecutus  sis  (Cic.  de  Sen. 
19. 69),  that  only  is  left  behind,  which  a  man  has  obtained  by 
good  deeds. 

1225  Secondary  clauses  which  are  attached  to  clauses  in  the  sub- 
junctive or  infinitive  mood  and  form  an  essential  part  of  the  idea 
therein  expressed,  are  themselves  in  the  subjunctive  mood  :  as, 

Si  lucS  qu5qu8  canes  latrent,  quom  Deos  salutatum  allqul 
uenerint,  his  crura  suffringantur,  quod  acres  sint  quom 
susplcio  nullS,  sit  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  20.56),  if  even  in  the 
light  dogs  were  to  bark,  when  any  persons  come  to  a  temple  to 
offer  their  prayers,  they  would  have  their  legs  broken  for  being 
so  watchful  when  there  is  no  ground  for  suspicion. 

1226  Hence  verbs  of  promising  and  threatening,  inasmuch  as  they 
express  in  one  word  '  the  saying  that  something  will  be  done',  take 
a  subjunctive  of  the  condition  :  as, 

Praemium  proposuit  qui£  inuenisset  nSuam  u&luptatem  (Cic. 

*  See  §  499.  In  the  four  examples  here  given  the  tenses  in  the  in- 
dicative mood  with  a  negative  would  have  been  respectively,  consili  res 
non  est,  in  parte  laboris  nonfui,  non  aderat,  non  crat  summo  loco  natus. 
Thus  it  is  only  the  mood  that  is  here  altered  by  the  hypothetical  form  of 
the  sentence. 

f  This  remark  is  from  Madvig. 
J  For  the  omission  of  the  antecedent  ei  see  §  1126. 
U 


200  SYNTAX. 

Tusc.  v.  7.  20),  he  promised  a  reward  to  the  man,  who  should 
find  a  new  pleasure* 

1227        By  the  omission  of  the  governing  verb  the  subjunctive  appears 
to  carry  with  it  a  meaning  which  really  belongs  to  that  verb. 

a.  Possibility,  ptftest  esse  ut  understood.     This  construction 
however  is  very  rare  unless  some  such  word  as  forsitan,  forsan,t 
accompany  the  subjunctive  :  as, 

Velim  des  opSram,  quod  commo'do  tuo  fiat  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xm. 

27. 3),  1  would  beg  you  to  give  your  assistance,  so  far  as  may 

be  done  without  inconvenience  to  you. 
Me  miseram,  forsan  hie  mihi  paruam  habeat  fidem  (Ter.  E.  i. 

2.117),  alas,  maybe  my  friend  here  may  have  little  faith  in 

me. 
Nlmium  forsltaii  haec  ill!  mirentur  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  56.124), 

those  people  may  perhaps  admire  these  things  overmuch. 
Ngque  id  facio,  ut  forsitan  quibusdam  uldear,  simiilationg  (Cic. 

ad  Fam.  i.  8. 2),  nor  do  1  do  this,  as  some  perhaps  may  think, 

by  way  of  make-believe. 

b.  Permission  and  concession,  such  a  verb  as  sin-  permit,  or 
cSd-  grant,  being  understood  :  as, 

FruaturJ  sane  hoc  solacio  (Cic.  de  Proy.  Con.  7.16),  let  him 
enjoy  forsooth  this  consolation. 

Vt§  desint  ulres,  tamen  est  laudaudS  uoluntas  (Ov.  Pont.  in. 
4. 79),  though  strength  be  wanting*  praiseworthy  still  the  will. 

FuSrit  cupldus,  fuerit  iratus,  fuerit  pertinax,  sceleris  uero  cri- 
ming llceat  mortuo  cSrer6  (Cic.  p.  Lig.  6. 18),  he  may  have 
been  ambitious,  he  may  have  been  revengeful,  he  may  have 
been  obstinate ;  but  the  charge  of  impiety  at  any  rate  allow 
him,  now  that  he  is  dead,  to  be  clear  of. 

Vt  8nim  cetgrS,  pariS,  Tube'ronl  cum  Varo  fuissent,  hoc  certe" 

*  See  §  503. 

f  The  an  at  the  close  of  these  words  is  no  doubt  identical  with  the 
Greek  av ;  but  as  this  takes  the  form  KCV  in  Homer,  we  probably  have 
in  it  only  a  variety  of  our  verb  can.  Compare  our  may-be  and  the 
French  peut-etre.  Moreover  the  root  can  was  not  a  stranger  to  the  Latin 
language,  for  it  virtually  occurs  in  the  old  form  ne-quin-ont  for  nequeunt. 

$  Observe  that  the  concessive  tenses  nearly  always  comme\\ee  a  clause, 
unless  modo  or  dum  accompany  them. 

§  *  Even  granting  that.' 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  291 

praeclpuoin  Tuberonis  fuit  (Cic.  p.  Lig.  9.  27),  for  even 
allowing  that  every  thing  else  had  been  shared  by  Tubero  with 
Varus,  this  at  least  was  the  peculiar  qualification  of  Tubero. 

Sit  clarus  Sclpio,  ornetiir  exlmia  laude  Afrlcanus,  h£beatur  uir 
ggregius  Paullus,  sit  aeterna  gloria  Mariiis,  anteponatur 
omnibus  Pompeiiis,  grit  profecto  inter  horum  laudes  alT- 
quid  Itfci  nostrae  gloriae  (Cic.  in  Cat.  iv.  10. 21),  let  Scipin 
be  renowned,  let  Africanus  be  covered  with  especial  glory,  let 
Paullus  be  accounted  a  great  man,  let  Marius  enjoy  eternal 
fame,  let  Pompey  take  precedence  of  all,  still  there  will  assur- 
edly be  amid  the  glories  of  these  men  some  room  for  our  fame 
also, 

Ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est  (Cic.  Tusc.  n 
5. 14),  granting  that  pain  is  not  the  greatest  evil,  an  evil  it 
certainly  is. 

Maiient  ingenia  sSnlbus,  mSdo  permaneat  studium  (Cic.  de 
Sen.  7.  22),  the  intellect  remains  with  the  aged,  provided  only 
there  still  remain  energy. 

Seru6s  est  nemo,  qui  in5d5  tolerabill  condlcionS  sit  seruitutis, 
qul  non  audaciam  cluium  perhorrescat  (Cic.  in  Cat.  iv.  8. 
16),  there  is  not  a  single  slave  even,  if  his  position  as  a  slave 
be  but  tolerable,  that  does  not  shudder  at  the  audacity  of  men 
who  call  themselves  citizens. 

Id  quoque  possum  fe"rre,  m6do  si  reddat  (Ter.  Ad.  n.  1.  51), 
that  also  I  can  put  up  with,  provided  only  he  pay. 

Tu  fors  quid  me  fiat  parui  pendis,  dum  illi  consulas  (Ter.  Haut. 
iv.  3.37),  you  perhaps  care  little  what  becomes  of  me,  provided 
only  you  secure  your  master  there. 

HSmlnes,  quamuis*  in  turbldis  rebus  sint,  tamen  interdum 
Snlmis  relaxantur  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  16.39),  men,  allowing  that 
they  are  in  circumstances  as  troubled  as  you  please,  still  at 
times  unbend. 

c.  Indirect  interrogative,  rdgas  understood  :  as, 

A.  Quid  fecit  ?  B.  Quid  ille  fecerit  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  i.  2. 4)  A.  What 
has  he  done  ?  B.  What  has  he  done,  ask  you  ? 

d.  Wishing,  uls,  pr6c6r,  <fec.  understood  :  as, 

*  The  poets,  together  with  Livy  and  later  writers,  use  quamuis  with 
an  indicative,  and  vice  versa  quanquam  with  a  subjunctive:  as,  quamuis 
tst  rustica  (Virg.  Buc.  in.  84),  quanquam  moueretur  (Liv.  xxxvi.  34). 


202 


SYNTAX. 


Quid  faciam  ?  (Ter.  E  I.  1.1)  what  would  you  have  me  do  ? 
Quid  fS,cerem  ?  (Ter.  E.  v.  1. 15)  what  ought  I  to  have  done  ? 
Valeaut  qui  inte>  nos  discidium  uolunt  (Ter.  And.  iv.  2.  IS), 

farewell  to  those  who  insist  upon  tearing  us  asunder. 
Ne  uluam  si  id  tlbi  concede  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vii.  23. 4),  may  I 

die  if  I  grant  you  that. 
Dispeream  nl  Submosses  omms  (Nor.  Sat.  i.  9. 47),  may  I  be 

utterly  destroyed,  if  thou  wouldst  not  have  made  the  whole  of 

them  move  off. 
Atque  ita  me  di  ament  ut  ego  nunc  non  tam  meapte  causa 

Laet6r  quam  illius  (Ter.  Haut.  iv.  3. 8),  and  so  may  heaven 

love  me,  as  lam  delighted  now  not  so  much  on  my  own  account 

as  on  his. 

e.  Demanding,  postulant  ?  &c.  understood  :  as, 

Tu  ut  unquam  te  corrigas !  (Cic.  in  Cat.  I.  9.  22),  you  ever  cor- 
rect yourself  ! 

Hicine  ut  tibi  respondeat !  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  8. 3),  this  man  answer 
you  !* 

f.  Duty,  Sportet  &c.  understood  :  as, 

Vlllcus  iniussu  domini  credat  nemini  (Goto.  R.  R.  5.3).  a  bail'/ 

should  lend  to  no  one  without  his  master's  authority. 
PStius  diceret  non  esse  aecum  (Cic.  de  Off.  in.  22.88),  he  should 

rather  have  said,  it  was  not  fair. 
Sumeret  Alicunde  (Ter.  Ph.  n.  1.  69),  he  should  have  borrowed 

it  from  some  one. 
Frumentum  ne  emisses  (Cic.  u.  Verr.  in.  84.195),  you  shoidd 

not  have  bought  the  corn. 

g.  The  object  is  often  expressed  elliptically,  more  particularly 
in  a  parenthesis,  which  ought  always  to  be  brief :  as, 

Vere  ut  dlcamf  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  v.  69.177),  to  speak  candidly. 

S^nectus  est  natura  ISquaciorJ,  ne  ab  omnibus  earn  uttiis 
uidear  uindlcare'  (Cic.  de  Sen.  16.  55),  old  age  is  naturally 
somewhat  talkative,  so  you  will  not  charge  me  with  defending 
it  from  every  fault. 

*  See  §  1247  and  note. 

f  Perhaps  in  this  example '  permission' is  the  notion  understood,  dabis 
itcniam. 

I  Hoc  dico  understood, '  I  say  this  that  I  may  not  appear  &c.' 


SUBJUNCTIVE.  293 

Vix  mcedo  inanis,  ne  ire  posse  cum  onere  existumes  (Plant. 
Am.  i.  1.174),  I  can  scarcely  walk  with  nothing  about  me,  so 
do  not  suppose  that  I  can  get  on  with  a  load. 

1228  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  such  a  verb  as  existumes  or  dlcam  is 
often  omitted  in  sentences  like  that  just  given.     Thus  Plautus 
might  have  said  in  the  last  example,  Vix  incedo  Inanis,  ne  Ire 
possim  cum  Snere  :  as, 

Nouam  earn  potestatem  Mpuerg  pSMbus  nostris,  ne  nunc  dul- 

ceding  sgmel  capti  ferant  desldgrium  (Liv.  m.  52),  this  power, 

when  yet  unknown  to  them,  they  wrested  from  our  fatJters ; 

much  less  now,  having  once  tasted  the  sweets  of  it,  will  they 

tolerate  the  loss. 
MortaliS,  factS,  peribunt,  Nedum  sermonum  stgt  hSnos  (Hor. 

Ep.  ii.  3.  68),  deeds  will  perish,  much  less  will  the  glory  of 

words  survive. 
Vix  In  ipsis  tectis  frlgus  ultatur,  nedum  in  mar!  sit  f&ctie  abesse 

£b  iniuria  temporls  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xvi.  8),  even  in  a  roofed 

building  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  the  cold,  much  less  is  it  easy 

at  sea  to  escape  being  hurt  by  the  weather. 
Erat  Snim  multo  domicilium  hums  urbls  aptiiis  humanitati 

tuae  quam  tota"  Peloponnesus,  nedum  P£trae  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 

vii.  28.  l),/or  in  those  days  this  city  was  better  suited  as  a 

residence  to  one  of  your  refined  habits,  than  any  part  of  the 

Peloponnesus,  let  alone  Patrae. 

1229  Quum  or  cum  in  clauses  signifying  a  reason  for  or  against  any 
thing  is  followed  by  a  subjunctive  :  as, 

Quum  ultS,  sine  amlcis  mgtus  pl6n&  sit,  ratio  ipsa"  m&net  S,ml- 
citias  compararS  (Cic.  de  Fin.  i.  20.  66),  seeing  that  life 
without  friends  is  full  of  danger,  reason  itself  warns  us  to 
form  friendships. 

Quae  quum  omniS,  facta  sint,  tamen  unS,  sola  erat  ciultas  Ma- 
mertlna,  quae  legates  qui  istum  laudarent  miserint  (Cic. 
II.  Verr.  n.  5. 13),  in  spite  of  all  these  doings,  Messana  was 
the  one  sole  city  that  sent  an  embassy  to  speak  in  favour  of 
the  accused. 

Sed  ea  quum  contemplarl  cupgrem,  uix  adsplciendl  pStestas 
fuit  (Cic.  de  Or.  i.  36. 161),  but  although  I  was  eager  to  have 
a  good  stare  at  these  things,  I  could  scarcely  get  a  look  at 
them. 


294  SYNTAX. 

Quae  quum  itS,  sint  (Cic.  in  Cat.  i.  5. 10),  this  being  the  case. 

1230  Quum  as  an  adverb  of  time  in  the  past  tenses  has  the  subjunc- 
tive mood,  being  translated  with  the  imperfect  by  while  or  as, 
with  the  past-perfect  by  after :  as, 

Quum  acerrime  pugnaretur,  siibito  sunt  Aedul  uisi  ab  laterS 
nostris  aperto  (Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  50),  as  the  battle  was  pro- 
ceeding with  the  greatest  spirit,  there  suddenly  appeared  a 
body  of  Aedui  on  the  exposed*  flank  of  our  men. 

Quum  dies  complures  transissent,  subito  per  exploratores  cer- 
tior  factus  est  (Caes.  B.  Gr.  in.  2),  after  many  days  had  al- 
ready passed  by,  he  was  suddenly  informed  by  his  scouts. 

1231  Quum  followed  by  turn,  in  the  sense  of  not  only,  but  also,  has 
generally  the  indicative,  occasionally  the  subjunctive  :  as, 

Quum  multae  res  in  philosophia  nequaquam  satis  explicatae 
sintf,  turn  perdifficilis  quaestio  est  de  natura  deorum  (Cic. 
N.  D.  i.  1. 1),  while  there  are  many  things  in  philosophy 
which  have  been  by  no  means  fully  explained,  one  of  the  most 
difficult  is  the  inquiry  about  the  nature  of  the  gods. 

1.231 . 1  After  ante-quam  and  prius-quam,  a.  a  subjunctive  is  used,  where 
the  speaker  would  imply  the  non-occurrence  of  the  act ;  b.  an  in- 
dicative, where  he  would  imply  the  occurrence  of  the  act,  and 
therefore  particularly  where  a  negative  precedes,  and  above  all  in 
past  sentences.  In  other  cases  there  seems  to  be  some  indifference 
as  to  the  mood. 

a.  Subj.  Niimidae,  priusquam  ex  castris  subuSniretur,  in  prox- 
iimos  collls  discedunt  (Sal.  Jug.  54),  the  Numidians  went 
off  to  the  nearest  hills,  before  assistance  came  from  the  camp. 
AntSquam  hSmlnes  ngfarii  de  meo  aduentu  audirS  potuissent, 
in  Macedonian!  perrexl  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  41.  98),  before  the 
villains  could  hear  of  my  approach,  I  went  straight  on  into 
Macedonia. 

AntS  ISues  pascentiir  In  aetherg  ccrui,  Quam  nostro  illius  laba- 
tur^  pectorS  uoltus  (Virg.  Buc.  I.  60),  sooner  aloft  in  air 

*  i.  e.  the  right,  which  had  no  shields  to  protect  them. 

t  The  examples  of  this  construction  are  not  numerous,  and  what  thrre 
are  seem  open  to  doubt.  In  some  perhaps,  instead  of  turn  we  should 
read  tamen,  and  translate  the  quum  by  '  although.' 

J  Yet  in  a  similar  passage  (A.  iv.  27)  Virgil  has  uiolo  and  resoluo. 


INFINITIVE.  295 

shall  graze  the  hart,  than  from  this  breast  his  features  pass 

away. 
1.  2nd.  Nequg  prius  fugere  destlterunt,  quam  ad  flurnen  per- 

uenerunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  5.?),  nor  did  they  stop  flying,  before 

they  reached  the  river. 
Ngque  antS  dlmlsit  eum,  quam  fidem  dedit  (Liv.  xxxix.  10), 

nor  did  he  let  Mm  go,  till  he  gave  his  word. 
Non  defatigabSr,  antSquam  illorum  uias  percepero  (Cic.  de  Or. 

in.  36. 145),  1  will  not  give  in,  before  1  fully  understand  their 

ways. 

Ante  aiiquanto  quam  tu  natus  8s  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  x.  3.  2),  a  con- 
siderable time  before  you  were  born. 

INFINITIVE. 

1232  The  infinitive*  is  an  undecliued  neuter  substantive,  which  de- 
notes in  the  most  general  way  the  action  or  state  expressed  by  the 
verb.     The  use  of  it,  as  of  other  undeclined  substantives  (§  149), 
is  in  strictness  limited  to  the  nominative  and  accusative,  indeed 
almost  exclusively  to  the  latter.     (Yet  see  §  1255.) 

a.  It  seems  to  occupy  the  place  of  a  nominative  in  such  sen- 
tences as, 

Docto  homm!  uluere  est  cogltare  (Cic.  Tusc.  V.  38.  Ill),  with 

the  educated  man  to  live  is  to  think. 
Non  c&dlt  autem  inuldere  in  s&plentem  (Cic.  Tusc.  in.  10. 21), 

but  envy  is  incompatible  with  the  character  of  the  wise  man, 

or  the  wise  man  is  not  susceptible  of  envy. 

b.  It  occupies  the  place  of  an  accusative  in  such  sentences  as, 
Stoici  Irasci  nesciunt  (Cic.  de  Or.  in.  18.  65),  the  Stoic  knows 

not  anger. 

EmSri  ciipio  (Ter.  Haut.  v.  2.18),  I  long  for  death  (that  1  may 
get  out  of  my  misery). 

1233  Hence  the  infinitive  is  occasionally,  though  very  rarely,  found 
after  prepositions  which  govern  the  accusative  :  as, 

Inter  optiime  ualere  et  grSuissume  aegrotarg  nihil  dicebant 
iuteresse  (Cic.  de  Fin.  n.  13.43),  between  the  best  health  and 
tne  severest  sickness  there  is  no  difference  they  said. 

*  In  the  Greek  language  this  is  so  completely  the  fact,  that  the  article 
may  be  prefixed  to  it  in  all  its  cases.  The  English  also  treat  their  infini- 
tive as  a  substantive,  when  they  place  before  it  the  preposition  *  to.' 


296 


SYNTAX. 


Quod  ciimen  dicis  praeter  Smassg  meum  ?  (Ov.  Her.  vn.  164) 
what  charge  dost  allege  against  me,  except  the  having  loved  ? 

1234  Hence  also  a  neuter  adjective  occasionally  accompanies  the 
infinitive  :  as, 

Viue're  ipsum  turpe  est  nobls  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xm.  28),  life  itself 

is  disgraceful  to  us. 
Totum  hoc  displicet  phllSsophari  (Cic.  de  Fin.  i.  1. 1),  all  this 

acting  the  philosopher  offends  me. 

1235  The  most  common  use  of  the  infinitive  is  as  the  object  of  active 
verbs,  particularly  those  which  signify  wish,  -power,  duty,  habit, 
knowledge,  intention,  commencement,  continuance,  cessation :  as, 

Arteriae  micarg  non  deslnunt  (Cic.  N.  D.  II.  9. 24),  the  arteries 
never  leave  off  throbbing. 

Intueri  solem  aduorsum  ngqultis  (Cic.  Somn.  Sc.  5),  you  can- 
not gaze  directly  upon  the  sun. 

Et  nesci6-quid  tibi  sum  oblitus  h6die,  ut  uolui,  dicere  (Ter. 
And.  v.  1.22),  and  somehow  or  other  I  forgot  to  tell  you  to- 
day, as  1  intended. 

Vincere  scis,  uictoria  uti  nescis  (Liv.  xxn.  51),  you  know  how 
to  gain  a  victory,  you  know  not  how  to  use  a  victory. 

1236  Some  verbs  besides  an  accusative  of  the  person*  take  a  second 
accusative  of  the  thing  expressed  by  an  infinitive  :  as,  dSce-t  teach, 
iube-  bid,  ugta- forbid,  sin-  permit,  cog-  compel,  mSne-  warn,  horta- 
(r.)  encourage,  impedi-  hinder,  prohlbe-  prevent,  <fec.     Thus, 

Docebo  eum  posthac  tacerS  (Cic.  in  Hull.  in.  2.  4),  /  will  teach 
him  to  be  silent  for  the  future. 

HSrus  me  iussit  Pamphllum  obseruare'  (Ter.  And.  n.  5.1),  mas- 
ter has  ordered  me  to  keep  an  eye  upon  Pamphilus. 

Ab  5per6  legatos  discedgre  ugtuerat  (Caes.  B.  G.  n.  20),  he  had 
forbidden  the  lieutenants  to  leave  the  work. 

Me  8nim  impedit  pudSr  ab  hSmlnS  grS-uissumo  haec  exquIrgrS 
(Cic.  de  Or.  I.  35. 163),  for  I  cannot  for  shame  urge  this  re- 
quest on  one  of  his  dignity. 

1237  After  the  passive  too  of  many  of  the  verbs  given  in  the  preced- 

*  See  Madvig,  Gr.  390. 

f  All  these  verbs,  except  the  first  two  or  three,  are  also  found  with  a 
subjunctive  following.     See  §§  1180,  1181 


INFINITIVE.  297 

ing  section  the  infinitive  is  used,  the  accusative  of  the  preceding 
construction,  which  expressed  the  person,  becoming  now  the  nomi- 
native :  as, 

An  sum  gtiamuunc  Graece  ISqu!  docendus  ?  (Cic.  de  Fin.  n.  5. 

15)  or  am  I  at  this  time  of  life  to  be  taught  to  speak  Greek  ? 
Consoles  iubentur  scrlbere  exercltum  (Liv.  in.  30),  the  consuls 

are  directed  to  enrol  an  army. 
Muros  a'dirg  uetltl  sunt  (Liv.  xxm.  16),  they  were  forbidden  to 

approach  the  watts. 
Prohlblti  estis  in  prouincia  pe"dem  pone're'  (Cic.  p.  Lig.  8.  24), 


1238  Verbs  of  saying*,  hearing,  feeling,  thinking,  knowing,  are  fol- 
lowed by  an  accusative  and  infinitivet :  as, 

Th&les  aquam  dixit  esse  Inltium  rerum  (Cic.  N.  D.  I.  10. 25), 

Thales  said  that  water  was  the  beginning  of  things. 
Perlubenter  audiul  te  essS  CaesSrl  famlliarem  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 

vn.  14.2),  I  heard  with  very  great  pleasure  that  you  were  on 

intimate  terms  with  Caesar. 
Te  multum  profecisse  sentio  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  13. 2),  I  feel  that 

you  have  advanced  matters  greatly. 
Spero  nostram  amicitiam  non  e'gere'  testlbus  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  Ii. 

2),  /  hope  that  our  friendship  needs  not  witnesses. 
Tlbi  eos  scio  obtempSraturos  magls  (Ter.  Ad.  iv.  5.70),  I  know 

that  they  will  more  readily  comply  with  your  wishes. 

1239  An  abstract  substantive  or  a  neuter  pronoun  which  conveys 
the  same  meaning  as  the  verbs  of  the  last  section,  may  be  followed 
by  the  construction  of  the  accusative  and  infinitive  :  as, 

Ilia  oplnio  tolletur,  Crassum  non  doctissumum  fuisse  (Cic.  de 
Or.  ii.  2.  7),  that  opinion  shall  be  put  an  end  to,  that  Crassv* 
was  not  a  most  learned  man. 

De  hoc  ipso,  nihil  esse  bonum  nM  quSd  honestum  esset,  dis- 
piitauit  (Cic.  Tusc.  ii.  25. 61),  he  held  an  argument  on  this 
very  point,  that  there  is  nothing  good  except  what  is  right. 

1240  An  impersonal  passive  of  saying,  thinking,  &c.  is  sometimes 

*  See  §§  911,  912. 1,  also  §  1202  with  note,  and  §  1203. 
t  The  same  applies  to  phrases  such  asfama  est,  auctor  sum,  certiorem 
tefacio,  &c. 


21)8  SYNTAX. 

used  with  an  accusative  and  infinitive,  particularly  with  the  per- 
fect tense  or  the  participle  in  endo :  as, 

Nuntiatum  est  S,dess8  Scipionem  cum  legionS  (Caes.  B.  C.  in. 
36),  word  was  brought  that  Scipio  was  close  at  hand  with  a 
legion. 

Ibi  dicendumst  nullam  cssg  rempubllcam  (Cic.  R.  P.  in.  31.43), 
there  we  cannot  but  acknowledge  there  is  no  constitution. 

1 241        Sometimes  the  same  idea  is  expressed  by  the  personal  passive 
together  with  the  nominative  and  infinitive  :  as, 

Caesar  a  GergSuia  discessisse  audiebatur  (Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  59), 

reports  reached  them  from  time  to  time  that  Caesar  had  left 

Gergovia. 
VSluntaria  mortg  intSrissg  creditus  est  (Tac.  Hist.  iv.  67),  he 

was  believed  to  have  perished  by  his  own  hand. 
Gladiorum  multitude  deprehendi  posse  indlcabatur  (Cic.  p. 

Mil.  24.  64),  secret  information  was  given  by  more  than  one 

person,  that  a  large  number  of  swords  might  be  seized.  * 
Perspectust  a  me  de  te  cogltare  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  i.  7.  3),  1  saw 

clearly  that  he  was  thinking  of  you. 

1242  Verbs  of  wishing,  permitting,  bidding,  hindering,  &c.  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  accusative  and  infinitivet :  as, 

CorpSrS,  iuuenuni  firmari  laborg  uSluSrunt  (Cic.  Tusc.  IT.  15. 

36),  they  wished  the  muscles  of  young  men  to  be  strengthened 

by  labour. 
Delectum  haberi  prohlbebo  (Liv.  iv.  2),  I  will  prevent  the  levy 

of  troops  from  being  held. 
Rem  £d  arm£  deducl  studebat  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  4),  he  was  eager 

that  matters  should  be  brought  to  a  contest  of  arms. 

1243  The  verbs,  iube-  bid,  u6ta-  forbid,  prohlbe-  prevent,  impera- 
command,  may  be  used  passively  with  a  passive  infinitivej  :  as, 

*  See  §  911  and  note. 

f  The  construction  with  the  subjunctive  with  many  of  these  verbs  is 
more  common.  See  §  1180. 

J  This  construction  is  widely  different  from  that  noticed  in  §  1237. 
The  tit  which  is  the  nominative  to  iussu's  would  be  the  accusative  after 
renuntiare  in  the  active  construction  ;  whereas  in  consules  iubentur  scrib- 
ere  exercitum,  the  word  consules  would  be  the  accusative  after  iubent 
itself. 


INFIXITIVE.  290 

lussu's  rBnuntiari  consul  (Cic.  Phil.  II.  32.  79),  directions  were 
given  that  you  should  be  returned  as  consul. 

In  lautumias  deduci  impgrantur  (Cic.  11.  Verr.  v.  27.  68),  an 
order  is  given  that  they  should  be  conducted  down  into  the 
stone-quarries. 

1244  The  perfect  passives,  coeptiis  est,  dSsltus  est*,  are  preferable 
to  the  active  when  a  passive  infinitive  is  used  :  as, 

MatfiriS,  coepta  6rat  comportarl  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv.  18),  they  had 

begun  carrying  timber. 
Papisiiis  est  utfcarl  desltus  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  21.2),  he  ceased 

to  be  called  Papisius. 

1245  The  verbs  which  express  the  emotions  of  the  mindt  are  fol- 
lowed by  an  accusative  and  infinitive  to  express  the  cause  of  the 
emotion^  :  as, 

Haec  perfecta  essS  gaudeo  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  47. 136),  /  am 
delighted  that  these  matters  are  settled. 

Tantum  se  eius  Spmiouis  deperdidisse  ddlebant  (Caes.  B.  G.  v. 
54),  they  were  hurt  that  they  had  lost  so  much  of  tfieir  reputa- 
tion in  this  respect. 

1246  A  predicate  consisting  of  a  neuter  adjective,  or  a  substantive, 
or  an  impersonal  verb,  is  accompanied  by  the  accusative  and  in- 
finitive to  express  the  subject :  as, 

Non  est  rectum  minor!  parere  maiorem  (Cic.  Univ.  6),  it  is  not 
fitting  that  the  superior  should  obey  the  inferior. 

Facmiis  est  uincirl  cluem  Romanum  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  v.  66. 170), 
it  is  a  serious  matter  for  a  Roman  citizen  to  be  bound. 

Omnibus  boms  expe'dit  saluam  ess§  rempubllcam  (Cic.  Phil, 
xin.  8. 16),  it  is  for  the  interest  of  all  good  men  that  the  coun- 
try should  be  free  from  danger. 

*  So  in  the  old  writers  there  occur  such  phrases  as  nequitur  ccmprimi 
(Plant.  Rud.  iv.  4.20),  retrahi  nequitur  (Plant,  ap.  Fest.),  id  fanum 
nequitum  exaugurarl  (Calo  ap.  Fest.),  suppleri  queatur  (Lucr.  i.  1045;, 
and  perhaps  ulcisci  nequitur  (Sal.  Jug.  31). 

f  This  construction  is  similar  to  horret  tenebras*  id  gaudeo,  &c.  See 
§§  401,  893,  909. 

J  The  construction  with  quod  is  more  common,  and  in  some  cases  that 
with  cum  is  admissible.  See  §  1455  i. 


300  SYNTAX. 

Hos  trucidari  oportebat*  (Cic.  in  Cat.  i.  4.9),  these  men  ought 

to  have  been  butchered. 
Corpus  mortale  allquo  tempore  intgrfrg  ngcessest*  (Cic.  de  Inv. 

II.  57.170),  mortal  flesh  must  some  time  or  other  perish. 

1247  Broken  sentences  consisting  of  an  accusativef  and  infinitive 
are  often  used  interrogatively  to  express  any  strong  feeling,  as 
indignation  about  the  present  or  past,  rarely  about  the  future  :  as, 

Ex-illan  famllia  tarn  inlibgralg  f acinus  esse  ortum  ?J  (Ter.  Ad. 
in.  4.2)  to  think  that  so  ungentlemanly  a  proceeding  should 
have  originated  with  that  family  ! 

Te  ista  uirtute  in  tantas  aerumnas  incidissg  ?  (Cic.  ad  Fara. 
xiv.  1 . 1)  that  you  with  your  merit  should  have  fallen  into 
such  troubles  ! 

Mene  incepto  desistere  uictam  ?  (  Virg.  A.  i.  41)  Juno  indeed  de- 
sist from  what  she  has  begun,  defeated  f 

1248  The  accusative  that  precedes  the  infinitive  performs  the  same 
office  as  the  nominative  in  the  other  moods,  and  it  is  for  this 
reason  often  called  the  subject-accusative.     There  is  this  differ- 
ence however  between  the  infinitive  and  the  other  moods,  that 
the  latter  have  suffixes  to  denote  the  different  persons,  so  that 
the  nominative  need  not  be  expressed  by  a  separate  pronoun. 
With  the  infinitive  the  subject-accusative  pronoun  is  nearly  al- 
ways expressed :  as, 

Scribis,  you  write  ;  but,  dico  te  scribgrS,  I  say  that  you  write. 

1240  But  even  with  the  infinitive  the  subject-accusative  pronoun  is 
occasionally  omitted  if  both  the  infinitive  and  the  main  verb  have 
the  same  subject  §  :  as, 

Confiture  hue  ea  spe  uenissS  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  22. 61),  confess 

that  you  came  here  with  this  hope. 

Id  nescirS  Mago  dixit  (Liv.  xxm.  13),  Mago  said  that  he  did 
not  know  this. 

*  Oportet  and  necesse  est  are  also  at  times  used  with  the  subjunctive, 
but  rarely  with  ut.  Necesse  est  prefers  a  dative  to  an  accusative  if  it  be 
a  person,  as,  homini  necesse  est  mori  (Cic.  de  Fat.  9. 17). 

f  The  construction  of  ut  with  the  subjunctive  refers  to  the  future. 
See  §  1227  e. 

J  This  infinitive  is  dependent  upon  some  such  phrase  as  credendum 
est. 

§  See  also  §  879. 


INFINITIVE.  301 

Refracturos  carcerem  mlnabantur  (Liv.  vi.  17),  they  lept  threat- 
ening that  they  would  break  open  the  prison. 

1250  On  the  other  hand,  the  reflective  pronouns  are  sometimes  used 
unnecessarily  with  verbs  of  wishing  :  as, 

Gratura  sS  ulderl  studet  (Cic.  de  Off.  n.  20. 70),  he  is  anxious 
to  be  thought  grateful. 

Attlcum  sg  dlci  oratorem  uolebat  (Cic.  Brut.  82.  284),  he  in- 
sisted on  being  called  an  Attic  orator. 

1251  When  to  the  construction  of  the  accusative  and  infinitive  a 
short  clause  is  attached  by  means  of  a  relative  or  the  conjunction 
quam,  the  same  construction,  by  a  species  of  attraction,  is  at  times 
introduced  into  this  clause  also  :  as, 

Affirmaui,  quiduis  me  potius  perpessurum,  quam  ex  Italia  exl- 
turum*  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  II.  16.3),  /  solemnly  declared  that  I 
would  suffer  any  thing  rather  than  leave  Italy. 

Antonius  aiebat  sS  tantldem  frumentum  aestumasse',  quanti 
SScerdotemf  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  in.  92.  215),  Antony  kept  de- 
claring that  he  had  valued  the  corn  at  the  same  price  as  Sa- 
cerdos. 

Susplcor  te  hisdem  rebus  quibus  me  ipsumj  commSuerl  (Cic. 
de  Sen.  1.1),  I  suspect  that  you  are  moved  by  the  same  cir- 
cumstances as  myself. 

1252^       There  are  constructions  where  the  infinitive  seems  to  supply 
the  place  of  a  genitive  :  as, 

Nisi  quern  forte  lubido  t&net  potentiae  paucorum  libertatem 

suam  gratlflcarl  (Sal.  Jug.  31),  unless  perchance  a  fancy 

possesses  any  one  for  sacrificing  his  liberty  to  gratify  the  power 

of  a  few. 
Tempus  est  hinc  Sblre  me  (Cic.  Tusc.  i.  41. 99),  it  is  time  for 

me  to  go  away. 
Summa  eludendi  occasiost  mi  nunc  senes,  Et  Phaedriae  curam 

adimere§  argentariam  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  6.  2),  1  have  a  glorious 

opportunity  now  of  dodging  the  old  people,  and  relieving 

Ph&dria  of  his  anxiety  about  money. 

*  For  quam  ex  Italia  exirem.         f  For  quanti  Sacerdos  aestumasset. 
£  For  quibus  ipse  commoueor.         §  For  adimendi. 


302 


SYNTAX. 


1253  In  narrative  the  infinitive  is  at  times  used  as  the  main  verb* 
•with  the  power  of  the  past  -imperfect  of  the  indicative  ;  and  when 
so  used,  is  called  the  historic  infinitive :  as, 

Consulem  anceps  cura  Sgitarg  ;  nolle  desererg  socios,  nolle 
mmugre  exercitum  (Liv.  xxxiv.  12),  a  twofold  anxiety 
troubled  the  consul ;  he  was  unwilling  to  desert  the  allies,  lie 
was  unwilling  to  diminish  the  army. 

Ego  instare  ut  mihi  respondSret,  quls  esset  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  II. 
77. 188),  I  meanwhile  kept  pressing  him  to  tell  me  who  he  was. 

Iste  unumquodqug  uas  in  maims  sumgre,  laudarg,  mirarif  (Cic. 
n.  Verr.  iv.  27. 63),  your  worthy  praetor  kept  taking  into  his 
hands  and  praising  and  admiring  evert/  separate  vase. 

1254  After  the  words  parato-  ready,  prepared,  and  insueto-  unaccus- 
tomed, an  infinitive  is  at  times  used  by  good  writers,  J  and  in  the 
poets  and  later  writers  after  contento-  contented,  sueto-  and  assueto- 
accustomed :  as, 

OmniS,  perpgti  p&rati,  maxime  a  re  frumentaiia  laborabant 

(Caes.  B.  C.  in.  9),  prepared  to  endure  the  worst,  they  suffered 

most  in  the  article  of  grain. 
Id  quod  paratl  sunt  facerg  (Cic.  p.  Quinct.  2. 8),  the  which  they 

are  prepared  to  do. 
Insuetus  uera  audire  (Liv.  xxxi.  18),  unaccustomed  to  hear  the 

truth. 

1255  Some  writers,  especially  the  poets,  use  the  infinitive  in  many 
constructions  where  good  prose  writers  employ  a  different  form  of 
words :  as, 

Fruges  consumgre  nati§  (Hor.  Ep.  i.  2.27),  born  to  consume 
grain. 

*  In  such  a  phrase  as  iamque  dies  consumptus  erat^  quum  tamen  bar- 
bari  nihil  remittere,  &c.  (Sal.  Jug.  98),  the  verb  remittere  is  still  the 
main  verb. 

f  For  a  copious  use  of  the  historic  infinitive  see  Caes.  B.  G.  in.  4, 
where  there  occur  in  succession,  dccurrer'e,  conicere,  repugnare,  miltere, 
occurrere,  ferre,  super ari. 

£  Cicero  more  commonly  however  uses  ad  with  the  gerund. 

§  In  this  and  the  following  sentences  more  legitimate  phrases  would 
have  been  :  ad  fruyes  consumendas,  ad  pellendos  inimicos,  committendae 
pugnae,  exeundi^  qui  cantaretur,  ut  adiret^  the  supine  uisum,  habenda  or 
guae  habeat,  ad  sequendum,  persequendi.  The  use  of  the  adjective  with 
an  infinitive  is  very  common  in  the  lyric  poetry  of  Horace. 


INFINITIVE.  303 

Non  mihl  sunt  ulrSs  Inlmlcos  pellSre  (Ov.  Her.  I.  109),  1  have 

not  strength  to  drive  away  my  foes. 
Auldus  committgrS  pugnam  (Ov.  Met.  v.  75),  eager  to  join 

battle. 
Nulla  hinc  exirg  potestas  (Virg.  A.  ix.  739),  no  power  of  going 

out  from  hence. 
Pu6r  ipsS  fuit  cantari  digniis  (  Virg.  BUG.  v.  54),  the  boy  himself 

was  worthy  to  be  sung  of. 
Vlrum  t5t  Sdlrg  Chores  Impulit  ( Virg.  A.  I.  14),  she  urged  the 

hero  to  encounter  so  many  toils. 
PScus  egit  altos  Visgre  mentis  (Hor.  Od.  i.  2. 7),  he  drove  his 

cattle  to  visit  the  lofty  mountains. 
Ille  suo  mSriens  dat  habere"  nepoti  (  Virg.  A.  ix.  362),  he  again 

dying  gives  them  to  his  grandchild  to  keep. 
Cele'rem  sequi  Aiacem  (Hor.  Od.  I.  15. 18),  Ajax  swift  to  follow. 
NScessItudo  persgqui  (Sal.  Jug.  92),  the  necessity  for  pursuing. 

1256  The  Latin  language  often  admits  the  perfect  infinitive  where 
the  English  language  uses  the  simple  infinitive ;  but  it  will  be  seen 
in  such  cases  that  the  completion  or  consequences  of  the  action 
are  regarded  more  than  the  action  itself.     This  distinction  applies 
especially  to  phrases  of  regret  or  satisfaction  in  the  future  tenses, 
also  to  phrases  of  wishing  and  prohibition,  &c. :  as, 

Content!  simiis  Id  unum  dixisse  (  Veil.  11.  103),  let  us  be  satisfied 

with  this  one  observation. 

Quiesse  erit  melius  (Liv.  in.  48),  you  had  better  be  quiet. 
Bacchas  ne  quls  £diss8  uelit  (Tnscr.  S.  C.  de  Bacc.),  let  no  one 

wish  to  approach  the  priestesses  of  Bacchus. 
Magnum  si  pect5r8  possit  Excussissg  deum  ( Virg.  A.  vi.  78), 

in  hopes  she  may  have  power  to  shake  from  her  breast  the 

mighty  god. 
SSciis  maxume  lex  consultum  esse  uolt  (Cic.  in  Caecil.  6. 21), 

the  law  wishes  to  provide  for  the  interests  of  the  allies  above  all. 

1257  On  the  other  hand,  while  the  English  express  past  time  by  the 
perfect  infinitive  after  the  auxiliary  verbs  could,  might,  ought,  the 
Latin  writers  generally  consider  it  sufficient  to  express  the  past 
time  in  the  main  verb,  and  to  use  with  it  the  simple  infinitive  :  as, 

Llcuit  In  Hispaniam  lr§  (Liv.  xxi.  41),  1  might  have  gone  to 
Spain. 


304  SYNTAX. 

Hoc  gg5  curare"  non  debul  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  2. 9),  this  I  ought 
not  to  have  cared  for. 

1258  Still  not  unfrequently  both  the  main  verb  of  duty  and  the  in- 
finitive are  in  the  perfect  tense  :  as, 

Tune  dScuit  flessS  (Liv.  xxx.  44),  then  was  the  time  for  weeping. 
Quod  iamprldem  factum  esse  oportuit  (Cic.  in  Cat.  I.  2.5),  what 

ought  to  have  been  done  long  ago. 
Adulescenti  inorem  gestum  oportuit  (Ter.  Ad.  II.  2.  6),  you 

ought  to  Jiave  humoured  the  youngster. 

1259  In  the  compound  tenses  of  the  infinitive,  both  active  and  pas- 
sive, the  verb  essg  is  often  omitted  :  as, 

Denegarat  se  commissurum  mihi  gnatam  suam  uxorem  (Ter. 

And.  i.  5.6),  he  had  declared  that  he  would  not  trust  his 

daughter  in  marriage  to  me. 
Omnls  uos  oratos  uolo  (Ter.  Haut.  prol.  26),  I  must  entreat  you 

all. 
Neque  tu  hoc  dices,  tibi  non  praedictum.     Caue  (Ter.  And.  i. 

2. 34),  nor  shall  you  say  that  no  previous  notice  was  given 

you.     So  be  on  your  guard. 

1260  The  future  infinitive,  both  active  and  passive,  is  often  expressed 
by  the  circumlocution  of  ftfrS  with  ut  and  an  imperfect  subjunc- 
tive* (called  the  periphrastic  future) :  as, 

Spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobls  (Cic.  Tusc.  i.  34.  82),  1  trust 

that  we  are  destined  to  have  this  Jtappiness. 
Pompeius  dixerat  fore  uti  exercitus  Caesfrris  pellgretur  (Caes. 

B.  C.  in.  86),  Pompey  had  foretold  that  Caesars  army  would 

be  routed. 

1261  The  participle  in  turo  with  fuisse  is  exclusively  used  as  a  hypo- 
thetical tense  :  as, 

An  Pompeium  censes  tribus  suis  consulfitlbus  laetaturum  fuisse, 
si  sclret  se  in  solltudlne  Aegyptiorum  trucidatum  In  ?  (Cic. 
de  Div.  II.  9.  22)  or  do  you  think  that  Pompey  would  have 
gloried  in  his  three  consulships,  if  he  had  known  that  he  was 
to  be  butchered  in  a  desert  of  Egypt  ? 

*  This  construction  is  the  only  one  where  the  verb  has  no  participle 
in  turo.  Observe  however  that  the  periphrastic  future  differs  from  the 
eimple  future  by  being  unlimited  in  point  of  time. 


PARTICIPLES  AND  VERBAL  SUBSTANTIVES.  305 

NM  nunth  de  uictoria  pgr  eqult^s  essent  allati  existimabant, 
futurum  fuisse  uti  oppidum  amitte'retur  (Caes.  B.  C.  in. 
101),  they  were  of  opinion  that  if  the  news  of  the  victory  had 
not  been  brought  by  men  on  horseback,  the  town  would  have 
been  lost. 

1262  A  future  passive  may  be  expressed  by  the  impersonal  passive 
infinitive  of  i-  go  and  the  accusative  supine  :  as, 

Arbitrantur  sS  bentflcos  uisum  Irl  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  14. 43),  they 

think  they  shall  be  considered  kind.  * 

1263  A  future-perfect  passive  is  at  times  expressed  by  the  infinitive 
fdYg  and  the  perfect  passive  participle  :  as, 

Debellatum  mox  f8r8  rebantur  (Liv.  xxni.  13),  they  thought 
that  the  war  would  be  shortly  brought  to  a  closet 


PARTICIPLES  AND  VERBAL  SUBSTANTIVES. 

1264  Participles  are  partly  like  adjectives,  partly  like  verbs.    Like 
adjectives  they  agree  with  some  noun  in  case,  gender  and  number. 
On  the  other  hand  they  are  derived  from  verbs,  denote  an  act,  and 
govern  the  same  case  as  the  verb  from  which  they  are  derived. 
The  tense  or  time  of  a  participle  depends  upon  the  verb  which  it 
accompanies. 

1265  The  participle  in  enti  is  an  imperfect,  and  corresponds  to  the 
English  participle  in  ing  :  as, 

Gubernator  clauom  tSnens  se'det  in  puppl  (Cic.  de  Sen.  6. 17), 
the  pilot  holding  the  tiller  sits  on  the  stern  ; — i.  e.  the  pilot 
holds  the  tiller  and  sits  at  the  stern.  Here  tgnens  refers 
to  present  time,  because  se'det  is  present. 

Arantl  Cincinnato  nuntiatumst  eum  dictatorem  essS  factum 
(Cic.  de  Sen.  16.56),  word  was  brought  to  Cincinnatus  plough- 
ing, that  he  had  been  made  dictator  ; — i.  e.  as  Cincinnatus 
was  ploughing,  word  was  brought  to  him  that  he  had  been 
made  dictator.  Here  Sranti  refers  to  past  time,  because 
nuntiatumst  is  past. 

*  More  literally,  *  that  people  are  going  to  look  upon  them  as  kind.' 
The  beginner  should  take  care  not  to  confound  this  supine  with  the  per- 
fect passive  participle. 

+  For  the  significations  of  the  tenses  see  also  §§  509,  511,  512,  513. 
x 


306  SYNTAX. 

Croesus  Halyn  penetrans  magnam  peruortgt  opum  uim  (quoted 
by  Cic.  de  Div.  n.  56. 115),  Croesus  penetrating  to  the  Halys 
will  overturn  a  mighty  power ; — i.  e.  when  Croesus  shall 
penetrate  to  the  Halys,  he  ;vill  overturn  a  mighty  power. 
Here  pSnStrans  refers  to  future  time,  because  peruortet  is 
future. 

The  participle  in  enti  is  often  best  translated  by  the  conjunc- 
tions as,  whilst,  &c.,  with  the  proper  tense  of  the  indicative  mood. 

1206        The  participle  in  enti  is  sometimes  used  where  the  act  is  com- 
pleted, but  only  just  completed  :  as, 

Romara  ugniens  cSmitia  edixit  (Liv.  xxiv.  7),  immediately  upon 
his  arrival  at  Home  he  proclaimed  the  day  for  the  election. 

1267  Similarly  the  participle  in  enti  is  sometimes  used  when  the  act 
has  not  yet  begun,  but  will  commence  forthwith  :  as, 

Discedens  in  Italiam  legatis  imperat  ut!  nauis  rSflciendas  cura- 
rent  (Caes.  B.  G.  v.  1),  immediately  before  setting  out  for 
Italy  he  gives  orders  to  the  lieutenants  to  have  the  ships  re- 
paired. 

1268  The  participle  in  turo*  is  used  by  the  best  writers  rarely  except 
in  connection  with  the  verbs  es-  be  and  fu-  be ;  with  the  former 
to  denote  intention  or  destiny,  with  the  latter  to  denote  what  would 
have  happened  under  a  certain  hypothesis. 

1 269  In  Livy  and  the  later  writers  it  is  often  used  at  the  end  of  the 
main  clause  of  a  sentence  with  the  same  significations  :  as, 

Dllabuntur  in  opplda,  moenlbus  se  defensuri  (Liv.  viu.  29), 
they  slip  away  into  different  towns,  intending  to  defend  them- 
selves by  means  of  fortifications. 

Dgdit  mihi  quantum  p5tuit,  daturiis  amplius  si  potuisset  (Plin. 
Ep.  in.  21),  he  gave  me  as  much  as  he  was  able  ;  and  would 
have  given  me  more,  if  he  had  been  able. 

1270  The  perfect  participle  in  to  had  probably  at  first  only  an  active 
signification.     It  still  retains  this  power  in  those  verbs  which  are 
called  reflectives  or  deponents,  and  traces  of  it  also  appear  in  the 
poetical  construction  :  MembrS,  sub  arbuto  Stratus  (§  892). 

1271  Still  in  the  ordinary  language  the  participle  in  to  is  nearly  al- 

*  See  §§51 7  and  702-7 11. 


PARTICIPLES  AND  VEEBAL  SUBSTANTIVES.  307 

ways  used  as  a  passive,  unless  the  verb  whence  it  is  formed  be 
employed  exclusively  as  a  reflective  or  a  deponent.*  Thus,  with 
scrfb-ere  to  write,  we  have  scripto-  written,  being  written,  having 
been  written;  but  with  sequ-i  to  follow,  secuto-  having  followed. 

1272  At  the  same  time  there  are  not  a  few  perfect  participles  from 
reflective  or  deponent  verbs  which  are  at  times  used  passively :  as, 

Senectutem  ut  adlpiscanttir  omnes  optant,  eandem  accussant 

Sdeptam  (Cic.  de  Sen.  2.  4),  old  age  all  pray  that  they  may 

attain  to,  yet  abuse  when  it  is  attained. 
Virtus  experta  atqug  perspectS,  (Cic.  p.  Corn.  6. 16),  merit  that 

has  been  tried  and  proved. 

Partitot  exercltu  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  33),  having  divided  his  army. 
Euersio  exsecratae  cSlumnae  (Cic.  Phil.  i.  2.5),  the  overthrow  of 

the  accursed  pillar.  I 

1272. 1  Although,  when  the  simple  verb  is  not  transitive,  the  passive 
is  commonly  used  only  as  an  impersonal,  still  the  poets  take  liber- 
ties in  this  respect,  especially  in  the  perfect  participle  :  as, 

Triumphatae§  gentes  (  Virg.  G.  in.  33),  nations  that  have  been 
triumphed  over. 

1273  A  few  participles  in  to  from  deponents  appear  at  times  to  be 
used  as  imperfects  :  as,  opgrato-,  feriato-,  uso-,  sgcuto-,  uecto-, 
s&lito-,  &c.     Thus, 

Vldit  se  Spgratum  (Tac.  Ann.  n.  14),  he  saw  himself  sacrificing 

(in  a  dream). 
Conclamant  socil  laetum  paeana  sgcuti  (Virg.  A.  x.  738),  his 

comrades  following  pour  forth  the  fatppy  paean. 

1274  The  participle  in  to  is  at  times  used  with  the  verb  h5,be-  have, 
by  which  circumlocution  a  sort  of  perfect  indicative  of  the  active 
voice  is  produced  :  as, 

HSJbes  iam  stStutum  quid  tlbi  agendum  putes  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  iv. 

*  Still  there  are  exceptions.  Cenato-  is  equivalent  to  quum  cenauis- 
set,  and  has  nothing  of  the  passive  signification.  Other  exceptions  are 
pranso-tpoto-,  nupta-,  exoso-,  iurato-,  coniurato-,  adulto-,  &c.  See  also 
§§  392,  393. 

f  Literally  « his  army  having  been  divided.* 

J  Others  are  comitato-,  confesso-,  emenso-,  emerito-,  pacto-,  perfuncto-, 
populate-,  &c. 

§  But  for  the  simple  verb,  triumphare  de  gentibus. 


308  SYNTAX. 

2.  4),  you  have  at  last  determined  what  course  you  deem  it 

•  riff/tt  to  pursue. 

Roman!  iu  Asia  pgcunias  magnas  collScatas  h&bent  (Cic.  p.  leg. 
Man.  7. 18),  Romans  have  invested  large  sums  of  money  in 
Asia.  * 

1275  The  participle  in  to  is  used  with  the  futures  of  the  verbs  da- 
ffive  and  redd-  give  back,  so  as  to  form  a  future  perfect ;  but  the 
phrase  further  denotes  that  the  act  is  done  for  another  person  :  as, 

Sic  stratas  legiones  LStlnorum  d&bo,  quemadmSdum  legatum 
iacentem  uldetis  (Liv.  vm.  6),  /  will  lay  the  legions  of  the 
Latins  low  for  you,  just  as  you  see  their  ambassador  lying  on 
the  ground. 

Hoc  ego  tlbi  ecfectum  reddam  (Ter.  And.  IT.  2. 20),  this  1  will 
effect  for  you. 

1276  The  participle  in  to  in  agreement  with  a  substantive  is  largely 
used,  where  the  English  language  commonly  prefers  an  abstract 
noun.     Thus, 

Barbarus  eum  5b  iram  iuterfectl  dtfmini  obtruncauit  (Liv.  xxi. 
2),  a  barbarian  cut  him  down  out  of  revenge  for  the  murder 
of  his  master. 

MaiSr  ex  ciulbus  amissis  dolor  quam  laetltia  fusls  hostlbus  fuit 
(Liv.  iv.  17),  there  was  more  sorrow  for  t/te  loss  of  their  fellow- 
countrymen  than  delight  at  the  rout  of  the  enemy. 

Ab  condlta  urbe  ad  llbe'ratam  (Liv.  i.  60),  from  the  foundation 
of  the  city  to  its  liberation. 

Post  natos  hSmlnes  (Cic.  Brut.  62.  224),  since  the  creation  of 
man. 

1277  The  neuter  nominative  of  the  participle  in  to  is  occasionally 
used  (by  Livy  for  example)  as  the  subject  of  a  verb.     Thus, 

Auditum  omnem  exercltum  prSficisc!  laetltiam  iugentem  fecit 

(Liv.  xxvin.  26),  the  hearing  that  the  whole  army  was  setting 

out  caused  unbounded  joy . 
DegSngratum  in  £li!s  artlbus  huic  quSqug  decori  offecit  (Liv. 

I.  53),  his  degeneracy  in  other  qualities  stood  in  the  way  of 

his  credit  in  this  respect  also. 

*  More  literally  *  they  have  large  sums  invested.'     From  this  con- 
struction arose  the  formation  of  the  perfect  in  the  languages  derived  from 
the  Latin. 


PARTICIPLES  AND  VERBAL  SUBSTANTIVES.  309 

Diu  non  perlltatum  tgnuSrat  dictatoreiri  ne  antg  meridiem  sig- 
num  dare  posset  (Liv.  vu.  8),  a  long  delay  in  obtaining  a 
success/id  issue  to  the  sacrifices  had  prevented  the  dictator  from 
giving  the  signal  before  noon. 

1278  The  ablative  of  the  participle  in  to  is  used  at  times  as  an  abla- 
tive absolute  with  a  whole  sentence  for  its  substantive  :  as, 

Exposito  quid  Inlqultas  loci  posset  (Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  52),  having 

explained  to  them  what  consequences  unfavourable  ground 

could  produce. 
Edicto  ut  qulcunque  ad  uallum  tendSret  pro  hoste  haberetur 

(Liv.  x.  36),  having  proclaimed  tJiat  whoever  made  for  the 

entrenchment  would  be  dealt  with  as  an  enemy. 
Permisso  seu  dlcere  prius  seu  audlre  inallet,  ItS,  coepit  (Liv. 

xxxiv.  31),  permission  having  been  given  him  to  speak  first 

or  to  listen,  as  he  preferred,  he  began  thus. 
Audito  Marcium  in  Clllciain  tendSrg  (Sal.  Fragm.  v.),  having 

heard  that  Marcius  was  hastening  into  Cilicia. 

1279  The  ablative  of  the  participle  in  to*  is  occasionally  used  abso- 
lutely even  without  a  noun  :  as, 

Non  est  peccato  mi  ignosci  aecum  (Ter.  Hec.  v.  1. 10),  /  am 
not  entitled  to  be  forgiven  if  I  offend  (more  literally,  an  of- 
fence having  been  committed). 

1280  An  ablative  of  the  participle  in  to,  with  or  without  a  noun  in 
agreement,  is  used  with  Spiis  estf  :  as, 

Eihti  grat  cur  propgrato  opus  esset  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  19. 49),  there 
was  no  reason  why  they  need  make  haste. 

Prius  quam  inclpias,  consulto  ;  8t  iibi  consulugris,  mature  facto 
optis  est  (Sal.  Cat.  1),  before  you  commence,  you  must  delibe- 
rate ;  and  when  you  have  deliberated,  you  must  act  with  due 
haste. 

1 281  As  the  Latin  language  is  for  the  most  part  without  a  participle 
for  the  perfect  active,  the  following  circumlocutions  are  in  use. 

a.  The  ablative  absolute  :  as, 

*  Some  ablatives  of  this  kind  have  virtually  become  adverbs :  as,  au- 
spicato,  Ittato,  &c. 

f  Vsus  est  is  found  with  the  ablative  of  the  participle  in  to  in  the  older 
writers.  The  construction  is  consistent  with  the  use  of  the  same  phrases 
in  connection  with  other  ablatives.  See  §  999. 


310  SYNTAX. 

Hac  partg  copiarum  aucta  iterum  cum  Sablnis  confllgltiir  (Liv. 
I.  37),  having  increased  this  part  of  his  forces,  he  engages 
again  with  the  Sabinea. 

b.  Quum  with  the  past-perfect  subjunctive,  or  iibi  with  the 
simple  perfect  indicative  :  as, 

Quum  ab  sed8  sua  prosiluisset  amouerlque  ab  altaiibus  iuuenem 
iussisset  (Liv.  n.  12),  having  leapt  down  from  his  seat  and 
ordered  the  young  man  to  be  moved  away  from  the  altars. 

Vbi  eo  uenit,  propg  tribunal  constitit  (Liv.  n.  12),  having 
arrived  there,  he  at  once  posted  himself  near  the  tribunal. 

c.  An  accusative  of  the  perfect  passive  participle  dependent 
upon  the  main  verb  :  as, 

Gallum  caesum*  torque  spoliauit  (Liv.  vi.  42),  having  slain  the 

Gaul,  he  stripped  him  of  his  cottar. 

1 282        The  participle  in  to  is  a  perfect,  and  its  tense  or  time  depends 
upon  the  verb  which  it  accompanies.     Thus, 

a.  Omnia  quae  dlco  de  Plancio,  dlco  expertus  in  nobls  (Cic,  p. 

Plane.  9.  22),  all  that  I  say  about  Plancius,  I  say  having 
made  trial  of  him  in  my  own  person.  Here  expertus  is  a 
present-perfect,  because  dlco  is  a  present  —  I  have  had 
experience  of  his  great  worth,  and  therefore  speak  with 
certainty. 

b.  Consecutus  id  quod  anlmo  proposuerat,  receptu!  can!  iussit 

(Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  47),  having  obtained  what  he  had  proposed 
to  himself,  he  ordered  the  signal  for  retreat  to  be  sounded. 
Here  consScutus  is  a  past-perfect,  because  iussit  is  a  past 
— He  had  obtained  what  he  wished,  and  so  he  sounded  a 
retreat. 

c.  Kon  admissl,  Karthaglnem  prottnus  ibunt  (Liv.  xxi.  9),  if 

not  admitted,  they  will  proceed  straightway  to  Carthage.  Here 
admissl  is  a  future-perfect,  because  ibunt  is  a  future ;  and 
indeed  if  the  conjunction  si  be  used,  the  phrase  will  at  once 
become  :  si  admissl  non  Smut.  Thus  the  perfect  participle 
which  accompanies  a  future  tense  is  far  from  expressing  a 
fact. 
1 2S3  The  gerund  is  a  neuter  substantive  in  endo  which  denotes  the 

*  Often  a  better  translation  is  effected  by  two  verbs:  as, '  he  slew  him 
Jind  stripped  him  &c.' 


PARTICIPLES  AND  VERBAL  SUBSTANTIVES.  311 

action  or  state  expressed  by  the  verb.  It  differs  from  the  infini- 
tive, in  that  it  is  declinable,  and  that  through  all  the  cases  (in- 
cluding, what  is  commonly  omitted,  the  nominative).  Also  like 
an  ordinary  substantive  it  may  be  governed  by  some  few  preposi- 
tions (in,  ab,  de,  ex,  rarely  pro,  with  the  ablative  ;  and  with  the 
accusative  by  ad,  ob,  intgr,  rarely  In,  circa,  antg). 
Norn.  liiuenl  parandum,  seni  titendumst  (Sen.  Ep.  36),  earning  | 

belongs  to  the  young,  using  to  the  old  man. 
Ace.  Homo  ad  intellSgendum  natust  (Cic.  de  Fin.  n.  13.  40),  man 

is  born  to  understand. 
Gen.  Dicendl  difflcultatem  pertlmescit  (Cic.  de  Or.  I.  26.120),  he 

dreads  the  difficulty  of  speaking. 
Deus  bSuern  sirandl  caussa  fecit  (Cic.  N.  I),  n.  14.37),  God 

made  the  ox  for  the  purpose  of  ploughing. 
Dot.  Telum  fodiendo  acumlnatum  (Plin.  xi.  2),  a  weapon  pointed 

for  digging. 
All.  Virtutes  cernuntiir  !n  agendo  (Cic.  Part.  Or.  23. 78),  the  manly 

virtues  are  seen  in  action. 

1284  The  simple  ablative  of  the  gerund  is  used  at  times  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  nominative  of  the  ordinary  imperfect  participle 
might  be  substituted  for  it :  as, 

Miscendo*  corisllium  prScesque,  nunc  orabant  n6  se  exulare 
p&teretur,  nunc  m5u@ba.nt  ne  morem  pellendl  reges  Inultum 
sineret  (Liv.  IT.  9),  mixing  advice  and  entreaties  together, 
they  one  moment  legged  him  not  to  suffer  them  to  remain  in 
exile,  another  warned  him  not  to  leave  the  practice  of  expelling 
kings  unpunished. 

1285  The  gerund  is  followed  by  the  same  case  as  the  verb  to  which 
it  belongs  :  as, 

Viam  quam  nobis  qutfque  ingrgdiundumst  (Cic.  de  Sen.  2.  6), 

the  road  which  we  also  have  to  travel. 
Suo  quoiqug  iudiciost  utendum  (Cic.  N.  D.  in.  1.1),  each  must 

use  his  own  judgment. 
Di&lecticast  ars  uera  ac  falsS,  diiudlcandl  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  38. 

157),  logic  is  the  art  of  judging  between  truth  and  falsehood. 

*  Equivalent  to  miscentes.  It  is  probably  to  this  use  of  the  gerund 
that  the  Italian  and  Spanish  languages  are  indebted  for  their  imperfect 
participle  in  ndo.  So  also  reportando  (Liv.  xxv.  8. 10),  omnia  temptando 
(Sal.  Jug.  70). 


312  SYNTAX. 

Tvibuendo  suom  quoiqug  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  5. 14),  by  allotting  to 

every  man  what  belongs  to  him. 
M5r!  maluit  falsum  fStendo  (Cic.  Part.  Or.  14.  50),  he  preferred 

to  die  through  confessing  a  falsehood. 

1286  The  gerund  being  a  substantive  may  also  have  a  genitive  after 
it  (but  this  usage  seems  limited  to  the  genitive  of  the  gerund) :  as, 

Reiciundl  trium  iudlcum  leges  Coraeliae  faciunt  potestatem 
(Cic.  IT.  Verr.  n.  31.77),  the  Cornelian  laws  give  the  power 
of  challenging*  three  jurymen. 

Ego  eius  uldend!  cupldus  (Ter.  Hec.  3.  3.  12),  I  desirous  of 
seeing*  her. 

Sui  purgandlf  causa  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv.  13),  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ing* themselves. 

1287  Gerundive. — When  a  noun  in  the  accusative^  would  accom- 
pany the  gerund,  the  construction  is  commonly  altered  so  that 
this  noun  takes  the  case  of  the  gerund,  and  the  gerund,  now  called 
a  gerundive,  takes  the  number  and  gender  of  the  noun  :  as, 

Dlllgentla  colendast  nobis  (Cic.  Or.  n.  35. 148),  we  must  culti- 
vate a  habit  of  precision. 

Coniungo  me  cum  htfrnlnS  magls  ad  uastandam§  Italiam  quam 
ad  uincendum  parato  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vin.  16),  I  am  uniting 
myself  with  a  man  who  is  better  prepared  for  devastating 
Italy  than  for  concluding  the  war  victoriously. 

NequS  res  ullS,  quae  ad  placandos§  deos  pertmeret  praetermis- 
sast  (Cic.  in  Cat.  in.  8.  20),  nor  was  any  thing  omitted  which 
was  thought  likely  to  appease  the  gods. 

*  The  insertion  of  the  preposition  '  of '  after  these  participles  would 
make  the  phrases  vulgar  ;  but  a  vulgar  phrase  is  generally  an  old  one.  In 
fact  the  formation  of  the  Latin  participle  in  endo  from  an  abstract  sub- 
stantive called  the  gerund  is  exactly  parallel  to  the  origin  of  our  own 
participle  in  ing  from  a  substantive  in  ing.  With  us  the  substantive 
Wits  the  older  form ;  and  the  use  of  the  participle  originated  in  such  a 
phrase  as,  'the  house  was  a-building'  (L  e.  '  in  building'), '  I  was  a-hunt- 
ing  of  a  hare.' 

•f-  The  pronominal  genitives  in  »,  even  when  they  refer  to  a  plural 
noun,  require  that  the  gerund  should  be  a  genitive  singular. 

J  The  same  construction  is  also  admissible  with  the  four  reflective 
verbs,  ut-  '  use,'  fru-  '  enjoy,'  fung-  '  discharge,'  and  poti-  '  make  oneself 
master.' 

§  All  the  best  Mss.  have  uastandam  and  placandos,  as  Madvig  has 
pointed  out ;  not,  as  our  editions,  uastandum,  placandum. 


PARTICIPLES  AND  VERBAL  SUBSTANTIVES.  313 

InltS,  sunt  consllia  urbis  delendae,  cluium  trucldandorum,  no- 
minis  Roman!  extinguendl  (Cic.  p.  Mur.  37. 80),  plans  were 
formed  for  destroying  the  city,  butchering  the  citizens,  extin- 
guishing the  Roman  nation. 

1288  The  two  constructions  of  the  neuter  gerund  with  a  noun  de- 
pendent upon  it,  and  the  gerundive  in  agreement  with  the  noun, 
are  not  to  be  used  indifferently.   The  construction  with  the  gerund 
was  the  earlier  one,  and  so  belonged  to  the  older  writers*,  but  still 
maintained  its  ground  in  certain  phrasesf.     In  those  which  are 
commonly  considered  the  best  writers,  the  construction  with  the 
gerundive  was  for  the  most  part  preferred!.     Indeed,  when  the 
phrase  is  attached  to  a  preposition  governing  the  accusative,  the 
gerundive  construction  is  adopted  almost  without  exception. 

1289  The  use  of  the  gerundive  with  the  accusative  is  very  common 
after  the  verbs  Idea-,  conduc-,  cura-,  rgdlm-,  da-,  susclp-,  &c. :  as, 

Moniimentum  el  marmSreum  faciundum  Itfcarunt  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 

iv.  12. 3),  they  placed  the  making  a  marble  monument  in  his 

hands,  i.  e.  they  contracted  with  him  that  he  should  build  the 

monument. 
Columnam  conduxgrat  f&ciundam  (Cic.  de  Div.  II.  21. 47),  he 

had  undertaken  the  erection  of  a  pillar,  or  he  had  contracted 

to  erect. 
Pontem  In  Arari  faciendum  curat  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  13),  he  has  a 

bridge  built  over  the  Arar. 

1290  The  gerundive  is  often  omitted  in  these  phrases  for  the  sake  of 
brevity :  as, 

Si  RhSdiis  turpe  non  est  portorium  18care§,  ne  HermacreontI 
quldem  turpest  conducerS  (i.  e.  exlgendum  understood) 
(Cic.  de  Inv.  I.  30.  47),  if  it  is  not  disgraceful  in  the  Rho- 

*  Mihi  hac  noctu  agitandnmst  uigilias  (Plant.  Trin,  iv.  2. 27), '  I  have 
to  keep  watch  to-night ;'  aeternas  poenas  in  morte  timendumst  (Lncr.  I. 
112),  'they  have  to  dread  eternal  punishment  when  dead.' 

t  See  §§  1285,  1286. 

J  Madvig  has  carefully  examined  this  question  in  his  Opuscitla,  i. 
380,  &c.  He  there  points  out  that  in  the  phrase  ad  occupandum  Veson- 
tionem  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  38)  there  is  no  violation  of  the  rule,  Vesontionem 
being  masculine,  like  Narbo  Martins  in  the  same  country. 

§  Hence  the  connection  between  the  two  significations  of  locare,  to 
place'  and  *  to  let,'  the  latter  alone  surviving  in  the  French  loner. 


314  SYNTAX. 

dians  to  let  the  port  dues,  neither  is  it  disgraceful  in  Herma- 
creon  to  farm  them. 

Anseribus  clbariS,  IScantur  (i.  e.  praebenda  understood)  (Cic. 
p.  Rose.  Am.  20.  56),  the  providing  food  for  the  (sacred) 
geese  is  farmed  out. 

1291  This  construction  is  used  with  impera-  impose*,  the  gerundive 
being  always  omitted  :  as, 

Equites  impgrat  cmitatibus  (i.e.  cogendos  understood)  (Caes. 
B.  G.  vi.  4),  he  imposes  upon  the  states  the  providing  horse- 
soldiers,  or  he  commands  them  to  provide  him  with  cavalry. 

1292  The  genitive  of  the  gerundive  is  usedt  to  denote  a  tendency, 
fitness  or  purpose,  more  particularly  in  connection  with  the  verb 

£s-  be :  as, 

Quae  diutinae  obsidionis  tdlgrandae  sunt  (Liv.  xxx.  9),  what- 
ever is  of  use  for  supporting  a  long  blockade. 

Quae  temgre  Sgltaugrant,  ea  prodendi  imper!  Roman!,  tra- 
dendae  Hannibal!  uictoriae  grant  (Liv.  xxvn.  9),  the  hasty 
measures  they  had  taken,  tended  to  sacrifice  the  Roman  empire, 
to  betray  the  victory  into  the  hands  of  Hannibal. 

Cetera  in  duSdecim  tabulis  minuend!  sunt  sumptus  (Cic.  de 
Leg.  n.  23.  59),  the  other  regulations  in  the  twelve  tables  have 
for  their  object  a  diminution  of  expense. 

Arm£  cepit,  non  pro  sua  iniuria,  sed  legum  ac  llbertatis  sub- 
uertendaet  (Sal.  Fragm.  Or.  Philippi  c.  Lep.),  he  has  taken 
up  arms,  not  to  avenge  any  wrong  done  to  himself,  but  to  up- 
set our  laws  and  our  liberties. 

1293  The  dative§  also  of  the  gerundive  is  used  to  denote  fitness  or 
purpose :  as, 

QuSs!  firmandae  ualetudlni  in  Campaniam  concessit(7Tac.  Ann. 
in.  31),  he  retired  into  Campania  as  if  to  improve  his  health. 

*  That  this  is  the  literal  translation  of  impera-  is  consistent  with  the 
translation  of  separa-,  dispara-,  compara-,  appara-,  '  put  apart,  in  dif- 
ferent places,  together,  before  a  person.' 

f  Particularly  by  Livy. 

J  This  construction  is  commonly  explained,  but  whether  rightly  is 
doubtful,  by  an  ellipsis  of  caussa.  It  often  occurs  in  Tacitus. 

§  Tacitus  has  even  the  ablative  in  this  sense :  explenda  simulatione, 
Ann.  xiv.  4. 


PARTICIPLES  AND  VERBAL  SUBSTANTIVES.  315 

Qui  Sum  ferendo  grant  (Liv.  n.  9),  such  as  were  capable  of 

bearing  the  burden. 
Nee  soluendo  aeri  Slieno  respubllca  erat  (Liv.  xxxi.  13),  nor 

was  the  state  in  a  condition  to  pay  its  debts. 
DScemuiros  agro  Samnlti  metiendo  dluidendoquS  creat  (Liv. 

xxxi.  4),  he  appoints  ten  commissioners  for  the  purpose  of 

measuring  and  dividing  the  Samnite  territory.* 

1295  The  construction  of  the  gerundive  with  the  verb  gs-  be,  in  the 
sense  of  duty,  is  only  a  particular  case  of  what  has  been  already 
noticed  in  §  966,  and  the  dative  of  the  person  in  fact  belongs  to 
the  verb  ^s  rather  than  to  the  gerundive,  f     Thus, 

Vt  tlbi  ambulandum,  ungendum,  sic  mihi  dormiendum  (estt) 
(Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  7.  7),  as  you  must  walk,  must  anoint  your- 
self, so  I  must  sleep  ; — which  would  be  more  literally  trans- 
lated, as  walking,  as  anointing  belongs  to  you,  so  does  sleeping 
to  me. 

1296  The  frequent  use  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  with  6s-  be,  in 
the  sense  of  duty  or  fitness,  §  led  the  mind  at  last  to  attach  the 
notion  of  duty  to  the  gerundive  itself,  so  that  the  latter  is  at  times 
used  as  an  equivalent  of  an  adjective  in  btti.    Thus, 

Nee  te,  iuuenis  memSrandg,  sllebo  ( Virg.  A.  x.  793),  nor  thee, 
ever-memorable  youth,  will  1  pass  by  in  silence. 


*  The  last  three  phrases  are  common.     See  §  984. 

f  So  in  such  a  phrase  as  legionem  in  Morinos  ducendam  Fabio  dedit 
(Caes.  B.  G.  v.  24),  the  dative  Fabio  is  dependent  not  upon  ducendam, 
but  upon  dedit ;  and  again,  the  accusative  after  dedit  is  not  legionem,  but 
legionem  ducendam, '  the  duty  of  conducting  the  legion.'  But  although 
the  dative  case  commonly  accompanies  the  gerund  and  gerundive,  yet 
there  are  occasional  examples  even  in  Cicero  where  ab  and  the  ablative 
occur,  especially  when  the  verb  takes  a  dative  of  its  own,  and  a  second 
dative  in  the  sense  of  the  agent  would  cause  ambiguity.  Thus,  quibus 
est  a  uobis  consulendum  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  2.6),  'whose  interests  you 
must  consult.' 

£  Est  mihi  admits  the  translation, '  I  have  ;'  and  precisely  in  the  same 
way,  est  mihi  ambulandum  may  be  well  translated  by  '  I  have  to  walk.' 
Thus  the  origin  of  the  dative  in  this  phrase  is  without  difficulty. 

§  The  notion  of  possibility  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  participle 
in  endo,  but  it  occurs  in  the  best  writers  only  with  a  negative  or  uix :  as, 
malum  uix  ferendum  (Cic.  de  Fin.  iv.  19.53),  'an  evil  scarcely  to  be 
endured.'  For  the  use  of  this  participle  with  fu-  '  be'  in  hypothetical 
sentences,  see  §§  715-721. 


316  SYNTAX. 

1297  The  phrases  denoting  duty  at  the  same  time  refer  commonly 
to  the  future  time  for  the  performance  of  the  act ;  and  indeed 
generally,  as  the  gerund  or  gerundive  is  strictly  an  imperfect,  the 
completion  of  the  act  must  belong  to  future  time.      Hence  the 
idea  of  futurity  gradually  attached  itself  to  this  form,  and  gram- 
marians have  given  it,  though  inaccurately,  the  name  of  a  future 
participle.     That  it  is  truly  an  imperfect*  is  well  seen  in  such 
phrases  as  : 

IntSr  agendum  (  Virg.  BUG.  ix.  24),  while  driving. 

In  p&tiia  delenda  occupati  et  sunt  et  fuerunt  (Cic.  de  Off.  I. 
17. 57),  they  both  are  and  have  been  for  some  time  occupied  in 
blotting  out  their  fatherland  from  the  face  of  the  world. 

1298  The  so-called  verbal  adjective  in  bundo  is  really  a  participle, 
and  so  sometimes  found  with  an  accusative  :  as, 

Vitabundus  castra  hostium  (Liv.  xxv.  13),  carefully  avoiding 
the  enemy's  camp. 

1299  The  verbal  substantive  in  tu  is  used  in  the  accusativet  after 
verbs  of  motion  to  denote  the  object :  as, 

Ad  Caes&rem  gratulatum  conuenerunt  {Goes.  B.  G.  I.  30),  they 
came  from  different  quarters  to  Caesar  to  congratulate  him. 

Quinque  cohortis  frumeutatum  mlsit  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  36),  he 
sent  five  cohorts  to  get  corn. 

Id  rescltum  iri  credit  (Ter.  Ad.  I.  1.  45),  he  believes  that  people 
are  going  to  find  it  out,  or  he  believes  that  it  will  be  found  out. 

1300  It  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb  from  which  it  is  derived  : 
as, 

Pacem  pStitum  oratores  mittunt  (Liv.  I.  15),  they  send  ambas- 
sadors to  seek  peace. 

Legates  mittunt  rSgatum  auxllium  (Caes.  B.  G.  1. 11),  they  send 
ambassadors  to  ask  aid. 

1301  The  verbal  substantive  in  tu  is  used  in  the  ablative  with  cer- 
tain adjectives :  as, 

*  Something  like  an  imperfect  participle  is  seen  in  the  so-called  ad- 
jective secundo-  (i.  e.  sequendo-)  '  following,  second.' 

f  This  accusative  of  the  verbal  in  tu  is  often  called  the  supine  active, 
and  the  ablative  of  the  same  the  supine  passive  ;  but  there  is  nothing 
passive  in  the  latter,  and  therefore  the  distinction  is  inappropriate.  A 
similar  error  exists  in  our  own  language  in  the  foolish  practice  now  be- 
ginning to  prevail  of  saying, '  a  house  to  be  let,'  instead  of 'a  house  to  let' 


PREPOSITIONS— AB.  317 

DiffiLctig  dictu  est  (Cic.  de  Off.  n.  14. 48),  it  is  difficult  to  say 

(literally,  in  the  saying). 
Optumum  factu  est  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  3. 1),  it  is  the  best  thing 

to  do. 

1302  The  verbal  in  tion  sometimes  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb 
from  which  it  is  derived  :  as, 

lustitia  est  obtemperatio  scriptis  leglbus  (Cic.  de  Leg.  1. 15. 42), 

justice  is  obedience  to  written  laws. 
Domum  redltionis  spe  sublata  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  5),  the  hope  of 

returning  home  having  been  taken  away. . 

1303  PREPOSITIONS. 

Ab  (or  a  before  some  consonants)  seems  to  have  signified  ori- 
ginally proximity ;  and  hence  it  was  well  suited  to  denote  the 
quarter  from  which  an  action  commenced,  and  therefore  the  source 
and  origin  of  things.  Thus  it  signifies  : 

a.  The  quarter  at  or  near  which,  expressed  by  at,  in,  on,  <fec. :  as, 
A  fronte  £t  ab  slnistra  partg  nudatis  castrls  (Caes.  B.  G.  II.  23), 

the  camp  being  laid  bare  in  front  and  on  the  left. 
Gallia  ab  Sequairis  et  Heluetils  adtingit  Rhenum  (Caes.  B.  G. 
i.  1),  Gallia  reaches  to  the  Rhine  at  the  parts  occupied  by  the 


Isthmus  du5  maria  ab  occasu  gt  ortu  solis  flnltima  dMmlt 

(Liv.  XLV.  28),  the  isthmus  divides  two  adjoining  seas  on  the 

west  and  the  east. 
A  matre  Pompeium  arctisslmo  contingebat  gradu  (Suet.  Aug. 

4),  he  was  very  nearly  related  to  Pompey  on  the  mother's  side. 
Apud  socrum  tuam  prSpe  a  meis  aedlbus  sgdebas  (Cic.  in  Pis. 

11.  26),  you  were  sitting  at  your  mother-in-law's  near  my 

house. 

b.  With  the  verb  sta-  stand,  &c.,  by,  on  the  side  of,  in  favour 
of:  as, 

Nemo  a  senatu  et  bonorum  caussa  stgtit  constantiiis  (Cic.  Brut. 

79. 273),  no  one  stood  more  firmly  by  the  senate  and  the  cause 

of  good  men. 
Hoc  nihllo  magls  &b  aduorsariis  quam  a  nobis  fiiclt  (Cic.  de 

Inv.  i.  48. 90),  this  tells  no  more  for  our  opponents  than  for 

us. 


318  SYNTAX. 

Vide  ne  hoc  totum  sit  a  me  (Cic.  de  Or.  I.  13.  55),  have  a  care 
lest  the  whole  of  this  argument  be  in  my  favour. 

c.  In,  in  respect  of,  in  point  of,  as  regards  :  as, 

Sumus  gnim  imparati,  cum  a  milltlbus  turn  a  pgcunia  (Cic.  ad 
Att.  vn.  15.  3),  for  we  are  indeed  unprepared,  not  merely  in 
point  of  troops,  but  even  of  money. 

Antonius  ab  gqultatu  firmus  esse  dlcebatur  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  x. 
15.  2),  Antony  was  said  to  be  strong  in  cavalry. 

d.  The  department  in  which  the  services  of  an  officer  or  servant 
are  called  for,  and  thus  arises  a  name  for  the  office :  as, 

H5m!nes  habet  quos  S,b  epistSlls  et  llbellis  et  rationibus  appel- 
lat  (Tac.  Ann.  xv.  35),  he  has  persons  whom  he  calls  secre- 
taries, registrars,  accountants. 

PhllemSnem,  a  manu  seruum,  simplici  mortS  puniit  (Suet. 
Jul.  74),  his  amanuensis  Philemon  he  punished  by  simply 
putting  to  death. 

AntiSchus  Ti.  Claudl  Caesaris  a  bibliotheca  (Inscr.  ap.  Grut. 
584.  6),  Antiochus,  librarian  to  Tiberius  Claudius  Caesar. 

e.  At,  in  reference  to  time  :  as, 

Summissus  a  prlmo,  post  exsultauit  audacius  (Cic.  Or.  8.  26), 
subdued  at  first,  he  afterwards  burst  out  in  a  bolder  style. 

f.  From,  the  point  of  departure  :  as, 

Maturat  ab  urbe  proflciscl  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  7),  he  hastens  to  set 

out  from  the  city. 
Ab  Roma  legatl  uenerunt  (Liv.  xxi.  9),  ambassadors  came  from 

Rome. 

g.  With,  after  verbs  signifying  commencement  :  as, 

Caedis  Inltium  fecisset  a  me  (Cic.  Phil.  v.  7.  20),  he  would  have 

made  a  beginning  of  the  massacre  with  me. 
Ab  his  sermo  8rltur,  respondet  Laelius  (Cic.  de  Am.  I.  5),  with 

these  the  conversation  commences,  Laelius  replies. 

h.  From,  the  commencement  of  time  :  as, 

Ab  hora  septlma  ad  uesperum  pugnatum  est  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  26), 

the  battle  continued  from  one  o'clock  until  evening. 
Tuas  gpisttflas  a  primo  lego  (Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  6.5),  /  am  reading 

your  letters  from  the  beginning. 


AB.  319 

Qulbus  a  pugris  dedit!  fuimus  (Cic.  de  Or.  I.  1  2),  to  which  we 

have  been  devoted  from  our  boyhood.  * 

i.  From,  the  commencement  of  a  series  :  as, 
Carneades  est  quartus  ab  Arcgslla  (Cic.  Acad.  n.  6. 16),  Car- 
neades  is  fourth  in  the  line  from  Arcesilas. 

j.  Immediate  succession  of  time,  translated  by  with,  after  :  as, 
Ab  his  praeceptis  contionem  dimisit  (Liv.  XLIV.  34),  with  these 

injunctions  he  dismissed  the  assembly. 
Ab  hoc  sermone  profectus  est  (Liv.  xxn.  40),  immediately  after 

this  conversation  he  set  out. 

k.  With  verbs  signifying  to  pay,  the  source  whence  the  money 
proceeds  :  as, 

Tlbi  quod  debet,  ab  Egnatio  soluet  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  18.  4), 

what  he  owes  you,  he  will  pay  by  a  draft  on  Egnatius. 
Rellquam  pgcuniam  a  Fabgrio  repraesentabimus  (Cic.  ad  Att. 

xn.  25),  the  rest  of  the  money  we  will  pay  at  once  by  drawing 

on  Faberius. 

I.  With  personal  pronouns  and  the  names  of  persons,  from  their 
house :  as, 

A.  Unde  est  ?   B.  A  nobis  (Ter.  And.  iv.  4. 15),  A.  Where  did  it 

come  from  ?   B.  From  our  house. 
Ab  Andriast  ancilla  haec  (Ter.  And.  in.  1.3),  this  maid-servant 

is  from  the  Andrian  woman's  house. 
Haec  cistella,  numnam  hinc  ab  nobis  domost  ?  (Plaut.  Cist. 

iv.  1.  6)  this  casket,  pray  did  it  come  from  our  house  here  ? 

m.  A  motive,  from,  out  of,  in  consequence  of:  as, 
Tanto  ardorS  mllltum  est  usus  ab  ira  inter  condlciones  pads 
interfectae  stationis  (Liv.  xxiv.  30),  he  was  so  warmly  sup- 
ported by  his  soldiers,  from  their  anger  at  the  troops  on  guard 
having  been  killed  during  a  negociation. 

Non  a  ciiplditatg  solum  ulciscendi  agrum  nostrum  inuadent 
(Liv.  v.  5),  not  merely  from  the  desire  of  revenge  will  they 
invade  our  territory. 

7i.  The  agent  with  passive  verbs,  expressed  by  the  preposition 
by:  as, 

*  Literally  *  from  boys,'  an  idiom  which  agrees  with  our  own. 


320 


SYNTAX. 


Ab  socils  unlce  diligebatur  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  9.  24),  he  was  most 

highly  esteemed  by  his  colleagues. 
A  me  tu  coactus  es  conftterl  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  v.  30.76),  you  were 

compelled  by  me  to  confess. 

o.  What  is  considered  as  an  agent,  with  intransitive  verbs  :  as, 
Mare  a  sole"  collucet  (Cic,  Acad.  Pr.  II.  33. 105),  the  sea  is  made 

a  mass  of  light  by  the  sun. 

KlhXl  est  ualentius,  a  quo  intgreat  (Cic.  Acad.  Post.  I.  7.  29), 
there  is  nothing  stronger  (than  itself}  by  which  it  may  be  de- 
stroyed. 

p.  Removal,  separation,  distance,  expressed  commonly  by  from : 
as, 

Ab  delectatione  omni  negoths  impedlmur  (Cic.  p.  Mur.  19.39), 

we  are  prevented  from  taking  any  amusement  by  business. 
Proxlmiis  a  tectis  ignis  defendltiir  aegre  (Ov.  Rem.  Am.  G25), 

an  adjoining  fire  is  warded  off  from  buildings  with  difficulty. 
Ab  inimicorum  audacia  telisquS  uitam  defendSre  (Cic.  p.  Mil. 

2. 6),  to  defend  our  lives  against  tJie  audacity  and  weapons  of 

our  enemies. 
Ipse  ab  horum  turpltudine  Sbhorrebat  (Cic.  p.  Sest.  52. 112), 

he  himself  turned  away  in  horror  from  the  baseness  of  these 

men. 
Milia  passuum  tria  ah  eorum  castris  castrS,  ponit  (Caes.  B.  G. 

I.  22),  he  pitches  his  camp  three  miles  from  their  camp. 
Obs.  In  many  of  these  constructions  a  mere  ablative  is  suffi- 
cient (see  §  1023),  but  before  persons  the  preposition  Sb  is  required. 

q.  Ab  is  sometimes  placed  before  the  measure  of  the  distance, 
instead  of  the  place  measured  from  :  as, 

Ab  millbus  passuum  oct5  uento  teuebantur  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv. 
22),  they  were  detained  by  the  wind  eight  miles  off. 

PSsItis  castris  a  millbus  passuum  quinde'cim  auxilia  expectarS 
constltuunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  7),  having  encamped  at  a  dis- 
tance of  fifteen  miles,  they  resolve  to  wait  for  the  allied  troops.* 

1304        In  composition  with  verbs  &b  denotes,  a.  removal,  absence:  as, 
aufSr-  carry  away,  &bes-  be  absent ;  hence  abut-  (r.)  use  up.  b.  down  : 

*  See  Matthiae's  Greek  Grammar,  Transl.  u.  878.  airo  <na5iuv  rer- 


AB.     AD  321 

is,  able-  or  abXci-  (abilci-)  throw  down,  absorbe-  suck  dowfv,  abs- 
trtid-*  thrust  down,  affllg-*  dash  down,  appSs-  or  apos-*  set  down.^ 
In  composition  with  adjectives  &b  denotes  absence,  difference : 
as,  amenti-  or  ament-  without  mind,  mad,  absono-  cut  of  tune  or 
time. 

1305        Ad  signifies — a.  Motion  to  (i.  e.  up  to,  not  into]  ;  as, 

Exercltum  ad  C&sllimim  duclt  (Liv.  xxm.  17),  he  leads  his 

army  to  (the  walls  of)  Casilinum. 

Munltionem  ad  flumen  perduxSrat  (Caes.  B.  C.  m.  66),  he  had 
carried  the  fortification  to  the  (bank  of  the)  river. 

b.  To  what  time :  as, 

Ad  id  diibios  seruarant  anlmos  (Liv.  xxi.  52),  up  to  that  time 
they  had  kept  their  minds  in  a  state  of  doubt. 

c.  To  what  extent :  as, 

Omnes  Sd  urmm  Idem  sentiunt  (Cic.  de  Am.  23.  86),  they  have 
all  to  a  man  the  same  feeling. 

Serui  ad  quattuor  milia  hSmlnum  CSpItolium  occupanere  (Liv. 
in.  15),  the  slaves  to  the  number  of  4000  men  seized  the  Ca- 
pitol. 

lucautos  ad  s&tie'tateni  trucidabltis  (Liv.  xxiv.  36),  unpre- 
pared as  they  will  be,  you  will  butc/ter  them  till  you  are  tired. 

AdJ  uigintl  matronis  per  uiatorem  accitls  (Liv.  vm.  18),  as 
many  as  twenty  ladies  having  been  summoned  by  the  mes- 
senger. 

d.  Direction,  to,  towards :  as, 

Via  ad  C&sllmum  obsessa  (Liv.  xxn.  16),  the  road  to  Gasilinvs.i 

being  occupied  by  the  enemy. 
Verglt  ad  septemtriones  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  1),  it  inclines  to  the 

north. 

e.  Purpose,  for :  as, 

MultS,  sunt  Snlmaduorsa  herbarum  g8n8ra  ad  morsus  bestiarum 
(Cic.  de  Div.  i.  7. 13),  many  kinds  of  herbs  have  been  dis- 
covered for  the  bites  of  beasts. 

*  See§  451.1. 

f  Compare  the  German  ab-gehen  '  go  down,'  and  Sansk.  ava  '  down.' 
I  In  this  usage  the  numeral  alone  depends  upon  the  preposition,  the 
substantive  adapting  its  case  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence.     See  §  1055. 1. 


2  SYNTAX. 

Ad  ludos  pecuniae  decermmtur  (Cic.  ad  Q.  F.  i.  1.9.26), 

is  voted  for  the  games. 
Ad  a"grum  iustruendum  ulres  non  Srant  (Liv.  vi.  5),  they  were 

too  weak  (in  purse)  to  stock  a  farm. 
P&lus  Romanes  Sd  insequendum  tardabat  (Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  26), 

the  marsh  made  the  Romans  slow  to  pursue. 

f.  To,  in  reply :  as, 

Ad  ilia  quae  me  magis  mouerunt  respondebo  (Cic.  p.  Gael.  11. 
27),  /  will  reply  to  those  other  points  which  moved  me  more. 

g.  In  respect  of,  looking  to :  as, 

Vir  ad  usum  pgrltus,  ad  fortunam  felix  (Cic.  p.  Font.  15. 43), 
a  man  of  experience  as  regards  the  world,  and  favoured  in 
respect  to  fortune. 

h.  In  addition  to :  as, 

Si  ad  cetgrS,  uolnera  hanc  quoquS  plagam  iuflixisses  (Cic.  in 
Vat.  8.  20),  if  in  addition  to  the  other  wounds  you  had  in- 
flicted this  blow  also. 

Ad  hoc  promissS,  barba  et  cSpilli  efferaue'rant  spSciem  orls(Liv. 
n.  23),  in  addition  to  this  a  long  beard  and  long  hair  had 
given  a  savage  character  to  his  face. 

i.  By,  of  future  time :  as, 

Nos  hie  te  ad  mensem  lanuarium  expectamiis  (Cic.  ad  Att.  i. 

3.  2),  we  expect  to  see  you  here  by  the  month  of  January. 
licscio  quid  intersit  iitrum  nunc  ugniam,  &n  ad  decem  annos 

(Cic.  ad  Att.  xii.  46),  I  know  not  what  it  matters,  whether  I 

come  now  or  ten  years  hence. 

j.  Near,  before,  off,  to,  over  (all  in  the  sense  of  nearness) :  as, 
Ad  Geronium  constltSrat  bellum  (Liv.  xxn.  32),  before  Gero- 

nium  the  war  had  come  to  a  standstill. 
Classis  quae  ad  Siclliam  grat  (Liv.  xxvu.  22),  the  fleet  which 

was  lying  off  Sicily. 
Canunt  ad  tibiam  clarorum  ulrorum  laudes  (Cic.  Tusc.  iv.  2. 3), 

they  sing  the  praises  of  great  men  to  the  flute. 
Konnunquam  ad  uinum  disertl  sunt  (Cic.  p.  Cael.  28. 67),  thty 

(c-:e  sometimes  eloquent  over  their  wine. 

k.  In  comparison  to,  by  the  side  of:  as, 


AD.  323 

Nihil  ad  nostram  hanc  (Ter.  E.  n.  3. 69),  nothing  to  this  one  of 

ours. 
Terra  ad  uniuorsi  caell  complexum  quasi  puncti  inst&r  obtinet 

(Cic.  Tusc.  i.  17. 40),  the  earth,  compared  to  what  the  whole 

heavens  embrace,  is  as  it  were  but  a  point. 

I.  In  accordance  with,  after :  as, 

CSto  uitam  ad  certain  rStionis  normam  dMgit  (Cic.  p.  Mur.  2. 

3),  Cato  shapes  his  life  by  the  strict  square  of  reason. 
Vixit  Sd  aliorum  arbltrium,  non  ad  suum  (Cic.  p.  Mur.  9. 19), 

he  has  lived  according  to  the  pleasure  of  others,  not  his  own. 

m.  Among ,  before  (in  the  same  sense  as  cipttd) :  as, 

Minus  cladis,  cetgrum  non  plus  Snimorum  &d  hostls  Srat  (Liv. 

x.  35),  there  was  less  loss,  but  not  more  confidence  among  the 

enemy. 
Sgnatorum  stiperbiam  ad  plebem  criminantur  (Liv.  in.  9),  they 

attack  the  tyranny  of  the  senators  before  the  commonalty. 

n.  Immediately  upon,  in  consequence  of,  at :  as, 

Ad  famam  obsidionis  delectus  h£beri  coepttis  est  (Liv.  ix.  7), 

at  the  report  of  a  siege,  a  levy  of  troops  was  commenced. 
Ne'e  ad  diicis  casum  perculsS,  rn&gis  quam  irrltata  est  multitudo 
(Liv.  ix.  22),  and  the  great  mass  of  the  men  were  not  so  much 
panic-struck  as  roused  to  fury  at  the  accident  to  their  chief. 

o.  Before  a  word  denoting  a  person,  to  the  house  of  thai  person  : 
as, 

Magnl  d&mum  concursus  S,d  Afranium*  flebant  (Goes.  B.  C.  I. 

53),  great  crowds  kept  flocking  to  the  house  of  Afranius. 
Ngqug  dSmum  unquam  ad  me  litteras  mittam  quin  adjungam 

eas  quas  tlbi  reddi  uelim  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  in.  8. 10),  nor  shall 

1  ever  send  letters  to  my  own  house,  without  adding  to  the 

packet  a  letter  for  you. 
DSuertit  Cloditis  ad  sg  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  I9.5l),0lodiusturnedoutof 

the  road  to  his  own  house. 

p.  With  a  noun  denoting  the  department  in  which  a  servant's 
offices  are  looked  for,  whence  arises  a  name  for  the  office  (see  &b, 
§  1303  d.) :  as, 

*  And  this  phrase  is  used  although  Afranius  himself  was  in  Spain  at 
the  time.  See  §  1303  I.  . 


324  SYNTAX. 

Llcinum  seruom  slbi  habuit  ad  manum  (Cic.  de  Or.  in.  60. 

225),  he  had  a  slave  Licinusfor  his  amanuensis. 
Puer  quis  ex  aula  capillis  Ad  cyathum  statuetur  unctis  ?  (Hor. 

Od.  I.  29.  7)  shall  some  page  from  the  palace  with  perfume*! 

locks  be  stationed  beside  the  wine-ladle  ?* 

1306  Ad  in  composition  with  verbs  denotes — a.  motion  to  :  as,  &d-i- 
go  toy  approach,  acced-  step  up  to.     b.  addition :  as,  acced-  be  added, 
asciib-t  enroll  with.     c.  nearness:  as,  asslde-  sit  near,  adiace-  lie 
near,  assurg-  (alicui)  rise  to  (a  person),    d.  assent,  favour :  as,  annu- 
nod  assent,  arrlde-  smile  on,  acclama-  express  assent  by  acclamation, 
cheer.     But  see  §  1308.  1,  etc. 

1307  Aduersus  or  -um  (old  form  aduorsiis  or  -um)  is  literally  trans- 
lated by  our  to-wards.     It  denotes  : 

a.  Motion  towards :  as, 

Quis  haec  est,  quae  me  aduorsum  incedit  ?  (Plant.  Per.  n.  2. 

18)  who  is  this  woman,  that  is  coming  towards  me  ? 
Impetum  aduersus  montem  in  cohortis  faciunt  (Caes.  B.  C.  I. 

46),  they  make  a  charge  up\>  the  mountain  upon  the  cohorts. 

b.  Opposite,  facing,  before  (without  motion)  :  as, 

Lero  et  Lerlna  aduersus  Antipolim  (Plin.  in.  11),  Lero  and 

Lerina  opposite  Antipolis. 
Egone  ut  te  aduorsum  mentiar,  mater  mea  !  (Plant.  Aul.  iv. 

7.  9),  I  tell  a  falsehood  before  you,  mother  ! 

c.  Conduct  towards  (good  or  bad,  friendly  or  unfriendly)  :  as, 
Quonammo'do  me  geram  aduorsus  Caesarem  ?  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xi. 

27.  5)  how  in  the  world  am  I  to  bear  myself  towards  Caesar  ? 
Id  gratum  fuisse  aduorsum  te,  habeo  gratiam  (Ter.  And.  i.  1. 
15),  that  this  was  pleasing  to  you,  1  feel  grateful. 

d.  To  counteract,  against :  as, 

Sunt  t£men  quaedain  remgdia  prSpria  aduersus  quaedam  ue- 

*  In  very  late  writers,  as  Vegetius,  ad  was  used  to  denote  the  means: 
as,  ad  sponf/iam  deteryere  (m.  4  2),  ad  acutam  cannam  exsecare  (in.  ,H 
12),  ad  siphonem  paulatim  infundes  (i.  10.2),  ad  acum  pars  auriculae 
signatur  (in.  2.  27),  perforare  ad  acum  (ibid.  28). 

f  See  §4.51.1. 

t  He  who  goes  up  a  mountain  goes  facing  it.     Compare  the  use  of 
the  ablative  absolute,  aduerso  monte  ire,  and  §  1320  b. 


AD.    ADVORSVM.    AM.    ANA.  325 

nenS,  (Cels.  v.  27. 12),  there  are  however  certain  specific  reme- 
.    dies  against  certain  poisons, 
e.  At  variance  with,  in  opposition  to :  as, 

Pecuniae  conclliatae  aduorsum  leges,  aduorsum  rempubllcam 
(Cic.  n.  Verr.  in.  84. 194),  money  quietly  obtained  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  law,  in  opposition  to  the  interests  of  the  country, 
f.  Aduorsum  is  used  adverbially  with  i-  ao  &c.  and  a  dative  of 
the  person  :  as, 

Gesso  hgro  meo  ire  aduorsum  ?  (Plant.  Gas.  in.  6. 5)  why  do  I 

not  <  t  once  go  to  meet  my  master  ? 
1308        Am,  rarely  if  ever  used  except  in  composition,  when  it  signifies, 

a.  with  verbs,  round:  as,  anquir-  look  round  for ',  amplect-  (r.) 
embrace,  am-ic-  or  &m-ici-  throw  round,     b.  in  adjectives,  on  bolh 
sides :  as,  ancip-  or  anciplt-  two-headed. 

1308.  1    Ana  (=ai/a),  used  in  its  full  form  only  as  an  adverb,  and  only 
in  medical*  prescriptions,  signifies  distribution  or  each :  as, 

SaccSri,  eru!  pollings,  ana  unciam  imam  ( Veg.  Art.  Vet.  in. 
65.  6),  sugar,  and  the  flour  of  black  vetcJies,  one  ounce  of  each. 
F61il  capparis,  folil  mirti  siluestris,  f61i!  ciiprcssi  S,na  uncias 
tres  diligentissime  deteres  (ibid.  in.  2.6),  take  of  caper-leaves, 
wild-myrtle-leaves,  cypress-leaves,  three  ounces  each,  and  pound 
them  as  fine  as  possible. 

1308.  2    Ant  up  (=ava)  is  found  only  in  composition.   The  form  in  which 
it  appears  greatly  varies,    a.  In  an-hela-  it  retains  its  correct  form. 

b.  Frequently  it  has  the  consonant  assimilated  to  that  which  fol- 
lows, as  in  accumiila-,  addormisc-,  allgua-,  ammone-,  apprehend-, 
acquiesc-,  arr?g-,  assicca-,  atter-.     c.  Sometimes  the  consonant  is 
altogether  lost,  as  in  a-gnosc-,  a-scend-.     d.  More  commonly  it  is 
attracted  into  the  form  of  the  familiar  preposition  ad,  thus  chang- 
ing the  dental  liquid  for  a  dental  mute,  as  in  Sdaresc-,  Sded-,  Sdlrn-, 
adolesc-,  adur-.     e.  Not  less  frequently  it  is  attracted  into  the 
form  of  the  familiar  preposition  in,  by  an  easy  change   of  the 
vowelj,  as  in  incip-  or  inclpi-,  Inhorre-,  intumesc-,  imbu-,  ignosc-.  § 

*  As  the  medical  art  at  Rome  was  in  the  hands  of  Greeks,  Greek 
words  obtained  admission  into  this  part  of  the  language, 
f  See  §  834  b.  and  note. 

£  So  in,  the  negative  prefix,  corresponds  to  the  privative  av. 
§  Even  om-it-  (omitt-)  represents  the  C.F.  of  CW-IT?/«. 


326  SYNTAX. 

1308. 3  An  up,  like  its  equivalent  ava,  has  the  following  meanings  :  a. 
up,  as  anhela-  send  up  (a  blast  of  air),  make  a  violent  expiration  ; 
ascend-  climb  up,  accumiila-  heap  up,  adiuua-  lift  up  and  so  aid, 
alleua-  raise  up,  apprehend-  take  up,  arrig-  erect,  adaequa-  raise  to 
a  level  with,  inhorre-  bristle  up,  intumesc-  swell  up,  instltu-  set  up. 
b.  back,  as  Inhlbe-  hold  up  or  back,  incllna-  bend  back,  inflect-  bend 
back,  infring-  refract,  c.  again,  as  agnosc-  recognise,  ammtfne-  or 
admone-  remind,  adsurg-*  rise  up  again,  instaura-  (=restaura-) 
celebrate  anew,  ingemlna-  redouble,  d.  reversal  of  a  preceding  act,  as 
ignosc-/or<7^,  acquiesc-  repose  after  labour,  e.  loosening,  opening, 
as  adaperi-  open  up,  In&ra-  plough  up,  infind-  cleave  open,  plough 
up.  f.  commencement,  as  cidama-  fall  in  love,  addormisc-  fall 
asleep,  aduespSrasc-  begin  to  be  dusk,  ambur-  begin  to  burn,  singe, 
imbu-  wet  for  the  first  time,  informa-  give  a  first  shape  to,  imminu- 
impair  (what  was  entire),  inclp-  or  incipi-  take  up,  begin,  g.  sepa- 
ration, removal,  disappearance,  as  &dlm-t  take  up  and  so  take  away, 
amputa-  cut  off,  assicca-  dry  up,  adaresc-  dry  up  (intr.),  infring- 
break  of,  incld-  cut  off,  intabesc-  melt  away.  h.  through,  as  adlg- 
drive  through,  transfix,  admisce-  mix  up  or  thoroughly,  i.  intensity, 
as  accid-  cut  deep  into,  aded-  eat  deep  into,  attonde-  cut  (the  hair) 
close,  Sdur-  burn  a  deep  hole  in,  atter-  rub  a  deep  hole  in,  afflc-  or 
affici-  produce  a  deep  impression  on,  seriously  affect. 

1308.  4    An  signifies  up  in  the  adjective  accllui-  uphill. 

1309        Ante.     a.  Before  in  place  :  as, 

Immolabat  ante  praetorium  (Cic.  de  Div.  i.  33.  72),  he  was  sa- 
crificing before  his  tent. 

AntS  tribunal  tuum  M.  Fanni,  antS  pedes  uostros  iudices,  cae- 
des  erunt  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  5. 12),  before  your  tribunal, 
Marcus  Fannius,  before,  your  feet,  gentlemen  of  the  jury, 
will  murders  be  committed. 

b.  The  same  without  a  case  :  as, 

Fliiuius  ab  tergo,  antg  circaqug  uglut  ripa  praeceps,  oram  tu- 
muli omnem  cinggbat  (Liv.  xxvn.  18),  a  river  in  the  rear, 
in  front  and  on  the  sides  something  like  a  precipitous  lank 
shut  in  the  whole  circuit  of  the  eminence. 

*  See  Liv.  xxr.  36.  7,  xxu.  2.  6,  and  ad-insury-  xxn.  4.2. 
f  Compare 


AN.   ANTE.  327 

c.  Before  a  person  (lare)  :  as, 

I>lcSrS  caussam  ante  iudlcem  (Cic.  i.  Verr.  3.  9),  to  make  a 
defence  before  a  judge. 

d.  Motion  forward  (without  a  noun) :  as, 

Vt  si  aut  m&nibiis  ingrSdiatur  quis,  aut  non  ante  sed  retro 
(Cic.  de  Fin.  v.  12.  35),  as  if  a  person  were  to  walk  upon  his 
hands,  or  to  walk,  not  forwards,  but  backwards. 

e.  Before  in  order :  as, 

Quern  antS  me  dillgo  (Ball.  ap.  Cic.  ad  Att.  vin.  15  A.),  whom 
I  esteem  above  myself. 

f.  Before  in  time  (which  is  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  word) : 

Multo  antS  noctem  copias  rSduxit  (Liv.  xxvu.  42),  long  before 
night  he  led  the  forces  back. 

g.  Before  in  time  without  a  noun  :  as, 

Et  feci  ante  et  f&cio  nunc  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xv.  14.  3),  1  have  done 

so  before,  and  I  do  so  now. 
Faucis  antS  diebus  oppldum  obpugnarant  (Liv.  XLI.  11),  a  few 

days  before  (this)  they  had  assaulted  the  town. 
Anno  antS  quam  mortuost  (Cic.  de  Am.  3. 11),  the  year  before 

he  died. 

h.  This  preposition,  as  well  as  post,  often  causes  this  ablative 
to  be  changed  for  an  accusative  by  attraction,  as  if  it  depended 
upon  the  preposition.  Thus, 

Chalcldem  dies  ante  paucos  prodlderat  (Liv.  xxxi.  24),  he  had 

betrayed  Chalcis  a  few  days  before. 

Sulci  ante  annum  fiunt  quam  um€t£  consSruntiir  (Col.  v.  5), 

the  furrows  are  made  a  year  before  the  vineyards  are  planted. 

Latinae  feriae  fuere  antS  diem  tertium  nonas  Maias  (Liv.  XLI. 

16),  the  Latin  festival  was  two  days  before  the  nones  of  May, 

i.  e.  the  5th  of  May. 

i.  Hence  another  preposition  may  be  placed  before  antS  :  as, 
Caedem  contiilisti  in  ante  diem  quintum  kalendas  No'vembrls 
(Cic.  in  Cat.  i.  3.  7),  the  massacre  you  fixed  for  the  fourth 
day  before  the  kalends  of  November,  i.  e.  October  the  28th. 
Suppllcatio  in  dicta  est  ex  antS  diem  quintum  idus  Octobrls 
cum  eo  die  in  quinque  dies  (Liv.  XLV.  2),  a  thanksgiving 


328 


SYNTAX. 


was  proclaimed  to  continue  from  the  fourth  day  before  the  ides 
of  October  inclusive  for  Jive  days,  i.  e.  from  the  11.th  to  the 
\5th  of  October. 

1310  Ante  in  composition  with  verbs  signifies  before  in  place,  time 
and  excellence:  as,  ante-i-  walk  before,  live  before,  surpass;  ante- 
ced-*  precede  in  place,  in  time,  in  quality. 

1311  Apud  (aput)  is  for  the  most  part  limited  to  persons.     It  de- 
notes : 

a.  Near,  with  places  (rarely)  :  as, 

Apiid  oppldum  Cybistra  castrS,  feel  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xv.  4.  4),  7 

encamped  near  the  town  Cybistra. 
Apud  forum  modo  e  Dauo  audiui  (Ter.  And.  n.  1.2),  1  heard 

it  just  now  from  Davus  near  the  forum. 
Ciulcam  coronam  apud  Britanniam  merltiis  erat  (Tac.  f  Ann. 

xvi.  15),  he  had  earned  a  civic  crown  among  the  Britons. 

b.  Near,  with  persons  :  as, 

In  lecto  Crassus  erat,  gt  apiid  eum  Sulplcius  sedebat  (Cic.  de 

Or.  n.  3. 12),  Crassus  was  on  the  couch,  and  near  him  Sul- 

picius  was  sitting. 
Apud  exercltum  est  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  22.  49),  he  is  with  the 

army. 
Auet  animus  apud  illud  consllium  dlcSre  (Cic.  Phil.  v.  5. 13), 

my  soul  Longs  to  speak  before  that  bench  of  judges. 

c.  At  the  house  o/a  person J,  even  though  he  be  away  :  as, 
Brutum  apud  me  fuissg  gaudeo  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xv.  3.  2),  I  rejoice 

(to  hear)  that  Brutus  has  been  at  my  house. 
Domi  esse  apud  sese  archlpiratas  dixit  duos  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  v. 
29. 73),  there  were  at  his  house,  he  said,  two  of  the  chief  pirates. 

d.  Metaphorically  in  one's  senses :  as, 

Non  sum  aput  me  (Ter.  Haut.  v.  1.48),  I  am  all  abroad,  am 

lost,  am  out  of  my  senses. 
Proin  tu  fac  apud  te  ut  sies  (Ter.  And.  n.  4.  5),  do  you  then  at 

once  take  care  you  have  all  your  wits  about  you. 

*  See  §  451.1. 

f  This  use  of  apud  with  the  names  of  countries  is  almost  peculiar  to 
Tacitus. 

J  See§§  1303/,  1305  o. 


ANTE.    APVD.    AH.    CIRCA.  32!) 

e.  In  the  time  of:  as, 

Apud  p&tres  nostros  (Cic.  p.  Mur.  36.  75),  among  our  fathers, 
i.  e.  in  the  times  of  our  fathers. 

Apud  saeclum  pritis  (Ter.  E.  n.  2. 15),  in  the  preceding  genera- 
tion. 

f.  In  the  mind :  as, 

Praemia  Spud  me  mlniimum  uSlent  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  I.  9. 11), 

rewards  with  me  have  very  little  weight. 
Apud  uiros  b5nos  gratiam  conse'cuti  sumiis  (Cic.  ad  Att.  iv. 

1.  3),  vie  have  obtained  influence  with  good  men. 

g.  In  authors :  as, 

Vt  ille  apud  Terentium  (Cic.  de  Fin.  v.  10.  28),  like  that  old 

man  in  Terence. 
De  sgpulcris  nihil  est  Spud  SSlonem  amplius  quam  ....  (Cic. 

de  Leg.  n.  26.  64),  on  the  subject  of  sepulchres  there  is  nothing 

in  the  laws  of  Solon  more  than  .... 

1312  Ar  (of  the  same  meaning  as  &d),  rarely  if  ever  used  except  in 
composition*,  and  then  it  signifies — a.  to  :  as,  arcess-  and  arci- 
call  to  (you),  send  for;  aruSca-  call  to  (you),  aru51a-yfo/  to,  arugna- 
one  lately  arrived,  a  stranger,     b.  presence :  as,  arbltero-  a  person 
present,  a  witness,  umpire,  judge  ;  arfu-  be  present  (whence  arfuit). 

1313  Circa,     a.  About,  round,  in  reference  to  place  :  as, 
Custodes  circa  omnis  portas  miss!  ne  quis  urbe  egrederetur 

(Liv.  xxviii.  26),  guards  were  sent  round  to  all  the  gates  to 
prevent  any  one  from  leaving  the  city. 

CSnes  circa  Be  hSbebat  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  I.  48.  126),  he  had  dogs 
about  him. 

b.  The  same  without  a  noun  :  as, 

Lup&  sitiens  ex  montibus  qui  circa  sunt  ad  puerilem  uagitum 
cursum  flexit  (Liv.  I.  4),  a  thirsty  wolf  out  of  the  mountains 
which  lie  around,  upon  hearing  the  crying  of  a  child  turned 
its  course  thither. 

c.  About,  as  to  time  :  as, 

Postero  die  circa  eandem  horam  copias  admouit  (Liv.  XLII.  57), 
the  next  day  about  the  same  hour  he  moved  up  his  troops. 

*  But  see  Plant.  True.  n.  2. 17. 


330  SYNTAX. 

d.  About,  as  to  number  :  as. 

Delude  p8r  insequentls  dies  circa  singulas  hemlnas  Smittendum 
(Cels.  vii.  15),  then  during  the  following  days  about  an  he- 
mfina  is  to  be  drawn  off  each  day. 

e.  About,  upon,  concerning,  in  reference  to  (chiefly  in  the  later 
writers)  :  as, 

III  circa  consilium  eligendl  successorls  in  duas  factiones  scin- 
debantur  (Tac.  Hist.  I.  13),  these  were  dividing  themselves 
into  two  parties  upon  the  question  of  electing  a  successor. 

1314  Circlter.     a.  A  bo ut,  as  regards  place  (rare)  :  as, 

Vt  opmor,  loca  haec  circitgr  excldit  mihi  (Plant.  Cist.  iv.  2. 7), 
I  fancy  it  was  hereabouts  I  dropt  it. 

b.  About,  as  to  time  :  as, 

Circlter  idus  Sextllls  puto  me  ad  Iconium  fSrg  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 
in.  5.  4),  about  the  ides  of  Sextilis,  i.  e.  August  \3th,  /  cal- 
culate I  shall  be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Iconium. 

c.  About,  as  to  number  (the  chief  use  of  the  word) :  as, 

Dies  circiter  quiudecim  Iter  fecerunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  15),  they 
marched  for  about  jif teen  days. 

1315  Circum,  round,  whether  in  rest,  or  circular  or  other  similar 
motion  :  as, 

TerrS,  circum  axem  sg  conuortlt  (Cic.  Acad.  Pr.  n.  39. 123),  the 

earth  turns  round  its  axis. 
Ex  ea  turn  quae  circum  essent  SperS,  tuerl  se  possS  conftsl  sunt 

(Caes.  B.  C.  n.  10),  from  this  tower  they  fdt  confdent  that 

they  should  be  able  to  defend  the  works  which  lay  around. 
Pugros  circum  amicos  dimittlt  (Cic.  p.  Quinct.  6. 25),  he  sends 

the  servants  round  to  his  friends. 
Paucae,  quae  circum  illam  essent,  mS,nent  (Ter.  E.  in.  5. 33), 

a  few  women  remain  to  wait  upon  that  lady. 

1316  Cls.     a.  On  this  side  of,  within,  as  regards  place  :  as, 

Saepe  ab  his  cis  Padum  ultraquS  legiones  fusae  grant  (Liv.  v. 

35),  the  legions  had  been  often  routed  by  them  on  this  side  of 

the  Padus  and  beyond  it. 

b.  Within,  in  regard  to  time  (only  in  Plautus) :  as, 
Nulla,  faxim,  cis  dies  pauc6s  siet  (Plaut.  True.  n.  3.  27),  / 

would  make  it  wholly  disappear  within  a  few  days. 


CIRCA.    CIECVM.    CIS.   CITRA.    CLAM.    CONTRA.  331 

1317  Cls  in  the  composition  of  adjectives  signifies  on  this  side  of: 
as,  cisalplno-,  cisrhenano-,  cispadano-,  on  this  side  the  Alps,  the 
Rhine,  the  Po. 

1318  Cltra.    a.  On  this  side  of,  within,  as  regards  place  :  as, 

Erat  enim  cum  suis  naulbus  citra  Veliam  mlliS,  passuum  tria 
(Cic.  ad  Att.  xvi.  7.  5),  for  he  was  in  fact  with  \usfleet  three 
miles  on  this  side  Velia. 

b.  The  same  without  a  noun  :  as, 

Tela  hostium  cltra  cadebant  (Tac.  Hist.  in.  23),  the  missiles  of 
the  enemy  kept  falling  short. 

c.  Within,  as  to  time  :  as, 

Locls  ullginosis  cltra  kalendas  Octobns  semlnarg  conu&iit  (Col. 
ir.  8),  on  wet  lands  it  is  right  to  sow  before  the  \st  of  October. 

d.  Short  of,  in  degree  :  as, 

Peccaul  citra  sceliis  (Ov.  Tr.  v.  8. 23),  my  guilt  is  short  of  im- 
piety. 

1319  Clam  and  the  diminutive  clanculum  are  used  only  before  per- 
sons, in  the  sense  of  without  their  knowledge  : 

a.  As  prepositions  :  as, 

Sibi  nuuc  uterque  contra  legiones  parat 

Paterque  filiusque  clam  alter  alterum  (Plant.  Cas.  pr.  50), 

Affainst  each  other  now  are  they  preparing  armies, 

Both  sire  and  son,  each  unknown  to  each. 
Emptast  clam  uxorem  et  clam  filium*  (Plant.  Merc.  in.  2.  2), 

she  has  been  purchased  unknown  to  my  wife  and  unknown  to 

my  son. 
Alii  clanculum  patres  quae  faciunt  (Ter.  Ad.  I.  1.  27),  what 

others  do  without  their  fathers9  knowledge. 

b.  They  are  often  used  adverbially  without  a  substantive. 

1320  Contra,     a.  Over  against,  facing :  as, 

Quiuctius  trans  Tibgrim  contra  eum  IScum  ubi  nunc  naualiS, 
sunt,  quattuor  iugerum  colebat  agrum  (Liv.  in.  26),  Quinc- 
tius  was  cultivating  a  farm  of  but  four  jugers  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Tiber,  opposite  where  the  dockyard  now  is. 

*  So  Ritschl  from  the  palimpsest ;  but  otherwise  the  best  Mss.  have 
uxore  andjilio. 


332 


SYNTAX. 


Asplc§-dum  contra  me  (Plant.  Most.  v.  1.56),  just  look  me  in 
the  face. 

b.  Up*:  as, 

Ducenaria  dutf  contra  scalas  ferebat  (Plin.  v.  20),  he  would 
carry  two  two-hundred  weights  up  stairs. 

c.  Metaphorically,  opposition,  against :  as, 

Res  Romana  contra  spem  uotaque  eius  resurgebat  (Liv.  xxiv. 
45),  the  power  of  Rome  was  rising  again  contrary  to  his  hope 
and  his  prayers. 

d.  Towards,  of  the  feelings  or  behaviour  :  as, 

Elgphanti  tanta  narratur  dementi  £  contra  minus  ualidos  ut 
<fec.  (Plin.  viii.  7),  the  kindness  of  the  elephant  towards  the 
weak  is  said  to  be  so  great  that  &c. 

e.  The  reverse  (with  or  without  a  case)  :  as, 

In  stultltia  contrast  (Cic.  p.  Clu.  31.  84),  in  folly  it  is  just  the 

reverse. 
Quod  contra  fit  a  plerisque  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  15.  49),  whereas  the 

contrary  of  this  is  done  by  most  people. 

f.   Weighed  against  (and  with  a  dative  case  apparently) :  as, 
Non  carust  auro  c6ntra  (Plant,  Kp.  in.  3.  30),  he  is  not  dear  at 
his  weight  in  gold. 

1321  Coram.     a.  In  the  presence  of,  only  before  persons  :  as, 

Mihi  ipsi,  coram  genero  meo,  quae  dlcere  ausu's  ?  (Cic,  in  Pis. 
6. 12)  even  to  me,  in  the  presence  of  my  son-in-law,  what  lan- 
guage did  you  dare  to  use  ? 

Prices  ad  uos  conuerto,  disque  et  patria  coram  obtestor  (Tac. 
Ann.  iv.  8),  /  turn  my  prayers  to  you,  and  before  the  gods 
and  my  country  implore  you. 

b.  Frequently  without  a  substantive  :  as, 
Quasi  tecum  corarn  loquerer  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  n.  9.  2),  as  if  I  had 
been  talking  with  you  face  to  face. 

1322  Cum.     a.  With,  chiefly  in  the  case  of  persons  :  as, 
Vagamur  Sgentes  cum  coniiigibus  et  llberls  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vm. 

2.  3),  we  wander  about  in  poverty  with  our  wives  and  children. 

*  Because  he  who  moves  facing  the  stairs  ascends  them.     See  aduor- 
sum,  §  1307  a. 


CONTRA.    CORAM.    CVM.  233 

Tecum  ess£  uehSmenter  uelim  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  21. 1),  I  should 
be  infinitely  delighted  to  be  with  you. 

l>.  A  relation  between  two  parties  is  expressed  by  the  dative  of 
the  chief  party,  and  cum  with  the  other  :  as, 

Tecum  mihi  res  est  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  30.  84),  my  dealings  are 

with  you. 
Intercedunt  mihi  Inimlcitiae  cum  istius  mulieris  ulro  (Cic.  p. 

Gael.  13. 32),  there  is  a  disagreement  existing  between  me  and 

the  husband  of  that  woman. 

c.  With  or  in,  in  the  sense  of  wearing :  as, 

Nolo  me  in  uia  Cum  hac  ueste  uideat  (Ter.  E.  v.  2.  67),  I  must 
not  have  him  see  me  in  the  street  in  this  dress. 

Cenauit  cum  toga  pulla  (Cic.  in  Vat.  13. 31),  he  dined  in  a  black 
toga. 

Ipse  esse  cum  tolo  (Sal.  Cat.  27),  he  himself  went  about  armed. 

d.  Two  nouns  are  at  times  united  by  cum,  so  as  to  have  a 
common  predicate  or  adjective  or  genitive  attached  to  them  :  as, 

Ipse  dux  cum  aliquot  principibus  c£piuntur  (Liv.  xxi.  60),  the 

general  himself  with  a  considerable  number  of  the  leading  men 

are  taken. 
A'bin  hinc  in  malarn  rem  cum  suspicione  istac  scelus  ?  (Ter. 

And.  IT.  1. 17)  go  and  be  hanged,  you  and  your  suspicions, 

you  scoundrel. 
Pedem  cum  uoce  rgpressit  (  Virg.  A.  n.  378),  he  clicked  his  foot, 

and  checked  his  voice. 
luduit  albos  cum  uitta  crmis  (Virg.  A.  vii.  417^,  she  puts  on 

locks  and  fillet  white  alike. 
Clmlnl  cum  montS  l&cum  (Virg.  A.  vii.  697),  the  lake  and 

mountain  of  Ciminus. 

e.  With,  denoting  coincidence  of  time  :  as, 

Summ!  puerorum  Smores  saepe  una  cum  praetexta  ponuntur 
(Cic.  de  Am.  10.  33),  the  strongest  attachments  of  boys  are 
often  laid  aside  together  with  (at  the  same  time  as)  the  prce- 
texta. 

PSrfter  cum  ortu  solis  castrS,  metabatur  (Sal.  Jug.  106).  pre- 
cisely as  the  sun  was  rising  he  was  measuring  out  a  camp. 

f.  With,  in,  &c.,  to  express  accompanying  feelings,  circum- 
stances :  as, 


334  SYNTAX. 

Athenienses  cum  slleutio  audltl  sunt  (Liv.  xxxvm.  10),  the 

Athenians  were  heard  in  silence. 
Flamlni  corpus  magna  cum  cura  inqulsltum  non  iuuenit  (Liv. 

xxn.  7),  the  body  of  Flaminius  he  made  search  after  -with  the 

greatest  care,  but  did  notfnd  it. 

g.  The  immediate  consequences,  expressed  by  to :  as, 

Venit  Lampsacum  cum  magna  calamltate  et  prSpe  pernlcig 

clultatls  (Cic.  ii.  Verr.  i.  24.  63),  he  came  to  Lampsacum* 

to  the  great  damage  and  all  but  utter  ruin  of  the  citizens. 
h.  With,  in  comparisons  :  as, 
Couferte  hanc  pacem  cum  illo  bello  (Cic.  11.  Verr.  iv.  52.115), 

compare  this  peace  with  that  war. 
Cum  meum  factum  cum  tuo  comparo  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  in.  6. 1), 

when  I  compare  my  conduct  with  yours. 

i.  With,  in  the  sense  of  against,  with  verbs  denoting  contest : 
as, 

Cum  omnibus  salutis  meae  defensoiibus  bella  gerunt  (Cic.  p. 
Sest.  2.  4),  they  wage  war  with  all  who  defend  my  life  and 
fortunes. 

Hannibal  de  imperio  cum  popiilo  Romano  certauit  (Cic.  de  Or. 
II.  18.  76),  Hannibal  contended  for  empire  with  the  Roman 
people. 

j.  Cum  eo,  followed  by  tit  and  a  subjunctive,  is  employed  to 
express  an  addition  or  qualification  :  as, 

Lanuulnis  sacrS,  sua  redditSr,  cum  eo  iit  aedes  lunonis  com- 
munis  Lanuulnis  cum  ptfpulo  Romano  esset  (Liv.  vin.  14), 
to  the  people  of  Lanuvium  their  sacred  property  was  restored, 
on  the  conditimi  that  the  temple  of  Juno  should  be  in  common 
between  the  burgesses  of  Lanuvium  and  the  people  of  Rome. 
Vnum  gaudium  affulsgrat,  cum  eo  tit  appareret  haud  procul 
exltio  fuissg  classem  (Liv.  xxx.  10),  one  joy  had  shone  upon 
them,  together  with  the  certainty  that  thejleet  had  been  at  one 
time  on  the  verge  of  destruction.^ 

1323        Cum  or  c(m  in  composition  with  verbs  signifies — a.  union :  as, 
concur-}:  run  together,  co-i-  meet,  consul-  [sit  together],  deliberate. 

*  Lampsacum,  not  Lampsacus,  is  the  nominative  in  Cicero.     See  n. 
Verr.  i.  24.  63. 

t  See  also  §  1065. 1,  examples  2,  3,  4. 
J  See  §451.1. 


CVM.    CON.   DE.  335 

b.  completeness  (in  the  way  of  destruction)  :  as,  comSd-  eat  up, 
corn-bur-*  burn  up,  contud-*  hammer  to  pieces,  conflc-  or  conflci- 
dispatch,  concid-  cut  to  pieces,  c.  completeness  (in  the  way  of  suc- 
cess) :  as,  conftc-  or  conftci-  make  up,  consequ-  (r.)  overtake,  obtain, 
consecta-  (r.)  hunt  down.  d.  with  a  great  effort :  as,  conic-  or  conlci- 
hurl,  conclama-  cry  out  loudly,  collSca-  place  with  care,  place  for  a 
permanence,  conciit-  or  concuti-  shake  violently,  comprehend-  seize 
firmly,  e.  in  harmony  :  as,  concin-  and  consSua-  accord,  harmonise, 
consent!-  agree  (in  feeling).  /.  the  same  as  be  in  English,  at  once 
changing  the  construction  of  the  verb  and  adding  completeness  : 
as,  constSr-*  bestrew  or  pave,  collm-  besmear.  (See  §  905.) 

1324  Cum  or  c5n  in  adjectives  denotes  union  :  as,  conscio-  sharing 
knowledge,  coramuni-  shared  in  common,  commSdo-  having  the  same 
measure,  fitting,  coniiig-  yoked  together,  yokemate. 

1325  Cum  or  con  with  substantives  denotes  fellow :   as,  conseruo- 
fellow-siave,  commlliton-  feUow-soldier,  constfce'ro-  one  of  two  fathers- 
in-law. 

1326  De.    a.  Down,  down  from:  as, 

Ruunt  de  montibus  amnes  (  Virg.  A.  iv.  164),  adown  the  moun- 
tains rush  the  rivers. 

Clipea"  de  columnis  dempsit  (Liv.  XL.  51),  he  took  the  shields 
down  from  the  pillars. 

Atque  haec  agebantiir  in  conuentu  pSlam  de  sellaf  (Cic.  n. 
Verr.  iv.  40.  85),  and  what  is  more,  these  remarks  were  made 
in  court  openly  from  the  chair. 

b.  The  source  from  which  :  as, 

Hoc  audlui  de  p&trg  meo  (Cic.  de  Or.  in.  33. 133),  this  1  heard 

from  my  father. 
Mills  iugerum  de  Pilio  emit  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xin.  31.4),  he  bought 

a  thousand  jugers  (of  land)  of  Pilius. 
Pecuniam  numerauit  de  suo  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xvi.  16  A.  3),  he  paid 

the  money  down  out  of  his  own  pocket. 

Virtus,  quam  tu  ne  de  facie  quldem  nostl  (Cic.  in  Pis.  32.  81), 
Virtue,  whom  you  know  not  even  by  sight. 

c.  Part  of,  one  or  more  of:  as, 

*  See§  451.1. 

t   Which  was  on  elevated  ground. 


336  SYNTAX. 

De  tuis  innumerabilibus  in  me  offlchs,  grit  hoc  giatissiimum 

(Cic.  ad  Fam.  xvi.  1.  2),  of  your  innumerable  kindnesses  to 

me,  this  will  indeed  be  the  most  welcome. 
Hftbe&tur  sane  orator  sed  de  m!noiibus  (Cic.  Opt.  gen.  Or.  4. 9), 

let  him  be  accounted  indeed  an  orator,  but  one  of  an  inferior 

class. 

d.  The  material  of  which  any  thing  is  made  :  as, 

Primum  slbi  fecit  pociila  de  liito  (Tibul  i.  1.31),  he  first  made 

h  im  cups  of  dirt. 
De  fratrg  quid  fiet*  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  v.  9. 39)  what  will  become  of  my 

brother  ? 

e.  Motives,  causes,   suggestions,  variously  translated,   as  by 
under,  for,  on,  &c.  :  as, 

lustis  de  caussis  r&tiones  deferre  prSperau!  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v. 

20.  2),  for  good  reasons  I  made  haste  to  give  in  my  accounts. 
Quorum  de  sententia  totS,  res  gestast  (Cic.  p.  Sull.  19. 55),  under 

whose  advice  the  whole  matter  was  conducted. 

f.  Down  upon,  on  :  as, 

De  gradu  conarl  (Liv.  xxxiv.  39),  to  fight  their  best  on  foot. 
Etiamsl  cSclderit,  de  ggnu  pugnat  (Sen.  de  Prov.  2),  even  if  he 

fall,  hefghts  on  his  knee. 
Noil  possum,  inquit,  tibi  dlcgre,  nescio  gnim  quid  de  gradu 

faciat — tanqua'm  de  essedario  interrogaretur  (Sen.  Ep.  29), 

1  cannot  tell  you,  says  he,  for  I  know  not  what  he  could  do 

fighting  on  foot — as  though  the  question  had  been  about  a 

chariot-soldier. 

cf.  On  (a  topic),  over,  about,  of,  concerning :  as, 
Nihil  dico  de  meo  inggnio  (Cic.  in  Caecil.  11. 36),  I  say  nothing 

of  my  own  abilities. 
Regulus  de  captmis  commutandis  Romam  missus  est  (Cic.  de 

Off.  I.  13.39),  Regulus  was  sent  to  Rome  about  an  exchange 

of  prisoners. 
De"  me  autem  suscfpg  paulisper  meas  partis  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  in. 

12.2),  on  the  other  hand,  as  regards  myself ,  put  yourself  in 

my  position  for  a  moment. 
Afrlcaiius  de  Numantinis  triumphauerat  (Cic.  Phil.  xi.  8. 18), 

Africanus  had  triumphed  over  the  people  of  Numantia. 

*  Literallv  'will  be  made.'    See  §  1003. 


BE,  DI.  337 

h.  With  words  of  time  the  meaning  is  somewhat  doubtful.  It 
would  seem  however  that  here  also  the  notion  of  a  part  (see  sub- 
division c.)  prevails,  and  that  the  determination  as  to  what  part 
is  only  to  be  inferred  from  the  context.  Thus  the  best  translation 
perhaps  is  our  preposition  by  or  in  the  course  of :  as, 

Vt  iugiilent  hSminem,  surgunt  de  noctg  latrones  (Hor.  Ep.  I. 

2. 32),  to  murder  man,  rises  by  night  the  robber. 
Coeperunt  epularl  de  die  (Liv.  xxiu.  8),  they  began  banqueting 

by  daylight. 

De  tertia  uigilia  exerclturn  rgducit  (Goes.  B.  C.  n.  35),  in  the 
course  of  the  third  watch  he  leads  back  the  army. 

i.  At  times  de  is  used  with  a  noun  to  denote  immediate  suc- 
cession of  time,  directly  after :  as, 

Non  bonus  sompniis  est  dS  prandio  (Plant.  Most.  in.  2.  8), 

sleep  directly  after  breakfast  is  not  good. 
lamque  S,dgrit  multo  Pri&mi  de  sanguine  Pyrrhus  (  Virg.  A.  u. 

662),  and  soon  will  Pyrrhus  be  here,  fresh  from  the  streaming 

blood  of  Priam. 

1327  De  in  composition  with  verbs  denotes — a.  down  :  as,  dem-  (for 
de-Im-)  take  down,  demit-*  let  down.    b.  removal :  as,  detonde- 
shear,  decortica-  strip  off  the  bark.    c.  absence :  as,  dee's-  or  rather 
des-  be  wanting,  debe-  (for  dehlbe-)  owe,  deftc-  or  deftci-  fail.    d. 
prevention :  as,  dehorta-  (r.)  dissuade,  deprgca-  (r.)  pray  a  thing 
may  not  be.    e.  unfriendly  feeling :  as,  desplc-  or  desplci-  despise, 
deride-  laugh  at.    f.  partially :  as,  deperd-  lose  in  part,  deperi- 
perish  in  part,  deroga-  take  part  away  (by  a  rogation),     g.  inten- 
sity (?)  :  as,  depSpula-  (r.)  lay  thoroughly  waste,  deSma-  love  to  dis- 
traction^. 

1328  De  with  adjectives  denotes — a.  down :  as,  decllui-  sloping  down- 
wards,   b.  absence :  as,  dementi-  or  dement-  without  mind,  idiotic. 

1329  Dl  or  dls  (dir)  is  used  only  in  composition.     With  verbs  it  de- 
notes— a.  division :  as,  dluld-  divide,  did-  distribute,  discrib-*  dis- 
tribute by  writing,  dil&b-*  slip  away  in  different  directions,    b.  dif- 
ference :  as,  discrgpa-  sound  a  different  note,  dissenti-/^  differently. 
c.  the  reverse  of  the  simple  notion :  as,  displace-  displease,  difftd-* 

*  See  §  451. 1. 

f  In  this  last  sense  the  prefix  was  perhaps  originally  the  preposition 
diordis.  See  §1329* 


338  SYNTAX. 

distrust,  discing-  ungird.    d.  intensity :  as,  dilauda-  bepraise,  dis- 
ciip-  or  disciipi-  desire  to  distraction. 

1330  Dls  in  the  composition  of  adjectives  denotes — a.  difference:  as, 
discolor-  of  different  colour  or  colours,  discordi-  or  discord-  (from 
corda-  a  musical  string)  sounding  a  different  note.  b.  negation  :  as, 
disslmlli-  unlike,  dispari-  or  disp£r-  unequal. 

i'.>31  [Ec],  e,  ex  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  opposite  to  In,  just  as  ab 
in  its  ordinary  senses  is  to  &d  ;  and  an  attention  to  this  distinction 
is  often  a  useful  guide  in  the  translation  of  the  English  preposition 
from.  It  denotes — a.  out  of  (with  motion)  :  as, 

Telum  e  corpSre  extraxit  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  7. 19),  he  drew  the 

weapon  out  of  the  flesh. 

Eum  exturbasti  ex  aedibus  (Plant.  Trin.  i.  2. 100),  this  man 
you  bundled  out  of  the  house. 

b.  Off,  i.  e.  from  on  (and  it  may  be  observed  that  In  signified 
on  as  well  as  in) :  as, 

Ex  8quis  desiliunt  et  pedibus  proeliantur  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  2), 

they  leap  off  their  horses  andjight  on  foot. 
Nisi  e  campo  in  cauam  hanc  uiam  demittirnus  equos  (Liv. 

xxin.  47),  unless  we  ride  down  from  the  plain  into  this 

hollow  road. 

c.  On,  from.,  when  a  person  is  in  or  on  a  place  and  directs  his 
efforts  thence  :  as, 

Castor  et  Pollux  ex  equis  puguarS  uisl  sunt  (Cic.  K  D.  n. 

2.  6),  Castor  and  Pollux  were  seen  fighting  on  horseback. 
Contionari  ex  turri  alta  sdlebat  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  20.  59),  he  was 

wont  to  harangue  the  people  from  a  high  tower. 

d.  The  material  of  which  any  thing  is  made,  of :  as, 
Exponit  multum  argentum,  non  pauca  pocula  ex  auro  (Cic.  n. 

Verr,  iv.  27.  62),  he  displays  much  silver,  and  not  a  few  cups 

of  gold. 
Statua  ex  aerS  factast  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  n.  21.  50),  a  statue  was 

made  of  bronze. 
Qui   5rat  totus  ex  fraude  et  mendacio  fact  us  (Cic.  p.   Clu. 

26.  72),  who  was  made  up  entirely  of  roguery  and  lying. 

e.  A  change  from  one  character  to  another,  from  :  as, 
Quaero  ex  te  sisne  ex  paupeiTumo  dlues  factiis  (Cic.  in  Vat. 


EC,  E,  EX.  339 

12.  29),  /  ask  you  whether  or  no  from  being  very  poor  you 
have  become  rich. 

Sic  hSmlnes  saepe  ex  fucosis  firm!  suffragatores  euadunt  (Q. 
Cic.  de  Pet.  27),  in  this  way  men  often  turn  out  firm  from 
having  been  deceitful  supporters. 

/.  The  preceding  construction  is  also  used  to  denote  an  inter- 
mediate condition  :  as, 

Pallidum  e  uMdi  et  molle  folium  habet  (Plin.  xxi.  90),  it  has 

a  palish  green  and  soft  leaf. 

.</•  Of>  signifying  part  of,  preceding  the  whole  :  as, 

Nemo  e  dScem  sana  mente  est  (Cic.  de  Leg.  in.  10.  24),  not  a 

man  of  the  ten  is  of  sound  mind. 
Fufius,  uniis  ex  mels  intumis  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xin.  3),  Fujius, 

one  of  my  most  intimate  friends. 

h.  The  commencing  point  of  time  whence  measurement  pro- 
ceeds, expressed  by  from  :  as, 

Ex  kalendis  lanuarils  ad  hanc  horam  inuigllaui  relpubllcae 
(Cic.  Phil.  xiv.  7. 19),  from  the  first  of  January  to  the  pre- 
sent hour  1  have  kept  a  close  watch  upon  the  interests  of  the 
country. 

Ex  ea  die  septentriones  uent!  fuerg  (Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  6. 3),  from 
that  day  the  wind  continued  in  the  north. 

i.  Immediate  succession  of  time,  after  :  as, 

Ex  consulatu  est  prSfectus  in  Galliam  (Cic.  Brut.  92. 318),  im- 
mediately after  his  consulship  he  set  out  for  Gallia. 

Oppldum  ex  itine're  expugnarg  (Goes.  B.  G.  n.  12),  to  storm  the 
town  immediately  on  his  arrival. 

Diem  ex  die  expectabam  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  26. 3),  /  was  waiting 
day  after  day. 

j.  Source  of  information  with  verbs  of  asking,  hearing,  &c. :  as, 

Sed  allquld  ex  Pompeio  sciam  (Cic.  ad  Att.  v.  2.  3),  but  I  shall 
learn  something  from  Pompey. 

Hoc  te  ex  aliis  audire  malo  (Cic.  ad  Att.  v.  17.  2),  this  I  prefer 
your  hearing  from  others. 

Quaesiui  ex  Phania,  quam  in  partem  prouinciae  putaret  te 
uelle  ut  ugnlrem  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  in.  6. 1),  1  asked  Phania 
into  what  part  of  the  province  he  supposed  you  to  wish  me  to 
come. 


340  SYNTAX. 

k.  Cause :  as, 

Grauiter  claudicabat  ex  uoluere  ob  rempubllcam  accepto  (Cic. 

de  Or.  n.  61.  249),  he  was  very  lame  from  a  wound  received 

in  his  country's  service. 
Arctius  ex  lassltudme  dormiebant  (Cic.  de  Iiiv.  n.  4.  14),  they 

were  sleeping  somewhat  soundly  f rom  fatigue. 

I.  That  on  which  any  thing  depends  physically  or  morally  :  as, 
Vldetis  pendere  alios  ex*  arbore,  pulsari  autem  Slios  et  uerbg- 

rarl  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  in.  26.  66),  you  see  some  hanging  from  a 

tree,  others  again  beaten  and  flogged. 
Ex  quo  uerbo  tota  ilia  caussa  pendebat  (Cic.  de  Or.  TI.  25.107), 

on  which  word  the  whole  of  that  cause  depended. 

m.  The  authority  upon  which  a  person  acts  :  as, 

Ex  senatus  consulto  Manlius  uiriculis  llbSratur  (Liv.  vi.  17), 

under  a  decree  of  the  senate  Matdius  is  released  from  prison. 
Res  ex  foedere  rSpetunt  (Liv.  xxi.  10),  they  demand  redress 

under  the  treaty. 

n.  The  standard  by  which  any  thing  is  measured  :  as, 

Non  est  ex  fortuna  fides  pondgranda  (Cic.  Part.  Or.  34. 117),  it 

is  not  by  success  that  fidelity  is  to  be  measured.^ 
Ex  eueutu  homines  de  tuo  consllio  existumabunt  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 

I.  7. 5),  the  world  will  judge  of  your  prudence  by  the  result. 

o.  As  suggested  by,  in  accordance  with :  as, 

Statues  fit  ex  fide  fama  requS  mea  uldebltiir  (Cic.  ad  Att.  v. 

8.  3),  you  will  decide  as  shall  appear  to  be  in  accordance  with 

my  honour,  character  and  interest. 
Te  ex  sententia  naulgasse'  gaudeo  (Cic.  ad  Att.  7.  21. 1),  I  am 

delighted  that  your  voyage  has  been  satisfactory.  J 
Piscis  ex  sententia  Nactus  sum  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  3.  66),  I  have  fallen 

in  with  a  dish  offish  to  my  lieartfs  content.^ 

*  Very  frequently  ab  is  used  with  this  verb. 

f  Literally  '  weighed.' 

J  Literally  '  that  you  have  sailed  according  to  your  wishes  or  feeling.' 

§  The  phrase  ex  met  animi  sententia  is  ambiguous,  meaning  either 
*  to  my  heart's  content,1  or  *  on  my  word  of  honour'  (literally  'according 
to  the  feeling  of  my  heart').  Hence  the  pun  in  Cicero  (de  Or.  n.  64. 
260),  Nasica  censori,  quum  ille — Ex  tui  animi  sententia  tu  uxorem  habesl 
— Non  hercule,  inquit,  ex  mei  animi  sententia. 


EC,  E,  EX.  341 

p.  In  proportion  :  as, 

FS,cIt  haeredem  ex  deuncS  Caecmam  (Cic.  p.  Caec.  6. 17),  he 

makes  Caecina  heir  to  eleven-twelfths  of  his  property. 
Ex  parte  magna  tibi  assentiSr  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  3. 3),  I  agree 

with  you  in  a  great  measure. 
q.  The  quarter  on  or  at  which  :  as, 
Vna  ex  parte  Rheno  coutlnentur  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  2),  on  one  side 

they  are  shut  in  by  the  Rhine. 

r.  The  liquid  in  which  any  thing  more  solid  is  dissolved,  is  pre- 
ceded by  ex :  as, 

Resinam  ex  melle  Aegiptiam*  uorato,  saluom  fe"ceris  (Plant. 

Merc.  i.  2. 28),  take  a  bolus  of  Egyptian  gum  mixed  in  honey, 

and  you  will  make  it  right. 
Cucumeris  silvestris  pars  inte'rio'r  ex  lactg  .  .  diluftur  (Cels.  v. 

21.1),  the  inner  part  of  a  wild  cucumber  is  dissolved  in  milk. 

1332  [Ec],  6,  ex  in  composition  with  verbs  denotes — a.  out :  as,  exlm- 
take  out,  exi-  go  out,  ggrgd-  or  egrgdi-  (r.)  march  out,  ecfer-  or  effe>- 
carry  out,  expds-t  set  forth,  b.  removal  by  the  act  expressed  in  the 
simple  verb :  as,  excanta-  remove  by  charms,  edormi-  sleep  off,  ex- 
terre-  frighten  away.  c.  escaping  by  means  of  the  act  expressed  in 
the  simple  verb  :  as,  eulta-  escape  by  moving  on  one  side,  elucta-  (r.) 
get  away  by  wrestling,  ecfiig-  or  ecfiigi-  escape  by  flight,  d.  obtaining 
an  end  by  the  act  of  the  simple  verb :  as,  extiid-t  hammer  out, 
Suestlga-  trace  out,  el&bora-  work  out,  exsSqu-  follow  out,  attain,  e. 
publicity :  as,  edlc-f  proclaim,  enuntia-  divulge,  f.  ascent :  as, 
emerg-  emerge,  eueh-  carry  up  or  raise,  exsist-  stand  up.  g.  com- 
pleteness :  as,  edisc-  learn  by  heart,  exur-  burn  up,  emere-  (r.)  com- 
plete one's  service,  h.  change  of  character  with  verbs  formed  from 
adjectives  and  substantives :  as,  expia-  make  clean,  atone  for,  ce- 
tera- make  savage,  ecfemina-  convert  into  a  woman,  i.  removal  of 
what  is  expressed  by  the  noun  whence  the  verb  is  formed :  as, 
exossa-^  bone  (as  a  fish),  enoda-J  make  smooth  by  removal  of  knots. 
j.  the  reverse :  as,  expllca-  unfold,  exaugiira-  deprive  of  a  religious 
character,  exauctora-  discharge  (i.  e.  relieve  a  soldier  of  the  obliga- 

*  So  Ms.  B,  not  Aegyptiam. 
f  See§  451.1. 

J  Perhaps  immediately  from  the  adjectives  exossi-  '  boneless,'  enodi- 
*  without  knots.' 


342  SIXTAX. 

tion  expressed  by  the  Latin  auctoramento-).    k.  distance :  as,  ex- 
audi-  hear  in  the  distance  or  on  the  outside. 

1333  In  adjectives  formed  from  substantives  this  preposition  denotes 
absence :  as,  enerui-  without  muscle,  exsompni-  sleqiless,  extorri- 
(for  exterri-)  banished. 

1334  Erga  with  an  accusative,    a.  Facing  (very  rare) :  as, 
Tonstricem  Suram  Nouisti  nostram,  quae  has  nunc  erga  aedis 

habet*  (Plant.  True.  n.  4.  51),  you  know  our  coiffeuse  Sura, 
who  lives  now  facing  this  house. 

b.  Towards  (of  friendly  feeling)  :  as, 

Eodem  modo  erga  amlcos  affect!  siimus  quo  erga  nosmet  ipsos 
(Cic.  de  Am.  16.  56),  we  are  disposed  in  the  same  way  towards 
friends  as  towards  ourselves. 

c.  Against  (of  unfriendly  feeling,  rare)  :  as, 

Quasi  quid  filius  Meus  deliquisset  me  erga  (Plaut.  Ep.  in.  3.  8), 
as  if  my  son  had  committed  any  offence  against  me. 

1335  Extra,  t    a.  Without  (no  motion) :  as, 

Hi  sunt  extra  prouinciam  trans  Rhodanum  prim!  (Caes.  B.  G. 
i.  10),  these  are  the  first  people  without  the  province  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Rhone. 

b.  The  same  without  a  noun  :  as, 

Extra  gt  inttis  hostem  h&bebant  (Caes.  B.  C.  HI.  69),  they  had 
an  enemy  without  and  within. 

c.  Metaphorically :  as, 

Extra  caussam  id  est  (Cic.  p.  Caec.  32. 94),  that  is  foreign  to  tJie 

question  before  us. 
Dlco  oinnis  extra  culpam  fuisse  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  v.  51. 134),  7 

affirm  that  all  were  blameless. 
Sed  mehercules  extra  iocum  homo  bellus  est  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn. 

16.  2),  but  really  without  joking  he  is  a  pleasant  feUow. 

d.  Except:  as, 

Extra  diicem  paucosquS  praeterea,  rellqui  in  bello  r£pac5?,  Tn 
orationg  criidelSs  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  3.  2),  except  the  cliej 

*  This  reading  is  partly  conjectural, 
f  For  the  preposition  ex,  e,  see  §  1331. 


ix.  343 

and  a  few  besides,  the  rest  were  rapacious  in  the  field,  Hood- 
thirsty  in  language. 

nauigato  citra  Calicadnum  extra  quam  si  quS,  nauis  lega- 
tes portablt  (Liv.  xxxvm.  38),  neither  shall  he  navigate  the 
sea  on  this  side  of  Calicadnus,  always  excepting  the  case  of  a 
ship  carrying  ambassadors. 

133G  In  is  used  with  the  ablative  and  accusative  ;  with  the  former 
when  there  is  no  motion,*  with  the  accusative  when  there  is 
motion. 

In  with  the  ablative  denotes — a.  In,  in  reference  to  place  :  as, 
In  eo  conclaui  el  ciibandum  fuit  (Cic.  de  Div.  n.  8. 20),  in  that 

chamber  he  would  have  had  to  sleep. 
Attiilit  in  cS,uea  pullos  (Cic.  de  Div.  n.  34. 72),  he  brought  the 

chickens  in  a  cage. 

In  hortis  cum  memo  suo  ambulabat  (Cic.  Acad.  Pr.  n.  16.51), 
he  was  walking  in  the  park  with  his  neighbour. 

b.  On  or  over :  as, 

Nerno  eum  unquam  in  gquo  sedentem  uldit  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  v. 

10.  27),  no  one  ever  saw  him  on  horseback. 
Equitare  In  arundlng  longa  (Hor.  Sat.  n.  3. 248),  to  ride  on  a 

long  reed. 
Pons  In  Ibero  prope  eflfectus  Srat  (Caes.  B.  C.  i.  62),  the  bridge 

over  the  Ebro  was  nearly  finished. 

c.  Among :  as, 

Caes&rls  in  barbaris  erat  nomgn  obscurius  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  61), 
C&sar's  name  was  not  well  known  among  the  barbarians. 

Exercltum  In  Aulercis  collScauit  (Caes.  B.  G-  in.  29),  he  quar- 
tered the  army  in  the  country  of  the  Aulerci. 

d.  Included  in,  part  of:  as, 

Nihil  praeter  uirtutem  in  bonis  ducere  (Cic.  de  Fin.  in.  3. 10), 
to  look  upon  nothing  but  manliness  as  entitled  to  a  place  among 


Capito  in  decem  legatis  grat  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  9.  26),  Capito 

was  one  of  the  ten  deputies. 

e.  In,  in  the  sense  of  within  the  range  of,  but  only  in  certain 
phrases :  as, 

*  That  is,  no  motion  in  relation  to  the  noun  \  or  rather,  no  motion 
from  the  exterior  of  it  to  its  interior. 


344  SYNTAX. 

Cum  in  sole  ambulo.  c51oror  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  14.  60),  when  I 
walk  in  the  sun,  I  get  bit 'owned. 

Ist&  mSderatio  anlmi  in  dculis  clarissumae  prouinciae  atque  in 
aurlbus  omnium  gentium  est  pSsIta  (Cic.  ad  Q.  F.  1. 1.  2.9), 
that  power  of  self-control  you  possess  lies  under  the  eyes  of  a 
most  distinguished  province,  and  within  the  hearing  of  all 
nations. 

f.  In,  denoting  the  position  in  which,  a  person  is,  as  regards 
the  feelings  of  others :  as, 

Difficile  est  dictu,  quanto  In  6dio  slums  a"piid  exteras  nationes 
(Cic.  p.  Leg.  Man.  22.  65),  it  is  difficult  to  say  in  what  de- 
testation we  are  held  among  foreign  nations. 

ES,  clultas  tlbi  una  in  Smorg  fuit  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  1.  3),  that 
state  was  the  special  object  of  your  affection. 

Apiid  eum  sunt  In  honore  e"t  in  pretio  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am. 
28.  77),  they  are  respected  and  valued  by  him. 

g.  In,  before  persons,  signifying  in  the  case  of,  in  what  concerns 
them  :  as, 

Respondit  se  id  quod  in  Neruiis  fecisset  facturum  (Caes.  B.  G. 

ii.  32),  he  replied  that  lie  would  do  the  same  as  he  had  done 

in  the  case  of  the  Nervii. 
Idem  in  b5no  seruo  did  s&let  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  61.  248),  the  same 

is  commonly  said  of  a  good  slave. 

h.  Dressed  in,  wearing,  armed  with  :  as, 

Pa"tlbulo  adfixus,  In  isdem  aniilis  quos  gestabat  (Tac.  Hist.  iv. 

3),  fixed  to  the  gallows  with  the  same  rings  on,  which  he  wore 

(when  alive). 
Trlflda  Neptunus  In  hasta  (Vol.  Fl.  I.  641),  Neptune  armed 

with  a  three-fanged  spear. 

i.  In  respect  of,  in  reference  to  :  as, 

Vexatiir  &b  omnibus  In  eo  llbro  quern  scripsit  de  uita  beata 

(Cic.  Tusc.  v.  9.  24),  he  is  attacked  by  all  in  reference  to  the 

book  which  he  wrote  on  a  happy  life. 

j.  A  period  of  time  in  the  course  of  which  a  thing  happens  is 
often  preceded  by  In  :  as, 

Vix  ter  In  anno  audire  nuntium  possunt  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am. 
46. 132),  they  can  receive  news  scarcely  three  times  in  the  year. 


IN.  345 

Hae  res  contra  nos  f&ciunt  In  hoc  tempSrg  (Cic.  p.  Quinct.  1. 1), 
these  things  make  against  us  under  present  circumstances. 

Fere  in  diebus  paucis  quibus  haec  acta  sunt  Chrysis  uicina 
haec  moritur  (Ter.  And.  I.  1.  77),  within  a  few  days  or  so 
after  this  occurred,  my  neighbour  here  Chrysis  dies. 

k.  The  simple  verbs  of  placing,  such  as  pSs-  put,  Itfca-  place, 
stS-tu-  set  up  (even  though  motion  be  implied  in  them),  take  In 
with  an  ablative  in  the  best  writers,  and  that  whether  used  in 
their  simple  sense  or  metaphorically  :  as, 

T&biilae  testament!  Romam  grant  adlatae,  ut  in  aerario  pone- 
rentur  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  108),  his  will  had  been  carried  to 
Rome,  that  it  might  be  deposited  in  the  treasury. 

Omnem  curam  in  siderum  cognitions  po'suerunt  (Cic.  de  Div. 
I.  42.93),  they  employed  all  their  thoughts  in  the  study  of  the 
stars. 

Apud  P&tronem  te  in  maxuma  gratia  p&sui  (Cic.  ad  Att.  v. 
11.6),  I  have  caused  you  to  be  in  -very  high  favour  with  Patro. 

1337        In  with  an  accusative  denotes — a.  Into  :  as, 

Gladium  hosti  in  pectus  infixit  (Cic.  Tusc.  iv.  22. 50),  he  drove 

the  sword  into  the  enemy's  breast. 
Paene  in  ftfueam  decldl  (Plant.  Per.  iv.  4. 46),  I  all  but  fell  into 

a  ditch. 
Inde  6rat  brguisslmiis  in  Brltanniam  traiectus  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv. 

21),  from  thence  was  the  shortest  passage  to  Britain. 

b.  On  to  :  as, 

Fllium  In  humeros  suos  extiilit  (Cic.  de  Or.  i.  53.  228),  he  lifted 

his  son  on  to  his  shoulders. 
DeiotSrum  In  ecum  sustulerunt  (Cic.  p.  Deiot.  10.  28),  they 

lifted  (the  aged)  Deiotarus  on  to  his  horse. 

c.  Among  (with  motion)  :  as, 

Cohortis  quinque  In  Eburones  mlsit  (Caes.  B.  G.  v.  24),  he  sent 
five  cohorts  into  the  country  of  the  Eburones. 

d.  The  new  form  or  character  into  which  any  thing  is  changed 
has  In  before  it :  as, 

Ex  homing  se  conuortlt  in  beluam  (Cic.  de  Off.  in.  20. 82),  he 

changes  himself  from  a  man  into  a  beast. 
Aqua"  mSrina  in  dlmldiam  partem  decSquenda  est  (Col.  xn.  24), 

the  sea-water  must  be  boiled  down  to  one-half. 


346  SYNTAX, 

e.  The  object  on  which  any  thing  is  spent  or  employed  :  as, 
Nullus  tgruncius  insumitur*  in  quemquam  (Cic.  ad  Att.  v. 

17.  2),  not  a  farthing  is  spent  on  any  one. 

Maiorem  sumptum  in  praudium  fecerunt  (Cic.  TI.  Verr.  iv. 
10.  22),  they  spent  a  larger  sum  on  a  breakfast. 

f.  Direction  of  sight  or  thoughts  on  or  to  an  object  :  as, 

In  quoius  fortunas  non  ociilos  deftgit  ?  (Cic.  Phil.  xi.  5. 10) 

on  whose  property  does  he  not  fix  his  eye  ? 
In  te  unum  se  totS  conuortet  cluitas  (Cic.  Somn.  Sc.  2),  the 

whole  body  of  citizens  will  turn  their  thoughts  to  you  alone. 

g.  Direction  of  power  towards  or  over  an  object :  as, 

Vlri  in  uxores  ultae  necisque  habent  ptftestatem  (Caes.  B.  G. 

vi.  19),  the  husband  has  power  of  life  and  death  over  the  wife. 
Ne  tamdiu  quidem  dominus  erit  in  suos  ?  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am. 

28.  78)  shall  he  not  even  for  this  little  time  be  master  over  his 

own  people  ? 

h.  Feeling  towards,  whether  friendly  or  hostile  (though  more 
frequently  the  latter)  :  as, 

Ad  impietatem  in  decs,  in  homines  adiunxit  iniuriam  (Cic. 
N.  D.  in.  34. 84),  to  impiety  towards  the  gods  he  added  out- 
rage to  man. 

Si  ferae  partus  suos  dillgunt,  qua  nos  in  llberos  nostros  indul- 
geutia  esse  debemiis?  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  40. 168)  if  wild  beasts 
love  their  offspring,  what  ought  to  be  our  kindness  towards 
our  children  ? 

i.  Purposet  (even  though  not  attained), for,  to:  as, 

NullS  pecuuiS  nisi  in  rem  militaremst  data  (Cic.  p.  Rab.  Post. 

12.  34),  no  money  was  given  except  for  military  purposes. 
In  hanc  rem  testem  Sicilian!  citabo  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  n.  59. 146), 

/  will  call  Sicily  itself  as  a  witness  to  prove  this  fact. 

j.  Tendency,  sense  of  words,  &c.,  fort  to,  as :  as, 

*  Yet  with  pos-  and  consum-  the  best  writers  prefer  in  with  the  abla- 
tive. 

f  This  usage  was  carried  to  a  great  extent  by  the  later  writers,  but  is 
more  limited  in  Cicero,  who  instead  of  such  a  phrase  as  in  honorem  ali- 
cuius^  would  have  said  honoris  alicuius  caussa.  (See  Madvig,  Opusc. 
i.  p.  167.) 


IN.  347 

Ego  quae"  in  rem  tuam  sint,  ea  uelim  facias  (Ter.  Ph.  n.  4.  9), 

as  for  me,  whatever  course  may  be  for  your  interest,  that  1 

should  wish  you  to  adopt. 
In  earn  sententiam  multS,  dixit  (Cic.  ad  Att.  II.  22.  2),  he  said 

much  to  this  effect. 
Haec  in  suam  contumeliam  uertit  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  8),  all  this  he 

interpreted  as  an  insult  to  himself. 

k.  -  Resemblance  (resulting  from  an  act),  manner,  form,  after :  as, 

Pgditum  agmen  in  mo'dum  fugientium  agebatur  (Liv.  xxi.  41), 

the  infantry  was  hurrying  along  so  as  to  look  like  a  body  of 

runaways. 

I.  In  distributions  the  unit  is  expressed  by  In  and  an  accusative 
plural  with  or  without  the  adjective  singulo-,  while  the  English  is 
expressed  by  every,  each,  the,  &c.  :  as, 

Iain  ad  denarios  quinquaginta  in  singulos  modios  annona  per- 

uenerat  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  52),  the  price  of  corn  had  now  reached 

to  fifty  denaries  the  bushel. 
Q.uingenos  denarios  prgtium  in  capita  statuerant  (Liv.  xxxiv. 

50),  they  had  fixed  500  denaries  as  the  price  per  head. 
Tempora  in  horas  commutar!  uides  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xiv.  20.  4), 

the  state  of  things  changes  you  see  every  hour. 
Vltium  in  dies  crescit  (Cic.  Top.  16.  62),  vice  increases  every 

day. 

m.  The  future  in  phrases  of  time  expressed  by  for,  until,  &c. : 
as, 

Ad  cenam  hSmlnem  inuitauit  in  postgrum  diem  (Cic.  de  Off. 

in.  14. 58),  he  asked  the  man  to  dinner  for  the  next  day. 
Sermonem  in  multam  noctem  produxlmus  (Cic.  Somn.  Sc.  1), 

we  kept  up  the  conversation  until  late  at  night. 

n.  In  some  phrases  denoting  the  position  of  a  party,  the  verb 
6s-  be  is  used  with  in  and  an  accusative,  although  no  motion  or 
change  is  expressed*  :  as, 

Pulcerrumum  ducebant  &b  exteris  nationlbus  quae  In  amici- 
tiam  popiill  Romanl  diciouemque  essent,  iniurias  propul- 
sarS  (Cic.  in  Caecil.  20. 66),  they  deemed  it  a  most  glorious 

*  This  originated,  says  Madvig  (Lat.  Gr.  §  230,  obs.  2,  note),  in  an 
inaccuracy  of  the  pronunciation,  where  the  distinction  between  the  accu- 
sative and  ablative  rested  on  the  single  letter  m. 


348 


SYNTAX. 


duty  to  ward  off  outrage  from  foreign  nations  who  stood  in 
the  relation  of  friends  and  vassals  to  the  Roman  people. 
Quum  uostros  portus  in  praedonum  fuissS  pStestatem  sciatTs 
(Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  12. 33),  when  your  own  harbours  have  been, 
you  are  aware,  in  the  possession  of  pirates. 

1338  In  when  compounded  with  verbs*  denotes — a.  into  :  as,  ini- 
enter,  indiic-t  lead  in.    b.  upon :  as,  iniiig  t  place  (as  a  yoke)  upon, 
indu-  put  on,  induc-t  draw  on,  impe'ra-  impose,     c.  against :  as, 
infer-  carry  against,  illid-  dash  against,  imride-  look  with  envy  at. 
d.  at,  over :  as,  inggm-  groan  at,  illacruma-  weep  over.    e.  privacy : 
as,  Inaudi-  or  iudaudi-  hear  as  a  secret.    But  see  §  §  1 308. 2, 1308.  3. 

1339  Infra  denotes  below,    a.  In  regard  to  place,  with  or  without  a 
noun :  as, 

Argentum  ad  mare  infra  oppidum  exspectabat  (Cic.  II.  Verr. 

iv.  23. 51),  he  was  waiting  for  the  silver  by  the  sea-side  below 

the  town. 
Infra  nihll  est  nM  mortale  ;  supra  lunam  sunt  aeterna  omniS; 

(Cic.  Somn.  Sc.  4),  below  there  is  nothing  but  what  is  mortal; 

above  the  moon  every  thing  is  eternal. 

b.  Of  time  :  as, 

Homerus  non  infra  superiorem  Lycurgum  fuit  (Cic.  Brut.  10. 
40),  Homer  was  not  of  a  later  date  than  the  elder  Lycurgus. 

c.  Of  number  :  as, 

HiSmg  pauciora  ou£  subMto,  non  tamen  infra  nSuena"  (Plin. 
xvin.  26),  in  winter  you  must  place  fewer  eggs  under  them, 
not  a  smaller  number  however  than  nine  at  a  time. 

d.  Of  magnitude  :  as, 

Vr!  sunt  magnttudlng  paulo  infra  glgfantos  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  28), 
the  urus  in  size  is  a  little  below  the  elephant. 

e.  Of  worth  :  as, 

*  In  in  the  composition  of  adjectives  signifies  not,  but  has  no  con- 
nection with  the  preposition.  On  the  other  hand,  verbs  are  never  com- 
pounded with  the  negative  in.  lynora-  '  be  ignorant'  seems  to  be  an 
exception,  but  only  seems,  for  it  is  formed  from  the  adjective  ignaro-, 
which  as  an  adjective  was  entitled  to  the  negative  prefix  before  the  sim- 
ple adjective  gnaro-.  Substantives  compounded  with  in  *  not'  are  at  times 
found,  but  only  in  the  ablative,  as  iniussu  '  without  permission.' 

f  See  §  451.  1. 


INFRA.    INTER.  349 

Infra  se  onmia  humanS,  ducet  (Cic.  de  Fin.  in.  8.  29),  he  will 
deem  every  thing  human  below  him,  i.  e.  unworthy  his  atten- 
tion. 

1340  Intgr  denotes  between  or  among,     a.  Of  place  :  as, 

Mons  lura  est  inter  Sequanos  8t  Heluetios  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  2), 
Mount  Jura  lies  between  the  Sequani  and  the  Helvetii. 

Inter  sobrios  baccharl  uldetur  (Cic.  Or.  28.  99),  he  seems  to  be 
acting  Bacchus  among  sober  people. 

b.  Of  time,  between,  during :  as, 

Dies  quadraginta  quinque  inter  blnos  ludos  tolleutiir  (Cic.  II. 

Verr.  n.  52. 130),  forty-five  days  between  the  two  festivals 

shall  be  struck  out. 
Hoc  inter  cenain  dictaul  (Cic.  ad  Q.  F.  m.  1.6.19),  I  have 

dictated  this  during  dinner. 

c.  Mutuality:  as, 

Inter  se  asplciebant  (Cic.  in  Cat.  in.  5. 13),  they  kept  looking  at 

one  another. 
Clcerones  pugri  amant  inter  se  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vi.  1. 12),  the  young 

Ciceros  are  great  friends. 

1341  Inter  in  composition  with  verbs  denotes  between :  as,  interpds- 
place  between.    But  see  §  1342. 1. 

1342  Intgr  is  compounded  with  nouns  forming  both  substantives  and 
adjectives — a.  with  the  sense  between :  as,  interuallo-  (n.)  the  space 
between  two  stakes  in  a  palisade,  an  interval,  intertignio-  (n.)  the 
space  between  two  beams,  intern uutio-  a  messenger  who  goes  backwards 
and  forwards  between  two  people,    b.  within :  as,  inter-ciiti-  or  -cut- 
within  the  skin.     c.  between,  as  regards  time :  as,  interlunio-  the 
interval  when  no  moon  is  visible. 

1 342.  i  Inter — from  In  or  aii  up  =  ava  (see  §  834,  and  compare  §  308. 1) 
— denotes  a.  up :  as,  intelleg-  pick  or  gather  up  (information),  per- 
ceive, interturba-  stir  up,  intermisce-  mix  up.  b.  again :  as,  inter- 
pola-/w#  (cloth)  again,  vamp  up  anew.  c.  reversal  of  a  preceding 
act :  as,  interiug-  unyoke,  interquiesc-  repose  after  labour,  d.  sepa- 
ration, removal,  disappearance:  as,  interrup-  break  off,  intermlt- 
leave  off  or  let  out  (the  fire),  intercliid-  shut  off,  intercld-  fall  away, 
escape,  interfrlg-  break  off,  inte'raresc-  dry  up,  interblb-  drink  up, 
interfile- forbid,  intermlna-  (r.)  warn  off  with  threats,  e.  especially  of 


350  SYNTAX. 

disappearance  by  death,  as  inter-flc-  or  -fici-  make  away  with,  kill, 
intgrlm-  take  of,  kill,  int^ri-  pass  away,  die,  inter-mtir-  or  -mori- 
die  off,  interneca-  kill  of,  interfugesc-  die  of  cold  (hence  be  neglected 
and  so  become  obsolete),  f.  through :  as,  inter-fod-  or  -f5di-  dig 
through,  interspira-  breathe  through,  inter-fug-  or  -fugi-jtfy  through, 
interlace-  and  interfulge-  shine  through.* 

1343  Intra  denotes  within,     a.  Of  place  without  motion  :  as, 
Intra  parietes  meos  de  mea  pernicie  consilia  Ineuntur  (Cic.  ad 

Att.  in.  10.  2),  plans  are  entered  into  within  the  walls  of  my 
house  for  my  own  destruction. 

AntiSchum  intra  montem  Taurura  regnare  iusserunt  (Cic.  p. 
Sest.  27. 58),  they  decreed  that  Antiochus  should  rule  within 
Mount  Taurus. 

b.  Of  place  with  motion  :  as, 

Intra  portas  compelluntiir  (Liv.  vii.  11),  they  are  driven  within 
the  gates. 

c.  Metaphorically  :  as, 

Eptilamur  una  non  mSdS  non  contra  legem  sgd  gtiam  intra 
legem  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  26.  4),  we  feast  together  not  only 
not  against  the  law,  but  even  within  it. 

Quidam  phrengtici  intra  uerba  desipiunt  (Cels.  in.  18),  some 
lunatics  show  the  disease  only  in  words. 

d.  Of  number  (particularly  in  regard  to  time),  within,  during  : 
as, 

Intra  annos  quattuordScim  tectum  non  subierant  (Caes.  B.  G. 

i.  34),  for  fourteen  years  they  had  not  passed  under  a  roof. 
Intra  paucos  dies  oppldum  capltur  (Liv.  n.  25),  within  a  few 

days  the  town  is  taken. 

1344  Intro  in  is  used  in  composition  with  verbs  of  motion  or  direc- 
tion :  as,  introi-  enter,  introduc-  lead  in,  intro-splc-  or  -splci-  look 
in. 

\  345        luxtat  (root  iiig-  yoke,  join}  denotes — a.  Proximity  of  place, 
close  by :  as, 


*  This  inter  became  soon  in  a  great  measure  obsolete,  so  that  many 
of  the  words  belong  exclusively  to  the  older  writers,  Cato,  Plautus,  Lu- 
cretius. It  may  be  useful  to  compare  the  meanings  of  this  inter  with 
those  of  an  and' its  representatives,  §  1308.  2. 

f  This  word  is  scarcely  to  be  met  with  in  Cicero.  In  Tacitus  it  is 
very  common. 


INTEA.    IVXTA.    OB.  351 

luxta  murum  castra  pSsuit  (Caea.  B.  C.  I.  16),  he  pitched  his 

camp  near  a  wall. 

6.  The  same  with  motion,  nearly  to  :  as, 
luxta  seditionem  uentum  (Tac.  Ann.  vi.  13),  matters  came 

nearly  to  a  sedition. 

c.  Proximity  of  time,  immediately  after  :  as, 

Neque  gnim  conuSnit  iuxta  inediam  protlnus  satiStatem  ess8 
(Cels.  n.  16),  nor  indeed  is  it  reasonable  that  immediately 
after  fasting  there  should  be  a  full  meal. 

d.  Nearness  in  quality,  akin  to  :  as, 

Velocitas  iuxta  formldinem  est  (Tac.  Ger.  30),  speed  is  akin  to 

fear. 
Eorum  egS  ultam  mortemqug  iuxta  aestumo  (Sal.  Cat.  2),  the 

life  and  death  of  such  men  I  look  upon  as  much  the  same. 

e.  Equality  without  a  noun,  equally :  as, 

Solo  caeloquS  iuxta*  graui  (Tac.  Hist.  v.  7),  the  soil  and  at- 
mosphere being  equally  unhealthy. 

1346        Ob  denotes — a.  Towards,  with  motion  (but  only  in  very  old 
writers)  :  as, 

Ob  Romam  noctu  l^giones  ducfe're  coepit  (Enn.  ap.  Fest.),  he 
began  to  lead  the  legions  by  night  towards  Rome. 

b.  Against,  before,  with  or  without  motion  :  as, 

Follem  slbi  obstringit  ob  gulam  (Plant.  Aul.  n.  4. 23),  he  binds 

a  bladder  before  his  mouth. 
Lanam  ob  oculum  habebat  (Plaut.  Mil.  Gl.  v.  1.37),  he  had  a 

piece  of  wool  over  his  eye. 
Mors  ei  5b  8culos  saepe  uersatast  (Cic.  p.  Rab.  Post.  14.  30), 

death  often  passed  to  and  fro  before  his  eyes. 

c.  Against,  for,  in  accounts,  where  money  is  set  against  the 
thing  purchased,  pledged,  &c.,  or  the  thing  purchased,  &c.  against 
the  money  :  as, 

A'ger  obpositust  pigneri  Ob  decem  mnas  (Ter.  Ph.  iv.  3.56), 
my  land  has  been  put  as  a  pledge  against  ten  mince,  i.  e.  has 
been  mortgaged  for  that  sum. 

*  In  this  sense  a  dative  is  found :  as,  res  parua  ac  iuxta  mognis  dif- 
ficilis  (Liv.  xxiv.  19),  ka  little  matter,  but  equally  difficult  with  great 
matters.' 


352  SYNTAX. 


arrabonem  a  me  accepisti  ob  mulierem  (Plant.  Rud.  in. 

6.  23),  nay  you  received  from  me  earnest-money  for  the  woman. 
A'it  se  ob  asinos  f£rre  argentum  (Plant.  As.  n.  2.  80),  he  says 

that  he  has  brought  the  money  to  pay  for  the  asses. 
Est  flagltiosum  ob  rem  iudlcandam  pecuniam  acc!p8r§  (Cic.  Ji. 

Verr.  n.  32.  78),  it  is  indeed  a  scandalous  thing  to  take  money 

for  giving  a  verdict 

d.  A  purpose  or  reason,  for,  on  account  of:  as, 
Haec  ggo  ad  te  Sb  earn  caussam  scrlbo  ut  iam  de  tua  quSque7 
rationg  mgdlterg  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  I.  8.  3),  all  this  I  write  to 
you  with  this  object,  that  you  may  consider  the  course  of  pro- 
ceeding you  also  should  now  adopt. 

Verum  id  frustra  £n  ob  rem  faciam,  in  uestra  mS-nu  sltum 
(Sal.  Jug.  31),  but  whether  I  am  doing  this  in  vain  or  to 
some  purpose,  is  in  your  hands,  my  friends. 

1347  Ob  in  composition  with  verbs  signifies  —  a.  to,  towards  :  as,  tfbi- 
go  to,  ostend-  hold  out  to,  occur-*  run  to  meet.    b.  before  :  as,  obam- 
bula-  walk  before,  obuSUta-  keep  flying  before,  obuersa-  (r.)  pass  to 
and  fro  before,  obtine-  hold  in  the  presence  of  (an  enemy),    c.  shut- 
ting, obstructing:  as,  obd-put  to,  obstru-  build  up,  obslde-  blockade. 
d.  against  (physically)  :  as,  oblucta-  (r.)  struggle  against,  offend- 
strike  against,     e.  against  (morally)  :  as,  obnuntia-  bring  an  un- 
favourable report,  obtrecta-  depreciate,  <5bes-  be  injurious,  f.  upon  : 

as,  occulca-  tread  upon,  opprlm-  crush,  obtgr-  trample  upon.  g. 
covering,  affecting  the  surface  :  as,  obdiic-*  draw  over,  offud-*  pour 
over,  occalle-  grow  hard  on  the  surface. 

1348  P£lam  openly;  publicly,  in  the  presence  of  many.     a.  With  an 
ablative  (or  perhaps  dative)  :  as, 

Inde  rem  credltorl  palam  pSpiilo  soluit  (Liv.  vi.  14),  upon  this 
he  paid  the  money  to  the  creditor  in  the  presence  of  the  people. 

b.  The  same  without  a  case  :  as, 

Arrna  in  templumf  luce  et  palam  comportabantur  (Cic.  in  Pis. 

10.  23),  people  were  carrying  arms  into  the  temple  in  daylight 

and  openly. 

1  349        P8ngs  denotes  —  a.  In  the  hands  of,  in  the  possession  of:  as, 
•  See  §  451.1.  f  Al.  templo. 


OB.   PALAM.    PENES.    PER.  353 

Pengs  eum  est  ptftestas  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  iv.  7.  3),  the  power  is  in 
his  hands. 

Istaec  penes  uos  psaltriast  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  3. 34)  is  that  singing- 
girl  at  your  master's  house  ? 

Serui  centum  dies  penes  accussatorem  fuere  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  22. 60), 
the  slaves  for  a  hundred  days  were  in  the  custody  of  the  ac- 
cuser. 

Culpa  te"'st  penes  (Ter.  Hec.  iv.  1. 20),  the  fault  lies  with  you. 

Penes  te  gs  ?*  (Hor.  Sat.  2.  3.  273)  are  you  in  your  senses  ? 

1350        PSr  denotes — a.  Through,  with  motion  :  as, 

It  hastS,  Tago  per  tempus  utrumque  (  Virg.  A.  ix.  418),  passes 

the  spear  through  Tago's  either  temple. 
Helue'tii  pSr  angustias  suas  copias  transduxSrant  (Caes.  B.  G. 

i.  11),  the  Helvetii  had  led  their  forces  through  the  defile. 

b.  Through,  as  seen  through  :  thus, 

NaturS  membranas  Sctilorum  perlucidas  fecit  ut  p8r  eas  cernl 
posset  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  57. 142),  nature  made  the  membranes  of 
the  eye  transparent,  that  they  migJit  be  seen  through. 

Quod  uidsbam  gquldem,  sed  quasi  per  callgiuem  (Cic.  Phil, 
xii.  2.  3),  which  I  saw  att  the  time  it  is  true,  but  only  through 
a  cloud  as  it  were. 

c.  When  a  similar  thing  occurs  at  consecutive  points  of  a  line  : 
as, 

Inultatl  liberallter  per  dSmos  (Liv.  I.  9),  generously  invited  to 

all  the  houses,  i.e.  some  to  one,  some  to  another. 
Quid  h6c  negotist  quod  6mnes  homines  fabulantur  p6r  uias  ? 
(Plant.  Cist.  v.  1. 1)  what  is  this  business  which  all  tfte  world 
is  talking  about  in  every  street  of  the  town  ? 

d.  Of  time,  during,  through,  for :  as, 

Tgnuisti  prouinciam  per  decem  annos  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  9. 4), 
you  have  clung  to  the  province  during  ten  years. 

R5go  te  nS  te  uiae  pSr  hiemem  committas  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xvi. 
8),  /  beg  you  not  to  expose  yourself  to  the  danger  of  travelling 
during  the  winter. 

e.  The  means  by  which  a  thing  is  done,  through,  by,  by  means 
of:  w, 

«  Compare  this  with  a  similar  use  tf  apud  above. 
A  A 


354  SYNTAX. 

Qufid  Sdeptiis  est  per  scelus,  id  per  luxuriam  ecfuudit  (Cic.  p. 
Rose.  Am.  2.  6),  what  he  has  obtained  through  impiety,  he  is 
squandering  in  luxury. 

Quomlnus  discessio  fieret  per  aduorsarios  tuos  est  factum  (Cic. 
ad  Fam.  i.  4. 2),  it  was  owing  to  your  opponents  that  a  divi- 
sion did  not  take  place. 

f.  When  the  means  employed  are  deceitful,  pgr  may  be  trans- 
lated by  under.  In  this  case  the  nouns  employed  are  such  as 
specie-  appearance,  nomen-  name,  caussa-  cause,  <fec.  :  thus, 

Per  speciem  alienae  fungendae  uicis  suas  6pes  firmauit  (Liv.  I. 
41),  under  pretence  of  acting  for  another,  he  strengthened  his 
own  power. 

Aemulationis  suspectos  per  nomgn  obsidum  amSuebat  (Tac. 
Ann.  xiir.  9),  those  suspected  of  rivalry  he  was  endeavouring 
to  get  rid  of  under  the  name  of  hostages. 

q.  When  the  agent  does  not  act  through  any  intermediate 

means,  he  is  said  (though  incorrectly)  to  act  through  himself  :  as, 

Quoscunque  ntfuis  rebus  idoneos  credebat,  aut  per  se  aut  per 

aiios  solllcitabat  (Sal.  Cat.  39.  6),  all  those  whom  he  thought 

well  fitted  for  taking  part  in  a  revolution,  he  was  working 

upon,  either  himself  or  by  means  of  others. 
Nihtt  audactSr  ipsl  per  sese  sine  P.  Sulla  f&cerg  potuerunt  (Cic. 

p.  Sul.  24.  67),  they  could  do  nothing  daring  of  themselves 

without  the  aid  forsooth  of  Publius  Sulla. 

/i.  With  phrases  denoting  hindrance,  <fec.,  the  point  where  the 
hindrance  exists  is  expressed  by  per  through :  as, 

Vtrisque  adparuit  nihil  p8r  alteros  stare"  quo  mmus  inceptS, 

persgquSrentur  (Liv.  vi.  33),  to  each  nation  it  was  evident 

that  there  was  no  obstacle  on  the  part  of  the  other  to  prevem 

them  from  carrying  out  their  intentions. 
Per  duces,  non  per  mllites  ste'te'rat,  ne  uincgrent  (Liv.  in.  61), 

it  had  been  the  fault  of  the  generals,  not  the  soldiers,  that  they 

had  not  conquered. 

i.  With  verbs  denoting  permission  or  power,  the  person  who 
might  have  stood  in  the  way  is  expressed  by  pSr  :  as, 

DiglSdientur  ill!  per  me  licet  (Cic.  Tusc.  iv.  21.  47),  t/ify  may 

fight  it  out  for  me,  i.  e.  as  far  as  lam  concerned. 
Quum  et  per  u&letudlnem  et  pgr  annl  ternpus  nauigare  pot^ris, 


PER.  355 

ad  nos  ugnl  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xvi.  7),  when  loth  your  health 
and  the  season  of  the  year  permit  your  sailing,  come  to  us. 

j.  By,  in  entreaties,  to  express  the  person  or  object  in  consi- 
deration of  which  the  favour  is  asked*  :  as, 

Pert  egS  tg  deos  oro  (Ter.  And.  v.  1. 15),  I  entreat  you  by  the 
gods. 

PSr  ego  te  fill  quaecunque  iurS,  liberos  iungunt  p&rentibus  pre- 
cor  quaesoquS  (Liv.  xxm.  9),  by  all  the  ties,  my  son,  which 
bind  a,  child  to  a  parent,  I  pray  and  entreat  thee. 

k.  Hence  in  oaths,  by:  as, 

lurarem  per  I5uem  DeosquS  Penatis  me  ea  sentlrS  quae  dicS- 
rem  (Cic.  Acad.  Pr.  n.  20.  65),  I  would  have  sworn  by  Ju- 
piter and  the  Household  Gods  that  I  really  felt  what  1  said. 

1351  Per£  in  composition  with  verbs  denotes — a.  through:  as,  per- 
due-^ lead  through,  perflu-/ow  through,    b.  completion:  as,  perfic- 
or  -ftci-  complete,  permit- §  let  go  altogether,  abandon  (to  others), 
perora-  conclude  a  speech,     c.  destruction :  as,  pgri-  perish,  perd- 
\jordo~\,  destroy,  perlm-  kill\\. 

1352  Per  in  composition  with  adjectives  denotes — a.  through :  as, 
pernoct-  lasting  all  night,  perulgil-  awake  all  night,  perenni-  last- 
ing through  endless  years,     b.  very^ :  as,  perleui-  very  light,  per- 
magno-  very  great,    c.  destruction  :  as,  periuro-  violating  an  oath, 
perfido-  breaking  faith. 

*  This  in  fact  is  only  another  example  of  the  means  noticed  in  §  e. 
A  weak  party  approaches  an  offended  superior  through  some  third  party; 
as  for  instance  in  Caesar,  B.  G.  vi.  4,  the  Senones,  in  applying  for  his 
mercy,  adeunt  per  Aeduos. 

f  Observe  how  the  preposition  is  separated  from  its  noun  in  these 
examples. 

_  £  In  expergisc-  (r.)  « wake  up,'  the  preposition  is  joor,  the  old  form 
being  exporgisc-  i.  e.  exporrigisc-.  Again  in  perhibe-  the  old  form  was 
probably  porhibe-.  Compare  perinde,  a  corruption  of  proinde  or  rather 
porinde. 

§  See  §  451.1. 

II  The  per  signifying  destruction  is  perhaps  of  a  different  origin.  At 
any  rate  it  is  the  same  as  the  German  prefix  ver,  seen  in  verthun  '  de- 
stroy;' and  as  our  English  for,  seen  in  the  obsolete  fordo  i.  e.  'destroy,' 
forswear,  forget,  &c. 

^[  The  prefix  per  *  very'  is  often  separated  from  the  simple  adjective : 
as,  per  mihi  mirum  uisumst  (Cic.  de  Or.  I.  49.  214),  'it  seemed  very  won- 
derful to  me.' 


356  SYNTAX. 

1353  Pong  (closely  connected  with  post)  signifies  behind,     a.  With 
a  noun  :  as, 

Pone  nos  recede  (Plant.  Poen.  in.  2.  34),  step  lack  behind  us. 
Vinctae  ponS  tergum  manus  (Tac.  Hist.  in.  85),  his  hands  were 

bound  behind  his  back. 
b.  Without  a  noun  :  as, 
Et  ante  et  pone,  8t  ad  laeuam  et  ad  dextrara,  et  sursum  et 

deorsum  [mouebatur]  (Cic.  de  Un.   13  ad  fin.),  [it  moved] 

forward  and  backward,  to  the  left  and  to  the  right,  upward 

and  downward. 
Pong  sequens  (Virg.  A.  x.  226),  follovring  behind. 

1354  Post  denotes  behind,  after,     a.  Of  place:  as, 

Flumen  grat  post  castra  (Goes.  B,  G.  n.  9),  there  was  a  river  in 

the  rear  of  the  camp. 
Sed  magnum  metuens  se  post  craterS,  tSgebat  (Virg.  A.  ix. 

346),  but  behind  a  vast  bowl  in  his  fear  he  hid  him. 

b.  The  same  without  a  noun  :  as, 

Caedere  inclpiunt  seruos  qui  post  erant  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  10.  29), 
they  begin  to  cut  down  the  slaves  who  were  in  the  rear. 

c.  Of  time,  after,  since :  as, 

Post  tuum  discessum  blnas  a  Balbo  ;  nihil  noui  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xv. 

8),  since  your  departure  two  (letters)  from  Balbus  ;  no  news. 
Hoc  sexennio  post  Veios  captos  factumst  (Cic.  de  Div.  1. 44. 100), 

this  occurred  six  years  after  the  capture  of  Veii. 
Post  diem  quintum  quam  barb&ri  Iterum  male  pugnauSrant, 

legati  a  Boccho  ugniunt  (Sal.  Jug.  102),  on  the  fifth  day 

after  the  second  defeat  of  the  barbarians,  an  embassy  from 

Bocchus  arrives. 

d.  The  same  without  a  noun  :  as, 

Iiiltio  mea  sponte  eum,  post  inuitatu  tuo  mittendum  duxl 
(Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  5.  2),  at  first  of  my  own  motion,  after- 
wards at  your  invitation,  I  thought  it  right  to  send  him. 

Post  paucis  diebiis*  Slios  dgcem  legatos  adduxerunt  (Liv.  XL. 
47),  a  few  days  after  they  brought  other  ten  ambassadors. 

SSnatus  post  paulo*  de  his  rebus  h&bltiis  est  (Liv.  v.  55),  a 
senate  was  held  soon  after  on  this  subject. 

*  Or  these  may  possibly  be  datives  dependent  upon  post,  as  in  postibi. 
Compare  §§  957,  958,  and  the  use  of  contra  with  auro. 


POXE.    POST.    PBAE.  357 

e.  Metaphorically :  as, 

Vbi  perlculum  aduenit,  inuldia  et  superbia  post  fuerS  (Sat. 

Cat.  23),  when  danger  approached,  envy  and  pride  fell  into 

the  rear. 

1355  Post  in  composition  with  verbs  signifies — a.  after,  of  place  :  as, 
postscrib-*  (Tac.),  write  after,     b.  after,  of  time  :  as,  postfacto- 
done  afterwards,  postgenito-  born  afterwards,    c.  after,  in  import- 
ance :  as,  postpos-*  and  posthabe-  deem  of  secondary  importance. 

1356  Prae  denotes  before,    a.  Of  place  :  as, 

Tiberim,  prae  se  armentum  agens,  nando  traiecit  (Lit).  I.  7), 
he  swam  across  the  Tiber,  driving  the  herd  before  him. 

Stillantem  prae  se  pugionem  tiilit  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  12.  30),  he 
carried  the  dripping  dagger  before  him. 

Also  as  an  adverb  :  thus, 

I  prae  (Ter.  And.  I.  1. 144),  go  first. 

b.  The  same  metaphorically  :  as, 

CstSrt  tectiores  ;  egtf  semper  me  dldlcissS  prae  me  tiili  (Cic. 
Or.  42.146),  the  others  are  more  reserved ;  I  ever  avowed  the 
fact  that  I  once  studied  the  subject. 

c.  The  cause  (but  chiefly  in  negative  sentences),  for :  as, 
Solern  prae  iaculorum  multttudlnS  non  uldebitis  (Cic.  Tusc.  I. 

42. 101),  you  will  not  see  the  sun  for  the  number  of  darts. 

Nee  loqu!  prae  maerore  p5tuit  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  41. 99),  and  he 
could  not  speak  for  grief. 

Prae  lassitudine  opus  est  tit  lauem  (Plaut.  True.  II.  3.7),  I  am 
so  fatigued  1  'must  take  a  bath. 

Credo  prae  Smore  exclusti  hunc  fSras  (Ter.  E.  I.  2. 18),  I  sup- 
pose it  was  for  love  you  shut  him  out. 

d.  In  comparison  with,  by  the  side  of:  as, 

Romam  prae  sua  Capua  inridebunt  (Cic.  in  Rull.  II.  35.  96), 
they  will  laugh  at  Rome  compared  with  their  own  Capua. 

1357  Prae  in  composition  with  verbs  denotes — a.  before  :  as,  prae- 
mlt-*  send  in  advance,  praebe-  (i.  e.  praehlbe-)  hold  before,  present, 
praesta-  place  or  stand  before,    b.  before,  in  the  sense  ot passing  by  : 
as,  praeflu-yfow  by,  praenaulga-  sail  by.    c.  at  the  head  of,  in  com- 

*  See  §  451.1. 


358  SYNTAX. 

mand :  as,  praees-  be  in  command,  prae-fic-  or  -fici-  place  in  com- 
mand, d.  at  the  extremity:  as,  praerod-*  gnaw  at  the  end,  praecliid-* 
close  at  the  end.  e.  superiority :  as,  praesta-  and  praeced-*  surpass, 
f.  before,  in  time :  as,  praecerp-  gather  too  soon,  praedlc-*  say  be- 
forehand, praesagi-  feel  beforehand,  g.  the  doing  a  thing  first  for 
others  to  do  after :  as,  praei-rS  uerba  to  tell  a  person  what  he  is  to 
say,  prae-cip-  or  -dpi-  teach,  praescrib-*  enjoin  by  writing. 

1358  Prae  m  the  composition  of  adjectives  denotes — a.  before,  of 
place  :  as,  praecip-  or  praeciplt-  head-first,    b.  before,  of  time  :  as, 
praescio-  knowing  beforehand,     c.  at  the  extremity :  as,  praeusto- 
burnt  at  the  end,  praSacuto-  sharp  at  the  end.     d.  very :  as,  prae- 
alto-  very  deep,  praeclaro-  most  glorious"^. 

1359  Praetgr  denotes — a.  Passing  by :  as, 

Praeter  castrS,  Caesaris  suas  copias  transduxit  (Oaes.  B.  G.  I. 
48),  he  led  his  own  troops  past  Caesar's  camp. 

Serul  praeter  oculos  Lolli  haec  omniS,  ferebant  (Cic.  n.  Verr. 
in.  25.  62),  the  slaves  kept  carrying  all  these  things  along  be- 
fore the  eyes  of  Lollius. 

b.  Beyond,  in  amount  or  degree  :  as, 

L&CUS  praeter  modum  creuerat  (Cic.  de  Div.  I.  44. 100),  the  lake 

had  risen  above  its  usual  level. 
Hoc  mihi  praecipuom  fuit  praeter  &lios  (Cic.  p.  Sul.  3.9),  this 

belonged  especially  to  me  above  others. 

c.  Besides,  i.  e.  in  addition  to  :  as, 

Praeter  se  denos  ad  conloquium  adducunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  43), 
they  bring  to  the  conference  ten  men  each  besides  themselves. 

Praetgr  auctorltatem,  ulres  qu8que  ad  coercendum  habebat 
(Caes.  B.  C.  m.  57),  besides  the  authority  of  a  name,  he  had 
the  physical  means  also  for  compulsion. 

d.  Except^,  excluding:  as, 

*  See  §  451.1. 

t  This  formation  is  scarcely  if  at  all  found  in  Cicero ;  for  praectho- 
(11.  Verr.  iv.  48.  107)  has  been  altered  into  perexcelso-  by  Zumpt  on  the 
authority  of  Mss. 

\  This  signification  and  the  last  are  not  so  opposite  as  may  at  first 
seem.  Thus  in  neque  nestitus  praeter  pcllis  habenl  quicquam  (Caen.  B. 
G.  iv.  1),  either  translation  is  admissible  without  any  difference  of  mean- 
ing. See  also  §  1233. 1. 


PRAE.    PRAETER.    PRO.  359 

Omnibus  sententiis  praetgr  unam  condempnatust  (Cic.  p.  Clu. 

20. 55),  he  was  found  guilty  by  all  the  votes  save  one. 
Frumentum  omng  praeter  quod  secuin  portaturi  grant  com- 

burunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  5),  they  burn  up  all  the  grain  except 

what  they  purposed  to  carry  with  them. 
Prlmo  clamore  oppidum  praeter  arcem  captum  est  (Liv.  vi. 

33),  at  the  first  shout  all  the  town  but  the  citadel  was  taken. 

In  the  sense  except  praetgr  may  be  used  like  a  conjunction,  so 
as  to  be  followed  by  a  noun  in  the  same  case  as  some  preceding 
noun  : 

CeteYae  multltudinl  diem  stStuit  praeter  rerum  c&pltalium 
dampnatis  (Sal.  Cat.  36),  he  fixes  a  day  for  the  rest  of  the 
multitude,  except  those  convicted  of  capital  offences. 

e.  Contrary  to :  as, 

Nihll  el  praetgr  ipsius  uoluntatem  accldit  (Cic.  in  Cat.  n.  7. 16), 

nothing  happened  to  him  contrary  to  his  own  wish. 
Multa  irnpendere  uldentur  praeter  naturam  (Cic.  Phil.  i.  4, 10), 

many  things  seem  likely  to  happen  out  of  the  usual  course  of 

nature. 

1360  Praeter  in  composition  with  verbs  signifies  passing  by  :  as, 
praetgri-  go  by,  praetermit-  let  go  by. 

1361  Pro  denotes — a.  Before,  of  place  :  as, 

PraesIdiS,  pro  templis  omnibus  cernltls  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  1.  2),  you 

see  troops  before  all  the  temples. 
Laudati  pro  contione  omnes  sunt  (Liv.  xxxvm.  23),  they  were 

all  commended  in  front  of  the  assembled  army. 

b.  Before,  with  the  notion  of  defending,  in  defence  of:  as, 
Pro  nudata  moenlbus  patria  corpora  oppouunt  (Liv.  xxi.  8), 

in  defence  of  their  native  city,  now  stripped  of  its  walls,  they 

present  their  bodies  to  the  enemy. 
EgS  pro  sodali  et  pro  mea  omnl  fama  decerno  (Cic.  de  Or.  n. 

49.  200),  I  am  fighting  the  last  battle  for  my  friend  and  for 

my  own  character  altogether. 
Haec  contra  legem  proque  legS  dicta"  sunt  (Liv.  xxxiv.  8),  such 

were  the  arguments  urged  against  and  in  favour  of  the  law. 

c.  In  place  of:  as, 


360 


SYNTAX. 


Lubenter  uerbS,  iungebant,  ut  sodes*  pro  si  audes,  sis  pro  si  uis 

(Cic.  Or.  45. 154),  they  were  fond  of  joining  words,  as  sodes 

for  si  audes,  sis  for  si  uis. 
Quoi  legatus  et  pro  quaestorg  fugrat  (Cic.  I.  Verr.  4. 11),  under 

whom  he  had  been  lieutenant  and  proqucestor,  i.  e.  deputy- 

qucestor. 

d.  Equivalent  to,  as  good  as,  as,  for  :  as, 

Pro  occlso  relictust  (Cic.  p.  Sest.  38.  81),  he  was  left  for  dead. 
Confessionem  cedentls  hostis  pro  uictoria  hSbeo  (Liv.  xxi.  40), 

the  confession  of  a  retreating  enemy  I  look  upon  as  a  victory . 
Id  summit  pro  certo  (Cic.  de  Div.  n.  50. 104),  this  they  assume 

as  certain. 

e.  Inpayment  for,  in  return  for,  for  :  as, 

Mlsimus  qul  pro  uectura  solvgret  (Cic.  ad  Att.  I.  3),  we  have 
sent  a  person  to  pay  for  the  freight. 

f.  In  consideration  of,  for :  as, 

Hunc  a'marg  pro  eius  suauitate  debemus  (Cic.  de  Or.  I.  55. 234), 
this  man  we  ought  to  love  for  his  own  sweetness  of  character. 

T6  pro  istis  factis  ulciscar  (Ter.  E.  v.  4. 19),  Pll  punish  you  for 
those  doings. 

g.  In  proportion  to,  considering,  in  accordance  with  :  as, 
Proelium  Strocius  quam  pro  numgro  pugnantium  edltur  (Liv. 

xxi.  29),  a  fiercer  battle  is  fought  than  could  have  been  ex- 
pected from  the  number  of  the  combatants. 

Pro  multltudfrie  homlnum  et  pro  gloria  belli  angustos  hS-bent 
finis  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  2),  considering  the  number  of  inhabitants 
and  their  military  reputation,  their  territories  are  confined. 

DScet,  quidquld  Sgas,  SgSre  pro  ulribus  (Cic.  de  Sen.  9. 27),  it 
is  right  tJiat  whatever  you  do,  you  should  do  to  the  best  of  your 
power. 

His  raptim  pro  tempSre  instructis  (Liv.  xxx.  10),  these  men 
being  hastily  drawn  up  as  well  as  the  circumstances  admitted. 

h.  For,  in  favour  of :  as, 

Hoc  non  m5d5  non  pro  me,  sed  contra  me  est  p5tius  (Cic.  de 

*  An  error  no  doubt  of  Cicero's.  Sodes  must  be  for  si  uoles,  I  and  d 
being  interchanged,  as  in  so  many  words ;  odor  and  oleo,  lacruma  and 
dacruma,  Vlixes  and  Oftvaaevs. 


PRAETER.    POR,  PKO.    PROPE.  361 

Or.  in.  20.  75),  this,  so  far  from  being  for  me,  is  rather 
against  me. 

1362  P6r  and  pro  in  composition  with  verbs  signify — a.  forward  : 
as,  progred-  or  progredi-  (r.)  advance,  porrlg-  stretch  out,  procur-* 
run  forward,    b.  out :  as,  prodi-  come  forth,  prosili-  leap  out.   c.  to  a 
distance:  as,  prSfug-  or  profugi-/y  to  a  distance,  proterre-  frighten 
°ff>  prosequ-  (r.)  follow  for  some  distance,  prohlbe-  keep  off.    d.  down- 
wards :  as,  profllga-  knock  down,  proter-  trample  down.    e.  extension : 
as,  promlt-*  allow  to  grow  long.    f.  publicity :  as,  prSfite-  (r.)  de- 
clare publicly,  proinulga-  advertise  (a  law),  proscrlb-*  offer  a  reward 
for  the  life  of,  pronuntia-  announce  publicly,    g.  progress,  profit : 
as,  proftc-  or  profici-  make  progress,  advance,  prodes-  be  of  service, 
h.  in  place  of:  as,  procura-  take  care  of  in  place  of  another,    i.  be- 
fore, in  time :  as,  prolud-  rehearse  beforehand,   j.  postponement  or 
continuation:  as,  prodlc-*  name  a  future  day,  profgr-  postpone,  pro- 
r5ga-  continue  for  a  longer  period  (by  enactment). 

1363  Pro  in  the  composition  of  adjectives  denotes — a.  downward  : 
as,  procliui-  downhill,    b.  negation :  as,  prcffundo-  bottomless,  pro- 
f ano-  not  sacred,  profane. 

1364  Pro  in  composition  with  nouns  of  relationship  denotes  greater 
distance,  expressed  in  English  by  great :  as,  pr^nSpot-  great-grand- 
son, proauo-  great-grandfather,  prosocSro-  wife's  grandfather. 

1365  Pro'pe't  denotes  near.    a.  Of  place  :  as, 

Ipsius  copiae  prtfpe  hostium  castra  ulsae  sunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  I. 
22),  his  own  forces  were  seen  near  the  enemies'  camp. 

b.  The  same  without  a  case,  or  with  £b  and  a  noun  :  as, 

Quls  hie  loquitur  prSpg  ?  (Plaut.  Rud.  I.  4. 11)  who  is  talking 


Bellum  tarn  prSpe  a  Sicilia,  tSmgn  in  Slcllia  non  fuit  (Cic.  n. 
Verr.  v.  2. 6),  the  war  though  so  near  Sicily,  yet  was  not  in 
Sicily. 

c.  The  same  metaphorically  :  as, 

Pr5p8  sgcessionem  plebis  res  ugnit  (Liv.  vi.  42),  matters  came 
almost  to  a  secession  of  the  commonalty. 

*  See  §451.1.  f  See  also  §  908. 


«3b2  SYNTAX. 

d.  Near,  of  time  :  as, 

Prope  adest  quum  alieno  m6re  uiuendumst  mihi  (Ter.  And.  I. 
1. 125),  the  time  is  at  hand  when  I  shall  have  to  live  in  ac- 
cordance with  another's  ideas. 

1366  Proptgr  (from  propg)  denotes — a.  Neo.r,  with  or  without  a 
case  :  as, 

Propter  PIStonis  stS-tuam  consedlmus  (Cic.  Brut.  6.  24),  we  took 

our  seats  near  a  statue  of  Plato. 
Duo  fllil  propter  ctibantes  ne  senserunt  quidem  (Cic.  p.  Rose. 

Am.  23.  64),  his  two  sons  sleeping  close  by  were  not  even  aware 

of  it. 

b.  On  account  of,  for,  through :  as, 

Tironem  proptSr  humanltatem  ct  mSdestiam  maid  saluom, 
quam  propter  usum  meum  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  5.  2),  /  wish 
Tiro  to  recover  more  out  of  regard  to  the  delicacy  and  modesty 
of  his  character  than  for  any  benefit  to  myself. 

Nam  n6n  est  aecum  me  propter  uos  decipi  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  7.  34), 
for  it  is  not  reasonable  that  I  should  be  a  loser  through  you. 

1367  Re  (or  rSd)  in  composition  with  verbs  signifies — a.  backward: 
as,  rgtrah-  drag  back,  renuntia-  carry  word  back,  repSt-  go  back, 
reformlda-  draw  back  in  fear.   b.  hence  reflection  of  light  or  sound  : 
as,  rgsona-  re-echo,  rSfulge-  shine  brilliantly,    c.  in  return :  as,  r8- 
pend-  repay,  rSfgri-  strike  in  return,  red-d-  repay,    d.  opposing  an 
effort  in  the  other  direction :  as,  rStlne-  hold  back,  reuinci-  bind  back, 
re'tlce-  keep  back  (a  secret),    e.  refusal :  as,  renu-  refuse  by  a  shake 
of  the  head,  rScussa-  make  some  excuse  and  so  decline,  f.  reversing 
some  former  act :  as,  rescid-*  cut  down  again  (that  which  has  been 
erected),  rgmlt-*  let  go  again  (that  which  has  been  stretched),  re- 
quiesc-  repose  (after  labour),  rescisc-  discover  (that  which  it  has 
been  attempted  to  conceal),  rgc&lesc-  grow  warm  again,    a.  revers- 
ing the  act  expressed  in  the  simple  verbf  :  as,  reftg-*  unfix,  rg- 
signa-  unseal,  rgcliid-  open,  rStgg-  uncover,  rgs&ra-  unbolt,    h.  put- 
ting away  from  sight,  concealing,  sheltering :  as,  relega-  (leave  be- 
hind), banish  far  away,  rgcond-  put  away  into  some  secret  place, 

*  See  §451.1. 

f  Hence  the  adjective  recidiuo-  'rising  again'  shows  that  redd-  once 
signified  *  rising  again  after  falling  or  being  felled,'  as  the  new  shoots  from 
the  stump  of  a  chestnut-  or  oak-tree. 


PROPTER.   RE.    RETRO.    SE.    SECVNDVM.  363 

re-dp-  or  -clpi-  receive  and  shelter,  i.  remaining  behind  when  the 
greater  part  is  gone  :  as,  remane-  remain  behind,  reside-  remain 
still  at  the  bottom,  j.  change  of  state :  as,  red-d-  render,  make,  rgdlg- 
reduce  to  some  state.*  k.  repetition :  as,  refloresc-  blossom  a  second 
time. 

1363  Retro  by  the  later  writers  is  compounded  with  verbs  of  mo- 
tion, and  signifies  backwards  :  as,  retrogradi-  (r.)  march  backwards 
(Pirn.). 

1369  Se  in  the  old  writers  is  used  as  a  preposition  with  the  ablative, 
and  signifies  separation  or  without :  as, 

Si  plus  minus  secuerunt,  se  fraude  esto  (XII.  Tables,  ap.  Gell. 
xx.  1),  if  they  cut  more  or  less,  it  shall  be  without  detriment 
(to  them). 

1370  Se  (or  sed)  in  composition  signifies — a.  with  verbs,  separation  : 
us,  seced-  withdraw,  sepos-t put  aside,    b.  in  adjectives,  absence: 
as,  securo-  free  from  care,  secord-  or  socord-  senseless,  spiritless. 

1371  SScundum  (i.e.  sequendum,  from  sequ-  (r.)  follow)  denotes — 

a.  Following :  as, 

I  tu  se'cundum  (Plant.  Am.  n.  1. 1),  do  you  come  after  me. 

b.  Along:  as, 

Legiones  Iter  se'cundum  marS  supgrum  faciunt  (Cic.  ad  Att. 
xvi.  8.  2),  the  legions  are  marching  along  the  upper  sea. 

c.  Behind,  without  motion  :  as, 

Volniis  accepit  in  c&pItS  secundum  anrem  (Sulpic.  ad  Cic.  Fam. 
iv.  12.  2),  he  received  a  wound  in  the  head  behind  the  ear. 

d.  After,  of  time  :  as, 

Spem  ostendis  secundum  cSmltia  (Cic.  ad  Att.  III.  12. 1),  you 

hold  out  a  hope  of  improvement  after  the  elections. 
Secundum  uindemiam  (Cato,  R.  R.  114),  after  the  vintage. 

e.  Second  in  order,  next  to :  as, 

Secundum  te  nihll  est  inihi  amlcius  solltudlng  (Cic.  ad  Att. 
xn.  15),  next  to  you  I  have  no  better  friend  than  solitude. 

*  To  this  head  belongs  the  use  of  redi-  in  such  phrases  as,  iam  res 
in  cum  rediit  locum  (Ter.  Haut.  n.  3. 118),  'matters  are  at  last  come  to 
this  state  ;'  ad  eum  surnma  imperi  redibit  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  4),  '  the  chief 
command  will  devolve  on  him.' 

t  See  §  451. 1. 


364  SYNTAX. 

/.  In  accordance  with  :  as, 

Omuia  quae  sgcundum  naturam  flunt  sunt  habenda  in  btfnls 
(Cic.  de  Sen.  19.71),  every  thing  that  happens  in  accordance 
with  nature  is  to  be  reckoned  among  blessings. 

g.  In  favour  of :  as, 

Pontlfices  sgcundum  eum  decreuSrunt  (Cic.  ad  Att.  iv.  2.  3), 
the  pontifical  college  decreed  in  his  favour. 

1372  Sing  denotes  without :  as, 

Homo  sine  re,  sine  fide,  sing  spe  (Cic.  p.  Gael.  32. 78),  a  man 
without  money,  without  credit,  without  hope. 

Infero  marl  nobis  nauigandumst,  £gg  iam  cum  fratre  an  sing  ? 
(Cic.  ad  Att.  vnr.  3.  5)  we  must  sail  along  the  lower  sea. 
True  ;  but  just  tell  me,  with  my  brother  or  without  him  ? 

1373  Sub  has  for  its  original  meaning  up,  as  is  seen  in  its  deriva- 
tives the  adjectives  supgro-  above,  summo-  highest,  the  prepositions 
super  upon,  supra  above;  and  above  all  in  the  use  of  sub  itself  in 
the  composition  of  verbs*.     It  is  found  with  both  accusative  and 
ablative. 

1374  Sub  with  the  accusative  denotes — a.  Up  tot :  as, 

Sub  prlmam  nostram  aciem  successerunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  24), 
they  came  up  to  our  first  line. 

b.  Under,  with  motion  :  as, 

Exercltus  sub  iugum  missus  est  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  7),  the  army 

was  sent  under  the  -yoke. 
Totamqug  sub  avrna  coactam  Hespgriam  (Virg.  A.  vii.  43),  find 

all  Hesperia  to  arms  compelled^. 

c.  Within  reach  of  things  from  above  (with  motion)  :  as, 

Vt  sub  ictum  uenerunt,  telorum  uls  ingens  effusa  est  in  eos 
(Liv.  xxvii.  18),  the  moment  they  came  within  throw,  an 
enormous  quantity  of  missiles  was  showered  upon  them. 

Quod  sub  oculos  ugnit  (/Sen.  de  Ben.  I.  5),  what  comes  within 
the  range  of  the  eye. 

*  See  §  1370'.  Indeed  our  own  word  up  is  the  very  same  word  as 
sub;  and  the  Greek  yircrro-  'highest,'  the  title  usually  given  to  the  Ro- 
man consul,  is  a  superlative  from  the  same  root. 

•f*  The  sense  of  to  belongs  to  the  accusative  termination,  and  not  to 
the  preposition. 

J  Compare  the  common  phrase  without  motion,  sub  armis  esse. 


SINE.   SVB.  365 

ES,  quae  sub  sensus  subiecta  sunt  (Cic.  Acad.  Pr.  n.  23.  74), 
those  things  which  are  brought  within  reach  of  the  senses. 

d.  Subjection  to  dominion,  under  (with  action)  :  as, 

Sub  popiili  Romani  imperium  ceclderunt  (Cic.  p.  Font.  1. 12), 
they  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Roman  people. 

e.  In  phrases  of  time,   immediately  after;    and  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  just  before  : 

Sub  eas  litteras  statim  recitatae  sunt  tuae  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  x. 

16.1),  immediately  after  these  dispatches,  yours  were  read  out. 
Afrlcum  bellum  sub  rgcentem  Romanam  pacem  fuit  (Liv.  xxi. 

2),  the  war  with  the  Afri  followed  close  upon  the  peace  with 

Rome. 
Sub  haec  dicta  omnes  manus  ad  consoles  tendentes  procubue- 

runt  (Liv.  vii.  31),  immediately  after  these  words  tliey  all 

prostrated  themselves,  stretching  out  their  hands  to  the  consuls. 
Quid  l&tet  ut  maYinae  Fllium  dlcunt  ThStidis  sub  IScrimosS, 

Troiae  Funera  ?  (Hor.  Od.  i.  8. 13)  why  skulks  he,  as  did 

sea-born  Thetis'  son  tliey  say  on  the  eve  of  Troy's  mournful 

carnage  ? 

1375        Sub  with  the  ablative  signifies — a.  Under  (without  motion)*  : 
as, 

Sub  terra  semper  hSbitaugrant  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  37. 95),  they  had 

always  lived  underground. 

Hostes  sub  montS  consederant  (Gaes.  B.  G.  I.  21),  the  enemy 
were  encamped  under  a  mountain. 

b.  Within  reach  of  things  above  (without  motion) :  as, 
AdprSpinquare  non  ausae  naues,  ne  sub  ictu  superstantium  in 

rupibus  plratarum  essent  (Liv.  xxxvu.  27),  the  ships  did 
not  dare  to  approach,  lest  they  should  be  within  shot  of  the 
pirates  stationed  above  on  the  cliffs. 

lam  lucesccbat,  omuiaqug  sub  Sculls  grant  (Liv.  iv.  28),  it  was 
now  getting  light,  and  all  that  was  passing  below  was  visible. 

c.  Inferiority,  subjection  (without  action),  under  :  as, 

*  Under  with  motion  is  at  times  expressed  by  the  ablative ;  for  in- 
stance, when  the  mind  dwells  upon  the  state  that  follows  rather  than  the 
act,  or  when  other  prepositions  are  added  to  signify  the  precise  motion. 
Thus,  sub  terra  uiui  demissi  sunt  in  locum  saxo  conseptum  (Liv.  xxn. 
57), '  they  were  let  down  alive  into  a  stone  chamber  underground.' 


366  SYNTAX. 

Matris  sub  imperiost  (Ter.  Haut.  II.  2.4),  she  is  under  her  mo- 
ther's rule. 

Vh-  implger  et  sub  Hannlbalg  m&gistro  omnis  belli  artis  edoc- 
tiis  (Liv.  xxv.  40),  a  man  of  energy,  and  who  had  been  tho- 
roughly instructed  in  the  art  of  war  under  Hannibal. 

d.  In  conditions,  under :  as, 

lussit  e!  praemium  trtbui  sub  ea  condicione  ne  quid  postea 
scriberet  (Cic.  p.  Arch.  10.  25),  he  ordered  a  reward  to  be 
given  him,  under  the  condition  that  he  should  never  write 
again. 

e.  In  phrases  of  time — during,  in,  just  at :  as, 

Ne  sub  ipsa  profectione  mllites  oppidum  irrumpe'rent,  portas 
obstruit  (Caes.  B.  C.  I.  27),  that  the  soldiers  might  not  burst 
into  the  town  during  the  very  embarkation,  he  builds  up  the 


1376  Sub  in  composition  with  verbs  denotes — a.  up:  as,  subueh- 
carry  up  (as  a  river),  sum-  (i.  e.  sublm-)  take  up,  surg-  (i.  e.  sur- 
rlg-)  rise,  subduc-t  draw  up,  sustlne-  hold  up.     b.  under:   as, 
sub§s-  be  under,  subi&ce-  lie  under,  submerg-  sink.    c.  assistance : 
as,  subuSni-  come  to  assist,  succiir-t  run  to  assist,    d.  succession  : 
as,  succln-  sing  after,  succlama-  cry  out  after,    e.  in  place  of:  as, 
sufflc-  or  suffici-  appoint  in  place  of,  suppos-t  put  in  place  of,  sub- 
stitu-  set  up  in  place  of.    f.  near :  as,  sub§s-  be  at  hand,  subsequ- 
follow  close  after,     g.  underhand,  secretly :  as,  surrfp-  or  sunipi- 
snatch  away  secretly,  suborna-  equip  secretly,  subduc-t  withdraw 
quietly,    h.  in  a  slight  degree:  as,  subrlde-  smile,  siibaccussa-  accuse 
in  a  manner,    i.  abundance^ :  as,  sufflc-  or  suffici-  and  suppSt-  be 
abundant. 

1377  Sub  in  the  composition  of  adjectives  denotes — in  a  slight  de- 
gree: as,  subobscuro-  rather  dark,  subfusco-  dusky. 

1378  Subter  is  used  generally  with  an  accusative,  rarely  with  an 
ablative,  often  without  a  noun.     It  signifies — a.  Under:  as, 

Iram  in  pecttfrS,  cupldltatem  subter  praecordiS,  IScauit  (Cic. 

*  Compare  the  use  of  sub  with  an  accusative  in  phrases  of  time, 
t  See  §  451. 1. 

\  This  sense  is  connected  with  that  of  sub  'up.'     Compare  the  op- 
posite, defic-  or  defici-  '  be  low,  wanting.' 


SVB.   SVBTER.    SVPEE.  367 

Tusc.  I.  10.  20),  anger  he  placed  in  the  breast,  desire  under 

the  midriff. 
Ferrg  iuuat  subter  densa  testudlnS  casus  ( Virg.  A.  ix.  514), 

they  glory  beneath  the  close  array  of  shields  to  bear  each 

chance. 
Omnia  haec,  quae  supra  et  subter,  unum  essS  dixerunt  (Cic. 

de  Or.  in.  5. 20),  all  these  bodies,  which  are  above  and  below, 

form  one  whole  they  said. 
b.  Metaphorically,  in  subjection,  under :  as, 
Virtus  omnia"  subter  se  habet  (Cic.  Tusc.  v.  1.  4),  virtue  holds 

every  thing  in  subjection  to  her. 

1379        Subter  in  composition  with  verbs  signifies — a.  under :  as,  sub- 
terlab-*  glide  underneath,     b.  secretly:  as,  subterduc-*  withdraw 


1380       Supgr  is  followed  both  by  an  ablative  and  an  accusative.   With 
an  ablative  it  signifies — a.  Over  (without  motion)  :  as, 

Destrictus  ensis  cul  supSr  impia  Ceruicg  pendet  (Hor.  Od.  in. 
1.17),  o'er  whose  unholy  neck  a  drawn  sword  hangs. 

b.  Upon  (without  motion)  :  as, 

Potgras  requiescSre  mecum  Fronde*  super  uMdi  (  Virg.  BUG.  I. 
80),  thou  mightest  have  reposed  with  me  upon  green  leaves. 

c.  Concerning:  as, 

Quid  nuncias  Super  anu  ?  (Plant.  Cist.  iv.  1.7)  what  news  do 

you  bring  about  the  old  woman  ? 
Velim  cogltes  quid  agendum  nobis  sit  super  legation^  (Cic.  ad 

Att.  xiv.  22.  2),  /  wish  you  would  consider  what  we  must  do 

concerning  the  embassy. 

SupSr  with  an  accusative  denotes — a.  Upon  (with  motion)  :  as, 

Imprudens  super  aspidem  assldlt  (Cic.  de  Fin.  n.  18.59),  un- 
wittingly he  sits  down  upon  an  asp. 

Alii  super  uallum  praeclpitantiir  (Sal.  Jug.  58),  others  are 
thrown  headforemost  upon  the  stakes. 

b.  Above  in  order  (as  at  table)  :  thus, 

Nomentaniis  grat  supgr  ipsum  (Hor.  Sat.  n.  8.  23),  Nomentanus 
lay  above  him. 

*  See§  451.1. 


368  SYNTAX. 

c.  Beyond  (but  with  a  notion  of  greater  height*) :  as, 
Proxlme  Hispaniam  Mauri  sunt,  super  Niimldiam  Gaetull  (Sal. 

Jug.  19),  next  to  Spain  are  the  Moors,  beyond  Numidia  the 
Gcetuli. 

d.  More,  in  amount :  as, 

SS,tis  superqug  dictumst  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  1.  2),  enough  and  more 
than  enough  has  been  said. 

e.  Besides:  as, 

Punlcum  exercitum  super  morbum  etiam  fames  affecit  (Liv. 
xxvir.  46),  the  Punic  army,  besides  sickness,  suffered  severely 
also  from  famine. 

1382  Supgr  in  composition  with  verbs  signifies — a.  over:  as,  siiper- 
ueni-  pass  over,  superemine-  project  above,  superfiid-t  pour  over. 
b.  abundance:  as,  supe're's-  abound,    c.  remaining  over,  survival: 
as,  supgre's-  remain  over,  survive,    d.  in  addition:  as,  superadduc-t 
bring  in  addition. 

1383  Supra  denotes— a.  Upon,  with  motion  :  as, 

Sub  terra  h&bltabant  ngque  exigrant  unquam  supra  terrain 
(Cic.  N.  D.  n.  37. 95),  they  lived  underground,  and  had  never 
come  out  above  the  ground. 

Et  saltu  supra  uenabulS,  fertur  ( Virg.  A.  ix.  553),  and  with  a 
bound  he  flies  upon  the  spears. 

b.  Upon,  in  contact  with  :  as, 

Nereides  supra  delphmos  sSdentes  (Plin.  H.  N.  xxxvi.  5. 
med.),  Nereids  seated  upon  dolphins. 

c.  Over,  at  some  distance  above  :  as, 

EccS  supra  caputt  h5mo  18uls  ac  sordldus,  sed  tamgn  gquestn 
censu,  Catienus  ;  6tiam  is  lenietur  (Cic.  ad  Q.  F.  i.  2.  2.  6), 
see,  there  is  ready  to  pounce  down  upon  my  head  a  fellow  de- 
void of  principle  and  honour,  but  yet  of  equestrian  station,  I 
mean  Catienus.  Even  he  shall  be  appeased. 

*  For  example,  in  the  instance  quoted  Sallust  used  the  word  because 
they  were  farther  from  the  sea,  and  therefore  probably  higher. 

f  See  §  451. 1. 

J  Dr.  Butler  (Latin  Prepositions,  p.  121)  has  given  this  passage  to 
prove  that  supra  caput  means  '  exceedingly.'  He  connects  it  with  leuis, 
though  the  words  are  separated  by  homo. 


SVPER.  SVPBA.  TENVS.  369 

d.  Above,  in  order  (as  at  table)  :  thus, 

Accubueram  apiid  eum  et  quidem  supra  me  Attlcus,  infra 
^'erriiis  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  26. 1),  I  had  just  sat  down  to  din- 
ner at  his  house,  and  l>y  the  way  Atticus  sat  next  above  me, 
Verrius  below. 

c.  Above,  in  amount :  as, 

Caesa  eo  dig  supra  milia  uiginti  (Liv.  xxx.  35),  there  were  slain 
on  that  day  above  twenty  thousand. 

Etsi  haec  commemoratio  u8reor  ne  supra  hSmniis  fortunam 
essS  uldeatur  (Cic.  de  Leg.  n.  16. 41),  and  yet  what  1  am 
going  to  mention  will  be  thought,  I  fear,  to  exceed  the  lot  -of 
man. 

f.  In  addition  to,  over  and  above,  besides :  as, 

Supra  belli  Sablnl  mgtum  id  quSque  accessgrat  (Liv.  n.  18), 
besides  the  fear  of  a  Sabine  war,  there  was  this  further  trouble. 

g.  In  reference  to  former  times,  before :  as, 

Paulo  supra  hanc  me'mo'riam  serui  una  cremabantiir  (Goes.  B. 
G.  vi.  19),  a  little  before  the  times  which  those  now  living  can 
recollect,  the  slaves  (of  the  deceased)  used  to  be  burnt  with  him. 

h.  In  referring  to  a  preceding  part  of  a  book  or  letter,  above:  as, 
Vt  supra  demonstrauimus  (Caes.  B.  ti.  vi.  34),  as  we  have  shown 

above. 

1384  T&nus  (from  ten-  or  tend-  stretch),  which  always  follows  its 
noun,  signifies  reaching  to,  and  is  used — a.  With  an  accusative 
(very  rarely)  :  as, 

Rggio  quae  uirginls  aequ5r  M  Helles 
Et  Tanain  teniis  immens6  descendlt  &b  Euro  ( Vol.  Fl.  i.  537), 

The  region  which  to  the  maiden  flelle's  sea 
And  far  as  the  Don  from  the  vast  East  descends. 

b.  With  an  ablative  of  the  singular,  particularly  with  words  in 
a  or  o*:  as, 

AntiSchus  Taur6  tgnus  regnare  iussust  (Cic.  p.  Deiot.  13.  36), 
it  was  ordained  that  Antiochus  should  rule  only  as  far  as  the 
Taurus. 

c.  With  an  ablative  of  the  plural  (very  rarely)  :  as. 

*  This  form  was  probably  at  first  an  accusative,  Taurom. 
B  B 


370  SYNTAX. 

PectSrlbusquS  tenus  raolles  Srectus  in  auras 
Naribiis  et  p&tulo  partem  marls  eutfmlt  ore  (Ov.  Met.  xv.  512), 
Chest-high  upraised  into  the  moving  air 
From  wide-spread  mouth  and  nostrils  vomits  out 
One  half  the  sea. 

d.  With  a  genitive  of  the  plural,  particularly  in  the  consonant 
declension  :  as, 

Et  crurum  tSnus  a  mento  palearia  pendent  ( Virg.  G.  in.  53), 
And  leg-deep  from  the  chin  the  dewlap  hangs*. 

1385  Trans  signifies — a.  On  the  other  side  of:  as, 

Coglto  interdum  trans  Tlberim  hortos  aliquos  pararS  (Cic.  ad 
Att.  xn.  19. 1),  I  think  at  times  of  purchasing  some  park  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Tiber. 

b.  To  the  other  side  of :  as, 

Trans  Alpls  transfertur  (Cic.  p.  Quinct.  3. 12),  he  is  carried  to 
the  other  side  of  the  Alps. 

1386  Trans  in  composition  signifies  across :  as.  transmlt-t  or  tramit- 
send  across,  transi-  go  across. 

1387  Vorsiis  (uorsum,  uersus,  uersum)  signifies  direction :  as, 
Brundusium  uorsus  Ibas  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xi.  27.3),  you  were  going 

in  the  direction  of  (or  towards}  Brundusium^. 

1388  Vorsus  is  also  used  in  conjunction  with  the  prepositions  ad 
and  In :  as, 

Ad  oce&num  uersus  prSficiscl  iubet  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  33),  he 
orders  him  to  set  out  in  the  direction  of  the  ocean. 

In  Italiam  uorsus  naulgaturus  Srat  (Sulpic.  ad  Cic.  ad  Fam. 
iv.  12. 1),  he  was  about  to  sail  towards  Italy. 

1389  Vis  on  the  other  side  of,  with  an  accusative  (but  rarely  used)  :  as, 
Sacra  gt  uls  et  cis  Tlberim  fiunt  (  Varr.  L.  L.  iv.  15),  sacrifices 

are  offered  both  on  yonder  and  on  this  side  of  the  Tiber. 

1?90        Vltra  denotes — a.  On  the  other  side  of,  beyond :  as, 

Vltra  Sllianam  uillam  est  uillulS  sordlda  et  ualde  piisilla  (Cic. 
ad  Att.  xn.  27. 1),  on  the  other  side  of  Silius1  country-house 
in  a  cottage  of  mean  appearance  and  very  small. 

*  See  also  §  803.  f  See  §  451. 1. 

J  See  also  §  798. 


TRANS.    VORSVS.    VLS.    VLTRA.  371 


b.  To  the  other  side  of, 

Paulo  ultra  eum  IScum  castrS,  transtulit  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  66), 
he  moved  the  camp  to  a  spot  a  little  beyond  that  place. 

c.  Metaphorically :  as, 

Sunt  cert!  deniqug  fines 
Quos  ultra  citraqug  ngquit  consisted  rectum  (Hor.  Sat.i.  1.106), 

There  are  in  fine  fixed  limits 
Beyond  and  short  of  which  truth  cannot  halt. 
Non  ultra  hemlnam  Squae  assumit  (Cels.  iv.  2.4),  he  takes  net 
more  than  a  pint-and-a-half  of  water. 

d.  The  same  without  a  noun  :  as, 

Estne  Sllquld  ultra,  quo  progredl  crudelltas  possit?  (Cic.  n. 
Verr.  v.  45.  119)  is  there  any  thing  beyond  this  to  which 
bloodthirstiness  can  go  ? 

1391  In  the  examples  already  given,  it  has  been  seen  that  preposi- 
tions are  at  times  placed  after  their  nouns,  although  their  name 
implies  the  contrary*.  In  the  old  language  this  appears  to  have 
been  the  case  with  perhaps  every  preposition,  and  the  practice 
prevailed  to  the  last  in  some  legal  phrases.  It  may  further  be 
observed  that — a.  The  preposition  cum  is  always  placed  after  the 
ablatives  of  the  personal  pronouns  :  as,  mecum,  tecum,  secum, 
nobiscum,  uobiscum,  and  for  the  most  part  after  the  ablatives  of 
the  simple  relative  :  as,  quocum,  quacum,  quicum,  quibuscum. 
b.  The  prepositions  tgniis  and  uorsus  always  follow  their  case.  <?. 
The  disyllabic  prepositions  generally  are  more  apt  to  occupy  the 
second  place  than  those  which  are  monosyllabic,  d.  The  relativef, 
and  the  pronoun  ho-  this,  when  it  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  a 
sentence,  have  a  tendency  to  throw  the  preposition  behind  them. 

*  It  may  be  useful  to  compare  the  meaning  of  the  term  case  with 
that  of  the  term  preposition.  They  both  denote  primarily  the  relations 
of  place.  They  are  both  so  intimately  connected  with  the  noun  as  to  be 
pronounced  with  it,  and  even  written  with  it,  although  printers  have  as 
regards  prepositions  abandoned  the  authority  of  the  best  inscriptions  and 
manuscripts.  Thirdly,  as  the  case-ending  is  always  added  as  a  suffix,  so 
also  in  the  old  language  was  the  preposition.  Hence  there  is  no  original 
distinction,  either  in  essence  or  form,  between  a  case-ending  and  a  prepo- 
sition. These  considerations  may  perhaps  tend  to  create  in  the  mind  a 
clearer  notion  of  what  a  case  is. 

f  This  explains  the  form  quoad,  as  compared  with  adeo,  and  also 
quamobrem,  quemadmodum,  quocirca. 


372  SYNTAX. 

e.  When  an  emphatic  adjective  or  genitive  accompanies  a  noun, 
this  emphatic  word  commonly  comes  first,  and  is  immediately 
followed  by  the  preposition,  which  must  then  be  considered  as  an 
enclitic  attached  to  it,  and  should  be  pronounced  accordingly. 

1392  The  preposition  is  occasionally  separated  from  its  noun.     The 
words  which  may  come  between  are  included  for  the  most  part 
under  the  following  heads  :  a.  an  adjective  belonging  to  the  noun  ; 
b.  a  genitive  belonging  to  it ;  c.  an  adverb  or  case  attached  to  that 
noun  when  it  is  a  gerund  or  participle ;  d.  the  enclitics  n§,  quS, 
ue,  although  in  the  case  of  the  monosyllabic  pronouns  the  noun 
as  well  as  the  preposition  commonly  precede  these  enclitics* ;  e. 
the  conjunctions  which  commonly  occupy  the  second  place  in  a 
sentence,  as  autem,  enirn,  quldem,  tamen,  uero. 

1393  The  preposition  may  attach  itself  to  the  adjective  in  place  of 
the  substantive,  or  even  to  a  genitive  which  depends  upon  the 
substantive,  and  the  substantive  itself  be  removed  to  a  distance  ; 
or,  lastly,  the  preposition  occasionally  is  found  before  the  verbt. 

1394  Whether  a  preposition  is  to  be  repeated  or  not  before  each  of 
two  nouns,  is  to  be  decided  by  the  intimacy  of  the  connection 
between  them.    When  that  intimacy  is  close,  the  nouns  may  be 
considered  as  one,  and  a  single  preposition  will  be  sufficient.  Thus, 
the  Aulerci  and  Lexovii  being  close  neighbours  in  the  map  of  Gallia, 
one  preposition  is  enough  in — 

Exercltum  In  Aulercis  LexSuiisque  conlocauit  (Caes.  B.  G.  in. 
29),  he  posted  the  army  in  the  country  of  the  Aulerci  and 
Lexovii. 

1395  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  nouns  be  looked  upon  as  very  distinct, 
two  prepositions  are  requisite  :  as, 

SStls  St  ad  laudem  6t  &d  utllltatem  profectum  arbitrator  (CW. 
B.  Gr.  iv.  19),  he  thinks  t/iat  sufficient  progress  has  been  made 
both  for  glory  and  for  utilityl. 

*  See  §§  836,  837. 

f  As,  dum  longus  inter  saeuiat  Ilion  Romumque  pontus  (//or.  Od. 
in.  3.37). 

J  Hence  the  preposition  inter  is  often  repeated  :  as,  interest  inter 
caussas  forluito  antegressas  et  inter  caussas  naturalis  (Cic.  de  Fat.  9. 19). 
So  also  Cic.  de  Fin.  i.  9.  30,  Parad.  i.  3. 14. 


ADVERBS.  0/-3 

1396  When  the  antecedent  and  relative  are  dependent  upon  the 
same  preposition,  the  preposition  may  for  brevity's  sake  be  omitted 
in  the  relative  clause,  if  the  verb  be  not  expressed  :  as, 

Me  tuae  litterae  uunquam  in  tantam  spem  adduxerunt,  quan- 
tam  Sliorum  (Cic.  ad  Att.  in.  19. 2),  as  for  myself,  your  let- 
ters have  never  led  me  to  entertain  so  strong  a  hope  as  those  of 
other  friends. 

1397  If  two  prepositions  have  a  common  noun,  that  noun  must  be 
repeated  in  Latin  (except  in  the  case  of  those  disyllabic  preposi- 
tions which  are  used  adverbially)  :  as, 

Hoc  non  modo  non  pro  me,  sed  contra  me  est  potius  (Cic.  de 
Or.  in.  20.  75),  this,  so  far  from  being  for,  is  rather  against 


ADVERBS. 

1398  An  adverb,  as  its  name  implies,  is  commonly  attached  to  a 
verb,  and  usually  precedes  it ;  but  if  the  adverb  is  emphatic,  it 
may  commence  or  end  the  whole  sentence  ;  or  if  unemphatic,  it 
may  occupy  the  non-emphatic,  that  is,  the  second  place*  in  a 
clause. 

1399  An  adverb  may  of  course  be  used  with  participles,  and  this 
usage  is  sometimes  retained  by  them  even  when  they  have  be- 
come virtually  substantives  :  as,  facto-  (n.),  dicto-  (n.),  responso- 
(n.),  &c.     Thus, 

In  tfdium  adducentur  aduorsaril,  si  qu5d  eorum  siiperbe,  cru- 
dellter,  rn&lltiose  factum  profgreturf  (Cic.  de  Inv.  I.  16.  22), 
the  opposite  parties  will  be  brought  into  discredit,  if  any  tyran- 
nical, cruel,  or  spiteful  act  of  theirs  be  brought  forward. 

Sui  negotl  bene  gerens  (Cic.  p.  Quinct.  19.  62),  a  good  manager 
of  his  own  affairs. 

Pol  mei  patris  bene  parta  indiligeuter  Tutatur  (Ter.  Ph.  v.  3.5), 
faith  he  takes  poor  care  of  what  my  father  earned  so  creditably. 

1400  An  adverb  often  accompanies  adjectives  and  adverbs,  but  is 
rarely  found  with  substantives,  and  perhaps  only  under  one  of  the 

*  See  §  1473. 

t  Observe  th^t  if  factum  had  not  been  a  substantive,  the  pronoun 
must  have  been  quid,  not  quod.     See  §  306. 


374  SYNTAX. 

two  conditions  :  a.  that  the  substantive  shall  be  in  apposition ;  b. 
that  it  shall  be  interposed  between  a  substantive  and  its  adjective 
or  dependent  genitive  :  as, 

a.  Marius  septumum  consul  dSmi  suae  est  mortuos  (Cic.  K  D. 
in.  32. 81),  Marius  in  his  seventh  consulate  died  at  his  own 


Populus,  late  rex  (Virg.  A.  T.  21),  a  city  that  ruleth  far  and 


b.  E't  heri  semper  lenitas  uerebar  quorsum  euaderet  (Ter.  And. 

I.  2. 4),  and  master's  constant  gentleness,  I  was  afraid  what 

it  would  end  in*. 
Omnes  circa  popiill  (Liv.  xxiv.  3),  all  the  states  around. 

1401        Adverbs  are  used  in  some  phrases  with  the  verb  es-  be,  when 
an  adjective  or  participle  might  have  been  expected  :  as, 

Vt!  ngquS  uos  c&piammi  St  ill!  frustra  sint  (Sal.  Jug.  85),  that 
you  may  not  be  deceived,  and  that  the  other  party  may  be  dis- 


Aput  uetSres  dicta  impune  erant  (Tac.  Ann.  i.  72),  among  our 

ancestors  mere  words  were  unpunished. 
Teliae  ful  sane  liibenter  apud  Talnam  nostrum  (Cic.  ad  Att. 

xvi.  6. 1),  at  Velialwas  indeed  most  comfortable  at  our  friend 

Talna's. 

NEGATIVE  PARTICLES. 

1402  The  simplest  form  of  the  Latin  negative  is  net.  On  the  other 
hand,  non  has  some  other  element  added  to  the  simple  negative, 
and  is  therefore  more  emphatic.  Hence  non^  is  used  with  the 

*  Even  here  it  is  far  from  certain  that  semper  does  not  belong  to 
uerebar. 

f  The  same  is  the  form  of  the  English  negative  as  it  appears  in  our 
old  writers.  It  also  enters  into  the  formation  of  never  from  ever,  The 
particle  enters  into  the  formation  of  many  Latin  words :  as,  nequi- '  be 
unable,'  ngfas,  nZfasto-^  nefario-,  nefando-,  neuis  '  thou  wilt  not,'  in 
which  it  is  short ;  and  the  following  with  a  long  e^  neue,  nedum,  nemon-* 
nequam,  nequitia-,  nequaquam,  nequiquam.  Other  words  into  which  ne 
enters  are  nunquam,  niitiquam,  neuter  (old  form  ne-cuter\  as  also  the 
phrase  ne  minus.  See  also  §  761. 

?5&         1  ^T°n  may  P088ibly  be  formed  from  ne  and  unvm,  just  as  our  English 
no  is  a  corruption  of  none,  i.  e.  ne  one.     Compare  the  German  nein  from 
ji  ne  ein.     Indeed  the  old  Latin  writers  use  the  form  nenu,  which  seems 
jl  more  clearly  to  be  a  contraction  of  ne  unum. 


NE.    NON.    HAUD.  375 

indicative,  and  with  the  subjunctive  when  a  result  is  expressed, 
in  which  case  the  subjunctive  evidently  assumes  the  meaning  of 
the  indicative*. 

1403  When  non  affects  a  single  word  in  a  sentence,  it  precedes  it ; 
when  it  affects  a  whole  sentence,  it  commonly  precedes  the  verb. 
Occasionally,  in  order  that  it  may  have  great  emphasis,  non  is 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the 
predicative  part  of  a  sentence,  and  in  these  cases  it  often  becomes 
difficult  to  give  a  translation  which  shall  not  greatly  alter  the 
order  of  wordst :  as, 

Non  hos  palus,  non  siluae  mSrantur  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  35),  no 
marsh,  no  woods  restrain  them. 

1404  In  sentences  containing  a  main  verb  of  thinking  or  saying,  the 
negative,  which  really  belongs  to  the  infinitive  mood,  is  at  times 
for  emphasis  placed  before  these  main  verbs  :  as, 

Non  existiimauit  suis  slmlllbus  probari  possg  se  esse  hostem 
patriae,  nisi  mihi  esset  Inlmicus  (Cic.  Phil.  n.  1.  2),  he 
thought  that  the  men  of  his  own  stamp  could  never  be  satisfied 
he  was  a  public  enemy  to  his  country,  unless  he  was  a  private 
enemy  of  mine%. 

1404. 1  Ne,  haud  (hau),  non,  are  all  proclitics§.  Hence  the  form  of 
the  verbs  nesci-,  hausci-  (so  in  Ritschl's  Plautus) ;  and  hence  such 
an  order  of  words  as  : 

Vt  iam  Uceat  una  conprehensione  omniS,  complectl,  non-dtib!- 
tantemquS  dicSre,  omnem  naturam  essS  seruatrlcem  sul 
(Cic.  de  Fin.  v.  9. 26,  ed.  Madvig),  so  that  we  may  now  in- 

*  In  the  same  way  the  French  use  the  strengthened  negatives,  ne.. pas, 
ne.. point,  ne..rien,  in  such  phrases  &sje  n'irai  pas,je  n'irai  point,  je  ne 
vois  rien,  &c.,  where  the  particles  pas ,  point,  rien,  severally  represent  the 
Latin  nouns  passum,  punctum,  rem.  On  the  other  hand  their  subjunctive 
mood  commonly  takes  a  simple  ne. 

f  In  the  commencement  of  Horace's  Satire  (i.  6),  Non  quia  Maecenas 
4fc.  naso  suspendis  adunco  Ignotos,  the  negative  is  separated  from  the  verb 
to  which  it  belongs  by  nearly  five  lines. 

J  In  the  same  way  the  Greeks  use  the  order  OVK  C^TJ,  although  the 
negative  belongs  to  the  following  infinitive.  In  Latin  also  nega-  probably 
owes  its  formation  to  the  same  principle,  the  negative  in  this  word  too 
belonging  always  to  the  accompanying  infinitive. 

§  So  also  OVK  (ou)  is  commonly  a  proclitic  ;  and  similarly  our  not 
(cannot,  kndw-not)  is  an  enclitic. 


376  SYNTAX. 

dude  all  in  one  general  assertion,  and  without  hesitation  say 
that  nature  is  always  self -preserving. 

1405  Between  ne*  and  quidem  the  word  (or  words,  if  intimately 
connected)  on  which  the  emphasis  lies  is  always  interposed  :  as, 

Ego  ne  utllem  quidem  arbitrSr  esse  nobis  futurarum  rerun i 
scientiam  (Cic.  de  Div.  n.  9.  22),  for  my  part  I  do  not  think 
it  even  expedient  for  us  to  know  the  future. 

Ne  si  cupiam  quidem  (Cic.  in  Pis.  28.68),  not  even  if  I  desired  it. 

1405. 1    Besides  not — even,  the  ordinary  meaning  of  ne — quidem,  it  is 
sometimes  to  be  translated  neither^  :  as, 

Ne  VSrius  quidem  dubltat  copias  producers  (Caes.  B.  G.  n.  33), 

neither  does  Varius  hesitate  to  lead  out  his  forces. 
Hulc  ut  scelus,  sic  ne  ratio  quidem  defuit  (Cic.  N.  D.  m.  26. 68), 

as  this  woman  (Medea)  was  not  deficient  in  villany,  so  neither 

was  she  in  wit. 
Si  illiid,  hoc ;  non  autem  hoc  ;  Igltur  ne  illud  quidem  (Cic.  de 

Fin.  iv.  19.  55),  if  that  be  true,  then  this  must  be  so;  but  this 

is  not  true  ;  consequently  neither^  is  that. 

1406  Where  in  English  the  conjunction  and  is  followed  by  a  nega- 
tive pronoun  or  adverb,  the  Latin  language  commonly  prefers  n£- 
que  accompanied  by  an  affirmative  pronoun  or  adverb  :  as, 

N8que  ex  castris  quisquam  discessgrat  (Sal.  Cat.  36),  and  not  a 

man  had  left  the  camp. 
Neque  ullam  sScietatem  confirmarl  posse  credldi  (Cic.  Phil.  n. 

35.  89),  and  I  thought  that  no  alliance  could  be  ratified. 
NSque  est  usquam  consllio  locus  (Cic.  de  Off.  n.  1.  2),  and  there 

is  nowhere  room  for  deliberation. 

1406. 1    In  writers  after  the  Augustan  period  nee  often  has  the  power 
of  not  even :  as, 

Patris  iussS  nee  pStuisse  f ilium  detrectarg  (Tac.  Ann.  ill.  17), 
the  orders  of  a  father  it  was  not  even  in  the  power  of  a  son  to 
decline  (let  alone  the  will). 

*  As  fjuidem  is  itself  a  word  of  strong  affirmation,  it  was  enough  to  use 
the  simple  negative  ne. 

f  In  German  auch  nicht.     See  Madvig  ad  Cic.  de  Fin.  p.  816. 

J  This  distinction  has  been  thoroughly  established  by  Madvig  (ibid.), 
who  has  dealt  with  all  the  apparent  exceptions  in  Cicero,  Sallust,  &c. 


NE.    NON.  377 

....  Nec  pugrl  credunt,  nisi  qul  nondum  aerg  l&uantur  (Juv. 

II.  152),  (all  this}  not  e'en  our  bairns  believe,  save  those,  Who 

for  the  penny -bath  are  yet  too  young. 
Sed  nee  Tibgrio  parcit  (Suet.  Oct.  86),  but  not  even  Tiberius  does 

he  spare. 

1407  Similarly  an  intention  to  prevent  any  thing  is  expressed  in 
Latin  by  ne  and  an  affirmative  pronoun  or  adverb,  although  the 
English  often  uses  the  conjunction  that,  followed  by  a  negative 
pronoun  or  adverb  :  as, 

Vt  d&ret  operam  ne  quod  his  colloquium  inter  se  esset  (Liv. 
xxui.  34),  that  he  should  take  care  that  they  should  have  no 
conference  with  each  oilier. 

DispSsItis  exploratorlbus  neciibi  Roman!  copias  transducSrent 
(Caes.  B.  G.  vn.  35),  scouts  being  placed  at  different  points, 
that  the  Romans  might  not  lead  their  forces  over  at  any 
point. 

Tu  tamSn  eas  SpistSlas  concerplto  nequando  quid  emanet  (Cic. 
ad  Att.  x.  12. 3),  you  however  will  tear  up  those  letters,  that 
nothing  may  ever  ooze  out. 

1408  On  the  other  hand,  where  a  result  is  denoted,  the  conjunction 
ut  is  employed  with  the  negative  pronouns,  &c. :  as, 

Tantis  impe'dior  occupationlbus  ut  scribendi  fScultas  nulla 
detiir  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xn.  30. 1),  /  am  hindered  by  so  many 
engagements,  that  I  have  no  opportunity  of  writing. 

Obuiam  mihi  sic  est  prodltum,  ut  nihil  posset  fieri  ornatius 
(Cic.  ad  Fam.  xvi.  11.  2),  they  came  out  to  meet  me  in  such 
a  manner,  that  nothing  could  be  more  complimentary*. 

1409  But  when  the  negative  affects  a  single  word,  and  not  is  ex- 
pressed by  et  non  :  as, 

V6tus  et  non  ignobllis  dicendl  m&gister  (Cic.  Brut.  91.  315), 
an  old  and  not  unknown  professor  of  oratory. 

*  Thus  in  the  following  tables  the  words  in  the  first  column  belong  to 
clauses  of  purpose,  those  in  the  second  to  clauses  of  result : 


ne  quid     .      1     .     .... 
nequidquam  }  ut  mM' 


ne  unquam  / 

ne-cubi  .     .     ut  nusquam* 

ne  ullus      .     ut  nullus. 


378  SYNTAX. 

Incredibllis  Sirfmus  et  non  unius  uiri  uires  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  25. 67), 
a  spirit  past  belief,  and  a  power  of  work  such  as  no  single  man 
ever  had. 

1409. 1  Again,  when  and  not  introduces  an  idea  directly  opposed  to 
what  precedes,  et  non  or  ac  non  are  required  :  as, 

111!  indices,  s!  iudlces,  et  non  parrfcidae  pS,  triae  nominandi  sunt 
(Cic.  p.  Plane.  29.  70),  those  jurymen,  if  indeed  they  are  to 
be  called  jurymen,  and  not  ratJier  parricides  of  their  father- 
land. 

Qu£si  uero  me  tuo  arbltratu,  et  non  meo  gratum  esse  oporteat 
(Cic.  p.  Plane.  29.  71),  as  if  forsooth  your  opinion  and  not 
my  own  ought  to  decide  the  measure  of  my  gratitude. 

Quid  tu  fecisses,  si  te  T&rentum  et  non  S&ma>obriuam  misis- 
sem  ?  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vn.  12)  what  would  you  have  done,  if 
I  had  sent  you  to  Tarentum,  instead  of  Samarobriva  ? 

Nulla  res  recte  p5test  admlnistrari,  si  unusquisque  uelit  uerb£ 
spectare,  et  non  ad  uoluntatem  eiua  qui  ea  uerba  hSbuerit 
accedere'  (Cic.  de  Inv.  u.  47.  140),  nothing  can  be  executed 
properly,  if  every  separate  person  is  to  look  to  the  words  only, 
instead  of  complying  with  the  intention  of  him  who  used  tJwse 
words. 

Non  dlce'rem,  si  pueri  esse  illam  culpam,  ac  non  pSMs  existu- 
marem  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  in.  68. 159),  I  should  not  have  said  so, 
if  1  had  thought  that  was  the  boy*s  and  not  the  father's  fault. 

Plurlbus  uerbis  ad  te  scrlberem,  si  res  uerba  deslderaret,  ac 
non  pro  se  ipsa  ISqueretiir  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  in.  2. 2),  1  shoidd 
have  written  to  you  at  greater  length,  if  the  subject  had  needed 
words,  and  not  itself  spoken  in  its  own  behalf. 

Qui  pfltes  rSpgrire  ex  eo  genere  homlnuin  qui  te  Sment  ex 
Snlmo  ac  non  sul  commSdl  caussa  slmulent  ?  (Cic.  ad  Q.  F. 
i.  1.5. 15)  how  are  you  to  find  men  of  that  class  who  love  you 
sincerely,  instead  of  pretending  to  do  so  for  their  own  advan- 
tage ? 

1410  The  adjective  nullo-  and  the  indeclinable  noun  nihll  are  occa- 
sionally used  emphatically  for  lion  and  ne  :  as, 

Nihil  ngcessest  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  2. 8),  there  is  no  necessity. 
Sextus  &b  armis  nullus  discgdlt  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xv.  22),  Sextus 
has  not  a  thought  of  laying  down  the  sword. 


NE.   NON.  379 

1411  An  accumulation  of  negatives  is  common  in  Latin,  so  as  to 
produce  a  strong  emphasis  (but  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
position  of  non  in  such  phrases*) :  as, 

a.  Non  nihil  tit  in  tantis  malls  est  profectum  (Cic.  ad  Fam. 
xn.  2.  2),  some  progress  has  been  made,  considering  the  very 
unhappy  position  we  are  in. 

PSpulus  solet  non  nunquam  dignos  praetSrire  (Cic.  p.  Plane. 

3. 8),  the  citizens  are  wont  at  times  to  pass  by  the  worthy. 
Se  non  nolle  dixit  (Cic.  de  Or.  n.  18. 75),  he  said  he  was  no  way 

unwitting. 

b.  Tuum  consllium  nemo  p8test  non  laudarS  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  iv. 

7.  2),  the  course  you  are  pursuing  no  one  can  avoid  praising. 
Aperte  Mulantem  nSmo  non  uldet  (Cic.  de  Am.  26. 99),  a  man 

who  openly  flatters,  every  one  sees  through. 
Nihil  non  aggrSdientur  homines  (Liv.  iv.  35),  men  will  attack 

any  thing. 

1412  After  a  general  negative,  a  second  negative  may  be  introduced 
under  either  of  the  following  circumstances — a.  when  some  word 
or  phrase  is  made  emphatic  by  being  placed  between  ne  and  qul- 
dem ;  and  b.  when  the  main  clause  is  divided  into  two  or  more, 
of  which  each  has  its  own  negativef  :  as, 

a.  Aduentus  noster  nemlni  ne  mlnumo  quidem  fuit  sumptu! 
(Cic.  ad  Att.  v.  14.  2),  our  arrival  was  not  even  the  least  ex- 
pense to  any  one. 

Non  enirn  praetgreundumst  ne  id  quidem  (Cic.  II.  Verr.  i.  60. 
155),  for  we  must  not  pass  over  even  this. 

I.  Sic  habeas  nihil  te  mihi  nee  carius  essg  nee  suauius  (Cic.  ad 
Att.  v.  1. 5),  be  assured  that  there  is  nothing  either  dearer  or 
sweeter  to  me  than  yourself. 

*  Thus, 

non  nihil =aliquid.  nihil  non  —  omma. 

nemo  non  =  omnes. 
nullus  non  =  omnis. 
nunquam  non= semper, 
nusquam  non  =  ubique. 


non  nunquam  =  aliquando. 
non  nusquam=alicubi. 


Similarly  non  modo  — ,  non  tantum  — ,  mean  '  so  much  and  more  besides ;' 
whereas  modo  non  — ,  tantum  non  — ,  mean  '  something  just  short  of  — / 

f  Occasionally  a  double  negative  with  the  power  of  a  single  negative 
occurs  through  carelessness :  as,  quos  non  miseret  neminis,  *  who  don't  pity 
no  one.'  (Cato  an.  Fest.  v.  nemini.) 


380 


SYNTAX. 


1413  After  clauses  containing  words  compounded  with  ne",  a  second 
clause  is  sometimes  introduced  which  requires  that  the  affirmative 
notion*,  instead  of  the  negative,  should  be  supplied  :  as, 

NSgant  CaesSrem  in  condlcione  mansurum,  postiilataque  haec 
&b  eo  interpSsita  esse,  quomlnus  a  nobis  pararetur  (Cic.  ad 
Att.  vn.  15.  3),  they  say  that  Caesar  will  not  abide  by  the 
terms,  and  that  these  demands  have  been  put  forward  by  him 
to  prevent  our  making  preparations. 

Nemo  extulit  eum  uerbis  qui  ItS,  dixisset  ut  qui  adessent  iii- 
tellSge'rent  quid  dlceret,  sed  contempsit  eum  qui  minus  id 
fa"cerS  potuisset  (Cic.  de  Or.  in.  14.  52),  no  one  ever  extolled 
a  man  for  speaking  so  as  to  make  himself  intelligible  to  those 
present,  but  all  despise  one  who  is  unable  to  do  sot. 

1414  A  negative  will  often  extend  its  influence  over  a  second  clause 
attached  to  the  first  by  aut  or  ue  :  as, 

Neque  consistendi  aut  ex  essedis  desttiendl  facultatem  dgdS- 
runt  (Caes.  B.  G.  v.  17),  nor  did  they  give  (them)  an  oppor- 
tunity of  halting  or  leaping  down  from  their  war-chariots. 

Non  ubluis  coramuS  quibusllbe't  (Hor.  Sat.  i.  4.  74),  not  any 
where  or  before  any  people. 

1414. 1  A  negative  prefixed  to  two  clauses  may  be  used  to  deny  not 
each  separate  clause,  but  the  combination.  Thus  in  the  following 
example  each  of  the  three  negatives  affects  what  has  been  included 
for  the  nonce  in  brackets. 

Non  enim  (dix!  quidem  sed  non  scripsl),  nee  (scrips!  quidem  sed 
non  5bil  legationem),  nee  (Sbii  quldern  sed  non  persuasl  The- 
banls)  (Quint.%  ix.  38. 55),  for  you  must  not  suppose  that  I 
spoke,  and  then  abstained  from  writing  ;  or  that  I  wrote  indeed, 
but  took  no  part  in  the  embassy  ;  or  that  I  did  take  part  in  the 
embassy,  yet  failed  to  persuade  the  Thebans. 

*  i.  e.  for  nega-  '  deny,'  die-  '  say ;'  for  nol-  '  be  unwilling,'  uol-  *  wish  ;' 
for  nemo  '  no  one,'  omnes  '  all.'  As  regards  nega-  see  §  1404.  Compare 
too  Hor.  Sat.  i.  1-3,  nemo  .  .  .  uiuat,  laudet  (i.  e.  omnes  laudent) ;  Liv. 
xxvi.  2,  nemo  memor  esset,  praesidio  sociis  essent ;  Plant.  Trin.  in.  2. 62, 
nolo  .  .  .,  set .  .  . 

f  Observe  that  nemo  extulit  has  caused  contempsit  to  be  an  aorist  as 
well  as  a  singular,  though  a  plural  present  is  required  by  the  sense. 

J  Translating  Demosthenes  p.  Cor.  c.  55. 


INTERROGATIVE  PARTICLES.  381 

1415  The  negative  in  ne  —  quidein,  when  followed  by  a  common 
predicate,  often  extends  its  influence  over  a  preceding  clause  be- 
ginning with  non  mo'do  or  non  solum  :  as, 

Assentatio  non  mo'do  amlco  sed  ne  llbero  quidem  dignast  (Cic. 

de  Am.  24. 89),  flattery  is  unworthy  not  merely  of  a  friend, 

but  even  of  a  freeman. 
SenatuI  non  solum  iimarS  rempublicam,  sed  ne  lugere'  quidem 

Ucuit(Cfo.  in  Pis.  10.23),  the  senate  were  forbidden  not  merely 

to  assist,  but  even  to  mourn  over  their  country*. 

1416  In  imperative  sentences,  and  in  subjunctive  clauses  dependent 
upon  ut  or  ne,  neu8  is  used  rather  than  ne'que'  or  et  ne  :  as, 

Suis  praedixerat  ut  Caesarls  impetum  exclperent  neuS  se  ISco 
mtfuerent  (Caes.  B.  C.  in.  92),  he  had  told  his  men  before- 
hand to  wait  for  Caesar's  attack,  and  not  move  from  their 
ground. 

HSmlnem  mortuom  In  urbe  neuS  sepelito  neue  urlto  (apud  Cic. 
de  Leg.  n.  23. 58),  neither  bury  nor  burn  a  corpse  in  the  city. 

1416. 1  Haud  not  (in  old  writers  often  hau)  is  used  chiefly  before  ad- 
jectives and  adverbs,  but  also  in  the  phrase  haud  scio  or  hau  scio 
/  know  not. 

INTERROGATIVE  PARTICLES. 

1417  The  simplest  interrogative  particle  is  the  enclitic  ng,  which  is 
affixed  to  that  particular  word  on  which  the  question  turns,  whe- 
ther verb,  substantive,  adjective  or  particle  :  as, 

Ptftestne  uirtus,  Crassg,  serulrg  ?  (Cic.  de  Or.  I.  52.  226)  is  it 
possible,  or  is  it  not  possible,  Crassus,  that  virtue  should  be  a 
slave  ? 

Apollinemne  tu  Delium  spSliare  ausus  gs  ?  Illlne  tu  teruplo  tarn 
sancto  manus  impias  afierre'  conatus  es  ?  (Cic.  II.  Verr.  I. 
18. 47)  was  Apollo  of  Delos  the  god  whom  you  dared  to  de- 
spoil ?  Was  that  the  temple  with  all  its  sanctity  on  which  you 
attempted  to  lay  your  unholy  hand  ? 

*  It  is  in  such  passages  as  these  that  non  modo  is  said  to  be  used  for 
non  modo  non.  The  distinction  is  well  seen  in  Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  13.  39 : 
Quoius  legiones  sic  inAsiamperuenerunt,ut  non  modo  manus  tanti  exer- 
citus,  sed  ne  uestigium  quidem  quoiquam  pacato  nocuisse  dicatur. . . .  Non 
modo  ut  sumptum  Jaciat  in  militem  nemini  uis  adfertur,  sed  ne  cupienti 
quidem  quoiquam  permittitur. 


382  SYNTAX. 

Nullon  ego  Chremetis  pacto  adfiuitatern  ecfugere  potero  ?  (Ter. 

And.  i.  5. 12)  is  there  no  way  in  which  I  shall  be  able  to  escape 

a  marriage  into  Chromes'  family  ? 
A.  Quid  coeptas  Thraso?    B.  Egone?  (Ter.  E.  v.  7.1)  A.  What 

are  you  after,  Thraso  ?    B.  What  am  I  after  ? 
Siclue  Sgls  1  (Ter.  Ad.  i.  2. 48)  is  this  the  way  you  act  ? 
I'licone  credere  ea  quae  dixi  oportuit  te  ?  {Ter.  E.  v.  6. 11)  if 

you  must  needs  believe  what  I  said,  ought  you  to  have  done  so 

at  once  ? 

2418       A  question  is  often  asked  without  any  interrogative  particle  : 
as, 

Rogitas  ?    N6n  uides  ?  (Ter.  E.  iv.  4. 8)  do  you  ask  ?   Don't  you 

see? 
Nequeo  te  exorare  ut  maueas  triduom  hoc  ?  (Ter.  Ph.  in.  2.4) 

can  I  not  prevail  upon  you  to  wait  the  next  three  days  ? 
Clodius  insldias  fecit  Mlloni  ?  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  22.  60)  did  Clodius 
waylay  Milo  ?* 

1419  In  directf  questions  the  particle  num  commonly  implies  the 
expectation  of  an  answer  in  the  negative,  and  nonne  one  in  the 
affirmative :  as, 

Num  facti  piget  ?  Num  eius  color  pudoris  signum  usquam  in- 
dicat  ?  (Ter.  And.  v.  3. 6)  is  he  sorry  for  his  conduct  ?  No. 
Does  his  cheek  show  any  sign  of  shame  ?  No. 

Quid  canis,  nonne  simllis  lupo  ?  (Cic.  N.  D.  i.  35.97)  well  and 
the  dog,  is  he  not  like  the  wolf  ?  Of  course  he  is. 

1420  In  simple  indirect  questions  (not  commencing  with  an  interro- 
gative pronoun J)  ne  is  commonly  employed,  sometimes  num  :  as, 

Vldeamus  primum,  deorumne  prouldentia  muudus  regatur ; 
deinde,  consulantne  rebus  humauls  (Cic.  N.  D.  in.  25.  65), 
let  us  consider  first  whether  the  universe  is  governed  by  the 
foresight  of  the  gods  ;  secondly,  whether  they  provide  for  the 
welfare  of  man. 

Spgciilarl  iussi  sunt,  num  solllcitati  anlmi  sociorum  a  rege 

*  In  many  of  these  cases  it  would  be  perhaps  better  to  consider  the 
words  as  an  assertion  either  put  honically  or  in  the  name  of  the  other 
party.  Thus,  '  Clodius  waylaid  Milo,  you  say.' 

f  See  §  1 1 34  and  note. 

£  Such  as  qui-s,  ubi,  unde,  quo,  quando,  &c. 


NE.    NUM.    AN.  383 

essent  (Liv.  XLII.  19),  they  were  directed  to  be  on  the  look-out 
to  find  whether  the  king  had  been  tampering  with  the  allies. 

1421  The  particle  S,n  is  not  used  in  the  simple  direct  question  ;  and 
in  the  simple  indirect  the  best  writers  seldom  use  it  except  in  the 
phrases  nescio  an,  haud  scio  a"n,  dublto  S-n,  incertum  an  :  as, 

Est  id  quldem  magnum  atque  haud  scio  an  maxumum,  sed  tlbi 
communS  cum  multis  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  15.1),  true,  that  is 
an  important  matter,  and  I  would  almost  venture  to  say  the 
most  important  of  all,  but  still  it  is  common  to  you  with  many. 

Hoc  diiudlcarl  nescio  an  numquam*,  s6d  hoc  sermong  certe" 
non  pQtest  (Cic.  de  Leg.  I.  21.  56),  the  decision  of  this  point 
I  am  strongly  inclined  to  think  can  never  take  place,  but  cer- 
tainly not  through  the  present  conversation. 

MSriendum  certe  est,  £t  Id  incertum  S,n  hoc  ipso  die  (Cic.  de 
Sen.  20.  74),  die  we  must,  some  time  or  other,  and  possibly 
this  very  day. 

1422  The  use  of  si  (and  si  forte")  in  indirect  questions  is  very  rare, 
except  in  phrases  where  hope  or  expectation  is  expressed  or  implied 
(if  perchance) :  as, 

Expectabam  si  quid  de  eo  consilio  ad  me  scribSres  (Cic.  ad  Att. 

xvi.  2. 4),  1  was  waiting  to  see  whether  you  would  write  any 

thing  to  me  about  this  plan. 
Circumfunduntur  ex  rellquis  partlbus,  si  quern  Sdltum  repg- 

rirS  possint  (Goes.  B.  GL  vi.  37),  they  pour  round  on  the  other 

sides,  in  hopes  they  may  find  some  place  to  enter  at. 

1423  The  term  disjunctive  question  is  used  to  denote  those  cases 
where  one  or  more  alternatives  are  added  (which  in  English  are 
preceded  by  the  word  or).     The  forms  used,  alike  for  direct  and 
indirect  questions,  aro  the  four  which  follow:  a.  iitrumt  , 


*  In  many  of  the  ordinary  editions  the  negative  in  these  phrases  has 
been  deprived  of  its  first  letter.  Thus  Ramshorn,  p.  710,  quotes  nescio 
an  ulli  from  Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  9.  2,  though  the  best  Mss.  have  nulli.  See 
Orelli's  edition.  So  also  Cic.  ad  Att.  iv.  3.  2. 

f  Num  is  limited  in  its  use  to  the  simple  question.  Yet  at  times  it 
appears  to  be  used  in  disjunctive  questions,  because  at  the  close  of  that 
simple  question  which  alone  was  intended  at  starting,  it  suddenly  occurs 
to  the  writer  (see  §  1426)  to  draw  attention  to  the  absurdity  of  some  al- 
ternative, which  he  attaches  as  usual  by  the  particle  an.  See  Madvig's 
Opusc.  ii.  230. 


384  SYNTAX. 

an* ;  b. ng,  §,n ;  c. ,  S,n ;  d. , n6 : 

as, 

a.  Vtrum  nescis  quam  alte  escenderis,  an  pro  nihilo  id  piitas  ? 
(Cic.  ad  Fam.  x.  26.  3)  which  is  the  right  explanation  of  your 
conduct ;  that  you  do  not  know  to  what  a  high  station  you 
have  risen,  or  that  you  set  no  value  upon  it  ? 

Id  Sgltiir,  utrum  hac  petitione  an  proxiima  praetor  fias  (Cic. 
ad  Fam.  x.  26.  2),  the  question  is  this,  whether  you  are  to  be 
praetor  this  election  or  next. 

1.  Ea  fgrarumne  an  hSrnlnum  caussa  gigngrg  uidetiir  ?  (Cic. 
N.  D.  ii.  62. 156)  is  it  for  the  wild-beasts  think  you  or  for 
man  that  it  (the  earth)  produces  these  things  ? 

Quaero  eum,  Brutlne  slinilem  malls,  an  Anton!  (Cic.  Phil.  x. 
2. 5),  I  ask  whether  you  would  wish  him  to  be  like  Brutus  or 
Antony. 

c.  Sortietiir,  an  non  ?  (Cic.  Prov.  Cons.  15.  37)  shall  he  cast  lots 

or  not  ? 

Postremo,  fugere  an  manere'  tutius  foret,  In  incerto  erat  (Sal. 
Jug.  38),  lastly,  whether  to  fly  or  stay  were  the  safer,  was  a 
matter  of  doubt. 

d,  Sunt  haec  tuS,  uerb&,  necne  ?t  (Cic.  Tusc.  in.  18. 41)  are 
these  your  words  or  are  they  not  ? 

Nihll  int§resse  nostra  putamus,  ualeamiis  aegring  simiis  (Cic. 
de  Fin.  iv.  25.  69),  it  makes  no  difference  to  us  we  think, 
whether  we  are  well  or  ill. 

1424        The  forms, n6, ne  ;  Sn ,  S,n ,  are  found  in 

the  poets  (and  but  rarely  elsewhere) :  as, 

Qul  tgneant  oras,  hSminesng  feraene, 
QuaergrS  constltuit  (Virg.  A.  I.  312), 

Wlio  occupy  the  borders,  men  or  beasts, 
He  resolves  to  ask. 

*  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  with  disjunctive  questions  those 
in  which,  although  the  English  language  uses  the  same  particle,  there  is 
really  no  opposition  between  the  parts,  but  all  may  be  equally  denied  or 
affirmed,  so  that  out  and  not  an  must  be  interposed  :  as,  quid  ergo,  solem 
dicam  aut  lunam  aut  caelum  deum  1  (Cic  N.  D.  i.  30.  84)  '  what  then, 
shall  I  apply  the  name  of  god  to  the  sun,  or  to  the  moon,  or  to  the  sky  ?' 

f  Ne  in  the  second  part  of  a  direct  question  is  rare,  and  perhaps 

limited  in  the  best  writers  to  the  form  necne.  So  utrum  ,  necne 

occurs  in  an  indirect  question.  The  Pseudo-Nepos  has  utrum  , 

matremne,  &c. 


AN.    SI.    VTRVM.    NE.  385 

SaepS  m&nus  5pSrI  tentantes  admSuSt,  an  sit  Corpiis  &n  illud 
Sbur  (Ov.  Met.  10.  254),  oft  his  hands  he  moveth  to  the  work, 
trying  whether  that  before  him  be  flesh  or  ivory. 

1425  The  old  construction  with  titrum  has  after  it nS,  &n : 

as, 

Vtrum,  studioue  id  sibi  habet  an  laudi  putat  Fore,  si  perdiderit 
gnatum  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  in.  3.  28)  does  he  look  upon  this  as  an 
amusement,  or  does  he  think  it  will  be  a  credit  to  him,  if  he 
ruin  his  son  ? 

Vtrum  erat  utilius,  suisng  serulre  an  pSpulo  Romano  obternpe- 
rarg  ?  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  iv.  33.  73)  which  was  the  more  expedient 
course,  to  be  slaves  to  countrymen  of  their  own,  or  to  meet  the 
wishes  of  the  Roman  people  ?* 

1426  It  has  been  seen  that  &n  is  the  particle  ordinarily  used  before 
the  second  part  of  a  question.     Hence  &u  (or  an  uero)  is  well 
adapted  for  those  cases  where  a  statement  is  immediately  followed 
by  the  alternative  put  in  the  form  of  a  question  :  as, 

NScessest  quicquid  pronunties,  Id  aut  esse  aut  non  essS.  An 
tu  di&lecticis  ne  imbutus  quidem  es  1  (Cic  Tusc.  I.  7. 14) 
what  you  put  forward  must  needs  either  be  or  not  be.  Or  art 
you  not  acquainted  with  even  the  A  E  C  of  logic  ?t 

Ad  mortem  te  CatillnS,  duel  iamprldem  oportebat — an  uero 
Sclpio  Graccum  priuatus  interfecit,  C&tlllnam  nos  consules 
perferemus  ?  (Cic.  in  Cat.  I.  1.3)  death,  Catiline,  ought  long 
ago  to  have  been  your  fate — or  does  any  one  really  pretend, 
that  when  Scipio,  though  a  private  man,  slew  Gracchus,  the 
consuls  of  Rome  are  to  tolerate  Catiline  ? 

Nos  hie  te  exspectamiis  ex  quodam  rumore,  an  ex  litteris  tuls 
ad  alios  missis  (Cic.  ad  Att.  I.  3.  2),  we  meanwhile  are  ex- 

*  The  particle  ne  is  at  times  added  to  the  interrogative  pronouns  and 
also  to  the  particles  num  and  an :  as,  quine,  quone,  quantane,  uterne, 
utrumne,  numne,  anne.  But  care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  those 
elliptical  phrases  where  the  relative  and  not  the  interrogative  pronoun 
precedes  ne.  Thus,  Ter.  Ph.  v.  7.29  :  De.  Argentum  lube  rescribi.  Ph. 
Quodne  ego  discripsi  parro  illis  quibus  debui  ?  De.  '  Order  the  money  to 
be  repaid.  Ph.  What,  the  money  which  I  paid  away  forthwith  to  those 
creditors  I  spoke  of?'  And  again,  Ter.  And.  iv.  4.  29  :  Quemne  ego  heri 
uidi  ad  uos  adferri  uesperi  ?  *  What,  the  child  which  I  myself  saw  being 
carried  to  your  house  yesterday  evening  ?' 

f  Which  must  be  the  case  if  you  deny  my  proposition. 
C  C 


386  SYNTAX. 

petting  you  here  on  the  authority  of  some  rumour,  or  (am  1 
right?}  letters  of  yours  to  some  other  people.* 

1427  An  answer  in  the  affirmative  may  be  expressed  by  6tiam,  It& 
or  ita  est,  sic  or  sic  est,  uerum,  uero,  factum,  sane,  maxume, 
quidnl  ?,  admodum,  oppldo,  plane,  &c.,  by  a  personal  pronoun 
with  uero,  or  lastly  by  the  verb  of  the  preceding  sentence  re- 
peated :t  as, 

Haecin  tua  domust  ?  Ita  (Plant.  Am.  i.  1.  206),  is  this  your 
house  ?  Yes. 

NSu!  tlbi  quiduam  scrlbam  ? — quid? — 6tiam  (Cic.  ad  Att.  I. 
13.  5),  have  I  any  news  to  write  to  you  ? — any  news  ? — yes. 

P.  Itane  patris  ais  conspectum  ueritum  hinc  abiisse  ?  G.  ad- 
modum. P.  Phanium  relictam  solam  ?  G.  Sict.  P.  Et 
iratum  senem  ?  G.  Oppido  (Ter.  Ph.  2.  2. 1),  P.  Do  you 
really  mean  that,  afraid  to  face  his  father,  lie  is  gone  off? 
G.  Precisely.  P.  That  Phanium  has  been  left  by  herself? 
G.  Just  so.  P.  And  that  the  old  man  is  in  a  passion  ?  G. 
Exactly. 

A.  Dasne  hoc  ?  B.  Do  sane  (Cic.  de  Leg.  I.  7.  21),  A.  Do  you 
admit  this  ?  B.  Tea,  1  do  admit  it. 

1428  An  answer  in  the  negative  may  be  expressed  by  non,  mhiume, 
nihil  minus,  &c. :  as, 

Cognltorem  adscrlbit  SthSnio.  Quern  ?  Cognatum  allquem  ? 
Non.  Thermitanum  aliquem  ?  Ne  id  quidem.  At  Slcu- 
lum  ?  Mluume  (Cic.  TI.  Verr.  u.  43. 106),  he  appoints  a  per- 
son to  act  as  attorney  for  Sthenius.  Whom,  think  you  ?  /Some 
relative  ?  No.  Some  inhabitant  of  Thermae  ?  Not  even  that. 
StiU  a  Sicilian  of  course  ?  By  no  means. 

1429  Imo  seems  to  have  signified  properly  an  assent  with  an  im- 
portant qualification  (but  from  carelessness  it  is  used  at  times 
where  the  correction  amounts  to  a  total  denial) :  as, 

Vluit  ?    Imo  6tiam  in  sgnatum  uenlt  (Cic.  in  Cat.  I.  1.  2),  is 

*  Hence  in  Tac.  an  is  used  almost  with  the  sense  ufuel:  as,  Ann.  u. 
42,y?/iem  uitae  sponte  an  fato  impleuit,  'he  ended  his  life  by  an  act  of 
his  own,  or  was  it  by  a  natural  though  sudden  death.' 

•f  At  times  the  affirmation  is  understood  without  a  formal  expression ; 
as  when  a  reply  begins  with  at  '  true  but,'  at  enim  4  true  but  beyond  a 
doubt,'  et  quidem  *  true  and  no  less  truly.' 

%  Just  as  si '  so,'  '  yes.'  is  used  m  French  &c. 


ET.   QVE.   ATQVE.  387 

he  alive  ?  Yes  indeed  he  is,  and  more  than  that,  comes  into 
the  senate. 

Caussa  Igltur  non  bona  est  ?  Imo  optumS,,  sed  Sgetur  foedis- 
sume  (Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  7. 4),  the  cause  then  is  not  a  good  one  ? 
Nay,  the  best  of  causes,  but  it  will  be  supported  most  disgrace- 
fully. 

A.  Sic  hunc  decipis  ?  D.  Imo  enimuero  A'ntipho,  hie  me 
decipit  (Ter.  Ph.  3.  2. 43),  A.  Is  this  the  way  you  cheat  this 
poor  fellow  ?  D.  Not  exactly  so  ;  it  is  this  poor  fellow,  An- 
tipho,  who  is  cheating  me*. 


COPULATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

1430  Of  the  three  copulative  conjunctions,  et,  qug,  atque  (ac),  the 
enclitic  que  is  more  particularly  employed  to  attach  something 
subordinate  to  what  precedes  and  unites  two  things  more  closely 
together  into  one  :  as, 

Soils  et  lunae  reliquorumquS  sldgrum  ortus  (Oic.  de  Div.  I.  56. 

128),  the  rising  of  the  sun  and  moon  and  the  other  stars. 
Senatus  pSpulusque  Romanus  (Cic.  Phil.  in.  15. 38),  the  senate 

and  people  of  Rome. 

1431  Long  phrases  are  connected  commonly  by  6t,  sometimes  by 
que,  rarely  by  atqug ;  whereas  all  three  are  employed  to  connect 
words  or  short  phrases,  except  that  qug  is  never  attached  to  those 
demonstrative  pronouns  or  adverbs  which  end  in  c. 

1432  When  two  words  or  phrases  are  to  be  united,  a  still  stronger 
union  is  effected  by  employing  a  pair  of  conjunctions.     Thus,  a. 

et  8t  is  employed  either  with  single  words  or  long 

phrases,    b. quS, qu8  is  used  in  the  connection  of  re- 
lative clauses,  and  sometimes  with  a  pair  of  words  the  first  of 

which  is  a  pronoun  j  and  also  generally  in  the  poets,    c. que, 

et 1  is  limited  to  single  words,  of  which  again  the  first  is  often 

a  pronoun,    d.  even  et  ,  qug  occurs,  but  again  rarely 

except  with  single  words  :  as, 

*  A  friend  and  former  colleague  suggested  that  imo  is  merely  a  con- 
traction of  in  modo  '  in  a  manner,'  and  referred  to  the  arguments  I  had 
put  forward  elsewhere  ('Alphabet,'  p.  141),  to  show  that  modo  when  used 
as  an  adverb  had  a  monosyllabic  pronunciation. 

f  This  form  occurs  in  Sallust,  not  in  Cicero. 


388 


SYNTAX. 


a.  Nihil  est  enim  simiil  St  inuentum  et  perfection  (Cic.  Brut. 

18.  70),  for  nothing  was  ever  both  invented  and  perfected  at 
once. 

b.  Q.ulque  Romae,  quique  In  exercitu  grant  (Liv.  xxn.  26),  loth 

those  at  Rome  and  those  in  the  army. 
Meque  regnumqug  meum  (Sal.  Jug.  10),  both  myself  and  my 

sceptre. 
Alii  fontemque  ignemquS  ferebant  (Virg.  A.  xn.  119),  others 

the  limpid  stream  and  fire  were  bearing. 

c.  Seque  et  cohortern  (Liv.  XXY.  14),  both  himself  and  the  cohort. 

d.  Id  et  singiilis  uiiiuersisqug  sempgr  hSnori  fuit  (Liv.  iv.  2), 

this  was  ever  an  honour  alike  to  individual  leaders  and  to  the 
whole  mass  of  those  who  followed. 

1433  When  more  than  two  things  are  to  be  united,  of  which  no  one 
is  to  be  more  closely  united  to  one  than  to  another,  the  following 
forms  are  admissible : 

a.  et ,  et ,  et . 

b.       ,  et ,  et . 

c.        , ,  que. 

d.       ,  qu6, que*  :  as, 

a.  Is,  §t  in  custodiam  cluis  dedit,  et  suppHcationem  mihi  de- 

creuit,  et  indices  praemils  affecit  (Cic.  in  Cat.  iv.  5.  10), 
this  person  has  ordered  citizens  into  custody,  has  voted  a  pub- 
lic thanksgiving  in  my  name,  has  rewarded  the  informers. 

b.  Admlrar!  soleo  grauitatem  et  iustltiam  et  sapientiam  CaesS- 

rls  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  vi.  6.  10),  I  always  admire  the  high  prin- 
ciple, and  justice  and  wisdom  of  Caesar. 

c.  Vrbem  pulcerrumam  florentissumam  pStentissumamque  essg 

uoluerunt  (Cic.  in  Cat.  n.  13.  29),  they  wished  Rome  to  stand 
foremost  in  splendour,  prosperity,  and  power. 

d.  A  cultu  prouiuciae  longisslme  absunt,  minimeque  S,d  eos 
mercatores  saepe   commeant,  proxlmlqug   sunt  Germanls 
(Caes.  B.  G.  I.  1),  they  are  farthest  from  the  civilisation  of 
the  province,  are  visited  very  rarely  by  merchants,  and  lie 
nearest  to  Germany^. 

*  Very  rarely ,  atque  (ac) ,  atque  (ac) . 

f  The  poets  often  attach  a  que  to  the  first,  as  well  as  all  the  following 
members  of  a  series:  'AS^oblitus  regisijue  ducumqne  meique(0v.  Met.  xm. 
276),  '  forgetful  of  prince,  of  chief's,  of  me.' 


ET.    QVE.    ATQVE.  389 

1434  When  of  the  words  or  phrases  to  be  united,  the  union  is  to  bo 
closer  between  some  than  others,  more  than  one  of  the  conjunc- 
tions 8t,  quS,  atquS  must  be  used  ;  and  thus  the  Latin  language 
has  great  power  in  grouping  together  the  different  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence according  to  their  importance*  :  as, 

Caedes  atque  incendia,  et  legum  interitum,  et  bellum  cluile  ac 
domesticum,  et  totlus  urbis  atque  imperi  occasum  appr5- 
pinquare  dixerunt  (Cic.  in  Cat.  in.  8. 19),  massacres  and 
conflagrations,  the  annihilation  of  law,  civil  and  domestic 
war,  the  downfall  of  the  city  and  the  empire,  all  these  were 
approaching  they  said. 

Illud  signum  soils  ortum,  et  forum  curiamque  conspMt  (Cic. 
in  Cat.  ill.  8. 20),  yonder  statue  looks  upon  the  rising  sun, 
and  the  forum  and  senate-house^. 

Nauigantes  inde  pugnatum  ad  Lllybaeum  fusasque  et$  captas 
hostium  nauls  acceperg  (Liv.  xxi.  50),  as  they  were  sailing 
thence  they  received  the  news  that  a  battle  had  been  fought  off 
Lilybceum,  and  that  the  enemies'  ships  had  been  all  put  to 
flight  or$  taken. 

It£qug  productis  copiis  ante  oppldum  considunt ;  et  proxlmam 
fossam  cratibiis  integunt  atquej  aggere  explent,  seque  &d 
t  gruptionem  atque  omnls  casus  compS,rant  (Caes.  B.  G.  vn. 

79),  accordingly  having  led  out  their  forces  they  take  a  posi- 
tion before  the  town  ;  and  the  first  ditch  which  presented  itself 
they  bridge  over  with  hurdles,  or'^fill  up  with  earth,  at  the 
same  time  that  they  prepare  against  a  sally  and  every  other 
mischance^. 

1435  There  are  three  modes  by  which  an  enumeration  is  made  so  as 

*  Cicero  at  times  in  his  orations  purposely  uses  et  alone  throughout  a 
long  period  to  connect  all  the  single  words  and  phrases  and  clauses,  whe- 
ther long  or  short ;  his  object  being  rather  to  deluge  his  hearer's  mind  with 
a  torrent  of  ideas,  than  to  place  them  in  due  subordination  before  him. 

f  The  omission  of  the  word  the  before  senate-house  has  the  same  effect 
of  bringing  the  latter  pair  of  nouns  nearer  together,  as  the  change 'of  con- 
junction has  in  Latin. 

1  This  disjunctive  use  of  et  and  atque  is  not  uncommon. 

§  If  every  one  of  the  three  conjunctions  be  translated  by  and,  the 
repetition  at  once  offends  the  ear  and  confuses  the  mind.  The  variety 
of  stops  in  our  modern  printing  enables  us  to  make  that  distinction  visible 
to  the  eye,  which  the  Romans  made  sensible  to  the  ear  also  by  a  variety 
of  conjunctions.  See  '  Journal  of  Education,'  iv.  135. 


390  SYNTAX. 

to  be  highly  impressive  : — a.  that  already  mentioned  (in  §  1433) 
with  the  prefixed  and  repeated  et  (called  Polysyndeton) ;  b.  a  sim- 
ple enumeration  without  conjunctions  (called  Asyndeton)  ;  c.  a  re- 
petition of  some  word  at  the  beginning  of  each  clause  (called  Ana- 
phora) :  thus, 

1.  Semp6r  audax,  pgtulans,  lubidmosiis  (Cic.  p.  Sull.  25.  71), 

always  daring,  mischievous,  sensual, 

Quid  uoluerit,  cogltarit,  admiserit,  non  ex  crimlne  est  ponder- 
andum  (Cic.  p.  Sull.  25. 69),  his  criminal  wishes,  intentions, 
actions,  are  not  to  be  measured  by  the  charges  of  his  accuser. 
c.  Erepti  estis  sine  caede,  sing  sanguine^  sine  exercltu,  sine 
dlmlcatione  (Cic.  in  Cat.  in.  10.  23),  you  have  been  rescued 
'without  a  massacre,  without  bloodshed,  without  an  army,  with- 
out a  struggle. 

1436  An  omission  of  a  conjunction  is  —  a.  common  in  the  old  lan- 
guage and  public  formulae  between  two  words ;  b.  the  regular 
construction  with  words  or  phrases  opposed  to  one  another ;  and 
c.  occasionally  used  in  a  light  and  lively  style  for  the  sake  of  bre- 
vity :  as, 

a.  RSgationem  promulgauit,  uellent  iiiberentnS*  PhiHppo  regl 
bellum  indie!  (Liv.  xxxi.  6),  he  put  up  a  public  notice  of 
his  intention  to  take  the  pleasure  and  order  of  the  people  for 
declaring  war  against  king  Philip. 

Lex  Aelia  SentiS,  (Gaius,  I.  6. 18),  the  law  passed  by  JElius  and 

Sentius. 
Vsus  fructusf  est  ius  Slienis  rebus  utendi  fruendi  salua  rerum 

substantia  (Paul,  in  Dig.  vn.  1. 1),  the  usufruct  is  the  right 

to  the  use  and  produce  of  property  belonging  to  others,  without 

detriment  to  the  property  itself. 

b.  Ne  cursem  hue  illuc  uia  deterruma  (Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  9.  2), 

that  I  may  not  keep  running  first  to  this  place  and  then  to  that 
along  the  worst  possible  road. 

OmniS,,  mlniimS,  maxiirna,  ad  Caesarem  mitt!  sciebam  (Cic.  ad 
Q.  F.  in.  1.  3. 10),  all  the  news,  from  the  most  unimportant 
to  the  most  important,  1  knew  was  regularly  sent  to  Caesar. 

•  More  literally  *  he  advertised  a  bill  asking  whether  they  wished 
and  ordered  that  war  should  be  declared  against  king  Philip.' 

f  Thus  what  was  originally  two  independent  words  became  almost 
one  ;  still  the  accusative  is  usum  fructum. 


ET.    QVE.    ATQVE.  391 

Quum  diu  anceps  fuisset  certamen,  et  Saguntmis*  quiS,  praeter 
spem  resist&rent  creuissent  animl,  Poenus  qui&  non  ulcisset 
pro  uicto  esset,  clamorem  rSpente  oppidan!  tollunt  (Liv. 
xxi.  9),  when  the  contest  had  been  for  a  long  time  doubtful, 
and  the  spirit  of  the  Saguntines  was  increased  because  they 
had  up  to  this  time  made  a  resistance  beyond  their  hopes, 
while\  the  Carthaginian  was  as  good  as  defeated  because  he 
was  not  already  victorious,  the  townspeople  suddenly  set  up  a 
shout*. 
Sulla  pStuit,  8go  non  pStero  ?  (Pomp.  ap.  Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  10. 2), 

was  Sulla  able,  and  shall  not  I  be  able  f 

f.  Aderant  prdpinqui,  ainici  (Cic.  n.  Verr.  I.  48. 125),  his  con- 
nections, friends  were  present. 

In  fens  Inesse  fortitudinem  saepg  dlcimus,  ut  In  equis,  in  leo- 
nlbus  (Cic.  de  Off.  I.  16.  50),  we  often  attribute  courage  to  a 
beast,  as  the  horse,  the  lion. 

1437  When  clauses  follow  one  another  without  any  conjunctions  to 
connect  them,  the  same  order  is  commonly  used  in  each  (except 
that  an  inversion  is  admissible  in  the  last  clause) :  as, 

Ad  hoc  praeusti  artus,  nlug  rlgentes  uerul,  quassata"  fractaque 
arma,  claudi  ac  deblles  equl§  (Liv.  xxi.  40),  in  addition  to 
this  their  limbs  frostbitten,  their  muscles  stiffened  by  the  snow, 
their  arms  shattered  and  broken,  their  horses  lame  and  ex- 
hausted. 

Is  motus  terrae  multarum  urbium  magnas  partis  prostrauit, 
maie1  flumlnlbus  inuexit,  montls  lapsu  ingentl  proruit  (Liv. 
xxn.  5),  this  earthquake  threw  down  a  great  portion  of  many 
cities,  carried  the  sea  up  rivers,  caused  fearful  avalanches\\. 

*  In  the  passages  where  long  clauses  are  opposed,  the  writer  takes 
care  to  place  opposed  words  at  the  beginning  of  each  clause,  as  here : 
Saguntinis  . . .,  Poenus. . .  Where  the  phrase  is  a  short  one,  this  is  not 
necessary,  as  in  Cic.  in  Cat.  n.  11.25,  quibus  nos  suppeditamus,  eget  ille- 
'  of  which  we  have  abundance,  while  he  has  none.' 

f  This  conjunction  is  almost  necessary  in  the  English  translation  when 
two  opposed  clauses  are  attached  by  a  conjunction  to  another  sentence. 

J  Compare  also  the  use  of  such  opposed  clauses  after  an  in  §  1426 ; 
and  see  *  Journal  of  Education,'  iv  p.  140,  &c. 

§  After  nerui  the  editions  have  membra  torrida  gelu  ;  which,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  substantive  preceding  the  epithet,  is  evidently  a  mere  mar- 
ginal interpretation  of  praeusti  artus. 

||  Here  again  our  editions  insert  after  prostrauit,  auertitque  cumu 
rapidos  amnes,  which  is  evidently  an  interpolation. 


«5.J^  SYNTAX. 

1438  With  adjectives  and  adverbs  of  comparison*,  the  conjunctions 
St  and  quS  are  used  in  such  a  manner  that  the  two  things  com- 
pared are  brought  together  and  under  a  common  construction, 
while  the  adjective  or  adverb  of  comparison  either  precedes  or  fol- 
lows the  things  compared ;  or  is  interposed  after  the  first  of  the 
things  compared,  as  a  sort  of  enclitic.     Thus,  if  we  include  the 
double  and  single  use  of  each  conjunction,  there  are  six  varieties  : 

a.  Strenui  milltls  et  boni  impgratorls  offlci&,  simul  exsgqueba- 

tur  (Sal.  Cat.  60),  he  was  performing  the  parts  at  once  of  a 
zealous  soldier  and  a  good  general. 

b.  Quoi-smiiil  et  Volcatio  pgcunia  numgratast  (Cic.  n.  Verr. 

in.  76. 176),  the  money  having  been  paid  to  him  and  Volca'.r-'* 
at  the  same  time. 

c.  Nihil  est  enim  simul  et  inuentuin  et  perfectum  (Cic.  Brut. 

18.  70),  for  nothing  was  ever  invented  and  brought  to  perfec- 
tion both  at  the  same  time. 

d.  Alienata  mentS  simul  luctu  me'tuque'  (Liv.  xxiv.  26),  their 
minds  distracted  by  the  double  feeling,  of  sorrow  (for  their 
mother's  death}  and  fear  (for  themselves). 

e.  Hoc,  princlpium-slmul  omenque  belli  (Liv.  xxi.  29),  thist  at 

once  a  commencement  and  an  omen  of  the  war. 
f.  PSrlter,  comitlque  5n6riqu8  timentem  (Virg.  A.  n.  729), 
fearful  alike  for  his  companion  and  for  the  load  he  bore. 

1439  The  use  of  atquS  with  adjectives  and  adverbs  of  comparison  is 
much  more  free,  as  neither  an  identity  of  construction  nor  the 
close  union  of  the  things  compared  is  essential.     Thus, 

Me  c51it  8t  obseruat  aeque  atque  ilium  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xiu. 

69. 1),  he  pays  as  much  respect  and  attention  to  me  as  to  him. 
Si  qui  dlcatur  Slium  occldisse  ac  uSlugrit  (Cic.  de  Inv.  n.  7.23), 

if  a  person  were  charged  with  having  killed  a  different  person 

from  what  he  had  intended. 
Par  deslde'rium  sul  rellquit  ac  Ti.  Gracchus  relique'rat  (Cic.  p. 

Rab.  5. 14),  he  died  as  much  regretted  as  Tiberius  Gracchus 

had  done. 

1440  Et  is  occasionally  used  in  the  sense  of  (  also,'  '  too,'  even  in 

*  This  word  is  here  used  in  a  wide  sense,  so  as  to  include  such  adjec- 
tives as  aequo-*  par-  or  pari-.  simili-,  dissimili-,  idem,  UHO-,  duo-,  duplici-^ 
und  the  adverbs  aeque,  puriter,  simul,  una,  &c. 


ET.    QVE.    ATQ.VE.    AVT.    VEL.  6.)'<> 

the  best  writers*,  but  for  the  most  part  only  in  certain  combina- 
tions :  as,  s£d  St,  slmul  et,  sic  et,  et  ips£. 

1441  QuS  and  ue  in  the  poets  are  sometimes  placed,  not  after  the 
second  of  the  two  words  compared,  but  after  a  word  which  is  the 
common  predicate  of  both  clauses  :  as, 

Insanum  te  omnes  puerl  clamentque't  puellae  (Hor,  Sat.  II. 
3. 130),  the  madman  !  all  would  exclaim,  both  boys  andgirls^.. 

1442  The  poets  take  the  liberty  of  placing  que  behind  a  later  word 
than  the  first  of  its  clause,  particularly  in  a  pentameter  line  :  as, 

Quum  maestiis  £b  alto 
Iliori,  ardentes  respIcSretque  deos  (Tibul.  it.  5.21), 

As  in  sadness  from  the  deep 
On  Ilion  and  the  burning  gods  he  was  looking  back. 

1443  The  construction  neque St ,  and  also  that  of  &t 

nSque deserve  attention,  because  they  differ  from  the  English 

idiom.    Thus, 

Patebat  uia,  et  certa  nee  longS,  (Cic.  Phil.  xi.  2. 4),  a  road  lay 
open  to  them  which  had  the  double  advantage  of  being  certain 
and  not  long. 

VSluptates  £grlcolarum,  ne'e  ulla  impediuntur  s&nectute,  et 
mini  ad  sSpientis  ultam  proxume  uidenttir  accede're'  (Cic. 
de  Sen.  15.  51),  the  pleasures  of  the  farmer  (have  a  twofold 
recommendation:  they)\  are  never  obstructed  by  old  age,  how- 
ever advanced,  and  they  seem  to  me  to  approach  most  nearly  to 
the  life  a  wise  man  would  lead. 

DISJUNCTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

1444  The  difference  between  aut||  and  uel,  though  commonly  trans- 

*  See  Allen's  '  Doctrina  Copularum,'  p.  52. 

f  A  construction  that  probably  began  with  a  repetition  of  the  predi- 
cate :  pueri  clament  clamentque  puellae.  Other  instances  are  to  be  found 
in  Horace ;  as,  mutatosque,  Od.  i.  5.  5 ;  horribilique,  u.  19.  24  ;  mediusque, 
ii.  19.28  ;  tetigitque,  n.  19.32:  and  in  Tibullus;  as,  pereatque,  I.  1.51; 
sequiturque,  i.  3. 56.  See  Orelli  ad  Hor.  Od.  u.  19.  28. 

J  See  Allen's  '  Doctrina  Copularum,'  p.  120. 

§  Or  the  words  within  brackets  might  have  been  omitted,  and  the 
word  '  and'  exchanged  for  '  at  the  same  time  that.' 

||  See  §  840,  notes  f  and  J. 


394  SYNTAX. 

lated  by  the  same  word  in  English,  is  marked.  Aut  divides  two 
notions  essentially  different,  while  ugl  marks  a  distinction  either 
not  essential  in  itself  or  unimportant  in  the  mind  of  the  speaker, 
so  that  it  is  often  used  to  correct  a  mere  expression.  When  they 
are  repeated,  the  distinction  becomes  still  more  marked.  In  the 
construction  aut aut ,  the  denial  of  one  clause  is  an  affir- 
mation of  the  other.  Whereas  in  the  construction  uel uel 

all  the  clauses  may  coexist  or  not,  the  speaker  merely  ex- 
pressing his  indifference  as  to  a  choice  between  them.  Lastly,  uel 
is  used  with  superlatives  and  in  other  phrases  with  the  sense  of 
even,  or  perhaps  more  precisely  if  you  like*. 

a.  Audendum  est  Sliquld  uniuersis,  aut  omniS,  singulis  pSti- 
enda  (Liv.  vi.  18),  we  must  make  a  bold  effort  in  a  body,  or 
else  every  individual  must  suffer  the  worst. 

Aut  occiibuissem  honeste,  aut  uictores  hodie  uiueremus  (Cic. 
ad  Att.  in.  15.  4),  either  I  should  have  fallen  honourably,  or 
else  we  should  have  been  now  living  as  conquerors. 

b.  Magnus  h5mo,  uel  pStius  summus  (Cic.  Brut.  85.  293),  a 
great  man,  or  rather  the  greatest  of  men. 

Vna  atque  altera  aestas  uel  metu  uel  spe  uel  poena  uel  prae- 
miis  uel  armis  uel  leglbus  potest  t5tam  Galliam  semplternis 
uinculis  adstringere  (Cic.  Prov.  Cons.  14.  34),  one  or  two 
summers,  by  the  influence  of  fear  or  hope  or  punishment  or 
rewards  or  arms  or  laws  (I  care  not  which),  may  bind  all 
Gallia  in  eternal  chains. 

c.  Vldetur  uel  moil  satius  fuissg  quam  essg  cum  his  (Cic.  ad 

Att.  ix.  6.  7),  it  seems  to  me  that  even  death  would  have  been 

better  than  to  live  in  the  company  of  these  people. 
Vestra  caussa  me  loqul  quae  ISquor,  uel  ea  fides  sit  (Liv.  xxi. 

13),  that  it  is  for  your  sake  that  I  say  what  I  do  say,  let  even 

this  be  a  security  to  you. 
Cuius  eo  tempo're'  uel  maxiima  Spud  regem  auctorltas  6rat  (Liv. 

xxxvi.  41),  whose  influence  with  the  king  at  this  time  was  the 

very  greatest-^. 

*  It  will  be  seen  that  all  the  meanings  here  given  to  uel  are  consistent 
with  its  being  in  origin  an  imperative  ofuol- '  wish,'  in  the  sense  of  make 
your  own  choice/  See  §  840,  note  f. 

f  The  use  of  ue  agrees  nearly  with  that  of  uel,  from  which  it  is  pro- 
bably formed  ;  but  it  is  always  an  enclitic,  and  occurs  more  frequently  in 
poetry  than  in  prose. 


AT.  395 


VARIOUS  CONJUNCTIONS  AND  ADVERBS. 

1445        The  conjunction  &t  denotes  rather  addition  than  opposition. 
It  is  commonly  employed  after  a  concession,  especially — 
a.  After  si,  in  the  sense  of  yet,  still :  as, 

Si  minus  suppllcio  afflci,  at  custodiri  oportebat  (Cic.  II.  Verr. 
v.  27. 69),  if  it  was  not  right  they  should  be  severely  punished, 
still  they  ought  to  have  been  guarded. 

Si  non  bSnam,  &t  Sllquam  rationem  afferrg  solent  (Cic.  n.  Verr. 
in.  85. 195),  they  usually  bring  forward,  if  not  a  good  reason, 
yet  some  reason. 

I.  In  a  reply,  when  a  proposition  of  the  other  party  is  assented 
to,  but  at  the  same  time  rendered  useless  for  his  purpose  by  some 
addition  :  as, 

Nunquam  nisi  hSnorlflcentissiime  Pompeium  appellat. — At  In 
eius  persona  multS,  fecit  aspgrius  (Cic.,  ad  Fam.  vi.  6.10), 
he  never  speaks  of  Pompey  except  in  the  most  complimentary 
terms. — Precisely  so,  but  in  dealing  with  him  he  acted  on 
many  occasions  somewhat  roughly. 

c.  Hence  it  is  employed  to  anticipate  an  opponent's  objection, 
in  which  case  the  verb  inquies  or  dices  is  commonly  omitted,  and 
not  unfrequently  the  particle  Suim  or  uero  added  :  as, 

At  sunt  morosi  et  difficlles  sgnes  (Cic.  de  Sen.  18.65),  but  you 
will  tell  me,  old  men  are  cross  and  difficult  to  please. 

At  enim  Q.  Catulus  Sb  hac  rations  dissentit  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man. 
17.  51),  true,  I  shall  be  told,  but  Quintus  Catulus  dissents 
from  this  view. 

d.  It  denotes  a  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind,  and  is  employed 
in  sudden  transitions  in  a  speech  :  as, 

Exi  foras  sceleste.  At  etiam  r&stitas  ?  (Ter.  E.  iv.  4. 1)  get  out 
of  the  house,  you  scoundrel.  What !  do  you  still  resist  ? 

Narr&bat  se  hunc  neclegere  cognatum  suom.  At  quern  uirum  ? 
(Ter.  Ph.  n.  3.19)  he  often  told  me  that  this  kinsman  took  no 
notice  of  him.  And  yet  what  a  noble  creature  he  was  ! 

e.  Hence  the  repeated  form  att&t,  i.  e.  ^tatSt*,  is  used  to  mark 
a  sudden  discovery :  as, 

*  See  §  24. 


396  SYNTAX. 

hoc  illud  est  (Ter.  And.  1. 1. 98),  ah,  ah,  I  see  it  then,  this 
explains  tJiat 


1446  Autem  strictly  denotes  again,  and  is  never  used  in  the  sense 
of  opposition,  but  real  addition.  It  never  occupies  the  first  place 
in  a  clause.  Its  significations  are — 

a.  Again:  as, 

Turn  autem  hoc  tlmet  (Ter.  And.  i.  5.  34),  then  again  she  is 
afraid  of  this. 

Sed  quid  6go  haec  autem  nequiquam  ingrata  revolvo  ?  ( Virg. 
A.  ii.  101)  but  why  do  I  again  in  vain  turn  o'er  these  unwel- 
come thoughts  ? 

Porro  autem  alio  (Ter.  Ph.  i.  1 . 14),  and  ere  long  with  another 
again. 

b.  On  the  other  hand:  as, 

Neque  enim  tu  is  es  qui  quid  sis  nescias;  neque  autem  ego 
sum  Ita  demens  tit  &c.  (Cic.  ad  Earn.  v.  12.  6),  nor  indeed 
are  you  the  person  not  to  know  what  is  due  to  you,  nor  on  the 
other  hand  am  I  so  mad  as  &c. 

c.  And  or  now  (especially  in  a  parenthesis)  :  as, 

Diogenem  adiilescens,  post  autem  Panaetium  audiSrat  (Cic.  -de 
Fin.  n.  8.  24),  he  had  attended  the  lectures  of  Diogenes  when 
a  young  man,  and  afterwards  those  of  Pancetius. 

Nemlnem  conueni  (conuenio  autem  quStldie  plurumos)  quin 
omnes  mihi  gratias  S,gant  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  ix.  14.1),  I  have 
met  no  one  (and  I  daily  meet  very  many),  but  they  all  thank 
me. 

d.  But  or  now,  especially  in  adding  the  new  propositions  of  a 
syllogism  :  as, 

Si  amitt!  uitS,  beatS,  p5test,  beata  essS  non  potest.  Quis  enim 
confldit  slbi  semper  id  stabile  permansurum  quod  fragile 
sit  ?  Qui  autem  diffidat  perpgtultatl  bflnorum  suoram, 
tlmeat  ngcessest,  lie  Sllquando  amissis  illis  sit  miser.  Be- 
atiis  autem  esse  in  maxumarum  rerum  tlmore'  nemo  p8test. 
Nemo  Igltur  essg  beatus  potest  (Cic.  de  Fin.  u.  27.  86),  if 
happiness  can  be  lost,  it  cannot  be  happiness.  For  who  feels 
sure  that  that  will  always  remain  stable  to  him  which  is  in 
itself  frail  ?  But  if  a  man  feels  no  security  in  the  continu- 
ance of  his  blessings,  he  must  needs  be  afraid  of  some  time  or 


AVTEM.    DEMVM.    DVM.  397 

other  losing  them,  and  so  becoming  miserable.  But  no  one 
can  be  happy  when  in  fear  about  matters  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. Consequently  no  one  can  be -happy. 

e.  Autem  is  also  used  in  catching  up  some  objectionable  word 
or  phrase,  where  we  insert  some  such  expression  as  did  I  say  ? 

Numquis  testis  postumum*  appellauit  ?  testls  autem,  num  ac- 
cussator  ?  (Cic.  p.  Rab.  P.  5. 10)  now  did  any  witness  mention 
the  name  of  Postumus  ?  Witness  did  I  say,  did  the  accuser  ? 

Intelllgis  quam  meum  sit  scirS  quid  in  re  publica  fiat ;  flat 
autem,  immo  uero  etiam  quid  futurum  sit  (Cic.  ad  Att.  v. 
13. 3),  you  understand  how  much  it  concerns  me  to  know  what 
is  doing  in  the  public  world;  doing  did  I  say,  nay  even  what 
will  be  done. 

In  afrlcam*  transcendes ;  transcendes  autem  dico  ?  hoc  ipso 
anno  duos  consoles,  unum  In  hispaniam*,  alterum  In  afii- 
cam*  miserunt  (Liv.  xxi.  44),  you  will  cross  over  into  Africa. 
Will  did  1  say,  this  very  year  they  have  sent  their  two  consuls, 
one  into  S2^ain,  the  other  into  Africa. 

1447  Pemum  is  strictly  an  adverb  of  time,  and  signifies — a.  At  last, 
a  very  long  time  having  preceded  :  as, 

Ego  n6uos  maritus  anno  demum  quinto  et  sexagensumo  Fiam  ! 

(Ter.  Ad.  v.  8. 15),  I  become  a  bridegroom  now  for  the  first 

time  in  my  sixty-fifth  year  ! 
Nunc  demum  uenis  ?    Cur  passu's  ?  (Ter.  Ad.  n.  2.  25)  are  you 

come  now  for  the  first  time  ?     Why  did  you  put  up  with  it  so 

long  ? 
Quarta  uix  demum  exponlmur  hora  (Hor.  Sat.  1.  5.  23),  at  last 

at  ten  o'clock  (and  then  with  difficulty)  we  land. 
b.  Nothing  short  of,  especially  with  the  pronoun  i-  or  eo- :  as, 
Sic  6nim  sentio,  id  demum  ess8  mlserum  quod  turpe  sit  (Cic. 

ad  Att.  vin.  8),  for  I  feel  that  that,  and  that  alone,  is  wretched 

which  is  base. 
Idem  uelle  et  Idem  nolle,  eS,  demum  firma  amlcltia  est  (Sal. 

Cat.  20),  an  identity  of  desires  and  dislikes,  that  and  nothing 

short  of  that  constitutes  lasting  friendship. 

1448  Bum  is  strictly  an  adverb  of  time,  and  signifies — a.  While,  as 
/<n-ifj  as  (nearly  always  with  the  indicative)  : 

•  To  copy  the  Mss.,  where  proper  names  have  no  capitals. 


398  SYNTAX. 

Bum  haec  dicit,  abiit  hora  (Ter.  E.  II.  3.  49),  while  he  was 

saying  this,  an  hour  passed  away. 
Dum  haec  in  ugnetis*  ggrunturf,  titurius  in  finis  unellorum* 

peruSnlt  (Caes.  B.  G.  in.  17),  while  these  things  were  going 

on  among  the  Veneti,  Titurius  arrives  in  the  territories  of  the 

Unelli. 
Dum  latine*  loquentur  litterae,  quercus  huic  loco  non  derft 

(Cic.  de  Leg.  i.  1.1),  so  long  as  literature  shall  talk  Latin, 

this  spot  will  not  be  without  its  oak. 
Diem  insgquentem  quieuere  mllites,  dum  praefectus  urbis  ulres 

insplcerett  (Liv.  xxiv.  40),  the  next  day  the  soldiers  rested, 

that  the  general  might  in  the  interval  examine  the  strength  of 

the  city. 

b.  Until  (nearly  always  with  the  indicative  mood,  unless  a  pur- 
pose be  intended) :  as, 

Expectabo  dum  uenit  (Ter.  E.  i.  2.126),  I  shall  wait  until  he 

comes. 
Expecta  amabo  te,  dum  attlcum*  conueniamj  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn. 

1.  4),  wait,  1  pray  you,  until  I  can  see  Atticus. 

c.  Provided  that  (always  with  the  subjunctive)  :  as, 
Odgrint,  dum  metuant  (ap.  Cic.  Phil.  i.  14. 34),  let  them  hate, 

provided  they  fear. 

Omnia  hSnestS,  neclegunt,  dum  mod5  potentiam  cousSquantur 
(Cic.  de  Off.  in.  21.  82),  they  neglect  all  that  is  honourable, 
if  they  can  but  attain  political  power. 

d.  Yet,  a  while,  as  an  enclitic  after  negatives  (including  uix)  or 
a  present  of  the  imperative  :  as, 

Vixdum  gpistSlam  tuam  legSram  cum  curtius*  uenit  (Cic.  ad 

Att.  ix.  2  A.  3),  /  had  scarcely  yet  read  your  letter,  when 

Curtius  called. 
Legation^  decreta  necdum  missa  (Liv.  xxi.  6),  when  the  embassy 

had  been  decreed,  but  not  yet  sent. 
Adesdum,  paucis  te  uolo  (Ter.  And.  i.  1.  2),  Jiere  a  moment,  I 

want  a  few  words  with  you. 

1449        Enim  must  commonly  be  translated  by  the  English  conjunction 
for,  but  at  times  retains  what  was  probably  its  earlier  signification 

*  See  p.  3.97,  note.  f  See  §  458. 

£  The  subjunctive,  to  denote  a  purpose. 


DVM.   ENIM.    IAM.    ITA.  399 

indeed,  as  in  Snimuero  indeed,  indeed,  rn8que  enim  nor  indeed, 
etgnim  and  indeed,  a'tSnim*  true  you  mil  say,  but  in  fact,  sSd 
Snim  but  indeed,  &c. :  as, 

Enimue'ro  dauet,  nillocist  segnitiae  nee  soc6rdiae  (Ter.  And.  I. 
3.  1),  indeed,  indeed,  Davus,  there  is  no  room  for  sloth  or 


Quid  tute  tecum  ?  Nihil  enim  (Plaut.  Most.  in.  1.  24),  what 
are  you  saying  to  yourself  ?  Nothing,  I  assure  you. 

1450  lam  is  an  adverb  of  time,  and  often  differs  from  nunc  just  as 
eo  tempore  differs  from  hoc  tempSre.    It  commonly  denotes  some- 
thing extreme  in  point  of  time :  as, 

a.  Already  (sooner  than  might  have  been  expected)  :  as, 
Hermae  tui  pentellclt  iam  nunc  me  delectant  (Cic.  ad  Att.  r. 

8. 2),  your  Mercuries  of  Pentelic  marble  already  now  charm 
me  {before  I  have  seen  them). 

Haec  iam  turn  cum  Sderas  offendere  eiiis  Snlmum  intellegSbam 
(Cic.  ad  Att.  1. 11.1),  this,  already  when  you  were  with  us,  I 
perceived  annoyed  him. 

b.  At  last  (later  than  might  have  been  expected) :  as, 
Postiilo  ut  redeat  iam  in  uiam  (Ter.  And.  i.  2. 19),  1 'expect  him 

to  return  at  last  into  the  right  path.   (He  has  gone  astray  long 
enough.) 

c.  Presently:  as, 

De  qulbus  iam  dlcendi  IScus  grit  (Cic.  Brut.  25. 96),  of  which  1 
shall  presently  have  an  opportunity  of  speaking. 

d.  Then  again,  lastly  (to  denote  a  transition  from  one  subject 
to  another) :  as, 

Iam  quantum  dlcendi  graultate  ualeat,  uos  saepS  cognostis 
(Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  14. 42),  then  again  how  impressive  he  is  as 
a  speaker,  you  yourselves  have  often  witnessed. 

e.  Iam  iamquS,  of  what  is  expected  every  moment :  as, 
Quanquam  ipse  iam  iamque  &dero  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xiv.  22. 1),  anil 

yet  I  myself  shall  be  with  you  forthwith. 

1451  ItaJ  so  differs  from  sic  so  as  the  logical  i-  or  eo-  this  from  the 
demonstrative  ho-  this. 

*  See  §  1445  c.  f  See  p.  397,  note, 

t  The  oldest  form  of  the  neuter  pronoun  id.     Compare  the  Gothic 
ueuter  thata,  Avhence  our  that. 


400  SYNTAX. 

a.  So  (so  exceedingly),  pointing  to  a  coming  tit  that :  as, 
inclusum  in  curia  senatum  habuerunt  Ita  multos  dies  tit  in- 
tgriermt  nommlli  fame  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vi.  2.  8),  they  kept  the 
senate  shut  up  in  their  house  so  many  days  that  some  died  of 


b.  So  (so  little,  or  with  a  restrictive  sense),  with  the  same  con- 
struction :  as, 

Ita  triumpharunt,  ut  ille  pulsus  superatusqug  regnaret  (Cic. 
p.  leg.  Man.  3.  8),  they  triumphed,  it  is  true,  yet  so  that  the 
other,  routed  and  overpowered  though  he  was,  was  still  a  sove- 
reign. 

c.  So,  referring  to  the  preceding  sentence  :  as, 

Ita  sunt  omniS,  debilltatS,  (Cic.  ad  Fain.  n.  5),  to  such  an  extent 

is  every  thing  exhausted. 
Ita  est  (Ter.  E.  i.  2. 44),  yes,  it  is  so. 

d.  So,  corresponding  to  a  preceding  or  following  as  (ut  &c.) : 
as, 

Vt  quisque  optume  graece  scit,  ita  est  nequissumus  (Cic.  de 
Or.  ii.  66.  265),  as  each  man  is  better  acquainted  with  Greek, 
BO  is  he  a  greater  rogue. 

e.  So*,  in  expressing  a  prayer  :  as, 

Ita  me  Di  ament,  nonnihil  tlmeo  (Ter.  E.  iv.  1.1),  so  may  the 
gods  love  me,  1  am  somewhat  frightened. 

f.  Ut .  .  .  Ita  although  .  . .  yet :  as, 

Vt  a  proeliis  quietem  habue'rant,  Ita  non  nocte',  non  die  un- 
quam  cessauerant  ab  Spere  (Liv.  xxi.  11),  although  they  had 
had  rest  from  fighting,  yet  they  had  never  ceased  either  by  day 
or  by  night  from  working. 

g.  Itat . .  .  si  on  the  one  condition  .  . .  that :  as, 

Pacis  Ita  allqua  spes  est,  si  uos  ut  uicti  audietls  (Liv.  xxi.  13), 
of  peace  there  is  not  the  slightest  hope,  except  on  the  condition 
that  you  listen  to  the  terms  offered  as  men  who  are  conquered. 

*  Sic  is  used  in  the  same  way  :  sic  te  diua  potens  cypri  .  .  regat, 
Hor.  Od.  i.  3. 1. 

t  So  also  sic  is  used  in  Horace  (Ep.  i.  7.  69)  :  sic  ignouisse  putato 
Me  tibi,  si  cenas  mecum.  Indeed  sis  is  only  si  with  the  demonstrative 
.suffix  added.  Compare  the  use  of  so  in  English  for  if:  '  So  you  dine  with 
me,  I'll  forgive  you.' 


ITA.    NAM.    QVIDEM. 


401 


h.  This,  referring  to  an  accusative  and  infinitive  following*  :  as, 
ita  constXtuI,  fortXtSr  esse  agendum  (Cic.  p.  Clu.  19.  51),  this  I 

resolved  upon,  that  I  must  act  with  firmness. 
i.  So  (so  very),  with  the  words  by  which  the  degree  is  to  be 
measured,  not  expressed  (especially  after  negatives) :  as, 

SimulacrS,  praeclara,  sed  nou  Ita  antiqua  (Cic.  H.  Verr.  iv.  49. 

109),  figures  of  great  repute,  but  not  so  very  old. 

1452  Nam,  while  it  commonly  signifies  for,  has  two  other  meanings 
which  deserve  attention  : 

a.  Thus,  for  example  (introducing  a  particular  instance  after  a 
general  proposition)f.     I.  It  often  assigns  a  reason  why  a  parti- 
cular name  or  fact  which  might  have  been  expected  is  not  included 
in  a  series  or  argument  just  preceding.    Thus, 

b.  Nam  quod  nggas  te  diibltare  quin  magna  In  offensa  sirn  apud 

pompeium  hoc  tempore,  non  uldeo  caussam  cur  ItS,  sit  (Cic. 
ad  Att.  ix.  2. 2),  /  purposely  pass  over  your  statement  that 
you  have  no  doubt  of  my  having  given  great  offence  to  Pompey, 
for  this  simple  reason,  that  I  do  not  see  any  reason  why  it 
should  be  so. 

Nam  maeciam,  non  quae  iudlcaret,  set  quae  reicgretur  esse 
uSluisti  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  16.38),  I  omit  the  Mcecian  tribe,  for 
in  presenting  that  tribe  you  intended  it  to  be,  not  one  of  those 
to  furnish  a  jury,  but  the  one  to  be  challenged  by  your  oppo- 
nents. 

1453  QuidemJ  gives  emphasis  to  the  word  or  words  before  it,  and 
its  meanings  deserve  great  attention.     They  are— 

a.  At  least :  as, 

Ut  mihi  quldem  uidetiir  (Cic.  de  Fin.  i.  7. 23),  so  it  seems  to  me 
at  least. 

Mea,  quldem  sententia  pad  semper  est  consulendum  (Cic.  de 
Off.  i.  11.  35),  in  my  opinion  at  least  (whatever  others  may 
think)  peace  ought  ever  to  be  the  object  of  our  counsels. 

b.  Ne . . .  quldem  §  not  even :  as, 

*  Sic  is  used  in  the  same  way. 

f  See  Caes.  B.  G.  in.  28 ;  PI.  Trin.  i.  2. 46,  Men.  1. 1. 20,  Pers.  i  v.  8.  '2. 
I  The  same  in  meaning  and  perhaps  in  form  as  the  Greek  76.     See 
'Alphabet,'  p.  141. 

§  See  §§  1405,  1412,  1415. 

D  D 


402  SYNTAX. 

Id  ne  ferae  quidem  f&ciunt  (Cic.  de  Fin.  I.  10.  34),  this  even  the 

wild-beast  does  not  do. 
Ne  id  quidem  est  exploratum  (Cic.  ad  Att.  x.  8),  even  that  is 

not  certain. 

c.  Et  quidem  and  indeed,  nay :  as, 

Me  cum  giiblnio  senteutiam  dlcere,  et  quidem  ilium  rtfgarl 
prius  (Cic.  ad  Att.  x.  8),  that  I  should  give  my  opinion  in 
the  same  room  with  Gabinius,  and  indeed  he  be  asked  his  first! 

d.  Et  quidem,  and  qui-quidem  (in  replies),  assenting  to  what 
is  said,  and  at  the  same  time  ironically  adding  what  renders  the 
assent  useless :  as, 

Torquem  detraxit  hostl.— Et  quidem  se  texit  ne  interlret. — At 
magnum  perlculum  adilt. — In  ociilis  quidem  exercitus  (Cic. 
de  Fin.  r.  10.  35),  he  tore  the  collar  from  his  enemy's  neck. — 
Yes,  and  (excuse  my  adding)  covered  himself  with  his  shield, 
that  he  might  not  be  killed. — But  still  he  incurred  great  danger. 
— Certainly ',  in  the  eyes  of  the  army. 

At  erat  mecum  senattis — et  quidem  ueste  mutata.  At  tota 
it31i§,  conuenerat — quoi  quidem  uastltatis  metus  iufere- 
batiir  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  35.  87),  but  the  senate,  you  say,  were 
with  me.  They  were,  and  (you  have  forgotten  to  add)  dressed 
in  mourning.  But  all  the  inhabitants  of  Italy  had  assembled 
to  support  me.  They  had,  and  (by  way  of  encouragement  1 
suppose)  were  daily  threatened  with  the  devastation  of  their 
property. 

€.  Qui-quidem  which  by  the  way :  as, 

Quo  quidem  in  bello  uirtus  enltuit  egregiS,  -m-  catonis  proiiui 
tul  (Cic.  pro  Mur.  14.  32),  in  which  war  by  the  way,  the 
valour  and  abilities  of  your  great-grandfather  N.  Cato  shone 


De  triumpho  tlbi  assentior,  quern  quidem  totum  fScIle  abiecgro 
(Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  7. 5),  about  the  triumph  I  agree  with  you, 
and  by  the  way  7  shall  readily  at  once  abandon  all  idea 
of  it. 

f.  It  is  true,  certainly  (a  concession  commonly  followed  by  sed) : 
as, 

FScIs  amice"  tu*  quidem,  sed  mihi  ulderls  Sliud  tu  htfiiestum 

*  See  §  1080. 


QVIDEM.    QVOD.  4C3 

iudlcare  atque  ego  existumem  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vm.  2. 2),  you 
act  like  a  friend  Tyrant,  but  still  you  seem  to  me  to  hold  a 
different  opinion  of  what  is  right  and  proper  from  that  which 
I  entertain. 

Ignosco  equldem*  tlbi,  sed  tu  quoque  mihi  uelim  ignoscus 
(Cic.  ad  Q.  F.  in.  1. 3. 7),  I  forgive  you  certainly  t  but  I  must 
leg  you  too  to  forgive  me. 

g.  Similarly  in  a  transition  from  one  subject  to  another,  the 
last  clause  of  the  preceding  matter  has  a  quldem,  while  the  new 
matter  is  introduced  with  an  autem.  Thus, 

Ac  de  primo  quldem  offlcl  fonte  dixlmus.  Pe  trlbiis  autem 
rgllquis  latissiime  patet  ea  ratio  qua  societas  hSmXnum 
contlnetur  (Cic.  de  Off.  i.  6.  19  et  seq.),  and  we  have  now 
said  enough  of  the  first  source  of  duty.  Of  the  three  which 
remain,  the  most  extensive  in  its  operations^  is  the  principle 
by  which  society  is  held  together. 

1454  Qu5d  (in  origin  only  the  neuter  of  the  relative,  signifying  this 
or  that)  is  translated  by  the  words  that,  because,  &c.  In  the  older 
constructions  it  is  generally  preceded  by  some  part  of  a  logical 
pronoun.  The  difference  in  use  between  quSd  and  fit  in  the  sense 
of  that,  lies  chiefly  in  this,  that  qu5d  commonly  precedes  a  state- 
ment of  facts  past  or  present  in  the  indicative,  lit  commonly  in- 
troduces purposes  or  results  expressed  in  the  subjunctive.  The 
uses  of  qu5d  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  following  heads  : 

a.  That,  the  fact  that,  after  a  logical  pronoun  (see  §§  301  <fec., 
1112  <bc.) :  as, 

Eo  ipso  quod  necesse  erat  solul,  facultas  soluendi  impe'diebatur 
(Liv.  vi.  34),  by  the  very  fact  that  it  was  necessary  payment 
should  be  made,  the  means  of  making  that  payment  were  ob- 
structed. 

Horum  fortissiml  sunt  belgae,  propterea  quod  a  cultu  prouin- 

ciae  longisslme  absunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  1),  of  these  the  bravest 

are  the  JBelgce,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  furthest  removed 

from  the  civilisation  of  tlie  province. 

Praeterquam  quod  admissi  audltlqug  sunt,  ea  quoque  uana" 

*  i.  e.  ego  quidem,  and  perhaps  pronounced  ekem  or  eke. 
t  Literally  *  extends  most  widely.' 


404  SYNTAX. 

legatio  fuit  (Liv.  xxi.  10),  beyond  the  fact  that  they  were 
admitted  and  heard,  this  embassy  also  was  without  effect. 

b.  As  quid  why  is  used  for  propter  quid,  so  quod  is  commonly 
used  for  propter  qu5d,  that  is  because.     Thus, 

Gratias  aglmus  diiclbus  uestris,  quod  oculis  magis  quam  aurlbus 
crediderunt  (Liv.  vi.  26),  we  thank  your  generals  for  that 
they  gave  credit  to  their  eyes  rather  than  to  their  ears. 

In  uiam  quod  te  des*  hoc  temporg,  nihil  est  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xiv. 
12),  there  is  no  reason  why  you  should  expose  yourself  to  tra- 
velling at  this  season. 

Laudat  africanum  quod  fuSritf  abstinens  (Cic.  de  Off.  n.  22. 
76),  he  praises  Africanus  for  having  been  temperate. 

c.  In  that,  where  quum  or  the  relative  itself  might  have  been 
used  (see  §  1455  h.) :  as, 

BSne  facttis  quod  abominaminl  (Liv.  vi.  18),  you  do  well  in 

rejecting  it  as  something  impious. 
Fecistl  mihi  pergratum  quod  serapionis  llbrum  ad  me  mlsistl 

(Cic.  ad  Att.  n.  4. 1),  you  have  done  lohat  is  most  agreeable 

to  me,  in  sending  me  Serapionis  book. 

d.  QuSd  often  introduces  a  clause  which  serves  as  the  nomina- 
tive or  accusative  to  the  main  verb,  or  stands  in  apposition  to  a 
noun.     Thus, 

Accedit  quod  miriftce  ingenils  excellentibus  delectatiir  (Cic.  ad 
Fam.  vi.  6.  8),  there  is  added  the  fact,  that  he  is  wonderfully 
charmed  with  men  of  extraordinary  genius. 

Mitto  quSd  omnis  meas  tempestates  subierls  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xv. 
4. 12),  I  pass  over  your  having  encountered,  as  you  say,  all 
the  storms  to  which  1  have  been  exposed. 

Me  un§,  consolatio  sustentat,  quod  tlbi  nullum  a  me  pigtatls 
offlcium  defuit  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  36. 100),  for  myself  but  one  con- 
solation supports  me,  I  mean  the  fact,  that  no  duty  demanded 
of  me  by  affection  has  been  wanting  to  you. 

e.  Qutfd  often  introduces  a  sentence,  which  is  to  be  the  subject 
of  remark,  when  the  English  may  be  expressed  by  with  regard  to 
the  fact  that,  or  more  simply.     Observe  too  that  a.  if  the  sentence 
so  introduced  be  a  present  or  past  fact,  the  indicative  is  required ; 
I.  if  it  be  a  future  possibility,  the  subjunctive  :  as, 

*  See§  1189.  f  See  §  1205. 


QVOD.  405 

a.  Quod  scrlbis  te  si  uelim  ad  me  uenturam,  ego  uero  te  istlo 
essS  u61o  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xiv.  3. 5),  as  to  your  offer  to  come  to 
me  if  I  wish  it,  I  do  not  wish  it  (my  dear  Terentia)  ;  on  the 
contrary,  I  wish  you  to  remain  where  you  are. 

Quod  me  uetas  quidquam  susplcarl .  . .,  ggram  tibi  morem  (Cic, 
ad  Att.  in.  20. 3),  you  forbid  me  to  harbour  any  suspicion — 
/  will  oblige  you. 

Qu5d  ad  crirnma  attinet,  quibus  moti  bellum  indixistis,  uel 
fateri  ea  tutum  ceusemus  (Liv.  vi.  26),  as  regards  the 
charges  which  induced  you  to  declare  war,  we  think  it  safe 
for  us  even  to  confess  them. 

b.  Turn  quod  te  postgrius  purges,  hums  non  faciam  (Ter.  Ad. 

ii.  1.  8),  then  as  to  your  trying  afterwards  to  clear  yourself, 
as  you  perhaps  will,  I  shall  not  value  it  at  this. 
Nam  quod  de  argento  spereni,  aut  posse  postulein  me  fallere, 
Nihil  est  (Ter.  Haut.  iv.  2.4),  for  as  to  my  entertaining  any 
hope  about  the  money,  or  expecting  to  be  able  to  take  them  in, 
thaCs  at  an  end. 

f.  Nou  quSd  not  because,  not  that  (or  more  commonly  non  quo*), 
with  a  subjunctive,  is  used  to  deny  a  reason,  or  to  guard  against 
an  inference  (see  §  1208)  :  as, 

Nullo  modo  prorsus  assentior,  non  quod  difficile'  sit  mentem 
ab  ociilis  seuocare ;  sed  quo  rn&gis  seuSco,  eo  minus  id 
quod  tu  uis  possum  mentg  comprehende're'  (Cic.  N.  D.  in. 
8.  21),  /  by  no  means  give  an  unqualified  assent,  not  that  I 
find  it  difficult  to  abstract  my  thoughts  from  what  I  see  with 
my  eyes,  but  because  the  more  I  do  this,  the  less  able  am  I  to 
grasp  with  my  mind  the  idea  you  wish  me  to  grasp. 

g.  Quod,  like  quum  (see  §  1455  g},  is  used  to  denote  duration 
of  time  :  as, 

lam  diu  est  quod  ue"ntri  uictum  non  datis  (Plant.  Am.  1. 1. 146), 
it  is  now  a  long  time  since  you  gave  my  belly  any  food. 

h.  Quid  quod  often  introduces  a  new  and  striking  fact  when 
the  literal  translation  would  perhaps  be :  what  would  you  say  to 
the  fact  that  ?  but  the  idea  may  often  be  more  simply  ex- 
pressed by  nay.  Thus, 

*  Not  only  is  non  quo  more  common,  but  the  examples  with  non 
quod  seem  apt  to  have  a  following  cf,  as  difficile  here,  and  doleant  S  1208, 
ex.  3  :  and  so  are  open  to  suspicion. 


406  STJfTAX. 

Quid  quod  sSnatus  eos  uoluit  praeesse  prouinciis,  qu!  non  prae- 
fuissent  ?  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vi.  6.  3)  nay  the  senate  decreed  thai 
these  should  preside  over  the  provinces,  who  had  not  already 
done  so. 

i.  Qu5d  followed  by  a  conjunction,  as  si,  nisi,  utinam,  ubi, 
<fcc.  is  often  used  to  connect  a  new  sentence  with  what  precedes ; 
in  which  case  it  often  admits  such  a  translation  as  but,  whereas, 
and.  Thus, 

Quod  si  tu  ualeres,  iani  mihi  quaedam  explorata  essent  (Cic. 
ad  Att.  vn.  2.  6),  whereas  if  you  had  been  in  health,  some 
points  would  have  been  cleared  up  for  me  before  this. 

1455        Of  quora,  quum,  or  cum*,  the  chief  uses  are  as  follow  : — 

a.  To  denote  time,  with  the  past-imperfect  subjunctive,  while., 
i.  e.  at  some  point  of  time  in  a  long  period.    Thus, 

Ad  hannlbalem,  quum  ad  lacum  auerni  esset,  quinquS  uobiles 
iuuenes  ab  tarento  uenerunt  (Liv.  xxiv.  13),  there  came  to 
Hannibal,  while  he  was  near  the  lake  of  Avernus,  five  young 
men  of  high  family  from  Tarentum. 

b.  Time  with  the  past-perfect  subjunctive,  aftert,  when  :  as, 
Cum  hostis  fudisset,  moenia  ipsa  oppugnare  est  adgressus  (Liv. 

vin.  16),  after  routing  the  enemy,  he  advanced  to  storm  the 
fortifications  themselves. 

c.  In  indefinite  expressions^,  quum,  when  preceded  by  a  verb 
signifying  existence,  is  followed  by  a  subjunctive  :  as, 

Eiit  illud  prdfecto  tempus  quum  grauissumi  homlnis  fidem 
desideres  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  26. 69),  there  assuredly  will  come  the 
time  when  you  will  feel  the  loss  of  so  high-principled  a  man. 

d.  When  a  time  is  precisely  denned,  as  for  instance  by  the  two 
particles  turn  quum,  the  indicative  is  used  even  with  the  past 
tenses,  both  perfect  and  imperfect :  as, 

Turn  quum  in  asia  res  magnas  permulti  amlserant,  sclmus 
romae  fidem  concldisse  (Cic.  p.  leg.  Man.  7.19),  at  the  time 

*  In  form  an  old  accusative  of  the  relative.  Compare  the  English 
when^  the  old  accusative  of  who,  as  then  !s  of  the. 

f  Yet  after  postguam,  ubi,  and  ut,  in  a  sense  nearly  the  same,  the 
indicative  aorist  is  used. 

£  See  §  1189. 


407 
QVOD.    QVOM. 

when,  very  many  lott  vast  properties  in  Asia,  we  know  that  at 
Rome  credit  was  knocked  down. 

Quid  quum  dabas  his  llteras,  non  eos  ad  me  uenturos  arbitra- 
'    bare  1  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  m.  7.  3)  well,  and  when  you  were  hand- 
ing the  letter  to  them,  did  you  think  that  they  would  not  come 
to  me  ? 

e   When,  used  with  the  perfect  and  the  other  tenses  in  a  man- 
ner not  included  under  the  heads  a,  b,  c,  and  requiring  commc 
the  indicative :  as, 

Quum  se  inter  equltum  turmas  insinuauerunt*,  ex  essedis  de- 
"    slliunt  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv.  33),  their  habit  is,  when  they  ham 
ivorked  their  way  among  the  squadrons  of.  cavalry,  to  leap 
down  from,  their  chariots. 

Quum  caesar  in  galliam  uBnit,  altgrius  factionis  princlpes  grant 
aedui,  alterius  sequani  (Caes.  B.  G.  vi.  12),  whtn  tear 
first  came  into  Gallia,  the  Mdui  were  at  the  head  of  one  party, 
the  Sequani  of  the  other. 

Lougum  illud  tempus,  quum  non  8ro,  magis  me  mouet  quam 
hoc  exlguom  (Cic.  ad  Att.  xn.  18. 1),  that  long  period,  when 
1  shatt  no  more  exist,  has  more  influence  with  me  tha, 
present  short  span. 

Cum  hide  &beot,iam  turn  inceperat  Turba  int&r  eos  (Ter.  L.  IT 
4.  58),  when  I  came  away,  there  had  already  commenced 
between  them. 

lam  ^ddicta  atque  abdticta  erat,quom  adportum  uemo(P^^. 
Merc  in.  4-31),  she  had  already  been  knocked  down  (by  the 
auctioneer)  and  carried  off,  when  I  got  to  the  harbour, 
f  When,  where  the  time  or  circumstances  are  first  defined,  and 
then  follows  quum  with  an  indicative  verb,  which  is  in  substanc 
the  main  verb  of  the  sentence  :  as, 

Legebam  tuas  littgras,  quum  mihi  gpistSla  affertur  fi  lepta 
circumuallatum  esse  pompeium  (Cic.  ad  Att.  ix.  12.  1),  / 
was  in  the  act  of  reading  your  letter,  when  behold  despatches 

*  This  reading,  not  insinuauerint,\*  justified  by  theMss.  and  required 
by  the  idiom  of  the  language.  It  is  one  of  many  such  passages  corrupted 
by  editors.  See  Madvig  ad  Cic.  de  Fin.  v.  15  ;  and  above  §  1 159. 

with  the  power  of  an  aorist  seems  to  have  been  the  i 


408  SYNTAX. 

are  brought  me  from  Lepta,  stating  that  Pompey  was  com- 
pletely blockaded. 

Commodum  ad  te  dederam  litteras,  cum  ad  me  diSnysius  fuit 
(Cic.  ad  Att.  x.  16.  \\Ihad  only  that  moment  sent  off  a  letter 
to  you,  when  Dionysius  made  his  appearance  here*. 

ff.  It  is  used  to  express  a  long  period  down  to  the  present  in- 
clusive :  as, 

Hanc  domum  lam  multos  annos  est  quom  possideo  6t  colo 

(Plant.  Aul.  prol.  3),  this  house  I  have  occupied  and  taken 

care  of  these  many  years. 
Multi  ami!  sunt  cum  ille  In  aerS  meo  est  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xv. 

14.  1),  it  is  now  many  years  that  that  man  has  been  in  my 

debt. 
Quia  septem  menses  sunt,  quom  in  hasce  aedis  pedem  Nemo 

intro  tetulit  (Plant.  Most.  n.  2.39),  because  for  the  last  seven 

months  not  a  soul  has  set  foot  in  this  house. 
h.  With  two  indicative  verbs  in  the  same  tense,  it  expresses 
identity  of  action  as  well  as  identity  of  time  (when  the  best  trans- 
lation is  by  the  preposition  in) :  as, 

Quae  quum  tSces,  nulla  esse  concedes  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  19.54), 

in  the  very  fact  that  you  say  nothing  about  these  matters,  you 

acknowledge  that  they  amount  to  nothing. 
Praeclare  facis  quum  puerum  dlligls  (Cic.  de  Fin.  in.  2. 9),  you 

act  a  most  noble  part  in  thus  loving  the  child. 
Lflco  i!18  motiis  est  cum  est  ex  urbe  depulsus  (Cic.  in  Cat.  u. 

1.1),  in  driving  him  out  of  Rome,  we  dislodged  him  from  his 

(military)  position. 

i.  When  used  as  an  equivalent  for  quod,  it  has  an  indicative  : 
as, 

Gratulor  tlbi  quum  tantum  uales  apiid  eum  (Cic.  ad  Fain.  ix. 
14. 3),  I  congratulate  you  on  your  Jiaving  such  influence  with 
him. 

j.  Quum,  since,  as,  although^  used  to  denote  a  reasonf  for  or 
against,  requires  the  subjunctive.  Thus, 

*  Literally  '  at  my  house.'     See  §  1161. 

f  The  text  of  Cicero,  particularly  in  the  sixth  and  following  books  of 
the  miscellaneous  letters,  has  often  quum  or  quando  where  the  best  Mss. 
have  the  more  correct  reading  quonium,  viz.  where  a  reason  is  given  ;md 
an  indicative  mood  follows.  See  Wunder's  V.  L.  ex  codice  Erfurtensi, 
praef.  p.  97  &c.  See  also  §  1229. 


QVVM.    VERO.  409 

Qui  cum  una  dSino  iam  cap!  non  possiut,  In  alias  dtfrnos  exeunt 
(Cic.  de  Off.  i.  17. 54),  and  as  at  last  they  cannot  all  be  con- 
tained in  one  house,  they  move  off  into  other  houses. 
Druentia  quum  aquae  uim  uehat  ingentem,  non  taraen  nauium 
paiiens  est  (Liv.  xxi.  31),  the  Durance,  although  it  carries 
with  it  a  tremendous  volume  of  water,  still  is  not  able  to  float 
ships, 

k.  Quum  followed  by  turn*  unites  two  clauses,  the  first  of 
which  deals  with  what  is  general,  or  common,  or  old,  while  the 
latter  opposes  to  it  that  which  is  special,  or  strange,  or  new. 
Hence  the  turn  is  often  accompanied  by  emphatic  adverbs,  such 
as  maxume,  imprimis,  uero,  &c.  In  this  construction  sometimes 
the  subjunctive  mood,  more  commonly  the  indicative,  follows 
quum.  Not  unfrequeutly  the  quum  is  used  without  any  verb  of 
its  own.  Thus, 

Quum  plurumas  commSditates  amicltia  contlneat,  turn  ilia 
praestat  omnibus  (Cic.  de  Am.  7. 23),  among  the  very  many 
advantages  which  friendship  possesses,  the  most  important  of 
all  is  this. 

Quum  ipsam  cognltionem  iurls  augiirii  consSqui  cupio,  turn 
mercule  tuis  stiidils  erga  me  detector  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  in. 
9.  3),  at  the  same  time  that  I  am  eager  to  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  the  augural  law  for  its  own  sake,  I  am  upon  my  word 
charmed  with  your  zeal  in  my  favour. 

Quos  ego  sSnatores  uidl,  qui  acerrume  cum  cetSrit,  turn  hoc 
iter  pompel  ultupgrareut  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vu.  5. 4),  what  sena- 
tors have  I  seen  most  fiercely  attacking  every  thing  that  had 
been  done,  but  above  all  this  march,  of  Pompey's  ! 

1456        Vero  always  gives  great  emphasis  to  the  word  before  it.     Its 
chief  uses  are  as  follows  : — 

a.  Added  to  Snim  indeed,  giving  it  greater  power  :  as, 
Enimuero  daue  nil  locist  segnitiae  nee  soc6rdiae  (Ter.  And.  i. 
3. 1),  indeed,  indeed,  friend  Davus,  there  is  no  room  now  for 


b.  In  answering  questionst  emphatically,  in  which  case  it  com- 
monly follows  either  the  verb  or  a  personal  pronoun  which  stands 
first  in  a  sentence.  Thus, 

*  See  §  1231.  f  See  §§  578,  586,  1079,  1427. 


410 


SYNTAX. 


Ego  uero  apuliam  prSbo  (Cic.  ad  Att.  x.  7.1),  yes,  my  friend, 
you  are  riff  hi ;  1  do  approve  of  Apulia  (as  the  place  for  you 
to  go  to). 

c.  It  is  particularly  used  after  the  pronoun  i-  or  eo-,  as  also 
after  the  particles  of  time,  turn,  ubi,  ut,  to  introduce  the  end  of  a 
climax,  then  beyond  all  mistake,  th^n  with  a  vengeance :  as, 

Hoc  senatui  curam  iniecit  ne  turn  uero  sustinerl  sedltio  non 
posset  (Liv.  v.  7),  this  filed  the  senate  with  alarm  lest  their 
last  hope  should  now  be  destroyed,  and  the  sedition  should  be 
indeed  past  resistance. 

Vt  uero*  numidas  insequentes  aquam  ingressl  sunt,  turn  rlgere 
omnibus  corpora  (Liv.  xxi.  54),  but  the  moment  that,  in  pur- 
suit of  the  jNumidians,  they  entered  the  water,  then  beyond  all 
mistake  the  bodies  of  all  the  men  became  numbed  with  cold. 

Id  uero  Ita  accendit  animos  ut  per  omne  fas  atqug  nefas  secu- 
turi  uindlcem  llbertatis  ulderentiir  (Liv.  vi.  14),  this  indeed 
completed  their  indignation,  enraging  them  to  such  a  degree 
that  they  seemed  ready  to  follow  the  assertor  of  t/teir  liberties 
even  to  the  violation  of  every  divine  and  human  law. 

d.  As  a  connecting  particle  it  may  be  translated  by  but ;  yet 
some  words  should  always  be  inserted  to  express  the  importance 
of  the  matter  added  :  as, 

Certior  factus  est  tris  iam  copiarum  partis  heluetios  transdux- 
issg,  quartam  uero  partem  citra  flumen  rellquam  esse  (Caes. 
B.  G.  i.  12),  he  received  information  that  the  Helvetii  had 
conveyed  over  three  parts  of  their  forces,  but  that  the  fourth 
part  fortunately  was  still  on  his  side  of  the  river. 

1457        Vtt  is  translated  by  that  or  to,  as,  how,  when,  &c.     Its  con- 
structions are  as  follows  : 

a.  That,  to,  to  express  an  object  (always  with  an  imperfect  sub- 
junctive)$ :  as, 

*  Observe  that  the  full  translation  of  uero  after  ut  or  ubi  is  not  given 
until  the  apodosis  as  it  is  called  of  the  sentence.  To  understand  the  force 
of  uero  in  this  passage,  it  should  be  known  that  the  Roman  troops  had 
come  out  of  their  camp  without  sufficient  clothing,  without  breakfast,  in 
a  winter-day  amid  snow  and  wind 

f  Vt  is  in  origin  only  another  form  of  quod.  The  difference  in  form 
is  explained  by  the  several  changes  which  have  occurred  in  illud  and  illut, 
in  quoins  and  cuius,  in  cubi  and  ubi. 

J  See  §1179. 


VERO.    VT.  411 

Ab  Sratro  abduxerunt  cincinnatum,  ut  dictator  esset  (Cic.  de 
Fin.  ii.  4. 12),  they  took  Cincinnatus  from  the  plough,  that  he 
might  be  dictator. 

Sed  (iit  Sd  ea  quae  coniunctiora  rebus  tuis  sunt  rguortar)  (Cic. 
ad  Fam.  i.  8. 5),  but  (to  return  to  what  is  more  closely  con- 
nected with  your  affairs*}. 

Vt  te  omnes  di  deaeque  perduint  (Ter.  Haut.  iv.  6.  6),  oh  that 
all  the  gods  and  goddesses  would  destroy  thee  ! 

Hos  l&bores  timeo  ut  sustineas  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xiv.  2. 3),  these 
labours  I  am  afraid  you  will  not  support. 

b.  That,  so  that,  to,  so  as  to,  to  express  a  result  (always  with  a 
subjunctive)!  :  as, 

Sol  ecftcit  ut  omnia  floreant  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  15.41),  the  sun 

causes  every  thing  to  blossom. 
Sicilian!  it&  uexauit  iit  ea  restitui  in  anticum  statura  nullo 

mSdo  possit  (Cic.  i.  Verr.  4.  12),  he  has  harassed  Sicily  to 

such  a  degree  that  it  cannot  by  any  means  be  restored  to  its 

former  condition. 

c.  That,  in  the  sense  of  granting  that,  even  allowing  that,  al- 
thoughl,  in  which  case  it  commonly  begins  the  sentence  (still  with 
a  subjunctive)  :  as, 

S8d  iit  fugris  dignior,  non  competitor  in  culpast  (Cic.  p.  Plane. 

4. 10),  but  even  allowing  you  were  the  more  worthy  of  the  two, 

it  is  not  your  competitor  who  is  in  fault. 
Verum  iit  hoc  non  sit,  praeclarum  spectaculum  mini  propono 

(Cic.  ad  Att.  11.  15.  2),  but  even  supposing  this  is  not  so,  I 

promise  myself  a  glorious  sight. 

d.  That,  to  think  that,  the  idea  of /  in  elliptical  phrases  of 

indignation  or  ridicule§  :  as, 

Paigr  iit  obesse  Mid  debeat !  (Cic.  p.  Plane.  13. 31),  the  idea  of 
a  father  being  bound  to  damage  his  son  ! 

e.  In  explanation  of  some  preceding  word,  namely  (still  with  a 
subjunctive) :  as, 

Quod  ipsi  diebus  uiginti  aegerrime  confecSrant,  ut  flumen 
transirent,  ille  uno  die  fecerat  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  13),  what  they 
themselves  had  completed  with  the  greatest  difficulty  in  twenty 

*  See  §  1227  g.  f  See  §§  1182, 1187. 

J  See  §  1227  b.  §  See  §  1227  e. 


412  SYNTAX. 

days,  namely  the  passage  of  the  river,  the  other  had  done  in  a 
single  day, 

f.  How  (with  an  indicative  in  direct,  a  subjunctive  commonly 
in  indirect  sentences)  :  as, 

Vt  uales  ?  (Plant.  Most.  in.  2.  29)  how  do  you  do  ? 
Audisti  ut  me  circumsteterint  (Cic.  ad  Att.  i.  16.  4),  you  heard 
how  they  planted  themselves  round  me. 

g.  As,  to  express  similarity,  often  with  sic  or  Ita  so  to  corre- 
spond with  it.     An  indicative  is  required  in  this  and  all  the  fol- 
lowing constructions.    Thus, 

ItS,  est,  ut  scrlbls*  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vn.  8. 1),  it  is  as  you  say. 

IpsS  rex,  sic  ut  sompno  excittis  Srat,  semlnudus  fuglt  (Liv. 
xxiv.  40),  the  king  himself,  just  as  he  was  when  roused  from 
sleep,  with  but  half  his  clothes  on,  runs  of. 

H5mo  tit  6rat  f uriosus  respondit  (Cic.  p.  Rose.  Am.  12. 33),  the 
fellow  with  his  usual  madness  replied. 

Illi,  ut  est  homlnum  genus  suspiciosum,  hoc  arbltrantur  (Cic. 
in  Caecil.  9.  28),  those  (Sicilians},  with  that  readiness  to  sus- 
pect which  characterises  their  nation,  hold  this  opinion. 

h.  As,  to  judge  from  what .     Thus, 

Vt  stam  rem  uideo,  stiusf  obsaturabere  (Ter.  Haut.  iv.  8.  29), 
to  judge  from  what  I  see  of  tfiat  business  of  yours,  you  will 
have  your  fill  of  it. 

i.  As  was  to  be  expected .    Thus, 

Vt  ab  irato  uictorg  (Liv.  xxi.  12),  as  might  be  expected  from  an 

angry  conqueror. 

j.  As,  so  far  as  is  possible,  making  allowance  for (in  ellip- 
tical phrases,  no  verb  following  the  conjunction!}:).  Thus, 

Multum  ut  temporlbiis  illis  ualuit  dicendo  (Cic.  Brut.  7.  27), 

he  had  great  power  in  oratory,  making  allowance  for  those 

times. 
Non  nihll  ut  in  tantis  malls  est  profectum  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  xn; 

*  Literally  *  write,'  the  extract  being  from  a  letter  in  answer  to  one 
from  Atticus. 

f  See  §  288,  note. 

J  Some  such  phrase  as  fieri  potest  understood.  This  construction 
must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  another  elliptical  use  of  ut  with^m 
solet  understood,  '  as  naturally  happens.'  See  Heindorf  ad  Hor.  Sat.  i. 
6.80. 


VT.  413 

2.  2),  some  progress  has  been  made,  considering  the  very  bad 
state  of  affairs. 

k.  To  express  contrast,  rather  than  similarity,  when  the  ut  and 
Ita  may  be  translated  by  though,  yet.  Thus, 

Vt  15cus  procul  muro  satis  aecus  agendis  ulneis  fuit,  Xta  haud- 
•  quaquam  prospere,  postquam  £d  effcctum  operis  uentumst, 
coeptis  succedebat  (Liv.  xxi.  7),  although  the  ground  at  a 
distance  from  the  wall  was  sufficiently  level  for  bringing  up 
the  vinece,  yet  when  they  came  to  the  actual  employment  of 
them,  no  success  whatever  attended  their  efforts. 
L  As  applied  to  time,  ut  commonly  signifies  immediate  succes- 
sion, the  instant  that,  and  is  most  frequently  followed  by  the  aorist 
of  the  indicative  :  as, 

FugS  s&tellitum,  ut  iacentem  uidere  regem,  factast  (Liv.  xxiv. 
7),  a  flight  among  the  guards  took  place  the  moment  they  saw 
the  king  lying  on  the  ground. 

m.  It  is  also  used  to  denote  the  point  from  which  a  period  of 
time  commences,  but  with  the  same  notion  of  immediate  succes- 
sion, from  the  very  moment  that :  as, 

Vt  catllina  erupit  ex  urbS,  semper  ulgllaul  (Cic.  in  Cat.  m. 
1.3),  from  the  very  moment  that  Catiline  sallied  from  Rome, 
I  have  ever  been  on  the  watch. 

Vt  ab  urbe  discessi,  nullum  Sdhuc  internals!  diem,  quin  511- 
quld  ad  te"  litte'rarum  darem  (Cic.  ad  Att.  vii.  15),  from  the 
time  of  my  leaving  the  city,  I  have  never  yet  allowed  a  single 
day  to  pass,  without  sending  you  something  in  the  way  of  a 
letter. 

Vt  prlmum  forum  attlgi,  spectaul  sempe'r  ut  tlbi  possem  quam 
maxume  essS  coniuuctus  (Cic.  ad  Fam.  v.  8. 3),  from  my 
first  setting  foot  in  the  forum  to  the  present  hour  I  have  ever 
made  it  an  object  to  be  as  closely  as  possible  united  with  you.* 


1458  ORDER  OF  WORDS. 

In  the  simplest  form  of  sentence,  viz.  one  which  denotes  an 
action,  the  common  order  is  the  nominative,  the  accusative,  the 

*  Other  examples  are :  ut  semel  emigrauimus  (Plant.  Most.  u.  2. 39), 
uxorem  ut  duxit  (Ter.  Hec.  v.  1.25),  ut  uenit  (//or.  Sat.  n.  2.128),  ut 
tetigi  (Ov.  Trist.  in.  8.  27),  ut  fluxit  (Hor.  Epod.  7.  19),  ut  equitauit 
(//or.  Od.  iv.  4.  42). 


414  SYNTAX. 

verb ;  i.  e.  first  the  quarter  whence  the  action  proceeds,  then  the 
direction  of  that  action,  lastly  the  action  itself.  Any  words  be- 
longing to  the  nominative  and  accusative  commonly  follow  them, 
while  those  belonging  to  the  verb  commonly  precede  it.  The  lat- 
ter consist  of  adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases  which  express  the  time, 
manner,  means,  and  generally  the  attending  circumstances. 

1459  But  as  the  grammatical  connection  between  Latin  words  is 
expressed  in  the  terminations  of  those  words,  a  greater  freedom 
of  position  is  admissible  than  would  be  practicable  without  am- 
biguity in  English.     Hence  the  words  of  a  Latin  sentence  are 
commonly  placed  with  a  view  to  marking  their  relative  import- 
ance and  emphasis,  *  and  on  this  principle  must  the  arrangement 
of  the  Latin  sentence  be  studied. 

1460  The  most  conspicuous  place  in  a  sentence  or  clause  of  a  sen- 
tence is  the  first.     Hence  this  place  is  allotted  to  an  emphatic 
word.     Thus,  Caesar's  Gallic  war  properly  begins  with  the  word 
Gallia.     Again,  in  the  seventh  chapter  there  occurs  a  sentence 
beginning  with  Caesar^  because  the  preceding  paragraph  spoke 
only  of  what  the  other  party,  the  Helvetii,  were  doing.    Hence  a 
sentence  thus  beginning  with  the  nominative  of  a  proper  name 
should  have  some  such  words  as  on  the  other  hand,  meanwhile,  &c. 
inserted  after  the  nominative,  to  give  it  a  sufficient  prominence  in 
English. 

1461  A  still  greater  emphasis  is  given  to  other  words  t  when  placed 
at  the  commencement  of  a  sentence,  because  the  very  inversion  of 
the  ordinary  order  draws  the  greater  attention  to  them  :  as, 

Susceptum§  cum  saguntmis  bellum,  habendum  cum  romanis 
est  (Liv.  xxi.  10),  we  began  the  war  with  Saguntum,  we  must 
conduct  it  against  Rome. 

*  Emphasis  always  implies  an  opposition  to  some  other  word  ex- 
pressed or  understood  ;  and  the  student  would  do  well  in  each  case  to  ask 
himself  what  the  opposed  word  or  notion  is. 

t  See  also  the  sentences  beginning  with  Dumnorix^  c.  9  ;  Heluetii, 
c.  11 ;  Caesar,  c.  18;  or  Liv.  xxi.  c.  3,  Hanno ;  c.  5,  Hannibal;  c.  7,  Han- 
nibal ;  c.  \\iSaguntini. 

%  Seethe  examples  in  interrogative  sentences,  §  1417.  See  also  the 
position  of  the  verb  in  cases  of  concession,  §§  1156,  1227  6,  and  in  hypo- 
thetical conditions,  §  1219 ;  also  §  1436  b,  third  example. 

§  Still  susceptum  in  the  Latin  is  only  a  participle ;  but  the  English 
translation  would  lose  its  force  if  the  sentence  began  with  '  the  war.' 


ORDER  OF  WORDS.  415 

1462  The  word  est*,  commonly  the  most  unimportant  word  in  a  sen- 
tence, acquires  a  strong  accent  when  placed  first  in  a  sentence  or 
clause  (see  §  1080,  1st  example ;  §  997,  3d  example) ;  but  est  and 
grat  are  also  found  in  the  first  place  when  a  formal  narrative  or 
description  commencest  :  as, 

Erant  In  ea  legioue  fortissiml  uM  centiiriones  qui  &c.  (Caes. 
B.  G.  v.  44),  now  there  happened  to  be  in  that  legion  two  very 
brave  officers,  with  the  rank  of  centurions,  who  <&c.% 

Est  in  secessu  longo  ISciis  <fec.  (  Virg.  A.  i.  163),  there  is  in  a 
deep  recess  a  place  &c. 

1463  Relatives,  interrogatives,  and  conjunctions  naturally  occupy  the 
first  place  in  their  several  clauses.     If  they  give  up  this  place  to 
another  word,  the  strangeness§  of  the  transposition  gives  unusual 
emphasis  to  the  word  thus  occupying  the  first  place  :  as, 

Nos  tua  progenies,  caeli  quibus  adnuis  arcem  (Virg.  A.  i. 

25411),  we,  thine  own  progeny,  to  whom  thou  promisest  the 

height  of  heaven. 
Adeon  rem  redissS,  patrem  ut  extimescam  (Ter.  Ph.  1. 3. 1),  to 

think  that  matters  should  be  come  to  this,  that  a  father  should 

be  the  object  of  my  dread  ! 
Posthac  si  quidquam,  nil  precor  (Ter.  Ph.  1.  2.  92),  if  aught 

occur  hereafter,  1  offer  no  prayer  (for  him). 
Ego  illlus  ferre  possum  magnified  uerba,  Verba  dum  sunt  (Ter. 

E.  iv.  6. 3),  /  can  bear  that  fellow's  grand  words,  so  long  as 

they  are  mere  words. 

*  Thus  in  Greek,  €<m,  generally  an  enclitic,  has  an  accent  when  it 
commences  a  sentence. 

t  The  monosyllabic  verbs  dat,fit,  it,  seem  at  times  to  occupy  the  first 
place  when  not  emphatic.  Possibly  their  very  brevity  is  a  reason  for 
giving  them  this  advantage,  lest  they  be  wholly  overlooked.  See  a  parallel 
case  in  §  1469,  note  §. 

£  See  also  i.  6,  Erant;  m.  12,  Erant  &c. ;  v.  6,  Erat ;  v.  25,  Erat 
&c.;  vi.  38,  Erat.  See  also  Virg.  A.  n.  21. 

§  This  doctrine  of  emphasis  growing  out  of  a  strange  position  is  well 
exemplified  in  the  heroic  verse.  The  most  natural  place  for  a  sentence 
to  begin  is  at  the  beginning  of  a  verse.  But  there  occur  passages  where 
a  sentence  begins  in  the  sixth  foot ;  and  in  such  cases  the  isolated  word 
is  always  specially  emphatic  in  good  writers.  See  Bentley  ad  Lucan.  I. 
231,  and  Journal  of  Education,  iv.  356.  Perhaps  too,  when  a  sentence 
terminates  with  a  word  in  the  first  foot  of  a  line,  that  equally  isolated 
word  should  be  one  of  importance. 

||  Compare  also  v.  1,  Troiae  qui  &c.;  392,  Tyridm  qui  &c.;  and  in. 
658,  ingens  cui  &c. 


410 


SYNTAX. 


1464  It  snould  be  recollected  that  there  are  many  actual  pauses  in 
a  sentence  where  the  printer  inserts  not  even  a  comma.     The 
word  which  follows  such  a  pause  must,  for  the  purposes  of  em- 
phasis, be  considered  a  commencing  word*. 

1465  It  must  be  recollected  too  that  many  little  words,  as  ut,  si,  et, 
nee,  sed,  ne",  nonf,  an,  quaint,  and  the  prepositions,  are  at  times 

t  proclitics§,  that  is,  pronounced  with  the  word  which  follows  them, 
so  that  they  must  not  be  deemed  to  be  first  words  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  following  word.  See  Addenda. 

1463        The  last  place  in  a  sentence  is  often  an  emphatic  one  :  as, 

Qui  honos  post  condltam  hanc  urbem  h&bltust  togato  ante  me 
nemlnl  (Cic.  Phil.  u.  6.13),  an  honour  which  since  the  foun- 
dation of  this  city  was  never  paid  to  any  one  wearing  a  toga 
before  me. 
Aliud  Iter  h&bgbant  iiullum  (Caes.  B.  G.  i.  7),  other  road  they 

had  none. 

Apud  heluetios  longe  dltisslmus  fuit  orgetSrix  (Caes.  B.  G.  i. 
2),  among  the  Helvetii  by  far  the  richest  man  was  Orgetorix. 
Nam  ex  his  praediis  talenta  argenti  bina  Capie"bat  statim  (Ter. 
Ph.  v.  3.  6),  for  from  these  farms  he  received  two  talents  of 
silver  every  year  invariably. 

Anlmos  uestros  temptabunt  semper,  uires  non  expgrientur 
(Liv.  iv.  5),  your  courage  and  your  feelings  they  will  attempt 
to  master,  aye  without  intermission ;  of  your  actual  strength 
they  will  make  no  trial. 

1 467  It  has  been  stated  that  the  ordinary  place  of  a  verb  is  at  the 
end,  and  that  it  is  emphatic  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence.  When 
placed  elsewhere  it  has  the  power  of  making  the  preceding  word 
or  words  emphatic  ||  :  as, 

*  Thus  in  the  ordinary  hexameter  there  is  frequently  a  pause  after 
the  first  two  feet  and  a  half,  which  is  followed  by  an  emphatic  word:  as 
in  Virg.  Buc.  x.  73, — 


Gdllo,  ciiius  amor 
Qudntum  nere  nouo 


tantum  mihi  crescit  in  horas, 
uiridis  se  subicit  dlnus ; — 


where  uiridis  means  '  with  the  sap  flowing  freely,'  not '  green.' 

t  See  §  1404.1. 

J  In  the  Mss.  these  little  words  are  very  often,  if  not  generally,  written 
in  immediate  connection  with  the  following  word. 

§  See  §  28. 

II  The  reason  of  this  appears  to  be,  that  the  predicate  of  a  sentence  is 


OKDER  OP  WORDS.  417 

SSguntum  uestrl  circumsldent  exercltus  :  mox  karthaptnem 
circuinsldebunt  romanae  ISgiones  (Liv.  xxi.  10),  Saguntum 
is  besieged  by  your  armies :  ere  long  Carthage  will  be  besieged 
by  the  legions  of  Rome. 

Vtlnam  pro  de'core'  tantum  et  non  pro  salute  esset  certamgn 
(Liv.  xxi.  41),  oh  that  the  struggle  had  been  one  for  glory 
only  and  not  for  existence. 

Vt  seruemlnl  dest*  uobis  Animus  ?  Quid,  si  moriendum  pro 
patria  esset,  faceretls  ?  (Liv.  xxn.  60)  when  the  object  is  to 
save  yourselves,  does  your  courage  run  low  ?  What  then  would 
you  have  done,  if  you  had  had  to  die  for  your  country  ? 
Prius  semprouio  per  ciuium  agmen  quam  per  hostiumt  fuit 
erumpendum  (Liv.  xxn.  60),  Sempronius  had  to  force  a 
passage  through  the  ranks  of  his  own  countrymen  before  he 
forced  one  through  those  of  the  enemy. 

A68  Sometimes  the  word  thus  placed  before  the  verb  is  not  itself 
so  emphatic  as  the  word  with  which  it  is  intimately  connected, 
and  which  then  stands  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  :  as, 

0  Geta,  Prouinciam  cepisti  duram  (Ter.  Ph.  i.  2.22),  oh  Geta, 
the  duty  you  undertook  was  a  hard  one. 

Maecenas  ftt&uls  editg  reglbus  (Hor.  Od.  i.  1. 1), 
Mcecenas  sprung  of  royal  line. 

1469  An  adjective^  or  dependent  genitive,  if  emphatic,  commonly 
precedes  its  substantive ;  whereas  when  not  emphatic,  it  com- 
monly folio  ws§.  Thus, 

Saepe  et  contempttis  hostis  cruentum  certame'n  edldit,  8t  in- 
clitl  p5pull  regesque  perleul  momento  uictl  sunt  (Liv.  xxi. 

commonly  the  more  emphatic  part,  and  that  the  verb  is  commonly  the 
chief  part  of  the  predicate.  Observe  too  that  a  participle  in  its  own  clause 
has  the  same  influence. 

*  So  generally  in  Mss.,  not  deest. 

f  The  comma  usually  inserted  after  hostium  is  inadmissible,  as  the 
fuit  should  be  pronounced  almost  as  though  it  were  attached  to  it  like  an 
enclitic. 

J  In  the  phrase  tuom  officium  facere  to  do  your  duty,'  it  would  at 
first  seem  that  tuom  has  no  title  to  the  emphatic  position  which  it  com- 
monly, though  not  always  occupies  in  this  phrase ;  but  the  answer  is,  that 
officium  (=opificium)  originally  meant  not  '  duty,'  but  *  work,'  so  that  the 
phrase  literally  translated  is, '  to  do  your  own  work,  not  another  person's.' 

§  When  a  substantive  is  very  short  compared  to  its  adjective,  the 
former  commonly  precedes,  as  aes  alienum,  res  familiaris. 

E  E 


418  SY.N'TAX. 

43),  if  a  despised  foe  has  often  maintained  a  bloody  contest, 
not  less  often  have  renowned  states  and  monarchs  been  con- 
quered by  tlie  slightest  blow. 

Pulchrum  erit  campanl,  romasum  imperium  uestra  fide,  ues- 
tris  ulrlbus  retentum  esse  (Liv.  xxm.  5),  it  will  be  a  proud 
reflection,  men  of  Capua,  that  the  empire  of  Rome  herself  was 
saved  from  falling  by  your  fidelity,  by  your  power. 

1470  A  still  stronger  emphasis  belongs  to  the  adjective  or  dependent 
genitive  when  it  throws*  as  it  were  its  substantive  to  the  end  of 
the  sentencet :  as, 

Be  quo  quum  disputarem,  tuam  mihi  dan  uellern  cotta  elo- 

quentiam  (Cic.  N.  D.  n.  59.  147),  in  discussing  which  I 

should  have  wished  your  eloquence,  Cotta,  to  have  been  given 

to  me. 
Hoc  tlbi  iuuentus  romana  indicimus  bellum  (Liv.  n.  12),  such 

the  war  which  we,  the  youth  of  Rome,  declare  against  you. 
Bonds  me  absente  hie  confecistis  nuptias  (Ter.  Ph.  n.  1.28),  a 

pretty  marriage  you  have  knocked  up  here  in  my  absence. 
E  qulbus  unus  auet  quauls  aspergere  cunctos,  Praeter  eum  qul 

praebSt,  aqua  (Nor.  Sat.  i.  4. 87),  one  of  whom  delights  to 

sprinkle  with  any  (the  dirtiest}  water  all  save  him  who  acts 

purveyoi\ 
Nee  cum  huiusmodi  usus  uenit  tit  conflictar6s  malo  (Ter.  Ph. 

in.  3.21),  and  have  never  been  called  upon  to  struggle  with  a 

misery  of  this  kind. 
Nam  per  eius  unam,  ut  audio,  aut  uiuam  aut  moriar  senten- 

tiam  (Ter.  Ph.  in.  1. 10),  for  on  his  one  vote  it  depends,  I 

hear,  whether  I  am  to  live  or  die. 

1470. 1  And  generally  any  qualifying  word  may  in  this  way  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  word  qualified  :  as, 

ltd  patrem  adolescentis  facta  haec  tolerare  audio  uiolenter 

(Ter.  Ph.  v.  1.4),  so  very  furiously  is  the  young  maris  father 

off  ended  I  hear  with  these  proceedings. 

*  This  wide  separation  of  the  adjective  and  substantive  would  cause 
confusion,  but  that  the  great  emphasis  of  the  adjective  causes  it  still  to 
be  ringing  in  the  ear  when  we  come  to  the  substantive. 

f  Compare  in  the  first  book  of  the  Aeneid,  v.  647,  patrius  amor,  rapi- 
dum  Achaten ;  v.  661,  noua  consilia ;  v.  673,  nostro  dolore ;  v.  675,  luno- 
nia  hospitia  ;  v.  679,  magno  amore  ;  v.  680,  nostrum  mentem  ;  v.  688, 
notos  uoltus. 


ORDER  OP  WORDS.  419 

1471  The  demonstrative  pronouns,  and  the  logical  pronoun  i-  or  eo-, 
commonly  occupying  the  place  before  the  substantive,  appear  to 
acquire  a  special  emphasis  when  placed  after  it :  as, 

Te  appl  tuumquS  c&put  sanguine  hoc  consecro  (Liv.  in.  48), 
thee  Appius,  and  thy  head  with  this  blood  1  devote. 

1471. 1    Numerals  are  often  placed  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  or  clause.* 
Gallia  est  omnis  diuisa  in  partis  trls  (Caes.  B.  G.  I.  1),  Gallia 
as  a  whole  is  divided  into  three  parts. 

1472  Nouns  in  apposition  and  the  genitive  commonly  follow  the 
substantive  to  which  they  belong,  and  therefore  have  an  emphasis 
when  prefixed  to  the  substantive  :  as, 

Vn!  consull  serullio  ius  fuit  dlcendl  dictatorfs  (Liv.  xxn.  31), 
to  Servilius  alone,  as  consul,  belonged  the  power  to  name  a 
dictator. 

Sed  Ita  forsitan  dScuit  cum  foedgrum  ruptorg  duce  ac  ptfpulo 
deos  ipsos  committe're  ac  profligarS  bellum,  nos  qul  sScuu 
dum  deos  uiolati  sumus,  commissum  ac  profligatum  conft- 
cSre  (Liv.  xxi.  40),  but  perhaps  it  was  fitting  that,  with  a 
general  and  a  people  who  habitually  violate  treaties,  the  gods 
themselves  should  commence  the  war  and  break  the  neck  of  it\, 
and  that  we  who  next  to  the  gods  have  been  injured  should  then 
come  in  and  finish  it. 

F&bius  potens  uir,  quum  inter  su!  corporls  h5mines,  turn  etiam 
ad  plebem  (Liv.  vi.  34),  Fabius,  a  man  of  influence  not 
merely  among  the  men  of  his  own  body%9  but  also  with  the 


1473  As  an  emphatic  word  demands  a  large  share  of  the  attention, 
it  tends  to  prevent  the  mind  from  dwelling  on  the  word  or  words 
which  follow.  Hence  as  the  first  place  in  a  sentence  or  clause  is 
allotted  to  emphatic  words,  so  the  second  place  is  adapted  to  un- 
important words§,  which  are  inserted  here  although  unconnected 
with  the  adjoining  words  :  as, 

*  A  habit  borrowed  probably  from  the  form  of  accounts,  where  the 
numbers  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the  lines  in  a  vertical  column  for  the 
convenience  of  addition. 

f  Literally  *  to  give  the  knock-down  blow  which  ail-but  finishes.' 
J  t.  e.  class  or  order. 

§  Such  words  should  be  read  most  faintly,  so  as  not  to  attract  atten- 
tion. 


420  SYNTAX. 

laiiua  se  ac  parietibus  texit  (Cic.  p.  Mil.  7.  18),  he  protected 
himself  behind  the  gate  and  the  walls  of  his  house. 

An  huius  ille  legis  mentionem  facere  ausus  esset  ?  (Cic.  p. 
3 HI.  12.  33)  or  wow&£  he  have  dared  to  make  mention  of  this 
law? 

Hunc  illi  e  naui  egressum  comprehendgrant  atque  in  uinciila 
coniecSrant  (Caes.  B.  G.  iv.  27),  this  man  had  no  sooner  dis- 
embarked than  they  had  seized  him  and  thrown  him  into 
prison. 

Magnus  Ibi  numerus  pecoYis  repertus  est  (Caes.  B.  G.  V.  21),  a 
great  number  of  sheep  was  found  there. 

Maguara  haec  res  caesarl  diflftcultatem  adferebat  (Caes.  B.  G. 
viz.  10),.  TIO  little  difficulty  did  this  occasion  to  Ccesar. 

Rgsistes  autera  si  satis  firmus  steteris,  si  te  neque  collegae  uanS, 
gloriS,  nequg  tua  falsa  infamia  mouerit  (Liv.  xxn.  39),  and 
resist  him  you  will,  if  you  stand  firm  enough,  if —  nor  your 
colleague's  empty  glory,  nor  your  own  ill-founded  disgrace 
affect  you. 

Vno  die  intermisso  galli,  atque  hoc  spS-tio  magno  cratium  uu- 
mero  effecto,  media  uocte  ad  muultioues  accedunt  (Caes. 
B.  G.  vn.  81),  having  allowed  one  day  to  pass  (without  any 
attack),  and  having  in  this  interval  made  up  a  great  quantity 
of  hurdles,  at  midnight  the  Gauls  quietly  advance  to  the  lines* 

Quos  sibi  caesarf  oblatos  gauisus  rethieri  iussit  (Caes.  B.  G. 
iv.  13),  delighted  that  these  men  should  be  thrown  in  his  way, 
Ccesar  ordered  them  to  be  detained^. 

1474  It  is  because  of  their  enclitic  character^  that  autem,  quidem, 
qu5qug,  <fec.  never  occupy  the  first  place  in  a  clause  or  sentence. 
Igitur,  euim,  uero,  are  occasionally  found  at  the  beginning,  and 

*  Manv  editors  would  place  a  comma  before  Galli*  thus  giving  it  an 
importance  it  does  not  deserve.  It  is  in  fact  a  sort  of  enclitic,  and  should 
appear  in  the  English  translation  in  the  least  prominent  place.  Similarly 
a  comma  should  follow,  not  precede  the  word  Caesar  or  Galba  in  the  first 
line  of  the  following  chapters,— B.  G.  II.  2,  n.  7;  in.  3,  in.  28;  iv.  6, 
iv.  13,  iv.  20;  v.  7,  v.  11. 

f  Here  both  sibi  and  Caesar  have  the  nature  of  enclitics. 

J  For  the  enclitical  position  of  a  word  which  refers  equally  to  two 
words  or  to  two  clauses,  see  §  1438  b  and  e. 

§  The  vocative  when  in  the  first  place  is  of  course  emphatic.  Other- 
wise it  is  commonly  an  enclitic,  and  should  be  thrown  in  after  an  em- 
phatic word. 


ORDER  OP  WORDS.  421 

then  have  more  importance  than  when  they  occupy  their  more 
ordinary  place  after  the  first  word. 

1475  In  short*  sentences,  words  which  are  opposed  to  one  another 
are  either  brought  close  together,  or  placed  as  far  apart  as  possible, 
in  the  latter  case  occupying  the  two  emphatic  positions  of  first 
and  last. 

Hostls  hostem  occldere  uolui  (Liv.  n.  12),  /  wished  to  slay  the 

enemy  of  my  country. 
Hospes  uecauit  hospitem  (Plant.  Most.  n.  2.  48),  he  strangled 

one  who  was  his  own  guest. 
Cum  h&nc  sibi  uidebit  praesens  praesentem  eripi  (Ter.  Ad.  iv. 

5. 34),  when  he  shall  see  her  torn  from  him  before  his  very  face. 
Ratio  nostrS,  consentit,  pugnat  oratio  (Cic.  de  Fin.  in.  3. 10), 

our  principles  agree,  our  language  is  at  'variance. 
Nee  ad  mortem  minus  anlmi  est,  quam  fuit  ad  caedem  (Liv. 

n.  12),  nor  have  I  less  courage  to  die  myself,  than  I  had  but 

now  to  slay  another. 
Mihi  magis  litterae  sunt  exspectandae  a  te,  quam  a  me  tibi 

(Cic.  ad  Pam.  ix.  10),  I  have  a  better  right  to  expect  a  letter 

from  you,  than  you/rom  me. 

1476  When  two  clauses  opposed  to  one  another  contain  the  same 
word  in  different  cases  or  tenses,  that  common  word  usually  pre- 
cedes the  words  opposed. 

Si  cluis  uester,  siciit  ad  pacem  p&endam  uenit,  It§,  pacis  condl- 
cidnes  rettiilisset,  superuacaneum  hoc  mihi  fuisset  ItSr  (Liv. 
xxi.  13),  if  your  countryman,  who  came  to  ask  for  peace,  had 
in  the  same  patriotic  spirit  reported  the  terms  of  that  peace, 
this  visit  would  have  been  superfluous  for  me. 

Vince're  scis,  uictoria  utl  nescls  (Liv.  xxn.  51),  how  to  gain  a 
victory,  you  know  ;  how  to  use  a  victory,  you  do  not  know. 

Non  solum  cal&mltate',  sed  6tiam  calamltatis  formldmg  llbgra- 
tos  (Cic.  p.  1.  Man  6.  16),  relieved  not  merely  from  ruin,  but 
also  from  the  fear  of  ruin. 

Et  fS-ce  pro  thalaml  fax  mihi  mortis  Sdest  (Ov.  Her.  21.  172), 
and  in  lieu  of  the  marriage-torch  the  torch  of  death  awaits  me. 

*  See  §  i486  b  note,  and  §  1437. 


APPENDIX  I. 

ON  THE  CRUDE-FORM  VIEW  OF  LANGUAGE,  ITS  TRUTH  AND  ITS 
PRACTICAL  ADVANTAGES.* 


As  the  very  phrase  *  crude  form'  is  yet  strange  to  the  ears  of  most 
scholars,  it  may  be  useful  to  explain  what  is  meant  by  it ;  to  es- 
tablish the  truth  of  the  new  system  ;  and  to  show  the  practical 
advantages  which  it  offers  even  for  elementary  instruction. 

In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  noted,  if  only  to  conciliate  the 
attention  of  readers,  that  upon  the  system  of  crude  forms  every 
Sanskrit  grammar  is  constructed. 

' '  Inflection'',  says  Professor  Wilson  (§  48  of  his  Grammar,  2d 
ed.),  "  whether  of  declension  or  conjugation,  is  contrived  by  the 
Sanskrit  grammarians  on  the  same  principle.  It  consists  of  two 
parts  :  1,  the  anga,  '  body,'  or  inflective  base,  that  is  the  word 
itself;  and  2,  of  certain  particles,  which,  being  attached  to  the 
base,  complete  the  inflected  word".  He  goes  on  to  say,  at  the 
latter  part  of  §  51,  "  there  is  but  one  general  declension  in  Sans- 
krit grammar" ;  and  though  it  is  convenient  to  divide  nouns  into 
classes,  yet  even  then,  he  adds,  "no  arrangement  admits  of  more 
ready  reference  than  that  which  classes  them  according  to  their 
final  letters." 

Again,  in  §  167,  he  founds  the  system  of  conjugation  on  the 
dhatu,  or  '  crude  verb  ;'  observing  also,  in  §  171,  that  "  the  verb 
in  its  inflected  form  is  composed  of  two  elements  :  1,  the  anga,  or 
(  base,'  the  modified  verb  to  which  the  inflections  are  subjoined  ; 
and  2,  certain  letters  or  syllables  which  constitute  the  inflectional 
terminations,  and  are  subjoined  to  the  base. " 

The  exhibition  of  the  Greekf  and  Latin  languages  upon  the 

*  Chiefly  reprinted  from  the  English  Journal  of  Education  (Bell), 
New  Series,  Nos.  48  and  50  (Dec.  1850  and  Feb.  1851). 

f  See  the  Elements  of  Greek  Grammar  by  J  oseph  G.  Greenwood,  Esq., 
now  Principal  of  Owen's  College,  Manchester. 


ON  THE  CRUDE  FORM.  423 

crude-form  system  is  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  passages  we 
here  quote  from  Professor  Wilson's  Grammar,  and  with  the  remarks 
of  Bopp  in  his  Vergleichende  Grammatik,  §  112,  <fec. 

The  first  proposal  in  print  to  apply  the  principle  to  the  analysis 
of  the  classical  languages  was  made  by  the  present  writer  in  a  re- 
view of  Zumpt's  Latin  Grammar  in  the  first  Number  of  the  Journal 
uf  Education,  published  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful 
Knowledge  in  1830  (pp.  98-100  and  105).  The  system  had  been 
previously  expounded  in  the  classical  lecture-rooms  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  London  (now  University  College).* 

In  endeavouring  to  give  a  more  distinct  exposition  of  the  sys- 
tem of  crude  forms,  we  shall,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  for  the  most 
part  limit  our  observations  to  the  Latin  language. 

In  the  ordinary  grammars  it  is  the  practice  to  start  from  the 
nominative  of  a  noun,  and  from  the  infinitive  or  first  person  of 
the  present  indicative  of  a  verb.  Now  the  nominative  of  a  noun 
is  something  more  than  the  naked  word,  as  it  also  expresses  a 
certain  relation  to  the  sentence.  So  again,  the  first  person  of  a 
verb  includes  in  its  termination  a  representative  of  the  pronoun 
'  I'.  The  infinitive  mood  in  like  manner  presents  to  us  a  suffix, 
by  means  of  which  the  notion  of  the  verb  is  expressed  in  the  form 
of  an  abstract  substantive.  Thus,  in  every  one  of  these  three 
cases  we  have  some  foreign  matter,  so  to  say,  added  to  the  pure 
metal. 

Now  the  principle  of  the  crude-form  system  is  to  get  rid  of 
this  foreign  matter,  and  thus  to  exhibit  the  simplest  form  of  a 
word,  or,  as  Bopp  expresses  it,  die  Grundform,  die  nackte  Wort- 
ffestalt.  But  it  would  be  thought  a  false  step  to  introduce  that 
which,  though  in  a  certain  sense  more  true  and  more  philosophical, 
would  involve  a  complicated  process  of  analysis.  To  such  an  ob- 
jection the  supporters  of  the  crude-form  system  answer,  that  their 
principles  are  not  only  true,  but  at  the  same  time  are  recommended 
by  extreme  simplicity.  Thus  they  affirm,  with  Professor  Wilson, 
that  on  the  crude-form  system  there  is  at  bottom  but  one  declen- 
sion and  but  one  conjugation ;  and  if  for  some  purposes  it  is  still 

*  In  the  year  1836  was  published  the  Bromsgrove  Latin  Grammar 
by  the  Rev.  G.  A.  Jacob,  M.A.  (late  Scholar  and  Tutor  of  Worcester 
College,  Oxford)  ;  which  is  drawn-up  in  a  great  measure,  but  far  from 
uniformly,  upon  the  crude-form  system.  Mr.  Jacob  subsequently  pub- 
lished a  Greek  Grammar  upon  the  same  plan. 


424  APPENDIX  I. 

convenient  to  divide  nouns  and  verbs  into  classes,  these  classes 
depend  upon  one  simple  and  unvarying  rule,  viz.  the  character- 
istic or  last  letter. 

But  examples  will  best  explain  what  is  meant.  In  the  fourth 
declension,  that  of  gradus  for  example,  the  same  letters  down  to 
the  vowel  u  inclusive,  appear  in  every  case  both  of  the  singular 
and  plural,  except  in  the  dative  and  ablative  of  the  latter,  and  the 
doubt  which  this  one  exception  might  suggest  is  removed  by  the 
occurrence  of  such  forms  as  verubus,  acubus.  From  the  fact  of  the 
rive  letters  gradu  being  thus  common  to  all  the  inflected  forms,  it 
becomes  to  some  extent  probable  that  the  several  ideas  of  number 
and  case  are  distinguished  by  the  letters  which  follow  gradu.  Si- 
milarly in  the  fifth  declension,  dies  for  example,  the  three  letters 
die,  being  constant,  tend  to  a  similar  conclusion.  In  the  third 
declension,  nouns  such  as  turris,  auis,  differ  much  in  several  of 
the  case-endings  from  rex,  homo,  aestas.  The  former  exhibit  an  i 
in  nearly  every  case  ;  for  we  have  turrim  in  the  ace.  singular,  and 
turrls,  aulsy  as  well  as  turres,  aues  in  the  ace.  plural ;  turri,  aui, 
as  well  as  turre,  aue  in  the  abl.  sing.  Nay,  even  a  plural,  nom. 
such  as  turrls  is  well  established  as  an  archaic  variety.  Thus  an  i 
presents  itself  in  every  case  of  both  numbers.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  never  meet  with  an  ace.  regim,  nor  with  such  plural  cases  as 
regls  or  regium.  Under  these  circumstances  there  are  strong  rea- 
sons for  separating  the  consideration  of  such  words  as  rex  from 
those  nouns  which  have  a  nominative  in  is.  Looking  then,  in 
the  first  instance,  to  turris  as  an  example  of  a  class,  we  find  turri 
in  every  case.  To  proceed  :  in  the  nouns  of  the  first  declension, 
as  musa,  an  a  is  traceable  through  every  case  of  both  numbers,  if 
we  include  in  our  view  such  datives  as  equabus,  duabus,  ambabus, 
and  the  Greek  forms  p.ov<rais,  &c. 

In  the  nouns  so  far  discussed,  the  parts  common  to  every  case 
are  gradu,  die,  turri,  musa  ;  and  so  we  have  come  across  classes 
which  end  in  four  out  of  the  five  Latin  vowels.  There  remains 
one  declension,  the  second,  and  one  vowel,  viz.  o.  Now  the  nouns 
of  this  declension  exhibit  the  vowel  in  question  in  the  dat.  and 
abl.  of  the  singular,  in  the  gen.  and  ace.  of  the  plural,  as  domino, 
dominorum*  domino*.  The  corresponding  Greek  declension  helps 
us  out  in  many  of  the  other  cases,  as  SouXoy,  SovXoio  or  SovXov. 
SnvXov,  bovXot,  SovXois.  But  we  need  not  depend  on  the  Greek 
alone.  Cicero  also  wrote  seruos,  seruomt  rather  than  seruus,  ser 


ON  THE  CRUDE  FORM.  425 

uum;  and  so  in  all  words  where  the  ordinary  ending  of  these  cases 
would  give  us  the  combination  -uus,  -uum.  Again,  Cicero's  geni- 
tive of  qui  was  quo-ius,  not  cuius.  So  also  we  may  fairly  assume 
that  nullius  with  its  long  i  is  a  contraction  of  nullo-ins,  a  genitive 
which  bears  a  marked  affinity  in  its  termination  to  the  Homeric 
genitive  Aoyoto.  We  may  the  more  safely  assume  that  nullius  is 
only  a  reduced  form  of  nulloius,  because  a  long  i  in  Latin  often 
corresponds  to  the  diphthong  ot  of  the  Greek,  as  in  domini  (nom. 
pi.),  dominis,  compared  in  respect  of  ending  to  SouAoi,  SovXoty. 
In  the  nom.  pi.  Terence  wrote  Adelphoe  ;  and  oloe  is  said  to  have 
been  used  as  an  archaic  form  for  the  nom.  illi.  At  any  rate,  as 
regards  the  abl.  pi.  Festus  says  :  '  aboloes  dicebant  pro  ab  illis.' 
Thus  the  sing,  vocative  alone  in  this  declension  presents  any  diffi- 
culty. But  the  change  to  a  short  e  is  seen  even  in  the  iiom.,  as 
in  Me,  iste,  ipse ;  and  that  the  last  of  these  grew  out  of  an  old 
ipsos  is  pretty  well  established  by  the  fact  that  the  old  writers 
give  us  a  nom.  ipsus.  In  truth,  it  is  nearly  a  law  of  the  Latin 
and  other  languages,  that  any  short  final  vowel  is  soon  reduced  to 
a  short  e.  Thus  magis,  scriberis,  aetatis*,  scripserunt,  when  de- 
prived of  the  final  consonants,  become  at  once  mage,  scribere,  aetate, 
scripsere.  Add  to  this,  that  a  vowel  o  is  wholly  unknown  to  ihe 
terminations  of  the  other  declensions.  From  all  these  facts  it  is 
inferred  that  in  the  second  declension  the  part  essential  to  the 
noun,  as  opposed  to  case-endings,  terminates  in  the  vowel  o. 

But  we  have  passed  over  that  portion  of  the  third  declension 
which  differs  in  the  mode  of  forming  the  cases  from  turris.  Ex- 
amples of  such  nouns  are,  if  we  define  them  by  their  nominatives, 
rex,  nux,  lapis,  paries,  uirtus,  aetas,  pater,  consul,  hiemps,  ratio, 
homo,  puluis,  <fec.  Upon  any  grammatical  system  such  words  pre- 
sent anomalies  in  the  nominative  case.  In  the  other,  or  so-called 
oblique  cases,  the  difficulties  are  few ;  and  it  will  be  found  that 
the  essential  part  of  these  words  ends  in  a  consonant,  viz.  reg-t 
nuc-,  laptd-,  pariet-,  uirtut-,  aetat-,  hiem-  ;  and  again,  pater-,  con- 
sul-, ration-,  homon-,  pulufa-.  The  modification  or  loss  of  the  final 
consonant  which  ensues  in  the  first  seven  of  these  nouns  on  the 
addition  of  an  s  to  form  the  nominative,  is  nearly  parallel  to  what 
happens  in  the  formation  of  the  perfect  tenses,  rexi,  duxi,  diuisi, 
misi,  sumpsi;  and  this  was  to  be  expected,  as  the  same  consonants 

*  See  Grammar,  §  909  note. 


426  APPENDIX  I. 

are  brought  into  juxtaposition.  As  regards  puluis,  cucumis  and 
cinis,  the  final  s  of  the  nominatives  in  reality  performs  a  double 
office.  In  other  words,  puluiss  would  have  been  theoretically  a 
more  correct  form ;  and  hence  it  is  that  the  last  syllable  of  this 
nominative  is  at  times  found  long,  as  in  Virg.  Aen.  i.  478,  et  uersa 
pululs  inscribitur  hasta.  That  the  base  of  puluis  must  put  in  a 
claim  to  an  s,  is  proved  by  the  diminutive  puluiscvlus  as  compared 
with  nauicula,  canicuta^fraterciilus.  The  oblique  cases  puluerem, 
pulueris,  &c.  confirm  this,  for  the  syllable  er  in  these  words  repre- 
sents the  is  of  the  base,  just  as  er  in  scripserunt  corresponds  to  the 
middle  syllable  is  of  scripsistis,  and  the  er  of  the  reflective  or  pas- 
sive scrib&r-is  to  the  is  of  the  simple  verb  scribis.  The  change  of 
s  between  vowels  into  r  is  familiar  to  every  Latin  scholar.  It 
must  also  be  admitted,  on  consideration,  that  while  i  is  the  vowel 
which  the  idiom  of  the  language  prefers  before  s,  a  short  e  is  all 
but  required  before  r. 

The  absolute  disappearance  of  the  final  s  in  the  nominatives 
pater,  consul,  ratio,  homo,  and  the  loss  in  addition  of  a  liquid  from 
the  end  of  the  last  pair  of  words,  will  need  a  fuller  discussion,  and 
shall  be  considered  presently. 

Thus  far  we  have  dealt  only  with  the  declension  of  nouns.  As 
regards  the  verbs,  the  question  is  exceedingly  simple.  No  one 
will  have  any  difficulty  in  assigning  ama,  mone,  reg,  and  audi,  as 
the  essential  elements  in  the  conjugation  of  the  verbs  ama-re, 
mone-re,  reg-ere,  and  audi-re.  The  only  parts  of  the  verb  amare 
which  fail  to  exhibit  an  a  after  the  m  are  the  first  person  amo  of 
the  indicative  present,  and  the  whole  of  the  present  subjunctive, 
amem,  <fec.  But  a  contraction  of  ama-o  into  amo  would  be  per- 
fectly parallel  to  what  is  seen  in  the  Greek  grammar  in  rijuaco, 
7  IPO) ;  and  the  compression  of  ama-am,  ama-as,  ama-at,  <fec.  (which 
the  analogy  of  scrib-amt  scrib-as,  scrib-at,  &c.  would  have  led  us  to 
expect)  into  amem,  ames,  amet,  &c.  is  a  matter  of  no  extraordinary 
character,  considering  the  intimate  connection  between  a  long 
vowel  e  and  the  simple  a.  A  Greek  scholar  is  of  course  familiar 
with  this  fact ;  and  in  the  Latin  perfect  eg-i  (as  compared  to  the 
present  ag-o)  we  seem  to  have  a  word  which  has  been  contracted 
from  a  perfect  of  reduplication  a-ag-i.  In  the  second  conjugation 
we  should  have  been  able  to  trace  the  vowel  e  throughout  all  the 
deduced  forms,  if  we  had  taken  for  our  example  any  of  the  verbs 
fle-ret  ne-re,  de-le-re,  or  ex-ple-re,  for  in  these  the  perfect  and  so- 


ON  THE  CRUDE  FORM.  427 

called  supines  still  exhibit  an  e  in  the  base  of  the  word.  And  even 
among  those  verbs  which  commonly  form  the  perfect  in  -ui,  as 
moneo,  habeo,  &c. ,  the  archaic  forms,  such  as  habessit,  seern  to  im- 
ply an  old  perfect  habeui  ;  for  habessit  must  have  been  a  contrac- 
tion of  habeuesitj  just  as  amasso  and  amassim  are  admitted  to  be 
contractions  from  old  forms  amaueso  and  amauesim,  which  pre- 
ceded amauero  and  amauerim.  Lastly,  the  conjugation  of  audi-re 
in  no  single  instance  fails  to  retain  the  i. 

Thus  we  reduce  the  four  conjugations  to  the  four  heads,  of 
verbs  in  a,  in  e,  in  consonants,  and  in  i.  The  question  here  sug- 
gests itself,  how  is  it  that  there  are  not  six  conjugations  to  corre- 
spond to  the  six  declensions  ?  in  other  words,  what  has  become  of 
the  conjugations  in  o  and  in  u  ?  To  speak  first  of  the  verbs  in  u  : 
the  class  exists,  and  as  examples  of  it  may  be  taken  the  verbs 
nu-ere,  plu-ere,  acu-ere,  metu-ere;  but  the  vowel  u  is  rarely  subject 
to  contraction  with  a  following  vowel,  so  that  it  was  found  unne- 
cessary to  separate  verbs  of  this  class  from  those  which  ended  in 
a  consonant.  On  the  whole  however  it  is  perhaps  desirable,  for 
simplicity's  sake,  to  make  a  u  conjugation;  and  in  fact  in  the 
third  person  of  the  plural  of  the  present  indicative  these  verbs 
have  a  peculiarity  which  distinguishes  them  from  such  verbs  as 
reg-ere,  scrib-ere ;  we  mean  that  metuunt  and  sequuntur,  though 
supported  by  the  authority  of  our  grammars  and  ordinary  editions, 
are  not  so  legitimate,  if  manuscripts  are  to  be  trusted,  as  metuont 
and  secuntur.  Secondly,  an  advantage  is  gained  by  the  separation 
of  verbs  in  u  from  verbs  in  a  consonant,  in  the  complete  analogy 
of  the  perfects  col-ui,  audi-ui,  ne-ui,  ama-ui,  gno-ui,  plu-ui,  where 
we  have  the  same  suffix  added  without  distinction  to  a  verb  end- 
ing in  a  consonant,  and  to  verbs  in  all  the  five  vowels,  i,  6,  a,  o,  u. 
Pluuit  was  the  only  perfect  known  to  Livy ;  and  the  older  writers 
generally  adopted  either  the  form  annuuit,  or  at  least  annuit  with 
a  long  u,  thus  distinguishing  the  perfect  from  the  present.  But 
there  still  remains  a  vacancy  caused  by  the  non-appearance  of  a 
class  of  verbs  in  o.  Such  vacancy  can  only  be  filled  by  a  wretched 
remnant  of  a  conjugation.  The  forms  gno-ui,  gno-tum  (noui,  no- 
turn),  the  participles  potus  and  aeqrotus,  all  point  to  bases  in  o, 
viz.gno-ypo-,  aegro-.  The  present  of  the  first  exhibits  a  somewhat 
fuller  form  in  the  so-called  inceptive  gnosc-o.  That  there  was 
once  a  verb  po-  '  drink,'  is  proved  by  the  substantives  po-tion-, 
po-culo-  (nom.  potio,  poculum),  by  the  frequentative  po-ta-re,  and 


428  APPENDIX  I. 


by  the  Greek  7ro>-cra>.  TrfTrco-Ka.  Again,  a  verb  aegro-o  from  the  ad- 
jective aegero  (nom.  aeger,  aegra,  &c.)  would  be  in  perfect  keeping 
with  the  Greek  verb  SovXo-o)  from  the  noun  SovXo-  (nom.  SouAor). 
Unfortunately  there  was  a  tendency  in  the  Latin  language  to  force 
all  those  verbs  which  are  formed  from  substantives  or  adjectives 
of  the  second  declension  into  the  first  conjugation.  Thus  from 
the  substantives  dono-,  domino-  (nom.  donum,  dominus),  and  from 
the  adjectives  misero-,  denso-  (nom.  miser,  densvss),  were  deduced 
the  verbs  dona-re,  domina-ri,  misera-ri,  densa-re.  The  readiness 
which  exists  in  the  Latin  language  to  interchange  the  vowels  a 
and  o  is  well  seen  in  ignora-re,  from  an  adjective  ignaro-  (nom. 
ignarus),  while  the  simple  adjective  gnaro-  (nom.  gnarus)  is  de- 
duced from  the  verb  gno-  (gnosco  or  nosco). 

The  application  of  the  crude-form  system  to  verbs  was  virtually 
adopted  in  the  Latin  grammar  which  was  used  in  the  Charter- 
House  during  the  headship  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Russell,  as  the  three 
conjugations  of  amare,  monere  and  audire  were  treated  as  contract 
verbs,  amao  amo,  amais  amas,  amait  amat,  <fec.  It  has  at  times 
been  objected  to  this  view,  that  a  contraction  of  amait  to  amat 
ought  to  have  led  to  a  long  vowel  in  the  last  syllable  of  amat. 
The  argument  is  valid,  but  yet  no  way  damages  the  theory,  for 
the  syllable  was  originally  long,  as  indeed  is  seen  in  the  passive 
amatur,  monetur,  auditur,  whereas  from  reglt  comes  regttur.  It  is 
thus  that  the  old  writers,  as  Plautus,  Terence,  &c.  never  hesitate 
to  treat  the  third  person  of  a  tense  as  having  a  final  long  syllable, 
whenever  the  corresponding  vowel  is  long  in  the  first  and  second 
persons  of  the  plural.  Examples  may  be  seen  in  the  "  Prolego- 
mena" to  RitschPs  Plautus,  p.  182,  &c.,  such  as  uelU,  audiet,  fit, 
solet,  attinety  habet,  sit,  det,  fudt,  mauellt,  afflictat,  eget,  desideret, 
It,  lubet,  though  followed  in  every  example  he  quotes  by  a  word 
with  an  initial  vowel.  There  are  not  wanting  similar  examples  in 
Virgil  and  Horace  ;  but  editors  and  teachers  complacently  get  over 
the  difficulty  by  attributing  the  unusual  length  to  the  so-called 
principle  of  caesura,  or  to  poetical  license.  What  therefore  at  first 
view  appeared  as  a  defect  in  the  theory  of  crude  forms,  only  tends 
to  prove  the  validity  of  the  system. 

In  the  irregular  verbs  the  system  of  crude  forms  has  its  usual 
superiority.  The  conjugation  for  example  of  the  so-called  sub- 
stantive verb,  in  both  Greek  and  Latin,  becomes  more  intelligible, 
and  therefore  more  easy  to  remember,  when  attention  is  paid  to 


ON  THE  CRUDE  FORM.  429 

the  form  of  the  base.  Sum  and  «/it,  when  examined  by  them- 
selves, appear  utterly  unconnected  ;  but  a  light  is  thrown  even 
upon  these,  and  still  more  decidedly  on  many  other  parts  of  the 
conjugation,  when  8s  is  regarded  as  the  point  of  departure.  Varro, 
for  example,  tells  us  that  esum,  esumus,  esunt  were  the  old  forms, 
which,  losing  their  initial  vowel,  became  severally  sum,  sumus, 
sunt.  That  e<r-/ii*  in  Greek  should  be  changed  to  ei/u  was  to  be 
xxpected  from  the  habitual  tendency  of  that  language  to  suppress 
<Ae  sibilant.  Further,  an  attention  to  the  crude  form  $s  at  once 
explains  the  so-called  adjectives,  but  really  participles,  absens, 
praesens,  which  are  but  reduced  forms  of  ab-es-ens  prae-es-ens. 
Again,  the  beginner  in  Greek  is  somewhat  confused  at  times  by 
the  similarity  in  many  parts  of  the  verbs  fifjn  '  I  am'  and  et^t  *  I 
go'.  He  will  have  most  of  his  doubts  at  once  solved  by  the  know- 
ledge that  the  former  has  eo-,  the  latter  i,  for  its  base. 

We  next  proceed  to  examine  the  proposition  that  all  the  Latin 
declensions  in  reality  belong  to  one  type.  In  the  process  of  word- 
building  the  chief  difficulty  arises  from  the  fact,  that  if  vowels  are 
brought  together,  contraction  commonly  results  ;  while  if  conso- 
nants are  placed  in  juxtaposition,  the  one  or  the  other  is  frequently 
modified,  so  as  to  harmonise  with  the  other.  Hence  it  follows 
that  where  the  choice  presents  itself,  we  should  select  for  our  first 
consideration  those  forms,  where,  of  two  syllables  brought  into 
contact,  either  the  first  ends  in  a  consonant  and  the  second  begins 
with  a  vowel,  or  vice  versa,  where  a  vowel  at  the  end  of  the  first 
is  followed  by  a  consonant  at  the  beginning  of  the  second.  Now 
it  so  happens  that  among  the  suffixes  which  have  the  office  of 
denoting  cases,  the  majority  commence  with  a  vowel.  Hence 
the  consonant  declension  for  the  most  part  exhibits  the  cases  in 
a  fuller  and  less  modified  form.  Thus  to  take  the  accusative, 
Teg-em  assigns  a  whole  syllable  to  the  case-ending,  whereas  in 
turri-m,  die-m,  musa-m,  seruo-m  (or  seruu-m),  gradu-m,  a  vowel 
has  been  lost.  The  same  applies  to  the  plural  accusatives  reg-es, 
turri-s  (turres),  die-s,  musa-s,  seruo-s,  gradu-s.  Similarly  in  the 
ablatives  of  the  singular,  reff-8,  turrl  (turr8),  die,  musd,  seruo, 
gradu,  the  first  gives  us  a  letter  £  as  the  representative  of  the 
case,  whereas  contraction  absorbs  this  vowel  in  all  the  vowel  de- 
clensions, yet  at  the  same  time  leaves  a  trace  of  the  same  termi- 

*  The  modern  Lithuanian,  or  the  language  now  spoken  around  Memel 
and  Riga,  conjugates  its  substantive  verb,  esmi,  esui,  esti,  &c. 


430  APPENDIX  I. 

nation  in  the  length  of  the  final  vowel,  as  arising  from  contrac- 
tion. 

The  genitival  is  of  reg-is  would  lead  us  to  expect  from  analogy 
turri-isj  die-is,  musa-is,  seruo-is,  gradu-is,  not  one  of  which  occurs. 
This  fact  at  first  sight  appears  somewhat  fatal  to  the  theory  \  but 
a  closer  inspection  will  remove  much  of  the  difficulty,  and  the 
satisfactory  removal  of  a  difficulty  ought  to  be  held  a  strong  con- 
firmation of  a  theory.  Now  the  forms  gru-is,  su-is,  anu-is  (the 
last  in  Terence)  really  exhibit  what  is  demanded ;  and  the  long  u 
in  gradus  gen.  has  always  been  held  to  be  the  result  of  contrac- 
tion from  graduis.  Secondly,  in  the  first  and  fifth  declensions 
the  older  language  has  at  least  two  forms,  musai  and  musas  (as 
in  pater-familias,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Greek  gen.  <ro(j)ias),  diei, 
dies  and  die.  Now  it  is  evident  that  all  these  varieties  would 
grow  out  of  musa-is  and  die-is.  By  the  loss  of  the  s  we  obtain 
musai  and  diei,  and  then  by  an  ordinary  contraction  musae  and 
die;  while  the  absorption  of  the  i  in  musais  and  dieis  gives  us 
musas  and  dies.  In  the  second  declension,  although  seruo-is  is 
unknown,  yet  in  nullius,  or  rather  nutto-ius,  we  get  even  more 
than  the  suffix  wished  for ;  and  a  termination  us  harmonises  better 
with  the  Greek  genitival  suffix  os  than  the  ordinary  Latin  suffix  is. 
Thus  in  the  celebrated  Baccanaliau  inscription  we  find  senatu-os 
for  the  genitive  of  senatu-. 

But  there  still  remain  the  genitives  auis,  turns,  which  refuse 
even  in  their  quantity  to  justify  the  theory  of  a  previously  exist- 
ing aui-is  or  turri-is.  The  explanation  probably  is  this  :  the  Latin 
language  had  some  twenty  verbs  which  blended  together  the  third 
and  fourth  conjugations,  as  facio,  iacio,  orior,  gradior,  which  in 
the  first  person  singular  and  third  plural  follow  the  analogy  of  the 
fourth,  but  in  the  other  persons  that  of  the  third  conjugation. 
Nay,  as  we  look  further  and  further  back  into  the  language,  we 
find  such  forms  as  parirs  for  parere,  morimur  for  morimur,  euenat 
for  eueniat,  &c.  Similarly  in  the  declensions  they  seem  at  times 
to  have  had  double  forms,  one  ending  in  a  consonant,  one  in  the 
vowel  i.  Thus  by  the  side  of  naui-  '  a  ship'  we  may  assume  a 
shorter  form  nau- :  compare  the  Greek  vav-s.  Thus  nau-is  would 
be  a  legitimate  genitive,  and  nau-fragus,  nauta  need  not  be  deemed 
contractions  from  naui-fragus,  naui-ta.  So  au  in  auceps,  auspex, 
may  have  been  an  original  base,  signifying  'bird,'  from  which  the 
gen.  au-is  with  a  short  i  is  regularly  formed,  In  fact,  we  have 


ON  THE  CRUDE  FORM.  431 

probably  in  this  tendency  to  double  forms  the  explanation  of  the 
confusion  by  which  the  Romans  themselves  were  led  to  force  the 
nouns  ending  in  a  consonant  and  those  ending  in  a  vowel  i  into  a 
common  declension.* 

In  the  genitives  plural  die-rum,  musa-rum,  seruo-rum  we  have 
a  common  suffix ;  while  in  reg-um,  aui-um,  gradu-um  we  only 
miss  the  r,  the  addition  of  which  would  bring  them  into  perfect 
agreement  with  the  preceding  trio.  Now  this  r  really  represents 
the  s  which  formed  the  essential  part  of  the  genitival  suffix  in  the 
singular,  it  being  a  law  of  the  Latin  language  to  change  an  s  into 
r  whenever  it  is  thrown  between  vowels,  as  in  such  neuters  as 
opus,  operis,  in  the  verb  esse,  eram,  ero,  <fec.  But  this  s  of  the 
genitive  is  itself  lost  in  musai,  musae,  in  semi,  in  Vlixi,  Achilli, 
Cleomeni  (for  Vlixis,  Achillis,  Cleomenis),  and  in  diei.  Hence 
there  is  nothing  very  surprising  in  the  disappearance  of  its  repre- 
sentative r  in  the  plural.  Besides,  caelicolum,  amphorum,  num- 
mum,  duum,  and  even  dieum,  specieum,  are  more  or  less  familiar 
contractions  for  caelicolarum,  amphorarum,  nummorum,  duorum, 
dierum,  specierum.  Lastly,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  nucerum, 
bouerum  were  the  old  forms  of  nucum,  bourn.  And  these  two 
words  by  the  way  justify  the  theory  at  which  we  have  hinted 
already,  that  the  plural  cases  are  in  reality  formed  from  the  sin- 
gular genitive  by  the  addition  of  a  suffix  for  plurality.  Thus  nucer 
and  bouer,  of  the  two  archaic  forms  nucerum,  bouerum,  represent 
the  singular  genitives  nucis,  bouis,  precisely  as  from  the  base  cinis 
or  puluis  we  have  a  genitive  ciner-is,  puluer-is.  Thus  musarum 
is  for  musas-um,  of  which  musas  is  an  old  genitive  singular.  In 
the  Greek  language  this  s  falling  between  vowels  is  of  course  lost 
as  usual,  and  we  have  povo-aav  instead  of  p,ovcra(r-a>v.  Similarly 
theory  would  give  us  for  the  noun  yei/ecr-  (nom.  yevos)  a  singular 
genitive  yevea-os,  but  in  place  of  this  the  Greek  ear  preferred 
yevf-os  ;  while  the  Latin  has  gener-u. 

What  we  have  said  of  the  plural  genitive  being  formed  directly 
from  the  singular  genitive  has  its  parallel  in  the  accusative.  Thus 
musam,  seruom  should  be  considered  as  the  Latin  mode  of  writing 
what  would  have  appeared  in  Greek  as  musan  and  seruon.  The 

*  Indeed  there  is  strong  reason  for  believing  that  the  final  i  is  in 
origin  a  diminutival  suffix,  the  special  power  of  which  was  soon  lost.  In 
other  words  the  two  forms  nau-  and  naui-  stood  to  each  other  in  the  same 
relation  as  our  lad  and  laddie. 


432  APPENDIX  I. 

addition  of  an  5  as  the  symbol  of  plurality  would  have  given  us 
musans,  seruons ;  but  as  n  was  never  pronounced  in  Latin,  any 
more  than  in  Greek,  before  the  consonant  s,  it  was  at  last  omitted 
in  writing,  and  so  there  arose  musds,  seruos,  but  of  course  with  a 
long  vowel.  In  the  Cretan  dialect  of  the  Greek  language  such  a 
form  as  8ov\ovs  for  the  accusative  plural  was  in  ordinary  use  ;  but 
the  Attic  dialect  substituted  8ov\ovs,  precisely  as  the  nominative 
of  O&OVTS  became  not  oSovs  but  o8ovs. 

The  Latin  dative  reg-i  would  suggest  other  datives,  auii,  did, 
musai,  seruoi,  gradui.  Of  these  diei  and  gradui  occur  in  the 
ordinary  language ;  musai  is  an  archaic  variety  of  musae ;  and 
even  in  the  second  declension  quoi,  as  we  have  already  observed,  ex- 
hibits the  desired  form.  But  gradui  and  diei  are  often  contracted 
into  the  disyllables  gradu  and  die.  Moreover  the  Greek  grammar 
habitually  so  far  suppresses  the  final  i  as  to  make  it  subscript, 
which  seems  very  like  retaining  it  as  an  etymological  symbol, 
while  in  pronunciation  it  was  altogether  destroyed.  Hence  seruo 
agrees  substantially  with  6\>uAa>.  Besides,  the  Latin  datives  nulli, 
utri,  &c.  are  evidently  representatives  of  nulloi,  utroi,  as  nullius, 
nuUi  nom.  pi. ,  nullis,  stand  for  nulloius,  nulloi,  nullois. 

We  have  said  that  i  is  the  ordinary  suffix  of  a  singular  dative. 
An  older  form  must  have  been  bi.  Such  is  seen  in  the  so-called 
adverbs,  but  originally  datives,  i-li  (nom.  i-s),  u-bi  (or  cubi,  as 
seen  in  si-cubi,  num-cubi,  ne-cubi,  from  the  relative),  a^'-fo'  (archaic 
nom.  ali-s),  utro-bi  (nom.  uter),  ubi-que  (nom.  quisque),  no-bi-s,* 
uo-bi-s  ;  secondly,  in  the  plural  datives  reg-i-bus,  aui-bus,  die-bus, 
equa-bus,  duo-bus,  acu-bus  ;  thirdly,  in  the  Homeric  datives  i-<£i, 
/3i77-<£i,  oupui>G-0i,  o-T7jdf(T-<j)i ;  fourthly,  in  the  Sanskrit  datives  of 
the  dual  and  plural  nau-bhy-am  and  nau-bhy-as  from  nau-  *  a  ship,' 
as  well  as  the  plural  instrumental  case  tiau-bhi-s.  But  if  it  be 
admitted  that  a  b  once  belonged  to  the  datival  suffix,  it  remains 
to  be  explained  how  it  came  to  disappear,  as  in  musis  and  semis. 
This  objection  will  be  answered  if  it  be  shown  that  those  very 
forms  which  long  retained  a  b  have  since  lost  it.  Now  the  four 
little  words,  tibi,  sibi,  ubi,  ibi  have  all  lost  the  labial  in  the  French 
derivatives  toi,  soi,  ou,  y.  Again,  the  three  prepositions  ab,  sub, 
ob  are  subjected  to  the  same  curtailment,  in  a,  in  asporto  (for  abs- 
porto),  in  suspendo,  suscito,  sustoUo  (for  subs-),  and  in  ostendo  (for 

*  Sibi,  tibi  are  omitted  in  this  enumeration,  because  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  bases  of  these  words  have  a  claim  to  the  b. 


ON  THE  CRUDE  FORM.  433 

ols-tendo).  The  two  verbs  iubeo  and  habeo  also  lose  their  I  at  times, 
the  first  in  jussi,  jmsum,  the  second  in  the  derived  substantive 
a-tnentum  for  habi-mentum  '  something  to  hold  by,'  and  also  in  the 
French  present  fai,  tu  as,  il  a,  Us  ont.  The  persons  awns,  avez 
do  indeed  retain  the  b  virtually  in  the  form  of  a  v  ;  but  when  the 
French  add  this  present  tense  to  the  infinitive  in  order  to  make  a 

future,  '  I  have  to ,'  the  syllable  av  falls  off  from  both  av-ons 

and  av-ez,  as  seen  in  finir-ai,  finir-as,  finir-a,  finir-ons,  finir-ez, 
fnir-ont.  Similarly  the  conditional  of  the  French  verb  is  always 
made  up  by  attaching  the  past  tense  avais,  &c.  to  the  infinitive, 
but  in  this  process  the  syllable  av  again  disappears,  and  we  have 
finir-ais,  &c.  The  German  verb  hob-en  and  our  own  have  suffer 
in  the  same  way.  Thus  the  German  haben  in  the  present  exhibits 
hat  not  halt,  and  in  the  past  tense  hatte  not  hab-te  ;  while  we  say 
has,  had,  rather  than  haves,  haved. 

Hence  with  a  knowledge  that  the  b  in  Latin  words  had  no  safe 
footing,  we  may  boldly  infer  that  from  an  old  dative  musa-bi  were 
formed  first  musai  and  ultimately  musae  ;  and  from  a  plural  musa- 
bi-s,  on  the  one  hand  musa-lus,  on  the  other,  with  the  loss  of  the 
b,  miisais,  musis.  For  the  vowel-changes  compare  the  three  words 
quairo  (the  old  form),  quaero,  in-guiro. 

The  nom. native  has  been  reserved  to  the  last,  because  it  con- 
tains what  has  been  deemed  by  some  a  grave  difficulty.  Although 
s  is  visibly  the  suffix  of  the  nominatives  reg-s  (rex),  aui-s,  die-s, 
Aenea-s,  seruo-s  (seruus),  gradu-s,  yet  it  has  been  objected  that 
neuters,  with  few  exceptions,  are  without  the  final  sibilant,  that 
the  same  is  true  of  nearly  every  nominative  of  the  first  declension, 
of  such  words  as  puer  in  the  second,  and  of  pater,  consul,  ordo, 
ratio  in  the  third  declension. 

With  regard  to  neuters,  the  identity  of  the  nominative  and 
accusative  in  every  instance  is  a  difficulty  which  must  attach  to 
every  grammatical  system,  as  much  as  to  that  founded  upon  crude 
forms.  Perhaps  the  cause  may  lie  in  this,  that  in  the  simplest 
form  of  sentence,  viz.  one  consisting  of  a  nominative,  a  verb,  and 
an  accusative,  as  dominus  seruum  caedit,  the  action  expressed  in 
the  verb  proceeds  from  the  nominative  to  the  accusative,  from 
the  master  to  the  slave  j  and  so  the  idea  of  the  nominative  in 
origin  was  identical  with  that  of  an  agent.  But  an  agent  having 
life  must  of  necessity  be  either  masculine  or  feminine.  Thus  a 
neuter  noun  would  have  no  claim  to  serve  as  a  nominative,  and 

p  F 


434  APPENDIX  I. 

consequently  could  not  in  strictness  be  entitled  to  the  nominatival 
suffix  s.  Again,  if  neuters  had  at  first  no  nominative,  there  was 
little  use  in  a  distinctive  mark  for  an  accusative,  these  two  cases 
being  under  ordinary  circumstances  specially  opposed  to  each 
other.  But  in  the  second  declension  a  special  difficulty  presents 
itself.  In  other  neuter  nouns  the  nominative,  vocative  and  ac- 
cusative obtain  their  identity  by  the  omission  of  all  case-endings, 
and  at  times  by  sacrificing  a  portion  even  of  the  crude  form, 
whereas  with  nouns  in  o  an  m  seems  to  be  attached,  in  violation 
of  the  general  rule  as  regards  the  accusative,  and  with  still  less 
justification  in  the  nominative.  This  difficulty  is  one  which  will 
be  considered  in  the  next  appendix  (§  xxn.),  and  we  hope  solved. 
It  is  mixed  up  with  a  somewhat  recondite  question. 

The  s*  in  the  first  declension,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  only 
found  in  masculine  nouns,  and  even  they  are  of  foreign  origin,  as 
the  word  above  quoted,  Aeneas.  Still  there  is  so  close  a  connec- 
tion between  the  first  declension  of  the  Latin  and  the  first  declen- 
sion of  the  Greek  language,  that  any  thing  proved  for  the  one  has 
a  bearing  upon  the  other.  Thus  the  s  of  ra/uas  and  TroXtrrjs  leads 
to  rather  a  strong  belief  that  the  Latin  also  must  once  have  pos- 
sessed such  a  letter,  although  no  longer  found  in  what  is  left  of 
the  language.  But  it  has  been  said  that  the  office  of  this  s  in  the 
Greek  words  is  not  that  of  denoting  a  nominative,  but  to  mark  a 
gender.  The  assertion  is  founded  solely  on  the  accident  that  the 
masculine  nouns  take  an  $•  in  the  nominative,  which  the  feminine 
nouns  have  discarded.  But  even  the  masculine  nouns  appear  with- 
out this  letter  in  many  phrases  of  Homer,  as  vf(f)€\r]yep€Ta  Zeuy, 
p.r)TieTa  Zevs,  iWoTa  Neorcop,  <fec. ;  and  Cicero  too  preferred  the 
forms  without  a  sibilant  in  the  Greek  words  Archyta,  Aristagora, 
^  well  as  in  the  names  of  his  countrymen  Sulla  and  Cinna.  More- 
over, an  argument  such  as  that  of  the  Greek  grammarians  might 
just  as  well  be  used  in  proof  that  s  in  Latin  is  a  mark  of  the  femi- 
nine gender,  seeing  that  of  acer,  acris,  acre,  the  middle  form  acris 
is  generally  feminine.  We  have  a  parallel  error  in  the  Icelandic 
grammarians.  This  language,  it  is  well  known,  has  a  general 
tendency  to  employ  the  letter  r  where  the  classical  and  other  kin- 
dred languages  have  an  s.  Accordingly  an  r  is  found  as  an  ending 
of  many  nominatives ;  but  it  happens  to  be  limited  for  the  most 

*  The  greater  part  of  this  argument  was  first  printed  in  an  article  in 
iLe  Classical  Museum,  No.  xix.  p.  59. 


ON  THE  CRUDE  FORM.  435 

part  to  those  of  a  masculine  gender.  Hence,  in  §  141  of  his  Gram- 
mar, Rask  calls  it  the  sign  of  the  masculine.  Unfortunately  for 
his  doctrine,  ku-  '  a  cow',  su-  '  a  sow',  also  take  an  r  to  form  the 
nominatives  kyr,  syr  (§  170)  ;  and  in  §  159  he  has  the  candour  to 
say,  *'  In  the  oldest  times  there  were  also  many  feminines  in  r, 
e.  g.  cedr  (  a  vein',  afterwards  ced,  elfr  '  river',  afterwards  elf,"  &c. 
But  a  comparison  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  grammars  will  present 
us  with  evidence  to  prove  that  even  feminine  nouns  of  the  a  de- 
clension were  not  averse  to  the  nominatival  s.  In  the  Greek  lan- 
guage it  is  the  ordinary  doctrine  that  <ro<f)ta  and  o-ocpo;  are  but 
dialectic  varieties  of  the  same  word.  If  we  may  extend  the  same 
doctrine  to  the  Latin  language,  we  are  entitled  to  say  that  there 
is  no  substantial  distinction  between  luxuria  and  luxuries,  tristitia 
and  tristities,  materia  and  materies,  words  which  (as  Madvig  ob- 
serves) rarely  form  their  genitives,  datives  and  ablatives  after  the 
model  of  the  fifth  declension. 

We  next  consider  those  nouns  whose  crude  form  ends  in  a 
liquid,  as  pater-,  consul-,  ration-  or  ord6n-.  Our  theory  as  regards 
these  words  is,  that  the  s,  originally  added,  was  first  assimilated 
to  the  preceding  liquid ;  that  by  a  second  change  one  of  these 
two  liquids  was  dropped,  but  so  dropped  that  the  preceding  vowel 
by  its  increased  length  was  made  to  compensate  for  the  loss  ;  and 
thirdly,  that  this  long  syllable  was  finally  deprived  of  its  length. 
A  triple  assumption  such  as  this,  of  course  requires  strong  proof 
in  the  way  of  analogy  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  nine  arguments 
which  are  presented  in  the  following  paragraphs  will  be  thought 
to  contain  such  proof. 

1.  The  four  Greek  verbs  0-77  apoo,  oreAAw,  (patz/a>,  and  i/e/zo>,  to 
take  these  as  examples  of  classes,  have  for  their  respective  bases 
the  syllables  o-Trep,  oreA,  <pai/,  and  vep,.     From  these,  if  the  regular 
formation  had  been  followed,  we  ought  to  have  had,  as  first 
aorists,  eo-Trepcra,  eoreAo-a,  e^arcra,*  fvep-aa.      Assimilation  would 
have  changed  them  to  eo-Treppa,  eo-reAAa,  ecpawa,  and  o/ep-/u.a ;  and 
again,  the  suppression  of  one  of  the  liquids,  together  with  the  tit- 
ting  compensation  by  increase  in  the  length  of  the  vowel,  would 
give  us,  what  is  actually  found,  forreipa,  eoreiAa,  etprjva,  fveifui. 

2.  As  the  feminine  of  adjectives  ending  in  a  consonant  was 
often  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  syllable  o-a,  e.g.  rwrov-cra, 

*  Aorists  eitep<ra,  ecAaa,  eKevo-a  occur  in  Homer,    See  Addenda. 


436  APPEXDIX  I. 

Xapieo--<ra,  3?oivur-<Ta,  for  Tvirrovr-a-a,  yapisirr-va,  QoiviK-cra,  SO  from 
the  crude  forms  /iaicap-,  raXai/-,  repev-  should  have  been  formed 
/MdKap-ora,  raXai/-cra,  repey-cra,  which,  if  our  view  be  correct,  passed 
through  an  intermediate  p.a.Kap-pa,  roXai/-i/a,  repey-i/a,  to  ^a/cuipa, 
TaXaiva  repetva. 

3.  The  Latin  superlative  ended  commonly  in  sumo-  or  simo- ; 
but  in  acer-rimo-,  deter-rimo-,  simil-limo-,  the  5  has  assimilated 
itself  to  the  preceding  liquid,  r  or  I. 

4.  The  Latin  infinitival  suffix  ere  appears  to  have  grown  out 
of  an  older  form  ese,  as  seen  in  es-se  '  to  be'  (for  es-ese).    This  view 
is  confirmed  both  by  the  universal  habit  of  the  old  language  to 
present  an  s  between  vowels  where  the  later  language  preferred  r, 
as  in  Fusiiis,  asa,  afterwards  Furius,  ara  ;  and  by  the  occurrence 
of  a  passive  infinitive  dad  (see  Forcellini),  which  of  course  implies 
an  active  infinitive  dase  for  dare.    Hence  uel-le,  nol-le,  mal-le  have 
in  le  a  substitute  for  an  older  re,  as  that  was  a  substitute  for  se. 

5.  In  the  Icelandic  tongue,  as  we  have  already  said,  an  r  in- 
stead of  an  s  is  the  ordinary  nominatival  suffix  of  masculine  nouns. 
But  when  such  a  noun  ends  in  n  or  I,  the  r  is  at  times  assimilated, 
so  that  from  a  base  ketil-  '  kettle',  graen-  '  green',  span-  *  spoon', 
we  have  the  nominatives  ketill,  graenn,  spann.    Again,  some  words 
whose  base  has  a  final  r,  as  dor-  '  spear',  are  not  afraid  to  take  a 
second  r  in  the  nom.,  as  dorr.     And  if  the  base  ended  in  s,  the 
old  language  at  times  even  added  a  second  s  for  the  nominative. 
Thus  from  is-  '  ice',  laus-  '  loose',  were  formed  old  nominatives  fas, 
lauss.     We  have  here,  by  the  way,  a  case  precisely  parallel  to  the 
theoretic  nominative  puluiss  mentioned  above.     But  in  the  later 
Icelandic  language  there  was  a  tendency,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
to  discard  one  of  two  similar  consonants  at  the  end  of  a  nomina- 
tive ;  and  thus  what  was  a  virtual  symbol  of  the  nominative  wholly 
disappeared.     In  §  139  of  Rask's  Grammar  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
nouns  which  were  thus  truncated  had  a  base  ending  in  the  letters 
r,  I,  n  and  s,  i.  e.  the  very  endings  which  are  subject  to  the  same 
mutilation  in  Latin.     We  have  here  then  a  simile  which  really 
runs  on  all  lours,  and  which  alone  ought  to  settle  the  problem. 
But  to  proceed. 

6.  The  Icelandic  verb  in  the  third  person  regularly  takes  an  r 
corresponding  to  the  s  of  English,  as  from  the  base  tei- '  tell',  hann 
tew  '  he  tells' ;  yet  from  skin- '  shine',  the  old  writers  preferred  skinn 
for  skinr  *  shines',  and  this  skinn  afterwards  became  skin  (§  93). 


ON  THE  CRUDE  FORM.  437 

7.  The  genitive  plural  in  Icelandic  has  regularly  a  suffix  ra 
(corresponding  to  the  Latin  rum,  and  so  a  corruption  of  sum),  yet 
from  hin-  '  the',  and  gamal-  (  old',  the  gen.  pi.  is  hin-na,  gamal-la 
(§  93). 

8.  The  ordinary  termination  of  the  neuter  comparative  in  Ice- 
landic is  am  or  ra*  as  kdldara  ( the  colder' ;  but  from  vaen-  "  fair', 
sael-  'happy,'  are  formed  the  comparatives  vaen-na,  sael-la  (§  199). 

9.  The  Latin  language  is  specially  apt  to  discard  any  final  s 
which  follows  an  r.     Thus  for  uidebaris,  uide.reris,  we  find  in  pre- 
ference uidebare,  uiderere.     Again,  although  the  analogy  of  the 
Greek  Siy,  rpis,  the  Latin  bis  (duis),  and  our  own  twice,  thrice, 
would  have  led  us  to  expect  tris  and  quatris  in  Latin,  yet  we  find 
nothing  but  ter  and  quater.    It  is  therefore  no  matter  for  surprise, 
if  instead  of  puerus,  paters,  lintris,  which  strict  theory  demands, 
we  find  puer,  pater,  linter.    But  the  Greek  nominatives  Trarrjp,  xfLP) 
reprjv,  from  the  several  crude  forms  Trarep-,  x€P~?  Tepev-,  exhibit 
the  long  vowel  of  compensation  ;  and  so  also  does  the  Latin  more 
frequently  than  is  commonly  believed,  as  pater  in  Virgil  : 

Ostentans  artemque  pater  arcumque  sonantem.     Aen.  v.  521. 
Concilium  ipse  pater  et  magna  incepta  Latinus,  &c.     xi.  469. 
Congredior.     Fer  sacra  pater  et  concipe  foedus.     xn.  ]  3. 

What  we  have  said  would  account  for  such  nominatives  as 
ration,  homon  ;  but  even  these  are  not  found.  The  difficulty  is 
however  cleared  up  when  we  call  to  mind  that  while  the  Greeks 
wrote  SrpajSuw,  the  Romans  preferred  Strabo.  Nay  the  Greeks 
themselves  changed  eyo>i/  to  eyo>.  See  Addenda. 

So  much  for  the  singular.  In  the  plural  nominative  a  com- 
parison of  reg-es  with  the  forms  exhibited  in  the  other  declensions 
leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  auls  (archaic),  gradus,  and  dies 
have  all  by  contraction  lost  an  e  before  the  final  s,  whereas  musae, 
standing  for  musa-es,  has  lost  the  sibilant  itself.  Lastly,  serui 
(SouXoi)  must  be  considered  as  contracted  from  seruoe,  and  this 
reduced  from  an  obsolete  seruo-es. 

Thus  all  the  Latin  declensions  appear  to  have  been  moulded 
upon  one  common  type. 

We  will  close  these  remarks  with  a  word  or  two  of  comment  on 
an  objection,  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made.  Even  if 

*  This  suffix  in  the  Moeso-Gothic  has  a  sibilant  in  lieu  of  the  liquid  r. 


438  APPENDIX  I. 

we  admit  your  system  to  be  founded  on  the  firmest  basis  of  philo- 
logical truth,  it  requires  much  complicated  argument  to  prove  its 
truth,  and  for  that  reason  would  be  found  utterly  impracticable 
in  the  instruction  of  the  young.  The  answer  is  simple.  The 
proofs  are  for  the  learned  alone.  The  business  of  the  pupil  is  to 
learn  the  contrary  process,  by  which  from  the  bare  word  or  crude 
form  the  so-called  cases  are  formed  by  the  addition  of  syllables  or 
letters.  This  process  is  far  easier  than  that  put  forward  in  the  old 
grammars.  Thus  the  Latin  words  for  *  king', '  bird', l  thing', '  wing', 
( slave',  '  step',  are  presented  for  the  first  time  to  the  beginner  in 
the  forms  reg-,  aui-,  re-,  ala-,  seruo-,  gradu-.  From  these  he  is 
taught  to  build  up  the  different  cases.  In  this  process  he  has  at 
once  an  advantage  over  those  who  follow  the  old  course.  He  can 
never  be  at  a  loss  for  the  declension,  as  the  last  letter  is  an  in- 
variable guide.  Nay,  he  may  throw  aside  all  consideration  of  the 
order  in  which  the  declensions  follow,  as  the  terms  '  consonant 
declension',  '  i  declension',  &c.  are  at  once  simple  and  sufficient. 
Thus  he  is  saved  from  many  traps  which  are  set  for  one  who  uses 
the  Eton  Grammar.  For  example,  the  words  puer,  linter,  pater 
are  only  deceitful  guides  to  the  declension  until  we  know  some 
other  case  or  cases  ;  whereas  the  crude  forms  puero-,  linteri-,  pater- 
at  once  give  a  direction  which  cannot  be  mistaken.  A  treacherous 
similarity  exists  between  equus,  uirtus  and  senatus,  between  seruos 
and  arbos,  between  dies  and  paries;  but  there  is  no  chance  of  the 
pupil  referring  to  the  same  declensions  equo-^  uirtut-  and  senatu-, 
or  seruo-  and  arbds-,  or  die-  and  pariet-. 

We  now  pass  from  the  familiar  matters  of  declension  and  con- 
jugation to  a  part  of  grammar  usually  much  neglected — the  gene- 
ral doctrine  of  derivation  ;  and  we  shall  still  find  that  the  crude 
forms  of  nouns  and  verbs  give  us  a  safer  foundation  on  which  to 
build.  Thus  from  the  substantives  ciui-,  fide-,  uita-,  tribu-,  we 
more  readily  proceed  to  the  adjectives  ciui-li-,  fide-li-,  uita-li-9 
tribu~li-,  than  we  can  from  the  nominatives  duis,  fides,  vita, 
tribus.  Still  more  decided  is  the  advantage  in  deducing  directly 
from  the  crude  forms  mari-,  Roma-,  bello-,  tribu-,  rather  than 
from  the  nominatives  mare,  Roma,  bellum,  tribus,  the  derivatives 
marino-,  Romano-,  Bellona-,  tribuno-.  Again,  the  diminutives 
nauicula,  uirguncula,*  diecula,  sucula,  ratiuncula,  are  with  little 

*  Zumpt,  through  looking  to  the  nominatives,  speaks  of  uirguncula 
ae  formed  bj  the  addition  of  a  suffix  uncula. 


THE  SUFFIX  AGH  ?  439 

difficulty  referred  to  the  crude  forms  naui-,  uirgSn-,  die-,  su-, 
ration-. 

The  light  which  the  study  of  Latin  throws  upon  the  etymology 
of  our  own  tongue  is  a  secondary  but  still  an  important  conside- 
ration. Here  again  the  crude  forms  have  a  marked  advantage 
over  the  nominatives.  Thus  our  English  adjectives  re-al,  reg-al, 
gradu-al,  manu-al,  vertic-al,  nation-al>  are  less  easily  referred  to 
the  nominatives  res,  rex,  gradus,  manus,  uertex,  natio,  than  to  the 
crude  forms,  which  present  themselves  at  once  to  the  eye.  The 
same,  or  nearly  the  same,  is  true  of  the  words  lapid-ary,  avi-ary, 
sangnin-ary,  salut-ary,  station-ary. 

In  what  has  been  hitherto  said,  the  chief  stress  has  been  laid 
upon  the  forms  of  words.  But  there  is  another  consideration  of 
even  greater  moment  for  the  student.  To  give  the  name  of  no- 
minative to  what  is  really  something  more  than  the  mere  expres- 
sion of  a  name  has  naturally  led  to  the  utter  neglect  of  that  some- 
thing more  ;  and  the  logical  view  of  language  has  only  confirmed 
the  error.  On  the  other  hand,  when  we  know  that  the  nominative 
is  really  a  case,  in  other  words  that  it  expresses  a  relation  between 
the  word  and  the  other  members  of  a  sentence,  we  have  much 
light  thrown  on  the  nature  of  the  Latin  language.  We  then  see 
that  the  special  office  of  the  nominative  is  to  define  the  source  of 
the  action  implied  in  the  verb.  Nor  let  it  be  objected  that  such  a 
view  is  traversed  by  the  employment  of  nominatives  with  a  passive 
verb,  for  the  passive  is  at  bottom  a  reflective  verb.*  Nay  the  con- 
struction of  a  passive  sentence  only  confirms  what  we  have  said  ; 
for  the  moment  the  true  agent  is  formally  expressed  in  a  passive, 
the  preposition  ab  is  called  in  aid ;  so  that  in  the  two  sentences 
dominus  seruum  caedit  and  seruus  caeditur  a  domino,  dominus  and 
a  domino  are  equivalent  phrases. 


APPENDIX  II. 

ON  TRACES  OF  AN  OLD  diminutival  SUFFIX,  MORE  OR  LESS  LIKE  THE 
KELTIC  agJl,  IN  THE  LATIN  VOCABULARY. 

A  DISCUSSION,  ill-fitted  for  admission  into  the  body  of  a  school- 
grammar,  may  yet  deserve  a  place  here  ;  and  I  am  desirous  that 
my  more  precise  views  should  be  accessible  to  the  reader  of  these 
*  See  Grammar,  §§  375-379,  and  the  two  notes  *  pp.  59  and  60. 


440  APPENDIX  II. 

pages.  Still,  for  details,  that  is  for  the  full  arguments,  which 
alone  can  carry  conviction,  I  must  refer  to  the  paper,  as  printed 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Philological  Society  of  London  for  1856. 
Here  I  can  give  only  an  abstract. 

i.  Introduction. — The  Gaelic  suffix  ach  or  ag  'little'  has  its 
representative  in  the  final  syllables  of  the  various  Scotch  diminu- 
tives, l&ss-ock  and  lass-ow,  lass-re^  and  lass-iV,  'a  little  lass.'  But 
the  Latin  and  Greek  also  have  intimate  relations  with  the  Keltic. 
Again,  as  our  own  tongue  throws  off  final  gutturals  in  way,  day, 
honey,  Norway,  &c.  (German  weg,  tag,  honig,  Norweg,  &c.),  so  the 
Latin  also  loves  to  drop  aya  as  in  maior  (=  mayor),  mavolo,  rnalo. 
Yet  as  with  us  derivatives  sometimes  restore  the  g,  for  example 
in  Norweg-ian,  so  is  it  in  Latin.  Another  mode  of  avoiding  a 
guttural  with  us  is  to  substitute  a  labial  sound  for-  it,  as  in  laugh, 
rough.  This  habit  also  prevails  in  Latin.  Lastly,  diminutives  in 
form  often  discard  their  diminutival  power,  as  French  sol-eil,  Ita- 
lian fratello,  sorella ;  and  these  are  apt  to  stand  alone  in  a  lan- 
guage, without  any  primitive  to  contrast  with  them. 

ii.  Agh,  as  seen  in  substantives  :  lim-ac-  '  slug.'  In  Greek 
occur  some  60  examples,  as  poS-ax-  'dwarf- rose, 'TraXX-a*- '  youth,' 
p.eip-aK-  (  young  person.'  The  Latin  substantives  of  the  first 
declension  have  lost  a  final  guttural,  as  shown  by  the  derived 
adjectives  rosac-eo-,  ferulac-eo-,  membranac-eo-  (24  of  them),  and 
vernac-ulo-.  To  the  double-diminutives,  Gaelic  cur-ach-an  '  a 
coracle,'  Scotch  lass-ick-in,  German  veil-(i)ch-en  'a  little  violet,' 
correspond  Latin  ferul-ag-on-,  &c.  (about  20) ;  and  hence  it  is 
inferred  that  ferul-ac-  or  ferul-ag-  were  older  forms  of  ferul-a-. 
Plants  in  the  form  ferul-ag-,  lapp-ag-,  would  correspond  to  our 
charl-ock,  shamr-ock,  sour-ock  (sorrel). 

in.  Agh  in  verbs.  A  diminutival  suffix  added  to  verbs  gene- 
rally denotes  a  succession  of  petty  acts,  as  twinkle,  sprinkle,  hobble. 
So  with  Latin  verbs  which  take  the  suffix  agh.  The  guttural 
still  traceable  in  a  few  of  these  verbs,  which  therefore  adhere  to 
the  third  conjugation,  as  plang-,  frang-,  trah-,  stra(g-}  whence 
stravi,  sb.  strage-,  adj.  stragulo-.  In  the  great  majority  the  loss 
of  it  has  transferred  the  verbs  to  the  first  conjugation,  in  which 
however  it  is  seen  that  the  final  a  is  something  foreign  to  the  root, 
as  cub-a-re.  lav-a-re,  beside  cumb-ere,  lav-ere.  The  guttural  again 
traceable  in  derivatives,  as  or-ac-ulo-,  lav-ac-ro-. 

iv.  Agh  in  verbs  supplanted  by  ab  (for  abh).  Latin  generally 
tins  t>  at  the  end  of  syllables  where  Greek  has  (/>.  Hence  a  fimr 


THE  SUFFIX  AGH  ?  441 

b  is  seen  attaching  itself  to  verbs  of  the  a  conjugation  in  the  de- 
rived adjectives  medicab-ili-,  laudab-ili-  (over  400),  compared  with 
ut-ili- ;  in  the  sbs.  vocab-ulo-,  venab-ulo-,  compared  with  jac-ulo- ; 
in  dolab-ra- ;  and  in  the  frequentatives  (note  this  idea)  plorab- 
undo-y  contionab-undo-  (over  60).  But  if  ab  be  thus  adapted  to 
denote  continuity  of  time,  it  may  well  be  the  element  seen  in 
am-ab-am,  and  even  in  am-ab-o,  so  that  am-ab-o  will  strictly  be 
an  imperfect  present.  Similarly  ero,  fcrofj,at,  el/u,  are  in  form  pre- 
sents, in  power  futures. 

v.  Ab  for  ag  in  substantives  after  a  guttural,  as  cann-ab-i- 
1  hemp,'  and  otherwise,  as,  tr-ab-  (=dor-ab-  ?)  f  tree.' 

vi.  As  agh  denotes  what  is  habitual  in  all  Manx  verbs  and 
many  Manx  adjectives,  so  it  enters  into  such  Greek  words  as 
KoA-a/t-  '  flatterer,'  fav-d*.-  (  cheat/  XaX-ay-  '  prattler'  (above 
20),  and  into  the  Latin  bib-ac-,  ed-ac-,  loqu-ac-  (about  50). 

vn.  AK,  so  common  in  Greek  sbs.,  gives  place  to  ec  or  ic  in 
Latin.  Thus  to  TraAXaK-,  vpaK-,  nvvdaK-  correspond  pellec-,  sorec-, 
podec-.  The  lists  of  words  in  ec  and  ic  (together  over  60)  very  ge- 
nerally exhibit  the  idea  of  smallness,  as  culec-  'gnat,'  pulec-  'flea,' 
cimec-  'bug.'  So  too,  as  plants  and  small  birds  with  us  often 
end  in  our  diminutival  suffixes  ock  and  ow,  the  Latin  also  has  for 
plants  ulec-t  rumec-,  carec-,  vitec-,  frutic-,  scandic-,  salic-yflic-^ 
tariiaric- ;  and  for  birds  perdic-,fulic-,  comic- ,  coturnic-,  soric-. 

vin.  Agh  in  sbs.  becomes  ug  or  uc,  so  as  to  lie  nearer  our  own 
ock.  Latin  examples  cruc-,  frug-es.  The  '-rord  crux  (=<m>Xo^) 
examined. 

ix.  Agh  reduced  to  a  mere  guttural,  as  in  our  own  park  for 
parr-ock.  Ar-c-,  cal-c-,  fal-c-}  lan-c-,  mer-c-y  analysed. 

x.  Our  ec  often,  yet  not  always,  reduced  to  e  in  the  body 
of  such  words  as  ros-e-tum  for  ros-ec-tum,  i.  e.  ros-agh-tum  (see 
rosac-eo-  in  §  i).  Sometimes  the  two  forms,  as  virectum  and  vire- 
tum,  dumectum  and  dumetum,  exist  beside  each  other. 

xi.  As  the  Scotch  reduce  lassoed  to  lassow,  so  the  second  Latin 
declension  owes  its  existence  chiefly  to  a  similar  loss ;  but  the  adj. 
aprug-no-  still  bears  traces  of  an  older  aperogh- '  a  wild  boar ;'  and 
s:milar  evidence  is  found  in  hordeac-eo-,  sebac-eo-,  foliac-eo-,  bulbac- 
eo-  (19  such),  as  well  as  in  rapic-ic~,  tribunic  io-,  &c. 

xn.  As  the  Scotch  reduce  lassie^  to  lassie,  so  ensic-ulus,  canic- 
ula,  retic-ulum  tell  us  that  ensi-9  cani-9  reti-  had  once  a  final  gut- 
tural. Again  in  the  fifth  declension  plebec-ula>  diec-ula  bear  wit- 
ness that  plebe-j  die-  had  once  a  final  c ;  which  is  confirmed  as 


442  APPENDIX  II. 

to  the  latter  by  a  comparison  of  our  day  and  the  German  tag.  In 
the  fourth  declension  the  argument  would  have  been  smoother,  if 
we  had  found  anuc-ula  and  genuc-ulum,  rather  than  anic-ula  and 
genic-ulum.  But  we  know  historically  that  genibus  grew  out  of 
genubus.  Moreover  as  yow  (genu)  :  knee  : :  dopv  :  tree  :  :  genuc- 
ulum  :  Jcnuck-le.  This  seems  to  establish  the  legitimacy  of  genuc- 
ulum.  Plautus  too  by  his  twice-employed  adjective  mef&culonu, 
implies  a  sb.  metuc-ulus.  Observe  too  that  as  lassie  :  lass,  so 
cani-  :  can- ;  and  a  c.  P.  can-  (  dog'  is  consistent  with  can-um 
gen.  pi.,  and  with  KVV  oy,  <fec.  So  with  ap-um,  juven-um. 

xin.  Agh  in  sbs.  sometimes  doubly  represented,  as  in  -verben- 
ac-a-y  form-ic-a-y  samb-uc-o-,  fur-c-a-.  So  ocettulo-  has  the  like 
suffix  el  thrice  over. 

xiv.  The  softened  ow,  for  ock,  seen  in  English  adjectives,  as 
shall-ow,  yell-ow,  virtually  occurs  in  the  Greek  /Spa^-v-,  yXuK-v-, 
eXa^-u-,  <fec.,  and  so  is  represented  in  the  Latin  equivalents  brev-i-, 
dulc-i-y  lev-i-y — an  argument  confirmed  by  the  derivatives  brevic- 
ulo-y  dzdcic-ulo-,  levic-ulo-.  True-,  i.  e.  tor-uc-9  retains  the  suffix 
in  greater  purity. 

xv.  Agh  in  adjectives  also  sometimes  doubly  represented,  as 
in  fl-acc-o-  (=/LiaX-aK-o-),  plan-c-o-,  ail-b-o-,  fl-av-o-9  gil-v-o-,  cur- 
v-o-,  tor-v-o-  (comp.  tr-uc-\  ard-u-o-,  &c. 

xvi.  Some  adjectives  in  o  are  deduced  from  genitival  forms,  as 
patrius,  igneus  ;  and  so  no  way  connected  with  our  suffix. 

xvii.  Agh  in  verbs  reduced  first  to  ug  or  uc,  and  then  to  u, 
as  in/w-,/r^-(r.),  stru-,  viv-,  volv-,  solv-  (with  lu-),  ferv-,  loqu-, 
nu-y  ru-y  spu-j  scru-  (scru-ta-ri,  a-Kok-ev-eiv),  &c. 

xvni.  Agh  in  verbs  reduced  to  ec  or  ic,  as  spec-,  plec-  of  plect-, 
nee-  of  nect-,  flee-  oiflect-^  and  (g)nic-  of  (ff)niti,  (g)ni,rus. 

xix.  Agh  in  verbs  reduced  to  a  simple  guttural,  as  mer-g-, 
spar-g-,  ter-a-,  vera-  'incline,'  ver-g-  ( pour,'  ful-g-} par-c-,  pos-c-t 
ves-c-  (r.),  ul-c-  (ulcisci),  torqu-e-. 

xx.  Agh  in  verbs  supplanted  by  a  labial,  first  by  p.  Examples 
such  as  carp-,  rup-,  scalp-,  serp-,  trep-,  are  examined. 

xxi.  Secondly  by  b,  as  scrib-  (=ypa(j)-),  t(e)rib-  (rptj3-}  implied 
in  trivi,  tribulum ;  c(e)r-ib-  implied  in  cr-ib-ro-  n.,  glub-.  An  ex- 
tinct b  claimed  for  some  other  secondary  verbs  on  the  evidence  of 
derivatives,  as  vol-ub-^  sol-ub-,  fl-eb-,  ten-eb-,  lug-ub-,  illic-ib-9 
sal-ib-,  in  place  of  volv-,  8olv-,fle-,  tene-,  luge-,  illici-,  soli-. 

xxii.  Thirdly  by  m.  The  direct  interchange  of  ^  and  p,  ap- 
pealed to  in  support  of  this  doctrine.  Examples  of  such  verbs  in 


THE  SUFFIX  AGH  ?  443 

m  considered,  as  frem-,  prem-,  trem-,  crem-a-re,  and  a  vb.  crem- 
implied  in  the  sb.  crem-or.  The  m  which  appears  in  the  alleged 
suffixes  men  (/xar)  and  mentum  claimed  for  the  preceding  verb,  so 
that  we  should  rather  divide  the  several  elements,  as  in  orn-am- 
entum,  mon-um-entum,  teg-um-en,  ov-o^-ar-  or  ov-vfi-ar-,  &c.  The 
same  argument  applied  to  the  infinitive  rvnr-f^-fv,  &c.  The  paper 
then  reverts  to  substantives  ;  and  after  noticing  the  fact  that  the 
suffix  om  of  bottom,  fathom,  is  represented  in  the  oldest  German 
by  am  and  urn,  as  pod-um  or  pot-am  and  vad-um,  treats  this  suffix 
as  a  labialised  agh.  Thus  the  old  German  var-am  corresponds  to 
our  brake  (=bar-agh)  '  fern ;'  and  potam  not  only  to  the  Latin 
fundo-,  but  also  to  its  equivalents  TrwS-a*-  and  pod-ec-.  Hence 
om  (urn),  the  strange  ending  of  the  nominatives  and  accusatives 
of  Latin  neuters,  ervom,  bettum,  is  justified  as  representing  ervogh, 
bellogh,  older  forms,  it  is  thought,  than  ervo-,  bello-.  Hence  too 
opium-,  Ilium-  (iXioi/-),  form  adjectives  apiac-o-,  Iliac-o-. 

xxin.  Agh  in  verbs  passes  through  ec  or  eb  to  e,  as  ver-e-  (r.) 
beside  verec-undo-.  The  cases  of  suade-,  dense-,  rube-,  tene-,  late-, 
scate-,  luge-,  exple-,  spre-vi,  cre-vi  considered. 

xxiv.  Agh  in  verbs  passes  through  ic  &c.  to  i.  If  the  adj. 
leni-  stand  for  lenigh,  so  also  must  the  verb  kni- ;  and  similarly 
with  like  cases.  Derivatives  too,  as  orig-on-9  claim  a  guttural  in 
behalf  of  ori-  (r.),  &c. 

xxv.  Agh  in  verbs  exchanges  its  guttural  for  a  sibilant,  as 
rapcKro--  (beside  rapax-r})  ;  so  in  Latin  incipiss-,  petess-.  The 
French  forms  finissant  &c.,  and  our  wo.  finish,  show  that  the 
Latin  sb.  and  vb.jfou-  stood  in  place  tffin-igh.  So  also  the  Ita- 
lian finisco  brings  in  with  its  own  claim  one  for  all  inceptive,  or, 
as  Homer  treats  them,  iterative  verbs ;  and  these  two  meanings 
alike  accord  with  the  power  assigned  to  our  suffix  in  §  m. 

xxvi.  EC  or  ic  &c.  exchange  the  guttural  for  a  t-,  chiefly  after 
a  preceding  guttural,  like  our  own  gobb-et  for  gabb-ock,  giml-et 
for  giml-ick,  spig-ot  for  spig-ock.  But  the  license  is  often  carried 
beyond  the  excuse,  as  in  emm-et  for  emm-ock.  Thus  abiet-  stands 
for  abiec-,  witness  the  adj.  abieg-no-.  Vell-ic-a-re,  fod-ic-a-re, 
mors-ic-a-re  have  our  suffix  in  the  legitimate  form,  ic  ;  but  fre- 
quentative verbs  generally  have  changed  ic  for  it,  as  ag-it-a-re, 
which  with  no  less  than  300  similarly  constituted  verbs,  may  plead 
in  excuse  a  preceding  guttural ;  but  not  so  esitare,  saltare,  pultare. 
Aedilit-io-  &c.  we  know  stands  for  aedilic-io-,  and  perhaps  brevit-er 
for  brevic-er  &c. 


444  APPE1IDIX  II. 

xxvn.  Our  ic  reduced  to  it  in  other  forms.  Such  comparatives 
as  trist-ic-ior,  laet-ic-ior  (afterwards  Iristit-ior,  laetit-ior),  esta- 
blished on  good  MS.  authority;  and  hence  tristit-ia-,  laetit-ia-, 
explained  as  similar  to  grat-ia-.  The  same  explanation  proposed, 
more  or  less  doubtingly,  for  words  of  the  form  nav-it-a-,  serv-it-io- 
n.,  mon-it-ion-,  serv-it-ut-,  fund-it-or-,  mult-it-udon-,  nov-ic-io- 
and  nov-it-io-,  subdit-ic-io-  and  subdit-it-io-. 

xxviii.  Agh  &c.  change  the  guttural  for  a  d,  as  in  na-id- 
beside  en-ait-a,  naiy-viov.  Hence  i*ubedon-,  albedon-,  in  place  of 
the  classical  robigon-,  albugon-,  &c.  Mult-ic-ud-on-  (if  the  older 
form)  would  have  a  valid  excuse  for  d  in  place  of  g. 

xxix.  The  many  changes  of  vowel,  which  have  been  here  as- 
signed to  our  suffix,  justified  by  the  law  which  assimilates  vowels 
in  adjoining  syllables.  Thus  a  Greek  writes  p-aXao-o--,  epecro--, 
p-eiXio-o--,  opva-a-  (o  being  habitually  followed  by  u  rather  than  by 
another  o).  So  a  Roman  preferred  :  1.  ar-a-,  ar-at-ro-  n.,  ar-ab-am, 
ar-ab-ili-,  al-ac-er  (al-  (  raise')  ;  2.  gem- eb- undo-,  frem-eb-undo-, 
trem-eb-undo-,  ver-e-  (r.),  ver-ec-undo-,  ten-e-,  ten-eb-am,  ten-eb-ra-, 
ter-eb-ra-,  cel-eb~eri-,  fer-et-ro-  n.,  ver-et-ro-  n.,  pet-ess-,  nec-esse, 
c(e)r-e-viy  sp(e)r-e-vi,  f(e)r-e-to- ;  3.  nit-ib-undo  ,  rid-ib-undo-,  rid- 
ic-ulo-j  in-cip-iss-,  mc-issim;  4.  lug-ub-ri  ,  hic-ub-ra-re ;  or  with 
not  identical,  yet  kindred  vowels,  as  5.  lat-e~,  lat-eb-ra-,  scat-eb-ra-, 
sal-eb-ra-,  lac-ess-,  fac-ess-,  cap-ess-,  par-e-,  man-e-,  alg-e-,  ard-e-  ; 
or  6.  quer-ib-undo-,  c(e)r-ib-ro-  n.,  t(e)r-i-vi,  t(e)r-i-to-,  t(e)r-ib- 
ulo-  n.,  vert-ig-on-  ;  or  again,  7.  vol-uc-ri-,  vol-up-i-,  vol-ub-ili-, 
vol-um-en-,  in-vol-uc-ro-  n.,  sol-u-to-,  sol-ub-ili-,  tol-u-tim,  doc-un 
ento-,  mon-um-ento-,  in-col-um-i-.  Some  exceptions  from  this  law 
considered.  A  convincing  example  of  vowel-assimilation  is  seen 
in  the  series  of  words:  a,  7raXAa£  m.  '  a  youth  ;'  e,  Lat.  pellex  f. 
'  a  concubine  ;'  i,  fillie  '  a  young  mare  ;'  o,  Scotch  pollock  t  a 
young  fish,'  TTO>\OS  l  a  foal ;'  u,  Lat.  pullus,  either  a  colt  or  chicken, 
— where  the  words  are  at  bottom  identical,  and  in  themselves  de- 
note merely  (  a  little  young  one.' 

xxx.  The  many  changes  of  consonant  which  have  been  as- 
signed to  our  suffix  explained,  partly  from  the  desire  to  avoid 
gutturals,  especially  repeated  gutturals,  partly  on  the  principle 
that  aspirates  readily  interchange.  By  way  of  example,  the  irre- 
gularities of  the  verb  <pfp-  (Sanskrit  bhri  or  d/iri)  considered  in 
Greek,  Latin  and  English. 


INDEX. 


The  numerals  refer  to  the  sections,  not  to  the  pages,  except  where  the  letter  p.  is  pre- 
fixed.   The  letter  n.  means  note.    Latin  words  and  parts  of  Latin  words  are  in 

italics. 


a  conjugation,  519,  522,  523. 
a  declension,  89-99,  p.  424. 

ab,  810,  816,  1303,  1304. 
abd-,  542. 

abdica-,  1023. 

abest  ut,  1208. 

able-,  1 304. 

abin,  1171. 

ablative,  50,  51,  989,  p.  429,  i ; 
absolute,  1013;  'by'  or  'with,' 
1000;  for  dat.  1019;  'from,' 
1021  ;  in  rf,  50,  1021 ;  'in  point 
of,'  997;  of  circumstances.  1009  ; 
of  degree,  1017  ;  of  gerund,  1294; 
of  means,  1000;  of  penalty, 
1005.1;  of  measure,  1014;  of 
price,  1005;  of  quality,  1010  ; 
of  road,  1008;  of  time,  992;  of 
'  where,'  99 1 ;  with  comparative, 
1015,  1055,  1055  d;  with  /ac-, 
>•-,  1003;  with  prep.,  1025; 
with  verbs  of  buying,  1005;  of 
removal,  1023;  of  sacrificing, 
1006. 

abs,  810  n. 

absenti-,  725. 

abstine-,  940. 

abstract  nouns,  907. 

ac,  1430  &c. 

ac  non,  1409.  1. 

accent,  22-28. 

accessary  conjunctions,  846. 

accliui-?  1308.4. 

accusative,  45,  46,  369,  884;  singu- 
lar, p.  429 ;  plural,  p.  429,  p.  431 ; 
after  active  verb,  888;  after  adj. 
in  bundo,  1298;  after  deponents, 
891;  after  intransitives,  893;  af- 
ter participles  in  to,  892  ;  after 


quo,  918;  after  substantives, 
907  ;  cognate,  894  ;  and  inf.  911, 
1248  ;  factitive,  896 ;  for  nom. 
912;  of  time,  &c.  915;  two  to- 
gether, 896-902  ;  with  verbs  of 
calling,  827;  of  feeling,  889. 

accusing,  adj.  of,  933  ;  verbs  of, 
944. 

active  verb,  367 ;  conjugated,  575. 

acw-,  207. 1. 

ad,  1305,  1306. 

adama-,  1308.  3. 

adaequa-,  1308  3. 

adeo,  799. 

adim-,  1308.3. 

adiff-,  900. 

adipes,  1026. 

adjectives,  211-239;  concord  of, 
1037;  as  sub.,  936,  1034,  1042; 
for  adv.,  1049,  1051;  gender  of, 
1040  ;  place  of,  1468;  possessive, 
1047, 1054  e;  in  predicate,  1060; 
suffixes  of,  225-234 ;  in  a,  o,  i, 
have  lost  a  guttural,  p.  442,  xiv. 
xv.,  p.  444,  xxvii. ;  in  ab-ili, 
p  441,  iv.  ;  in  ac,  p.  441,  vi. ; 
in  ac-eo,  p.  440,  ii.,  p  441,  xi. ; 
in  ac-o,  p.  443,  xxii. ;  in  bundo, 
1298  ;  in  ic-io,  p.  441,  xi. ;  in  it- 
io,  p.  443,  xxvi. ;  of  comparison, 
1438  ;  of  fitness,  &c.,  956. 

admodxm,  797. 

admone-,  1308.  3. 

adsurg-,  1308.3. 

adula-,  979. 

aduorsus,  1307. 

aemula-,  979. 

aetate  gen.,  909  n. 

affliff-,  1304. 


446 


INDEX. 


agnosc-,  1308.  3. 

ai-,  739. 

adverbs,  767,  1398;  in  a,  366, 
793  ;  in  am,  782,  791  ;  in  bi, 
366,  785  ;  in  e,  768  ;  in  im,  790  ; 
in  de,  366,  790,  800;  in  fe,  783  ; 
in  tier,  773,  p.  443,  xxvi. ;  in 
itiis,  777;  in  o,  366,  771,  789, 
1056 ;  in  per,  778 ;  in  secus,  80 1 ; 
in  tenus,  803;  in  tim,  779,  780; 
in  tro,  788;  in  urn,  792;  in  us, 
781  &c.;  in  vorsum,  798;  in 
predicate,  1401 ;  of  comparison, 
1438,  1439;  place  of,  1398;  pro- 
nominal, 366, 1150;  with  partic., 
1399  ;  with  sub.,  1400. 

ai-  vb.,  739. 

ali-,  320,  327. 

alio-,  110,  111,  327,1148. 

aliqui-,  1141. 

alphabet,  2. 

alter  differs  from  alteri,  324. 

altero-,  110,  111,330,  1149. 

a/terms,  111,  380. 

am,,  834  a,  1308. 

ambur-,  1308.  3. 

amplius,  1055. 1. 

aw,  1421  &c.;  use  of,  1426  ;  a 
proclitic,  1465;  repeated,  1424. 

arc 'up,'  834  b,  1308.2. 

ana,  1308.  1. 

anaphora,  1435. 

Anglo-Saxon  superl.,  838  n. 

animi,  935  n. 

annona-,  210. 

annuvit,  p.  427. 

ante,  1309. 

anted,  802. 

antecedent  omitted,  1126,  1151. 

antequam,  1231. 1. 

anu-,  142,  207.  1. 

aorist,  445,  446,  585,  586,  614. 

appos-*  1304. 

apposition,  1052,  1058,  1472. 

apud,  815  n.,  131.1. 

apprehend-,  1308.  3. 

ar,  1312. 

arasso,  567. 

arassere,  568. 

arduo-,  555. 1.  n. 

as,  divisions  of  the,  270. 

asking,  vbs.  of,  902. 

asyndeton,  1435. 

at,  1445. 


atque  (ac),  1430,  1439;  for  quam, 
853:  with  comp.,  1056.4. 

attraction,  1039, 1055  b.  obs.,  1059, 
1125,  1251. 

au,  862  n. 

auersa-,  904. 

auts  gen.,  why  short,  p.  430. 

aut,  840;  differs  from  uel,  1444. 

awtero,  1446;  place  of,  1474. 

beniqno-,  238. 

blandi-,  971. 

bookkeeping,  phrases  of,  982. 

b&u-,  157. 

buying,  vbs.  of,  946,  1005. 

c,  11. 

cam-,  190. 

can-urn  gen.  pi.  explained,  p.  441. 

capess-,  754. 

cardinal  numbers,  247,  252,  253. 

care-,  1023. 

case,  42,  1391  n. 

cassum,  540. 

c*  suffix,  289, 293, 319, 792, 11 12  n 

cedo,  731,  1198. 

cela-,  898. 

centena  milia,  1072. 

certa-,  956. 

ceruiees,  1026. 

cetera,  916. 

cimec-,  207. 1. 

circa,  1313. 

circiter,  1314. 

circum,  1315. 

circumda-,  906. 

cis,  1316. 

cito,  772. 

cifra,  1318. 

clam,  782,  1319. 

claud-,  760  w. 

coeptus  est,  1244. 

cognate  ace.,  402,  894. 

collectives,  195.  1. 

comparative,  240-246,  838,   1015, 

1055,  1193. 
comparison,  adj. and  adv.  of,  where 

placed,  1438. 

composition,  35;  of  verbs,  758. 
condona-,  975. 
conditional  sentences,  1153. 
cunduc-,  1289. 
conici-,  812  n. 
conjugation,  518;  a,  519,522,  523; 


INDEX. 


447 


c,  386, 519, 524, 525;  i,  51 9, 528, 
529;  o,  519,  520;  w,  519,  526, 
527;  consonant,  518,  521;  of 
verb  active,  576  &c.  ;  deponent, 
685;  impersonal,  699;  part,  in 
turo  with  es-  and  fu-,  702  &c. ; 
passive,  655;  pass,  impers.  701; 
reflective,  570,  636  &c. 

conjunctions,  839;  omitted,  1436; 
postponed,  1463. 

conscio-,  957. 

consonant  conjugation,  518,  521. 

consonant  declension,  55,  87. 

consperg-,  905. 

consul-  vb.,  555.  2. 

consul  for  consuls ',  p.  435. 

contra,  1320. 

contract  verbs  in  Latin,  p.  426. 

contracted  perfect,  563-7. 

copula,  874. 

copulative  conjunctions,  840,  1430 
&c. 

coram,  1321. 

corona-,  210. 

cred-,  981  n. 

crude  form,  41,  p.  422;  in  Sanscrit 
grammars,  p.  422;  simplicity  of, 
p.  438. 

cui  bono ?  983  n 

cuicuimodi,  311. 

cum  prep.,  820,  1322,  1323,  1391. 

cum  conj.,  1455. 

cum  maxume,  1057  d,  p.  226. 

cura-,  1168,  1289. 

custom,  vbs.  of,  1007. 

da-,  549,  732,  975,  1275,  1289. 
dative,  49,  110  n.,   950;  doubled, 
982;  dat.  ethic,  978;  in   poets, 
986,988;  of  attraction,  985;  of 
,        fitness,  1293;  of  motion  to,  987; 
i        of  name,  985;  of  part,  in  endo, 
*        1293;  of  person  concerned,  877; 
of  person   whose  body  is    con- 
j        cerned,  972;  of  purpose,  984;  of 
serving   as,  983;  plur.,  p.  433; 
sing.,  p.  432 ;  with  adj.,  961 ;  with 
adv.,  962;  with  gerundive,  967; 
with  perfect  particip.,  967 ;  with 
static  vbs.,  963;  with  sbs.,  969; 
with  vbs.    of  giving,   973  j  with 
vbs.  of  taking  away,  973. 
de,  1326-8. 
di  as  a  suffix,  366,  800. 


debui,  1257. 
decet,  964 
deciens,  1071. 

declension,  54  ;  first  or  a,  89-99  ; 
second  or  o,  100-24;  third  or  t, 
125-39  ;  third  or  consonant,  55- 
87  ;  fourth  or  M,  140-44  ;  fifth  or 
0,  145-8;  vowel,  88;   irregular, 
157  ;  mixed,  148. 1  ;  reduced  to 
one,  p.  423,  429. 
defective  nouns,  149,  1032. 
defung-,  1023. 
demonstratives,  286,  1091 
demum,  1447. 
denario-,  1070. 
deo-,  158. 

deponent  verbs,  399,  400 ;  conju- 
gated, 685. 
derivation,  34  ;  of  verbs,  740  &c. ; 

from  prep.,  838. 
desiderative  verbs,  755. 
desin-,  940. 
desitus  est,  1244. 
detenor-,  812,  814,  824. 
rfi,13-.29.  1330. 
dtc-,  534. 

dicam  omitted,  1228. 
digno-,  1016,  1192. 
diminutives,  198  &c.  and  Appen- 
dix ii. 

diminutive  verbs,  750. 
direct  interrogative,  308. 
dirim-,  812. 
discrib-,  1329. 
disjunctive     conjunctions,      1444 ; 

question,  1423. 
distributive  mimbers,  249,252,  262, 

1066. 
diti-,  221. 

doce-,  553,  556,898,  1236. 
domi,  114,952,  1036. 
domo-,  159. 
dornum,  886,  1036. 
due-,  534. 
dum,  1448. 
duo-,  117,  118,  120. 
duplici-,  1067  n. 

e,  1331. 

e  declension,  p.  424. 

ea,  304,  366. 

*<?,  811,813,  817,  1331. 

ecastor,  861. 

ecce,  862. 


448 


INDEX , 


ecfer-,  811. 

edepol,  861. 

ego,  crude  form  of,  274  n. 

e'ho,  862  n. 

elision,  29. 

ellipsis  of  sb.,  1033;  of  main  verb, 

1227;  of  verb  of  requesting,  1204; 

of  verb  of  saying,  1203. 
em-,  1005  n. 
emolumento-,  530  n. 
emphasis  decides  order  of  words, 

1459. 
emphatic  adjective  precedes,  1468  ; 

emphatic  genitive  precedes,  1468, 

1472. 

enclitics,  27,  1473. 
enim,  1449;  place  of,  1474. 
eo,  adv.,  304,  366,789. 
epicenes,  190. 
epistolary  tenses,  1160. 
epol,  861. 

equidem,  336,  1453  /.  n. 
equo-,  124.  1. 
erat  first,  1462. 
erga,  1334. 

es-,  '  eat,'  722  ;  «  be,'  723. 
esse  omitted,  1259. 
est  first,  1462. 
et,  1430  &c.  ;  calso,'  'too,'  1440; 

a  proclitic,  1465. 
et  non,  1409. 
et  —  neque,  1443. 

et,  que,  and  atque  opposed,  1434. 
ethic  dat.,  978. 
etiam,  1171. 
ctiamnum,  806. 
ex,  1331. 

excess,  degree  of,  1056.5. 
cxerce  ,  555.  2. 
existumes,  1228. 
extent  of  place,  &c.,  915. 
cxporgisc-,  555.  3. 
,  1335. 


/ae,  1168. 

factitive  ace.,  896. 

fastidi-,  939. 

faxem,  566,  1209  n.f. 

/«cro,  566,  1209  n.t. 

fearing,  verbs  of,  1186. 

feeling,  verbs  of,  393,  872,  889,  938, 

939,  1245. 

feminine  suffixes,  193. 
V-,  729. 


fi-,  736,  1003. 

fieri,  736  n. 

fi<j-,  535. 
first  word  emphatic,  1460,  1461. 

foras,  886. 

forbidding,  sentences  of,  1173-7. 

fore,  725. 

forem,  725 

fore  ut,  1260. 

foris,  952. 

forgiving,  verbs  of,  975. 

fractions,  268-272. 

frag-,  535. 

frequentative  verbs,  745. 

freto-,  10d2. 

fru-i  1001,  1287n. 

fu-,  723,  723.1,1152.5. 

./M-i  558. 

fullness,  adj.  of,  931  ;  verbs  of,  941. 

fung-,  1287  n. 

future, 439, 441,  447,  448,  466-469  ; 
f.  perfect,  476 ;  f.  perf.  subj.,  503, 
505,  1226;  f.  perf.  pass.,  1263; 
f.  periphrastic,  1260;  f.  for  im- 
perative, 1170. 

genders,  39,  183  &c.,  1040. 

genitive,  47,  48,  919;  sing.,  p.  430; 
plur.,  p.  431;  emphatic,  1391  e, 
1469,  1470;  after  gerund,  1286; 
after  neut.  pron.,  922;  in  it/*,  1 1 0 
n. ;  inpointof,935;  objective,927; 
ofcause,  929  ;  of'connection,  026 ; 
of  definition,  926.1,  of  quality, 
927;  of  removal,  930,  940  ;  of 
tendency,  1292;  partitive,  922; 
place  of,  1468,  1472;  possessive. 
924 ;  subjective,  921  ;  with  adj., 
929  ;  with  adv.,  923 ;  with  gerund, 
1286;  with  possessive,  1048; 
with  subs.,  920  ;  with  verbs,  938. 

gentile  name,  1046. 

genu-,  p.  442,  xii. 

genus,  917. 

gerund,  435,  634,  1284-6,  1294, 
1295. 

gerundive,  1287  &c. 

giving,  verbs  of,  973. 

Glycerio-,  208. 

gratified-,  971. 

Greek  ace.,  916;  nouns,  166  &c. 

gus-1  748. 

habe-,  386. 

habesrit,  origin  of  form,  p.  427- 


INDEX. 


449 


hau,  1404. 1. 
haud,  1416.1. 
historic  present,  449  n.,  455;  hist. 

infin.,  1253. 
ho-,  295-300,  1092  &c. 
hoc  adv.  300. 
hocine,  293. 
hodie,  804. 
hordeo-,  207.2. 
korsum,  366  n. 

house,  1035, 1303  /.,  1305  o.,  1311  c. 
huius,  947. 
Awnt,  114,  952. 
hypothetical  sentences,  496-9,  705, 

1153,1209,  1223. 

i  consonans,  9. 

*  conjugation,  519,  528,  529. 

i  declension,  125-39,  p.  424. 

z- or  eo-,  302,  1113&C. 

i=y,  25. 

i-  verb,  737. 

iace-,  386. 

iam,  1450. 

t«,  304,  366. 

i-dem,  342.1,  1132. 

z^ifwr,  place  of,  1474. 

ignora-,  1338  n. 

ignosc-,  762  /*.,  979,  980,  1308.  3. 

ilico,  797. 

UK,  UKm,  adv.,  298,  366. 

illo-,  287  &c.,  1101  &c. 

t#o  adv.,  298,  366. 

tmo-?  748. 

irnbu-,  1308.  3. 

imminu-,  1308.3. 

two-,  823,  1429. 

impera-,  1281. 

imperative,  421,422, 42*,  479,  593, 
1163,  1173. 

imperfect,  439  &c.;  conjugated, 
556;  infin.  506-13;  past,  459-65. 

impersonal  verb,  371,  393,  699-701, 
872;  conjugated,  699,  700;  pas- 
sive, 383,  701. 

in,  913,  1336. 

incip-,  1308.3. 

inde,  304,  366. 

indefinite  pronouns,  1138  &c. 

indicative,  1152.8;  for  subj.  1215; 
of  concession,  1156;  of  supposi- 
tion, 1155. 

indirect  interrogative,  318, 494, 495, 
1196,1197. 


indirect  oration,  492,  1201. 

indirect  question,  1196. 

infero-,  822. 

infinitive,  430-2,  506-13, 1232  &c. ; 
after  adj  1254;  after  relative  or 
conjunction,  1251 ;  and  ace.  1238- 
1240;  as  a  gen.,  1252;  historic, 
1253;  imperfect,  509,  512,513, 
625;  in  poets,  1255;  of  hypo- 
thesis, 1261 ;  ofindignation,  1247 ; 
passive,  1244;  perfect,  510,511, 
628 ;  with  prep.,  1233. 

infitias,  886. 

informa-,  1308.  3. 

infra,  1339. 

inhibe-,  1308.5. 

inquam,  408. 

inser-^  906. 

instar,  833. 1. 

insueto-,  1254. 

intelleg-,  818. 

inter,  1340,  1341,  1393  n.,  1395  n. 

inter,  'up,'  818,  834  d.,  1342. 1. 

inter  se,  1087. 

interclud-,  1342.  1. 

interdic-,  1023,  1342.  1. 

interest,  910,  948. 

interfic-,  1342.  1. 

interi-,  1342.  1. 

interim,  797. 

interiug-,  1342.  1. 

interjections,  860. 

interlunio-,  210.  1. 

intermit-,  1 342.  1. 

interpola-,  1342.  1. 

interrogative,  direct,  308,1 134,1417- 
1419, 1423, 1425,  1426  ;  double, 
1136;  indirect,  318,  494,  495, 
1196,  1197,  1420-1424;  par- 
ticles, 1417 ;  pronouns,  1134  &c. 

infra,  1 343. 

intransitive  verb,  373,  378,  394  ; 
used  transitively,  401-403. 

intro,  1344. 

intumesc-,  1308.  3. 

inuide-,  979,  1023,  980. 

inuicto-,  763. 

ipso-,  326,  1090. 

iri,  1262. 

irregular  nouns,  149  &c. 

irregular  verbs,  392  &c. 

is  ea  id,  302. 

isti  adv.,  299. 

istim  adv.,  299. 


450 


IXI'EX. 


itti.  1451. 
iterum,  322. 
i;^-,  53.5. 

,  }  60. 


iuxta,  1345. 

Ar  only  before  a,  6. 

Karthagini,  951. 

Keltic  suffix  a^A  in  Latin,  p.  439. 

/or//?  257 

lab-,  -, 

lapiderum,  '.'>' 

last  word  emphatic,  1  ! 

last  word  in  an  hexameter  begin- 

ning a  clause,  I46.'i  n. 
fo/7/ra,  543. 
leaves,  1031. 
letters,  number  of,  2. 
/>',era-,  940  n. 
libram,  1075. 
/>/;«/,  807  n. 
i/,  1257. 

,  for  lintris,  p.  437. 
liquids,  order  of,  3. 
/W/Z-,  1280. 

logical  pronoun,  301,  1112. 
loyu-, 
lucta-,  956. 

..,'  referred  to  in   notes,  725, 
..951,1141,  1163,  1165,117o, 
1182,    1195,   1202,    1205, 
1224,  1236,   1287,  1288,  13:i7  i., 
1337,  1404.1,  1423,  1405.  1. 
mur/ii,  776.  1. 
maior,  1055.  1. 
t  n  I  u  in  re  m. 
•  TO,  1221. 
1221. 
i.  . 
manica-,  2  1  0. 

--,  207.   1. 
masculine  suffixes,  1.91. 


JO.'iO. 

,979,  980. 
medica-,  [)l't. 
mediusfidin 
memini,  390,  943. 


memonr,  verbs  of,  943, 

TO^rcw/-? 

mery-. 

Mileti,  951  n. 

rmVi-,  257,  1064, 

minor-,  1055.  1. 

minus,  776.  1,  1055.  1. 

mmz-,  939. 

mirum — quantum,  1200. 

miJtcc-,  956. 

mixed  numbers,  1065.  1  4. 

rnodera - . 

modo.  7 

moods,  423  &c. 

wior«-  conjugated,  557. 

mutas  for  mmam,  p.  432. 

nam,  1452. 

ne,  1173, 1179,  1228,  1402  ;  a  pro- 
clitic,  1465;  differs  from  ut  nora, 
3408  ».;  ne—quidem,  1405, 1453 

w£, « verily,'  862. 

n<T,  1417/1420;  affixed  to  interro- 

gatives,  1425  n.;  repeated,  1424. 
nearness,  adj.  of,  955. 
nearness,  verbs  of,  956. 
nee-,  534. 
nee  a  proclitic,  1465  j  'not    ven,' 

1106.  1. 

neceane  est,  1246  ». 
nedum,  1228. 
nega-*  1404  n. 

negatives  accumulated,  1411. 
negative  particles,  1402. 
negative  repeated,  1412. 
neg-leg-,  83 1  /».,  n. 
nemon-,  1149.  1. 
ng-ywe —  et — ,  1443. 
nef/ue  rfui&quam,  1406. 
ner/uitur,  1244  n. 
neiicio,  410  n. ;  nescio  an,  1421. 
nescio-qui-,  1109. 
neue,  1416. 

neuter  nom.  in  i/m,  p.  443,  xxii. 
neuter nom.  rejects*,  why  ?  p. 43.  3. 
neuter-passives,  i 
neuter  pronouns,  .009. 
neuter  suffixes,  194. 
nig-  oiniu-,  162. 
nihil  for  nun,  1410. 
nimix,  776.  1. 
nimium- quantum,  1200. 
ni/-,  555.3;  1001. 


INDEX. 


451 


'no,'  how  expressed,  1428. 

nolim,  1221. 

nollem,  1221. 

nominative,  44,  48,  368,  867;  for 

voc.,  880;  form  of,  p.  425;  plur., 

p.  437;  power  of,  p.  433,  439; 

singular,  p.  433  &c. 
non,  1402  ;  a  proclitic,  1465 ;  place 

of,  1403. 

non  modo  for  non  modo  non  ?  1415. 
non  nemo,  1411  n. 
non  quin,  1208. 
non  quo,  1208. 
non  quod,  1454/. 
non-emphatic  words,  where  placed, 

1467. 

noui,  389. 
no*,  H'82. 
noun  in  apposition,  where  placed, 

1472. 

no/me,  1419. 
nub-,  533,  977. 
nuccrum,  376  n. 
nudiustertius,  805. 
nullo-  for  non,  1410. 
num,  1419,  1423  n. 
number,  52 ;  differs  from   English 

idiom,  1026  ;  concord  of,  1 040. 
numerals,  247  &c.;  place  of,  1471.  1. 
numquid  tm,  1 183  n.  f. 
nuncine,  792. 
wiper,  778. 

o  conjugation,  519,  520. 

o  declension,  p  424. 

o  final  in  verbs,  410. 

ob  prep.,  1346;   in  com  p.,  1347; 

—  em,  830  n. 
obiter,  797. 
objective  gen.,  927. 
.o'tliviso-,  943. 
obliqua  oratio,  492,  1201. 
ohsoleso-,  555.  1. 
oculo-,  207.  3. 
>rfi,  390. 
officio-,  1469  n. 
o/fl-t/-,  1308.  2. 
o;j£s-,  999. 
opitnfa-,  742.  1  n. 
oportet,  1246  n. 
ojw*  «•*/,  1280. 
order  of  words,  1458. 
ordinal  numbers,   248,   252,   261. 

1065.  1. 


ordo  for  ordons,  p.  435. 
owner,  1036.  2. 

paenitet,  889,  938. 

pag-,  535. 

joa/am,  782,  1348. 

parato-,  1254. 

pare-,  979,  980. 

pare-,  956. 

4  part  of,'  1057.  t. 

parti-  verb,  398. 

participle,  436,  514  &c.,  1264  ;  for 
abstract  differs  from  adj.,  934  n. ; 
in  endo,  1 296 ;  in  endo  with  es-> 
712;  in  endo  with  /«-,  715;  in 
«i/i,  1265;  in  /o,  1270;  in  furo, 
1261,1268;  in<urowithe*-,702; 
in  furo  with  /a-,  705;  perfect, 
892;  perfect,  circumlocution  for, 
1281;  question  in,  1135. 

particles,  764. 

partitive  gen.,  922,  925. 

pose-,  1001. 

passive,  379,  880,570;  conjugated, 
655;  impersonal,  701,  981;  of 
saving  and  thinking,  1-41. 

past  imperfect,  459-65,  580-2;  past 
perfect,  473;  ind.  588,  589;  subj. 
621-4. 

pater  for  paters,  p.  435. 

ptiter,  p.  437. 

pause  in  hexameter,  1464  n. 

penalty,  gen.  of,  945. 

penes,  1349. 

pensi,  947  n. 

per,  1350  ;  in  comp.,  1351  ;  of  de- 
struction, 1351  n.  §. 

per  me  slat,  1183  n. 

perd-,  1351. 

perfect,  439  &c.,  442,  443,  478, 
533  &c.;  form  of,  471;  conjuga- 
tion of,  561;  contracted,  563-7; 
present,  472;  infin.,  510,  511, 
1256-1258;  of  intransitives,  477 ; 
third  person  of,  472  w, ;  use  of,  478. 

perinde,  800. 

permission,  subj.  in,  489. 

personal  pronouns,  274,  1076. 

personal  suffixes,  406  &c. 

personal  verb,  370. 

play,  535. 

plural  suffixes  of  nouns,  52  ;  of 
verbs,  414  &c. 

plural  for  sing.,  1026. 


452 


INDEX. 


p/u,,  245  n.,  77K.  1.,  1055.  1. 
pnrim-,  !>7.r>  n. 

Jinl  fitiy-,  HI  It. 

polysyndeton,    1  i 

plllllfli,      I  H7.'». 

/»<///•,    I 

y«»-,  HIS,  S.'M  r,   I 

POTTO,  788. 

.idj  ,  K). 1 7;  ).;eii.,  924-25. 
pronouns,  ;{.r>!). 

/-,  :uu;. 


/H",/,   I.';,'.  I  ;    in  coin  p.,    I 
pn.1,11,,,  SOU. 

pOXtf/tllllll,    9.V.     //. 

ini-,  6 
//     vrrh,  .'H'.',   l'.!f!7  «. 

,    l.';.''.ii  ;    in  romp.,   l:i.V/. 

/<-  1  542  // 

rr.  l.V.9;   in  comp.,  l.'iflO. 

predicate,   M7.|. 

pivpositions,  HOI!,  }!.•{(»,!)  I-  I  //  . 

I  .'inn,  i:»97;  caie  after,  !'i  i  ».  ; 

<  II.HI;;.-   ol'  Conn   in.  Si/!)  \'c.;    La 
I  ill  Coinpiiinl   wit  ll    (  i  irrk,  .S.'JK  //., 

Jt.'5  1'    //.;    nir;iniii:;    of,    !,'!!)!    n.*  ; 
omitted,  i:i!M»;  pi.irr  <,i,  I  ;;.'»!  ;;. 
prtMnl  tente,  i  r»,  M2  B|  bid 

.')  ;    lil.storic,    II!)    //..,     I,),")  ;    pi-i'f., 
;    p<-rf.    in.l., 

584,  687  1  p-'ii"  Niihj.,  (il;>-(i2(). 
PIH-C,  loor,. 

/.rinin  ,  J!'J!:J,   IQ50, 
•firinini--,  H;{S  //. 
principal   part-,  ,,.'-!    ,Vc. 

prior-,  »'2;i. 

fii-HiM^i'iin,    I  '.'.'M  .  I. 

/*/•«,   l.'JIil  ;    in  OOmp  ,    1  "• 

|.roclii'  !,   I  KM-    I,   1  Ki-"». 

prod**-, 

pi  <>!:,  \\frl  n. 

proliil,,-  ,  L2 

proiml,',  HOO. 

j,ronomin;il  ;idvcrl>s,  .'ililJ,  1  !/>(). 

pronouns,  1?7;'  <^c.;    di-nionsl  i.it  i  vc, 


indefinite,    I  I-'!!',    i\  c.  ;    inl,  i 

tivc,    n;;|.    &o,  ;    logical,   :;ou 

II  I'.';    peiso.Kll,  874,    K>7r.;    pos- 
Scssivr,     ;;,-).'!,      KUiit;       M'llccllVc, 

•27  H-Sr,.  KMJ-HJ). 

,    i 

nr   ,  !)OH. 


prosnm,  7 OR. 

I'M.-ndn-NepOH,  951  n.f;  1423  ». 
;*/////•/,  9,38. 
p?/<?r  for  p'K-rns,  p.  4.37. 

pul HI:;,  H,  p.    I '.!(;. 
punishment,  vrrlis  of,  !*7-r'  //. 
I.IM-JMIS.-,   I!K),  1107. 


y//i7,  ,'U5,  316. 

i/llillll    Wltll   ('(imp.,  10,r).r)  ;    with   :  up., 

l().r>7  f.|   ;i.  pmclilic,   I  Hi.',. 
</iiii»i(/it<t>n,  .'>.")!!,  7.''  I  . 
i/nomuis,  l',r,'2,  7!'  1, 
i/ininilii,  7-''.ri,   I  l,r),r>  ;'. 


l/IKIIlli,    '.I  l()    //. 

VMI/.S-;,    ID!),   I 


////»•,  J:MJ  «.,  i  I:;D  ,^c.;  displaced, 

MM. 


i     veil),  7''«^. 

»-  or  V//U-,  ."O.'J,  1120-31;  'unv/ 
n;;s;      ;-,  1131, 

/"  fnni/iif,   I  I  •!•(>,   I  I  -iS. 


</  it  id  ni  i.     1  17'.'  n. 
iiniilijiinil,   I  I.'  I  //. 

7//i  I/HIM,  .•;!•:;,  1  1  if.. 

7///W/-///,   !!.r'7   «-,   KIHO,   M()3,  1-11.1, 

i  i.v;  ;  plao«  of,  1474, 

f/ni  Inln'l,  I  II  !•. 

(/ill  nil  in,  .'!  l'(i. 

r/^//'   fiiinii,  '.'•  !.'>,   1  I  !.">. 

i/ui/i/ir  i/ii'i  with  sulij.,   I  !.'»  I  /». 

<////'  i/iiiiin,  -'!!'!,   Ill  '. 

i/ni-t/m;  847-5  ;.  92  !     L, 

v///-y///-  ,  1  1  17,  1  158. 

,,l,i     II,:,,   851,     Mil. 

V«»(/.  1  l.M;    will.  ,-///*-,  !»22. 
t/iiiiinliini,  792. 
t/iii»iinin,  I  I.)-'  /'.  /'. 
<H«"x/K,-,  place  of,   1171. 

v//.»/«j  ,  IM;;,  i  (in.',  i. 

,  122!),   12H1  /;, 


•rather,'   IO.MI.  .'!. 
/V///0  for  rut  ions,  |> 

b.,  I'ltl  /;. 
rt,  'hack,1    I 
ri'i-iifiiin-,   I  .'Hi/   //.  f. 
reciprocal  verbs,  ;>!)IJ. 
m/i;;i-t   12119. 


INDEX. 


453 


reduplication,  471* 

rediit,  472  w. 

rSfert,  910,948. 

reliecti  ve  pronoun,  278-N5,  1083-9; 

omitted,  1249. 
reflective  verb,  374  &c.;  398-400; 

conjugated,  570,  b'36. 
regerum,  376  n. 
relative,   3»7,  1120-31;   attraction 

of,  1061;  double  form  of,  353-8, 

1158;  postponed,  1403. 
remit-,  975. 
repeated  action,  1159. 
reported  speech,  1201. 
reppuli,  555.  2. 
re-publica-,  103. 
rescisc-,  1367. 
result,  suhj.  of,  491,  1408. 
retice-,  1367. 
wfro,  1868, 
rite,  770. 

Kitsd.l,  1319  n.,  1404.  1. 
rixa-,  391. 
road  by  which,  1008. 
roya-,  903. 
roots,  30. 
rosa-,  1031. 
rt*-,  390. 
rvp-,  533. 
rwri,  952. 
rv/.v,  880. 
rusum,  798. 

*  final  lost  in  nom.,  p.  435. 

sacrificing,  vbs.  of,  1006. 

sanyui-,  p.  9. 

Mtto,  77'i.  1. 

scilicet,  H07. 

«crt6-,  5:',:;. 

«e,  1083, 1369;  crude  form  of,  280. 

second    person,    1152.    3,     117.1, 

1224. 

second  word  non-emphatic,  147.3. 
secondary  clauses,  1225. 
secnndum,  1371. 
secus,  917. 

scd,  8.'14,  1:109;  a  ])roclitic,  14 G5. 
sedition-,  815  w. 
seme  I,  26  4  n. 
semper,  778. 

sera-  or  *enec-,  164.  207. 1. 
Bouse  supersedes  form,  1038. 
*er-,  542  n. 
sermocina-,  745  n. 


-,  971. 

-,  1063. 
io-t  272,  1070. 

tester  titan,  1073. 

showing,  vbs.  of,  976'. 

si,  490-9,  1153,  11, VI,  115.'),  1209; 
omitted,  1219;  as  an  interroga- 
tive, 1422;  a  proclitic,  1465. 

sic,  300,  1451  g,  n. 

simple  voice,  405. 

simplici-,  264  n. 

simul,  853,  854. 

sin-,  1236. 

sincero-,  264  n. 

sine,  1372. 

sing,  for  pi.,  1032. 

.vt-yw-,  1139,  1140. 

aiwe,  1157. 

smelling,  vbs.  of,  8.05. 

nodes,  1361,  c,  n. 

*o/o-,  110,  1050,  1192. 

sordido-,  555.  1  n. 

*or/i-  vb.,  39JJ. 

Kpnrii-,  535. 

spondee,  410  w. 

static  verb,  385, 3!)  1 . 

sio-  pron.,  288  n. 

Btreiigtli.-iicd  form  of  verb,  451.  1. 

stude  ,  !>;;.'). 

made-,  »1\). 

sub,  913,  l.",73-(j. 

*iilnci-t  812n. 

.subject,  874. 

lubject-accuiatiye,  911,  1248-50. 

subjective  gen.,  921. 

subjunctive,  4*27-9,  481-505,  1178 
&-c.;  as  a  future,  600-5,  1226; 
for  imperat.  1167;  in  commands, 
488,  1180;  in  concessions,  1227 
1 1  in  elliptical  sentences,  1227; 
in  hypothesis,  496-9,  1209  &c.  ; 
in  indirect  <|ucstions,  494,  495, 
1  196  ;  in  oliliiiua  oratio,  1201-6; 
in  parenthesis,  1195  ;  in  permis- 
sion, 489,  1180;  in  puijM.'ses, 
400,  1179;  in  results  491,  1182; 
of  duty,  1227 /;  of  indignation, 
1227  e;  of  possibility,  1227  a; 
ofpfoiyer,  1227  d ;  translated  as 
indie.,  491,  493,  494;  with  ut 
t/ui,  1194  n. 

substantive,  number  of,  1026  ;  in 
predicate,  1060  ;  in  a,  o,  i,  «,  e, 
have  lost  a  guttural,  p.  440,  iL 


454 


INDEX. 


&c.  ;  in  ab-ulo,  p.  441,  iv. ;  in 
ac-ulo,  p.  440,  iii.;  in  ac-ro,  p. 

440,  iii. ;  in  ag-on,  p.  440,  ii. ; 
in  arn-ento  &c.  p.  443,  xxii. ;  in 
c,  p.  441,  ix. ;  in  ic-ula,  p.  441, 
xii. ;  in  ec  or  «c,  p.  441,  vii. ;  in 
ec-ula,  p.  441,  xii. ;  in  ed-on,  p. 
444,  xxvii. ;  in  et,  p.  443,  xxvi. ; 
in  e-/o,  p.  441,  x. ;  in  ic-ulo,  p. 

441,  xii.;  in  it-ia,  p.  444,  xxvii.; 
in  it-udon,  p.  4445  xxvii. ;  in  it- 
ut,  p.  444,  xxvii. 

subter,  1378  ;  in  comp.,  1379. 
suffix,   32  ;  of  adj.,    225-234  ;    of 

masculine  subs.,   191,   192;   of 

feminine,  193  ;  of  neuters,  194  ; 

personal,  406  &c. 
sum,  sunt,  explained,  p.  429. 
summo-,  823. 
suo-,  361,  1083. 
suppedita-,  396. 
supelleff-,  818. 

super,  1380;  in  comp.,  1382. 
superlative,    240-46,    1057 ;   from 

prep.,  838. 
supine,  433,  434,  887,  998,  1299- 

1301. 

supra,  1383. 
suscip-,  1289. 
susum,  798. 
syllable  long  by  nature,  14  ;  long 

by  position,  15;  short,  13. 
symbols,  numerical,  251. 
syntax,  866. 

tag-,  535. 

taking  away,  verbs  of,  973. 

tanquam,  1223. 

fund,  946  n. 

tantum,  1065. 1  c. 

te  as  a  dat.,  977  n. 

telling,  verbs  of,  976. 

tempera-,  979. 

'temple,'  1035. 

tene-,  3H6. 

tense,  437  &c. 

tenses  of  Latin  verb,  451  &c. 

tenus,  1384,  1391  b. 

tepefac-,  756. 

ter,  783,  p.  437. 

terg-,  535. 

<  that  of,'  1036.  1. 

third  person,  quantity  of,  412. 

tig-,  535. 


time,  difference  of,  1017 ;  how  long, 
915;  within  which,  993-5 ;  when, 
992. 

'  too,'  1056. 

torque-,  553. 

towns,  884,  951,  990,  1021. 

traic-,  900. 

trans,  1386. 

transitive  verb,  372 ;  used  reflec- 
tively, 394-7. 

trusting,  verbs  of,  974,  1002. 

tu,  crude  form  of,  275. 

v.  consonans=«>,  10,  25. 

u  conjugation,  519,  526-7. 

u  declension,  140-4,  p.  424. 

ubi,  315,  366,  953-4. 

ubique,  347,  366. 

ue,  1444,  n.;  displaced,  1441. 

uel,  840,  1057/1. 

uelle,  how  formed,  p.  436. 

uend-t  542. 

uenum,  886. 

vere-9  939. 

uero,  1456;  place  of,  1474. 

uesc-,  1001. 

iteta-,  1236,  1237,  1243. 

irfc-,  534. 

uicem,  917. 

uiciens,  1071. 

uiciniae,  1150. 

«//o-,  334,  1 142. 

uls,  1389. 

ultumo-,  823. 

ultra,  1390. 

ultra,  788. 

ultumo-,  823. 

unde,  305  n.,  315,  1150. 

undeclined  subs.,  1032. 1. 

WHO-,  1062. 

uorsus,  1387,  1391  A. 

ut,  316,  796,  1451  j  a  proclitic, 

1465. 

«/-,  1001,  1287w. 
utinam,  796. 
utique,  347,  796. 
7*/w/,  358,  796. 
w/  ym  with  subj.,  1194  ??. 
utrum,  construction  of,  1425. 

vegetables,  1030. 

verb,  S67  &c.;  after  emphatic  word, 
1467;  derivation  of,  740  ;  dimi- 
nutive, 750  ;  frequentative,  745; 


INDEX. 


455 


impersonal,  371;  of  saying, 
&c.,  1238  ;  of  wishing,  1242  ; 
place  of,  1458,  1461,  1467  ;  in 
a.  522  ;  in  a^r,  p.  440,  iii. ;  in 
cina,  745  n. ;  in  e,  386,  524  ;  p. 
443,  xxiii. ;  in  eo  or  ic,  p.  442, 
xviii.;  in  esc  or  isc,  p.  443,  xxv.; 
in  ess  or  to,  754,  p.  443,  xxv. ; 
in  ff,  p.  442,  xix. ;  in  *,  528,  p. 
443,  xxiv. ;  in  ita,  p.  443,  xxvi. ; 
in  ra,  p.  442,  xxii. ;  in  o,  519,  p. 
427 ;  in  p,  p.  442,  xx. ;  in  t  final 
long,  p.  428 ;  in  turi,  755  ;  in 
u,  526,  p.  427,  p.  442,  xvii. ; 
in  ab,  eb,  ib,  6,  p.  442,  xxi. ;  in- 
ceptive, 752;  intransitive,  373- 
8  ;  irregular,  392 ;  of  accusing, 
944  ;  of  buying,  946  ;  of  com- 
manding, &c.,  1180  ;  of  compar- 
ing, 956  n.-,  of  duty,  1217;  of 
fearing,  1186;  of  feeling,  393, 
889,  938-9  ;  of  hindrance,  1138  ; 
of  memory,  943 ;  of  requesting 
omitted,  1204;  of  saying  omitted, 
1203 ;  of  smelling,  895  ;  of  wish- 
ing, 1242;  passive,  380  &c. ; 
personal,  370;  place  of,  1437, 


1467,  1468;  plural  suffixes  of, 
414  &c. ;  reciprocal,  398;  reflec- 
tive, 374  &c.,  398-400  ;  static, 
385-91  ;  transitive,  372. 

verbal  sb.,  1264;  in  tion,  1302; 
in  tuy  887,  1299. 

tn-,  165. 

vita-,  1029. 

vocative,  43  w.,  882  ;  fornom.  883; 
place  of,  1474  n. 

vocifera-,  742.  1  n. 

vol-,  733. 

vowels,  order  of,  3 ;  vowel  silent, 
24 ;  vowel-assimilation,  p.  444, 
xxix. 

weather,  1027. 

words  opposed,  place  of,  1475. 

worth,  gen.  of,  947 

x,  last  letter,  2  ;=&*,  5  ;  or  rather 
X2,  813  n. 

y  not  a  Latin  letter,  2. 
'yes,'  how  expressed,  1427. 

z  not  a  Latin  letter,  2. 


ADDENDA  ET   CORRIGENDA. 


(It  will  be  found  convenient  either  to  correct  the  text  herefrom,  or  to  affix 
the  words  :  '  See  Addenda.') 

§  §  44,  45,  47,  49.  For  beam  read  *  tree  or  beam.' 

§  89.  For  cornu  read  cornu  in  the  nom.  voc.  ace.,  for  although  Greek 
neuters  in  u,  like  all  other  neuters,  prefer  a  final  short  vowel,  and 
although  a  short  u  is  here  claimed  by  the  grammarians,  as  by  Dioin. 
p.  308,  1.  15,  ed.  Keil ;  Prob.  31,  26,  and  32,  32 ;  Pomp.  172, 4,  and  185,  2; 
yet  we  find  nuda  genu  Verg.  A.  1,  320,  and  Ov.  M.  10,  536  ;  cornu  Ov. 
F,  3,  869 ;  gelu  Ov.  Nux,  106  ;  and  nowhere  a  short  u. 

§  236.  To  [quadr-]  append  as  a  note  :  Brackets  in  the  form  []  denote 
obsolete  or  theoretic  words. 

§  344.  Dele  quaequam,  as  never  found. 

§  366,  1.  2.  For  de  (  =  *«)  read  6  ( =  w). 

§  472.1,  note  }.  Dele  the  first  eight  lines. 

§  503, 1.  10.  Bead  accepturum. 

§  532.  Add  :  The  order  of  words  is  alphabetical,  reckoning  backwards. 

§  533.  After  1.  8,  add  sap-  or  s&pi-  taste,  be  wise,  s&pere,  sapio,  papui. 

§  540,  1.  18.  Eead  claud-  or  clud-  shut  (eland-  standing  for  clauid- ; 
cf.  the  sb.  *x»»fr$-  a  bar). 

§  540, 1.  25.    After  quatio  insert  per-cussi. 
„      last  line  but  one.    For  uorti  read  uerti. 
„      last  line.     For  sist-  make  to  stand,  read  set-,  sist-  stop. 

§  548.  After  1.  6,  insert  plu-  rain,  plugre,  pluit,  pluuit,  or  pluit. 

§  554.  Add  senti-  or  sen- feel,  sentire,  sentio,  sensi,  sensum. 

§  555.3, 1.  16.  After  nic-  add  or  met-. 

§  570.  Add  to  imperative  fut. :  A  form  without  the  final  r  was  pre- 
ferred, as  censento  (=  censentor)  Corp.  Inscr.  Momms.  198,  77.  Cf.  Madv. 
op.  2,  241. 

§  722.1.  Add :  perf.  part.  c5mesto-,  c5messo-,  or  cOmeso-. 

§  732.  Add:  the  passive  also  has  a  short  vowel  in  datur,  dabatur, 
d&bitur,  subj.  daretur,  inf.  dari,  part.  d&to-. 

§  745.  Dele  note  *. 


§  774.  Dele  altogether. 

§  777.  For  itus  or  tus  read  us  ;  and,  in  note,  for  ftv  read  iv ;  and  add  : 
This  us  is  often  cut  down  to  e  (cf.  ipsus,  ipse),  as  in  peregre",  from 
abroad;  supernS,  from  above;  infemS,  from  below;  ind-6,  from  this; 
und-6,  from  which. 

§  788,  ].  2.  For  tro  read  ro  ;  also  write  ret-ro,  cit-ro,  etc. 

§  800, 1.  6 .  Dele  ever  and  anon. 

§  830.  The  first  meaning  of  inter  is  under;  of  ob,  after;  of  per  and 
trans,  over. 

§  831.  The  first  meaning  of  in  is  down;  hence  imus  for  inimus, 
lowest.  Cf.  iv-igoi,  sv-t(>0iv. 

§  834,  1.  3.  For  ambur-  burn  round,  ambed-  eat  round,  substitute: 
am-ici-  throw  round,  clothe  with,  am-plect-  (r)  fold  oneself  round,  embrace. 

§  886.  Add  after  infitias  exequias,  suppetias. 

§  958.  Transfer  first  example  to  §  959. 

§  1068,  last  line.  Dele  sets  of,  as  catena  originally  meant  a  hoop  or 
link,  and  only  catenae  in  the  pi.  a  cliain. 

§  1 156.  Add :  Other  examples  are  seen  in  Laudabunt  alii  ....  — 
me  nee  tarn,  &c.,  Hor.  Od.  1,  7,  1  ;  Est  ut  uiro  uir  .  .  . — aequa  lege 
Necessitas,  &c.,  Od.  3,  1,  9;  Optat  quietem  .  .  .  .,  Optat  Prometheus 
.  .  .,  Optat  supremo  .  .  . — sed  uetant  leges  louis,  EpocL  17,  65;  Cupio 
.  .  .  Cupio  .  .  .  sed,  Cic.  Cat.  1,  2. 

§  1184,  last  ex.  For  Cic.  read  Plane,  ad  Cic. 

§  1228, 1.  10.  For  Mortalia  facta  read  Facta. 
„      1.  19.  For  better  read  much  better. 

§1236,1.7.    For  Herus  read  Erus. 

§  1256,  3rd  ex.  Head  Bacas. 

§  1295,  1.  1  and  4.  For  gerundive  read  gerund  or  gerundive. 

§  1308, 1.  2.  Dele  anquir-  look  round  for. 

§  1309  c.  For  example  Dicere,  etc.  substitute :  Ego  baiulabo :  tu  ut 
decet  dominum,  ante  me  ito  inanis  (Plaut.  As.  3,  3,  70),  I'll  do  the 
porter's  work;  you  as  becomes  a  master  shall  go  before  me  without  anythiny 
to  carry.  Add:  Pone  me  erat  Aegina,  ante  Megara  (Sulp.  ad  Cic.  lam. 
4,  5,  4) ;  Unam  cohortem  quae  ante  ceteras  extra  aciem  procurrerat 
(Caes.  B.  C.  1,  55,  3);  Ante  se  statuit  funditores  (Liv.  42,  58,  10). 

§  1338.  Begin  with:  In  in  composition  means,  first, down,  asin-curuo- 
bent  down,  m-clina-  bend  down,  in-fleet-  bend  down ;  secondly,  into,  etc. 

§  1340.  The  first  meaning  of  inter  is  under,  aqua  inter  cutem  dropsy 
(Gels.);  hence  too  interula  (sc.  uestis)  under-clothing;  cf.  Germ,  unter, 
our  under,  and  the  simple  in  down. 

§  1346.  The  first  meaning  of  ob  (=  e«r<)  is  after;  hence  occiput, 
the  back  of  the  head  ;  cf.  obsequi. 

§  1350.  Per  is  decapitated  from  super  and  means,  first,  over,  as  Ire 
praecipitem  in  lutum  per  caputque  pedesque  (Catul.  20,  9)  to  go  head- 
foremost into  the  mud,  o'er  head  and  heels  alike.  Add:  Ibi  per  stragem 


iacentium  elephamorum  atrox  edita  caedes  (Liv.  26,  6,  2  —  whore  Madvid 
against  MSS.  would  read  super  stngem);  Equus  pilo  traiectus  quum 
prolapsum  per  caput  regem  etfudisset  (27,  32,  35);  Ponte  per  Nilum 
facto  (44,  19,  9). 

§  1351.  Per  in  composition  means,  first,  over,  as  per-fund-  pour  all 
over,  per-ung-  anoint  all  over;  hence  too  per-uide-  =  (Hor.)  overlook, 
per-fuga  =»  transfuga  =  G.  iiberlaufer  one  who  goes  over  (to  the  enemy). 

§  1367.  He  (rec)  in  composition  means,  first,  up,  as  re-curuo-  bent  up, 
re-pando-  the  same,  re-cubo-  lie  with  the  back  raised,  re-sld-e-  sit  up  (in  bed), 
reci-proco-  up  and  down  =  our  ridge  and  furrow. 

§  1408,  1.  4.  For  so  many  engagements  read  engagements  so  important. 

§  1454  e,  subdiv.  a,  1.  4.  For  wish  you  to  remain  read  insist  on  your 
remaining. 

§  1465.  Add:  In  collating  a  MS.  (Harl.  i.?)  of  Liv.  6,  1-17,  many 
years  ago,  at  the  British  Museum,  I  found  the  above  words  written  as 
proclitics,  the  number  of  times  here  stated:  ut  IB,  si  8,  nisi  1,  sen  1,  et  1, 
nee  7,  ne  7,  non  23,  aut  1  ,  at  1,  an  2,  quam  4.  Also  qui  2,  guae  1,  qua  1, 
quo  1,  quod  4,  quum  6,  quin  2,  turn  4,  tarn  1,  iam  2,  sic  2,  se  9,  te  1, 
etiamsi  1.  Further,  251  monosyllabic  prepositions  against  48  not  so 
written,  and  10  disyllabic  prepositions  against  7  not  so  written.  The 
same  collation  exhibited  written  as  enclitics  :  sum  1,  sunt  1,  est  3,  esse  t, 
sim  2,  erat  5,  erant  1,  se  7,  sui  1,  quisque  2,  tamen  1,  enim  1,  and  even 
summaui  for  summa  ui  (compare  summopere). 

Page  435,  1.  32.  Attach  to  the  word  'assimilation'  the  note:  f  So 
v,  6a.£ffos,  vvgfos,  of  Ionic  and  Old  Attic  became  in  later  Attic 


Page  435,  1.  35.    Attach  to  the  word  '  compensation  '  the  note  :  J  So 
wo,  yiwa.ro  (for  tyivffee.ro  ?)  of  the  purer  Aeolic  became  in  Attic  xvuvu, 
and  tyt^a,  ifih^u  became  tysi^u,  qfaigu.    See  Liddell  and  Scott 

under  N  and  P,  where  however  the  change  is  reversed. 

Page  437,  1.  15.     To  %tig   append  the  note  :  f  A  nominative  %t£t 

appears  in  an  epigram  of  Timocreon's  in  Hephaestion   wig/  furfur  1  : 

rJa   ffVftfiovXtVtIV  %t(>S  O.'TO,    V9Vf  $t   TTKoat,. 

In  Index.  Neuter  nom.  rejects  s,  why?    For  p.  43.3  read  p.  433  j 
for  quidquod  read  quid  quod. 


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Horace.     The  Odes  and  Carmen  Saeculare.    In  English  verse  by 
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ton, M.A     3rd  edition.    6s.  6d. 

'  Illustrated  from  Antique  Gems  by  C.  W.  King,  M.A.     The 
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Philebus.    Translated  by  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.    Small  8vo.    4s. 

Thesetetus.  Translated  by  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.  Small  8vo.  4s. 

Analysis  and  Index  of  the  Dialogues.     By  Dr.  Day.     Post 

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5s. 

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University  of  Tubingen.  By  W.  Wagner,  Ph.D.  2  vols.  Demy  8vo.  21s. 

Student's  Guide  to  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Kevised  and  cor- 
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CLASSICAL    TABLES. 

Greek  Verbs.  A  Catalogue  of  Verbs,  Irregular  and  Defective;  their 
leading  formations,  tenses,  and  inflexions,  with  Paradigms  for  conjugation, 
Rules  for  formation  of  tenses,  &e.  <bc.  By  J.  S.  Baird,  T.C.D.  2s.  6d. 

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Baird,  T.C.D.     Is.  6d. 

Greek  Accidence.     By  the  Eev.  P.  Frost,  M.A.    Is. 
Latin  Accidence.     By  the  Eev.  P.  Frost,  M.A.     Is. 


Educational  Works. 


Latin  Versification.     Is. 

Notabilia  Quaedam ;  or  the  Principal  Tenses  of  most  of  the  Irregular 

Greek  Verbs  and  Elementary  Greek,  Latin,  and  French  Constructions. 

New  edition.     Is.  6d. 

Richmond  Rules  for  the  Ovidian  Distich,  &c.  By  J.  Tate,  M.A.   Is.  6J, 
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Arithmetic.    By  A.  Wrigley,  M.A.     3s.  6rf. 
A  Progressive  Course  of  Examples.     With  Answers.     By 

J.  Watson,  M.A.    3rd  Edition.    2s.  6d. 
An  Introduction  to  Plane  Astronomy.    By  P.  T.  Main,  M.A.     2nd 

Edition.     4s. 
Conic  Sections  treated   Geometrically.     By  W.  H.  Besant,  M.A. 

2nd  Edition.     4s.  6d. 

Elementary  Statics.     By  Rev.  H.  Goodwin,  D.D.     2nd  Edit.     3s. 
Elementary  Dynamics.     By  Eev.  H.  Goodwin,  D.D.     2nd  Edit.     3s, 
Elementary  Hydrostatics.    By  W.  H.  Besant,  M.A.     7th  Edit,    4*. 
An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Mensuration.    By  B.  T.  Moore,  M.A.    5s. 
The  First  Three  Sections  of  Newton's  Principia,  with  an  Appendix; 

and  the  Ninth  and  Eleventh.  Sections.    By  J.  H.  Evans,  M.A.    5th  Edition, 

by  P.  T.  Main,  M.A.    4s. 

Elementary  Trigonometry.     By  T.  P.  Hudson,  M.A.    3s.  6d. 
Geometrical  Optics.     By  W.  S.  Aldis,  M.A.     3s.  Qd. 
Analytical  Geometry  for  Schools.  By  T.G.Vyvyan.   3rd  Edit.  4s.  6d. 

Companion  to  the'  Greek  Testament.    By  A.  C.  Barrett,  A.M.     3rd 

Edition.    Fcap  8vo.     5s. 
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The  Elements  of  Euclid.     By  H.   J.  Hose.      Fcap.  8vo.      4s.  6d. 

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Maaon,  B.A.     2nd  Edition.     Fcap  8vo.     2s.  6d. 

The  Enunciations  and  Figures  to  Euclid's  Elements.  By  Eev.  J. 
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Without  the  Figures,  6d. 

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Geometrical  Conic  Sections.  By  W.H.Besant,M.A.  2nd  Edit.  4s.6rf. 
The  Geometry  of  Conies.  By  C.  Taylor,  M.A.  2nd  Edit.  8vo.  4s.  6d. 
Solutions  of  Geometrical  Problems,  proposed  at  St.  John's  College 

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Elementary  Trigonometry.    By  T.  P.  Hudson,  M.A.     3s.  6d. 
Elements  of  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry.    By  J.  Hind,  M.A. 

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An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Mensuration.   By  B.  T.  Moore,  M.A.  5s. 


ANALYTICAL    GEOMETRY 
AND    DIFFERENTIAL    CALCULUS. 

An  Introduction  to  Analytical  Plane  Geometry.     By  W.  P.  Turnbull, 

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Walton,  M.A.     8vo.     16s. 

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An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Solid  Geometry.    By  W.  S.  Aldis,  M.A. 

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Geometrical  Illustrations  of  the  Differential  Calculus.    By  M.  B.  Pell. 

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Elementary  Dynamics.  By  H.  Goodwin,  D.D.  Fcap.  8vo.  2nd  Edit. 

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A  Treatise  on  the  Dynamics  of  a  Particle.    Preparing. 
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Griffin,  M.A.    8vo.     6s.  6d. 

Of  Motion.  An  Elementary  Treatise.  By  J.  E.  Lunn,  M.A.  7s.6rf. 
Geometrical  Optics.  By  W.  S.  Aldis,  M.A.  Fcap.  8vo.  3s.  6d. 

A  Chapter  on  Fresnel's   Theory  of  Double  Refraction.    By  W.  S. 

Aldis,  M.A.    8vo.     2s. 
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The  First  Three  Sections  of  Newton's  Principia,  with  an  Appendix; 

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Edited  by  P.  T.  Main,  M.A.    4s. 

An  Introduction  to  Plane  Astronomy.    By  P.  T.  Main,  MA.    Fcap. 

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Practical  and  Spherical  Astronomy.    By  E.  Main,  M.A.    8vo.     14s. 

Elementary  Chapters  on  Astronomy,  from  the  "Astronomie  Phy- 
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Elementary  Course  of  Mathematics.    By  H.  Goodwin, D.D.    6th  Edit. 

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The  New  Table  of  Lessons  Explained.  By  Kev.  W.  G.  Humphry, 
B.D.  Fcap.  Is.  Qd. 

A  Commentary  on  the  Gospels  for  the  Sundays  and  other  Holy  Days 
of  the  Christian  Year.  By  Rev.  W.  Denton,  A.M.  New  Edition.  3  vols. 
8vo.  54s.  Sold  separately. 

Commentary  on  the  Epistles  for  the  Sundays  and  other  Holy  Days 
of  the  Christian  Year.  2  vols.  36s.  Sold  separately. 

Commentary  on  the  Acts.  Vol.  I.  ,8vo.    18s.    Vol.  II.  in  preparation. 
Jewel's  Apology  for  the  Church  of  England,  with  a  Memoir.  32mo.  2s. 

Notes  on  the   Catechism.     By   Rev.  A.   Barry,  D.D.    2nd  Edit. 

Fcap.     2s. 

Catechetical  Hints  and  Helps.  By  Rev.  E.  J.  Boyce,  M.A.  3rd 
Edition,  revised.  Fcap.  2s.  Qd. 

Examination  Papers  on  Religious  Instruction.  By  Rev.  E.  J.  Boyce. 
Sewed.  In.  Qd. 

The  Winton  Church  Catechist.  Questions  and  Answers  on  the 
Teaching  of  the  Church  Catechism.  By  the  late  Rev.  J.  S.  B.  Monsell, 
LL.D.  3rd  Edition.  Cloth,  3s. ;  or  in  Four  Parts,  sewed. 

The  Church  Teacher's  Manual  of  Christian  Instruction.  By  Rev. 
M.  F.  Sadler.  3rd  Edition.  2s.  Qd. 

Brief  Words  on  School  Life.    By  Rev.  J.  Kempthorne.    Fcap.   3s.  Qd. 

Short  Explanation  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  of  the  Christian  Year, 
with  Questions.  Royal  32mo.  2s.  Qd.  ;  calf,  4s.  6d. 

Butler's  Analogy  of  Keligion ;  with  Introduction  and  Index  by  Rev. 
Dr.  Steere.  New  Edition.  Fcap.  3s.  Qd. 


Educational  Works.  13 

Butler's  Three  Sermons  on  Human  Nature,  and  Dissertation  on 
Virtue.    By  W.  Whewell,  D.D.     4th  Edition.    Fcap  8vo.     2s.  6d. 

Lectures  on  the  History  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  England.     By  W. 
Whewell,  D.D.    Crown  8vo.    8s. 

Elements  of  Morality,  including  Polity.    By  W.  Whewell,  D.D.    New 

Edition,  in  8vo.     15*. 

Astronomy  and  General  Physics  (Bridgewater  Treatise).     New  Edi- 
tion.   5s. 

Kent's  Commentary  on  International  Law.     By  J.  T.  Abdy,  LL.D. 

8vo.     16s. 

A  Manual  of  the  Eoman  Civil  Law.    By  G.  Leapingwell,  LL.D.    8vo. 

12s. 


FOREIGN    CLASSICS. 

A   series  for  use  in  Schools,   with   English   Notes,  grammatical  and 

explanatory,  and  renderings  of  difficult  idiomatic  expressions. 

Fcap.  8vo. 

Schiller's  Wallenstein.     By  Dr.  A.  Buchheim.     2nd  Edit.     6s.  Qd. 
Or  the  Lager  and  Piccolomini,  3*.  6d.    Wallenstein's  Tod,  3s.  6d. 

Maid  of  Orleans.    By  Dr.  W.  Wagner.    3s.  6rf. 

Maria  Stuart.     By  V.  Kasl  ner.    In  the  press. 

Goethe's  Hermann  and  Dorothea.    By  E.  Bell,  M.A.,  and  E.  Wolfel. 

2s.  6d. 

German  Ballads,  from  Uhland,  Goethe,   and  Schiller.     By  C.  L. 
Bielefeld.     3s.  6d. 

Charles  XII.,  par  Voltaire.     By  L.  Direy.     3rd  Edit.     3s.  6d. 

Aventures  de  Telemaque,  par  F^nelon.    By  C.  J.  Delille.    2nd  Edit. 
4s.  6d. 

Select  Fables  of  La  Fontaine.    By  F.  E.  A.  Gasc.    New  Edition.    3s. 
Picciola,  by  X.  B.  Saintine.     By  Dr.  Dubuc.     4th  Edit.    3s.  6rf. 


FRENCH    CLASS-BOOKS. 

Twenty  Lessons  in  French.     With  Vocabulary,  giving  the  Pronun- 
ciation.   By  W.  Brebner.    Post  8vo.    4s. 

French  Grammar  for  Public  Schools.    By  Rev.  A.  C.  Clapin,  M.A. 
Fcap.  8vo.    2nd  Edit.    2s.  6d.    Separately,  Part  I.  2s.;  Part  II.  Is.  6rf. 

Le  Nouveau  Tresor;  or,  French  Student's  Companion.    By  M.  E.  S. 
16th  Edition.    Fcap.  8vo.    3s.  6d. 


14  George  Bell  and  Sons' 

F.  E.  A.  GASC'S  FRENCH  COUESE. 
First  French  Book.     Fcap.  8vo.     New  Edition.     Is.  6rf. 
Second  French  Book.     New  Edition.     Fcap.  8vo.    -2s.  6rf. 
Key  to  First  and  Second  French  Books.     Fcap.  8vo.     3s.  6d. 
French  Fables  for  Beginners,  in  Prose,  with  Index.     New  Edition. 
12mo.     2s. 

Select  Fab'les  of  La  Fontaine.     New  Edition.     Fcap.  8vo.    3s. 
Histoires  Ainusantes  et  Instructiv.es.    With  Notes.     New  Edition, 

Fcap.  Svo.     2s.  Qd. 

Practical  Guide  to  Modern  French  Conversation.    Fcap.  8vo.    2s.  6rf» 
French  Poetry  for  the  Young.     With  Notes.     Fcap.  Svo.     2s. 

Materials  for  French  Prose  Composition ;  or,  Selections  from  the  best 

English  Proae  Writers.    New  Edition.     Fcap.  8vo.     4*.  6d.    Key,  65. 
Prosateurs  Contemporains.    With  Notes.    Svo.   New  Edition,  revised. 

5s. 

Le  Petit  Compagnon;  a  French   Talk-Book  for  Little   Children. 

16mo.     2s.  Gd. 
An  Improved  Modern  Pocket  Dictionary  of  the-  French  and  English 

Languages.    20th  Thousand,  with  additions.    16mo.    Cloth.    4s. 

Modern  French  and  English  Dictionary.    Demy  Svo.    In  two  vols. 
Vol.  I.  F.  and  E.  15*. ;  Vol.  II.  E.  and  F.  10.?. 


GOMJBEET'S  FRENCH  DRAMA. 

Being  a  Selection  of  the  best  Tragedies  and  Comedies  of  Moltere, 
Racine,  Coraeille,  and  Voltaire.  With  Arguments  and  Notes  by  A. 
Gombert.  New  Edition,  i-evised  by  F.  E.  A.  Gasc  Fcap.  Svo.  1*.  each;, 
sewed,  6d. 

CONTENTS. 

MOLIEKE  : — Le  Misanthrope.  L'Avare.  Le  Boui-geois  Gentilhomme.  Le 
Tartuffe.  Le  Malade  Imaginaire.  Les  Femmes  Savantes.  Les  Fourberies 
de  Scapin.  Les  Precieuses  Ridicules.  L'Ecole  des  Femmes.  L'Ecole  des 
Maris.  Le  Medecin  malgre  Lui. 

RACINE  :— Fhe'dre.    Esther.    Atuaiie.    Iphigenie.    Les  Plaidenrs. 

P.  CORNEILLE:— LeCid.     Horace.    Cinna.  [_In  tlie  press. 

VOLTAIRE  : — Zaire. 

Others  in  preparation. 


GERMAN    CLASS-BOOKS. 

Materials  for  German  Prose  Composition.    By  Dr.  Buchheim.     4th 

Edition  revised.     Fcap.    4s.  6d. 
A  German  Grammar  for  Public  Schools.     By  the  Kev.  A.  C.  Clapin 

and  F.  Roll  M tiller.    Fcap.     2«.  6d. 
Kotzebue's  Der  Gefangene.    With  Notes,  by  Dr.  W.  Stromberg.    Is. 


Educational  Works.  15 


ENGLISH    CLASS-BOOKS. 

The  Elements  of  the  English  Language.    By  E.Adams,  Ph.D.    14th 
Edition.    Post  8vo.     4s.  6d. 

The  Rudiments  of  English  Grammar  and  Analysis.     By  E.  Adams, 
Ph.D.    New  Edition.    Fcap. 8vo.    2s. 

BY  REV.  C.  P.  MASON,  B.A.  LONDON. 

First  Notions  of  Grammar  for  Young  Learners.    Fcap.  8 vo.  Cloth.  8d. 

First  Steps  in  English  Grammar  for  Junior  Classes.     Demy  18mo. 
New  Edition.    1*.  - 

Outlines  of  English  Grammar  for  the  use  of  Junior  Classes.     Cloth. 
1*.  6d. 

English  Grammar,  including  the  Principles  of  Grammatical  Ana- 
lysis.   20th  Edition.    Post  8vo.    3s.  6d. 

The  Analysis  of  Sentences  applied  to  Latin.     Post  8vo.     Is.  Grf. 

Analytical  Latin  Exercises:  Accidence  and  Simple  Sentences,  &c. 
Post  8vo.    3s,  6d. 

Edited  for  Middle-Class  Examinations. 

With  Notes  on  the  Analysis  and  Parsing,  and  Explanatory  Remarks. 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  Book  I.  With  Life.  3rd  Edit.  Post  8vo.  2s. 

Book  II.     With  Life.    2nd  Edit.   Post  8vo.     2s. 

Book  III.    With  Life.     Post  8vo.     2s. 

Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village.    With  Life.     Post  8vo.     Is.  6rf. 
Cowper's  Task,  Book  II.     With  Life.     Post  8vo.     2s. 
Thomson's  Spring.    With  Life.     Post  8vo.     2s. 

Winter.    With  Life.     Post  8vo.     2s. 


Practical  Hints  on  Teaching.    By  Rev.  J.  Menet,  M.A.     4th  Edit. 

Crown  8vo.    Cloth,  2s.  6d.  ;  paper,  2s. 
Test  Lessons  in  Dictation.     Paper  cover,  Is.  6rf. 
Questions  for  Examinations  in  English  Literature.     By  Rev.  W.  W 

Skeat.    2s.  6d. 
Drawing  Copies.    By  P.  H.  Delamotte.    Oblong  8vo.  12s.  Sold  als« 

parts  at  1*.  each. 

Poetry  for  the  School-room.     New  Edition.     Fcap.  8vo.     Is.  fid. 
Select  Parables  from  Nature,  for  Use  in  Schools.    By  Mrs.  A.  Gatty. 

Fcap  Svo.    Cloth,    la. 

School  Record  for  Young  Ladies'  Schools.     6d. 
Geographical  Text-Book;  a  Practical   Geography.     By   M.    E.    S. 

12mo.    2*. 

The  Blank  Maps  done  up  separately.    4to.  2s.  colourei 
A  First  Book  of  Geography.     By  Rev.  C.  A.  Johns,  B,A.,  F.L.S. 

Ac.    Illustrated.    12mo.    2*.  6d. 
London's  (Mrs.)  Entertaining  Naturalist.     New  Edition.     Revised  by 

W.  S.  Dallas,  F.L.S.    5s. 
Handbook  of  Botany.     New  Edition,  greatly  enlarged    by 

D.  Wooster.    Fcap.    2*.  6d. 


16  Educational  Works. 

The  Botanist's  Pocket-Book.    "With  a  copious  Index.     By  W.  E. 

Hayward.    Crown  8vo.    Cloth  limp,  4s.  6d. 
Experimental  Chemistry,  founded  on  the  Work  6f  Dr.  Stockhardt. 

By  C.  "W.  Heaton.    Post  8vo.     5*. 

Cambridgeshire  Geology.  By  T.  G.  Bonney,  F.G.S.  &c.  8vo.  3s. 
Double  Entry  Elucidated.  By  B.W.Foster.  7th  Edit.  4to.  8s.  6d. 
A  New  Manual  of  Book-keeping.  By  P.  Crellin,  Accountant.  Crown 

8vo.     3s.  6d. 

Picture  School-Books.    In  simple  Language,  with  numerous  Illus- 
trations.   Royal  16mo. 

School  Primer.  6d— School  Reader.  By  J.  Tilleard.  1*.— Poetry  Book 
for  Schools.  !«.— The  Life  of  Joseph.  Is.— The  Scripture  Parables.  By  the 
Rev.  J.  E.  Clarke.  Is  — The  Scripture  Miracles.  By  the  Rev.  J.  B.  Clarke. 
Is.— The  New  Testament  History.  By  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Wood,  M.A.  1*.— The 
Old  Testament  History.  By  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Wood,  M.A.  1*.— The  Story  of 
Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress.  Is. — The  Life  of  Christopher  Columbus.  By 
Sarah  Crompton.  !«.— The  Life  of  Martin  Luther.  By  Sarah  Crompton.  la. 

BY  THE  LATE  HORACE  GRANT. 

Arithmetic  for  Young  Children.     Is.  Qd. 

Second  Stage.     18mo.    3s. 

Exercises  for  the  Improvement  of  the  Senses.     18mo.     Is. 

Geography  for  Young  Children.     18mo.     2s. 

Books  for  Young  Readers.     In  Eight  Parts.     Limp  cloth,  Sd.  each ; 

or  extra  binding,  Is.  each. 

Part  I.  contains  simple  stories  told  in  monosyllables  of  not  more  than  four 
letters,  which  are  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  interesting  to  preserve  the 
attention  of  a  child.  Part  II.  exercises  the  pupil  by  a  similar  method  in 
slightly  longer  easy  words;  and  the  remaining'  parts  consist  of  stories 
graduated  in  difficulty,  until  the  learner  is  taught  to  read  with  ordinary 
facility.  ri 

BELL'S    READING-BOOKS. 

FOR    SCHOOLS    AND    PAROCHIAL    LIBRARIES. 

The  popularity  which  the  Series  of  Reading-books,  known  as  "  Books  for 
Young  Readers,"  has  attained  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  teachers  and  pupils 
alike  approve  of  the  use  of  interesting  stories,  with  a  simple  plot  in  place  of  tho 
dry  combination  of  letters  and  syllables,  making  no  impression  on  the  mind, 
of  which  elementary  reading-books  generally  consist. 

The  publishers  have  therefore  thought  it  advisable  to  extend  the  application 
of  this  principle  to  books  adapted  for  more  advanced  readers. 

Now  Beady, 

Masterman  Ready.     By  Captain  Marryat.     Is.  6rf. 
Parables  from  Nature  (selected).     By  Mrs.  Gatty.     Fcap.  8vo,     Is. 
Friends  in  Fur  and  Feathers.     By  Gwynfryn.     l.s. 
Robinson  Crusoe.    ]s.  6d. 
Andersen's  Danish  Tales.     By  E.  Bell,  M.A.     Is. 

In  preparation . — 
Grimm's  German  Tales.    (Selections.) 


London :  Printe    by  JOHN  STRANGEWAYS,  Castle  St.  Leicester  S  i. 


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