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LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

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LATIN HEXAMETER
VERSE,

AN AID TO COMPOSITION

("■^

S. E. WIN BOLT, M.A.

PORMBRLT SCHOLAR OP CORPUS CHRISTI COLLSGB, OXFORD
A MASTRR AT CHRIST'S HOSPITAL

METHUEN & CO.

36 ESSEX STREET W.C.

LONDON

1903

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Zothc

Rbv. RICHARD LEE, M.A.

HBADMASTBK OF CHRIST'S HOSPITAL

1 876- 1 902

THIS BOOK IS GRATBFULLY DBDICATBD BY HIS

FORMBR PUPIL AND COLLBAGUB

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PREFACE

This book contains the fruit of several years' class-teaching.
It is offered as a help to fifth and sixth forms at public
schools, and undergraduates at universities.

The metrical notes included in my edition of the 'four
books of Virgirs Georgics (Messrs Blackie & Son) met with
so much encouragement from several reviewers that I am
hopeful there will be some use for these pages. I do not
know of any book in English covering the same groundi
and possibly a few of the faults of this work may be entitled
to the indulgence due to the pioneer.

Will the composition of Latin Verse continue to form a
part of our classical curriculum ? I am not here concerned
to answer this question ; but there can be no doubt that if
classical education is to continue to hold its own, its
various departments must be made thoroughly efficient,
and the best methods in translation and composition must
be sought for. The present is a humble departmental
effort in this direction.

The principle adopted is to aid in the composition of
hexameter verse by showing to some extent the develop-
ment of this literary form, by inferring from the evolution
what is the best workmanship, and by hinting how
technique depends largely on thought A treatment of
the subject on the broadest lines should stimulate an
enthusiasm for the hexameter as a literary form. This
attained, we have the best aid towards the composing of

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viii PREFACE

good hexameter verses. Moreover, the close study of one
literary form is sure to ramify into a variety of literary
interests.

The method here followed has been tested and found to
work well. The beginner is apt to be utterly bewildered
by the apparently unregulated rhythms of hexameter verse.
To what point can he first direct his attention? The
smallest practicable integer is not the complete type of
hexameter line, but the partial and fused types (see § i)
produced by the various pauses. Begin with a thorough
drilling in the use of these. With such apparatus as is
here provided, hexameters may be begun as soon as the
student has a fair grip of the elegiac couplet. For the first
twelve or eighteen months of hexameter writing I would
recommend that the student confine himself to the sections
marked with an asterisk ; and it is on the whole advisable
that chapter vii. should be taken next to chapter i.
Pauses and symmetrical phrasing — these are the two pillars
on which the weight of the structure must rest. The
chapters on caesura and elision may well wait.

I am aware of several shortcomings in this book. It is
limited to the heroic hexameter, and that of the Virgilian
type. The interpretation of pauses may here and there
border on the fanciful — but possibly in teaching it is a
better fault to see too much meaning in a masterpiece than
too little. The chapters on caesura and elision (especially
the former) contain debatable matter, and I have had very
Kttle help on the subject of elision from predecessors.
Above all, the chapter on rhjrthm needs expansion to do
the subject thorough justice, or to bring it into proportion
with those on more technical subjects; the appendix on
theme and variation should have found a place in it. But,
even as it stands, I hope it may be of assistance to young
composers.

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PREFACE ix

The exercises given are little more than specimens;
teachers can, without difficulty, add to their number when
necessary.

As to the English to be chosen for translation. When
detached exercises first make way for complete copies, it is
my experience that the English should first of all be
Miltonic^ and suggest the Virgilian type. As a boy's skill
increases, English more and more unlike Milton may be
set, and possibly he will finally be led to take some other
poet than Virgil for his Latin model.

For my matter I am indebted in a trifling degree to
German statistics. I have made use of R6nstr6m,
Quicherat, and Plessis ; but I may fairly say I owe most to
my own observation and investigation of the Virgilian
hexameter.

I have had the benefit of invaluable aid in the proof
correction stage. To Rev. Dr Haig Brown, Master of the
Charterhouse, Mr T. E. Page, of Charterhouse, Dr W. H.
D. Rouse, Headmaster of the Perse School, Cambridge,
Mr R. L. A. Du Pontet, of Winchester College, and Mr
A. E. Bemays, of the City of London School, I take this
opportunity of offering my sincere thanks for their kind
assistance.

A key has been prepared for the use of authenticated
teachers.

Mainb Housb, Christ's Hospital,

W. Horsham. April iqoy.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.— Pauses
Hexameter Verse .
Pauses, heavy and light
Diaeresis •
Pause after i foot .
I trochee
I dactyl

1 spondee
li feet

2 trochee

2 dactyl
2ifeet

3 trochee

3 dactyl
34 feet

4 trochee
4 dactyl

4 spondee
44 feet

5 trochee
5 feet .
54 feet
Final pauses

Summary on pauses

Aposiopesis

Incomplete lines in Acneid

Successions of pauses

Pauses at opemng of a passage

Pauses at close of a passage

Passages of Virgil illustrating pauses

PAGB

1-69
I

5
7
8

25
27

30
33
37
40

44
45
46

50
50
54
58
58
59
59
60
61
62
64
67

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xii CONTENTS

CHAPTER II.— Cjbsuras .

. 70-103

The principle of caesuras .

Definition of caesura

Principal, secondary, and tertiary caesurai

5 . . 74

ComUnations of caesuras .

Types of lines according to combinations

of caesuras . ?7

Precedence among caesuras

Caesuras and rhythmical and descriptive €

ffects . . 91

Restrictions to use of caesuras

Lines with exceptional caesuras .

100

Lucretius and caesuras

lOI

CHAPTER III.— The Beginning of the

i Verse . 106-125

The first foot

106

Initial spondaic word . . ■

107

Initial dactylic word

112

Dactyls and spondees in the first four feel

t . . 113

Spondaic lines

1x8

Dactylic lines

121

Lines with spondees and dactyls mixed

123

CHAPTER IV.— The End of the Vers

B . . 126-155

Normal endings .

126

Abnormal endings

127

Spondaic fifth foot

128

Pentesyllabie endings . •

134

Quadrisyllable endings

135

Endings of two disyllables

137

Monosyllabic endings

140

Hypermetre

148

Emphatic words at end of line

152

Length of final syllable •

154

CHAPTER v.— The Meeting of Vowels,

Consonants,

and Composite Sounds .

. 156-198

Alliteration

156

Homceoteleuta and Assonance

161

Rhymes .

162

Use of proper names

163

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CONTENTS

xiii

PAGB

Smooth lines .....

163

Elision ......

. 166.187

Elisions to be avoided

168

Aphaeresis .....

169

Apocope .....

170

Elision of short vowels

171

Elision of long and middle syllables .

173

Frequency of elision according to position in the line 174

Elisions and caesuras

176

Elision of monosyllables

177

Descriptive use of elisions .

179

History of elisions ....

180

Elisions in 300 lines of Virgil

182

Chief rules as to elision

186

1
1

Synizesis ......

191

Dialysis ......

194

Hiatus ......

195

Semi-hiatus .....

197

CHAPTER VI.— Metrical Conveniences

. 100-214

Lengthening of vowels ....

200

Shortening of vowels ....

207

Tmesis ......

211

Syncope ......

212

Archaic forms .....

214

CHAPTER VII.— Rhythmical Structures

. 216-233

Principles of rhythm in Latin verse

216

Symmetry of noun and adjective

218

«« Golden "lines ....

219

Symmetrical order .....

224

Five-worded and four-worded lines

226

Repetition .....

230

>■

Hyperbaton .....

233

CHAPTER VIII.— Descriptive Verse, etc.

. 234.240

Virgil's use of descriptive verse .

234

Differentiation of the parU of the hexameter

237

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xiv CONTENTS

PAOB

How to set about a translation into hexameters . 238

How to begin an original poem .... 239

EXERCISES ...... 241-259

A Demonstration . ..... 241-247

Exercises with references to sections . . . 247-253

Exercises without references to sections . . . 253-259

APPENDIX.— Theme and Variation . . 261

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LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

CHAPTER I

PAUSES

*1. What is the salient difference between Hexameter
and Elegiac verse? Open your Ovid at i\it Fasti {ox Epistolae^
or Tristia) and read a dozen lines, and then your Virgil
anjTwhere and do the same. It will at once appear that
whereas the elegiac metre proceeds by couplets, and the
poet is bound to compress or expand each succeeding idea
so that his words may fit exactly into this mould, hexameter
verse may freely overflow from one line into another so
that the sense may run on through one, two, or even three
lines and then come to a pause in one or more of several
places in the second, third, or fourth line. The com-
position of hexameters therefore appears at the outset an
easier matter because of this freedom ; but on closer ex-
amination we find that, to achieve any rhythmical success,
we must bestow much greater pains on it, the chief reason
being that whereas in the elegiac, the sense pauses being
rigidly fixed, the rules are correspondingly definite and
limited, in the hexameter with its greater elasticity the
rules are very many, more subtle, demand far more study
before you can realise them, and vary far more according
to the nature of the subject matter.

* Asterisks are placed against those sections to which the beginner in
his first year or so of hexameter composition should give his attention.

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a LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

In order to realise this distinction more fully, consider
the analogous distinction in English between Pope's heroic
couplets, and Milton's iambics, as exemplified in the
following : —

So many flames before proud Ilion blaze.
And lighten glimmering Xanthus with their rays :
The long reflections of the distant fires
Gleam on the walls, and tremble on the spires.
A thousand piles the dusky horrors gild,
And shoot a shady lustre o'er the field.
Full fifty guards each flaming pile attend,
Whose umber'd arms, by fits, thick flashes send.
Loud neigh the coursers o'er their heaps of com.
And ardent warriors wait the rising mom.

The Iliad, bk. viii.

Contrast the rhythm of these ten lines with the freedom
and power, the equally harmonious modulation and pleas-
ing pause melody, of the following eleven lines from Paradise
Lost, bk. i. —

The chief were those, who from the pit of hell.
Roaming to seek their prey on earth, durst fix
Their seats long after next the seat of God,
Their altars by his altar, gods adored
Among the nations round, and durst abide
Jehovah thundering out of Sion, throned
Between the cherubim : yea, often placed
Within his sanctuary itself their shrines.
Abominations ; and with cursed things
His holy rites and solemn feasts profaned,
And with their darkness durst aflront his light.

The variety of which Milton's verse is capable is great,
but that of Virgil's hexameter still greater, partly by reason
of the greater length of line.

The difiierence then between elegiac and hexameter corn-

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PAUSES 3

position is mainly one of form : water-tight compartments
are the rule in one, the free flow of verse into verse
characterises the other. The elegiac metre is based on
the idea of metrical r^nlarity, as produced by the recur-
rence of the couplet ; hexameter verse on a combination of
metrical regularity, produced by the recurrence of hexameter
lines, and of the rhetorical point and musical effects resulting
from the use of varied pauses.

From what has been said it is obvious that, as pauses
depend mainly upon rhetorical considerations, i.e. upon
the adjustment of words to thought and feeling, distinct
methodical rules in many cases cannot be formulated.
But there are many points in the usage of Virgil, the
great master of the Latin hexameter, which occur so fre-
quently that we are justified in regarding them as rules.
Consciously or unconsciously he worked upon these rules
and made them into a system, and it is these rules that we
now intend to abstract by careful analysis of the mass of
his work. When, after a few years, we have mastered
Virgilian usage, and have learnt fully to appreciate his
perfect balance of the formal and the spiritual, then and
not till then shall we be justified in asserting our own
personality by launching out into new structures. Such
experiments will be successful only if they spring im-
mediately and naturally from dramatic or rhetorical
sympathy.

According to the position of sense-pauses, we may dis-
tinguish three sorts of hexametrical types, complete (C),
partial (P), and fused (F). Complete types consist of
whole verses j partial, of parts of a verse ; fused, of a part
of one verse, and a part or the whole of another. These
three sorts are illustrated in the following period : —

Nate, licet tristes animo deponere curas. | C

Haec omnis morbi causa ; | hinc miserabile Nymphae, | P

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4 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Cum quibus ilia choros lucis agitabat in aids, | C

Exidum misere apibus. | Tu munera supplex F

Tende, petens pacem, et facilis venerare Napaeas; | F

Namque dabunt veniam, votis, irasque remittent. C

G. iv. 531.

It will be seen that in this passage of six lines there are
no less than three complete types. This suggests that the
normal type — the unit of reference or verse- standard —
should govern the composition everywhere : ue, the standard^
hexameter should recur often enough to be always heard
pervading the composition, which would otherwise de-
generate into rhythmical chaos. Excessive metrical re-
gularity of type is to be avoided ; but equally so, excessive
pause-variation.

* 2. {a) The Principle and Definitions, — Marked pauses
and breaks affect the hexameter as a rhetorical instrument,
just as the caesura (v, pp. 70, 71, § 31) afifects it as a metrical
unit: that is, variety of pauses is required to represent
variety of thought and feeling. Again, pause-variation is
required as a set-off to the metrical sameness which would
result from an unbroken series of complete types.

Definitions. — A heavy pause is one at which a long break,
a light pause is one at which a short break, must be made
in reciting.

As to what sense pauses are to be counted, and whether,
when counted, they are to be regarded as heavy or light,
these are matters of which different readers are apt to take
different views. Punctuation is alwa}^ largely a perscmal
matter, varying with the idiosyncrasies of the writer. The
best test of the existence and character of pauses is the
recitation of a passage, such pauses only being made as
must be deliberately observed in order to bring out the
meaning intelligibly. Generally, then, when there is doubt
^ For Uie proportion of complete hexameters see p. 58, f 93.

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PAUSES 5

the reader must consider each pause on its own merits in
the light of its context A few rules, however, may be
given as authoritative.

♦ 3. Heavy Pauses, — ^Among heavy pauses count those : —

L Following the introduction to a set speech ; e.g.

Cum sic orsa loqui vates : || ' Sate sanguine divom.'

A. vi. 125.
Incipit Aeneas heros : || 'Non ulla laborum.' 3, 103.

ii. At the end of a question :

Scilicet haec Spartam incolumis patriasque Mycenas
Aspiciet? || A, ii. 578.

* En, quid ago? ' || A. iv. 534.

iii In strong antithesis ; e,g,

Constemunt terram concusso stipite frondes ; ||

Ipsa haeret scopulis, etc. A* iv. 444.

Mens immota manet ; || lacrimae volvuntur inanes. lb, 448.

* 4. The following are cases of light pause : —

i Between a relative clause and the clause containing the
antecedent when the sense connection is close ; e,g,

Nomadumque petam conubia supplex, |
Quos ^o sim totiens jam dedignata maritos. A, iv. 535.

Sequor, et, qua dudtis, | adsum. A, ii. 701.

But,

superet conjunxne Creusa
Ascaniusque puer ? || Quos omnis undique Graiae
Circum errant acies, et, ni mea cura resistat.
Jam flammae tulerint inimicus et hauserit ensis. 3, 598.

where the relative really introduces not a subordinate but
a co-ordinate clause.

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6 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

n. When ef, quej sedy atque^ nee are links making an almost
unbroken continuation in the sense.

Erig^ I et arma viri, thalamo quae fixa reliquit

Impius, I exuviasque omnes lectumque jugalem. A. iv. 496.

Danaique obsessa tenebant
Limina portarum, | nee spes opis ulla dabatur. A. ii. 803.

iii. When subdivisions, introduced by /^ . . . hic^pars
. . . parSy and such repetitions, express contemporaneous
action. [If the antithesis is strongly marked the pause must
be counted heavy ; v, supra, iii.]

Hie Dolopum manus, | hie saevus tendebat Achilles ; ||
Classibus hie locus, | hie acie certare solebant. A, ii. 29.

quaerit pars semina flammae
Abstrusa in venis siUcis ; | pars densa ferarum, etc.

A, vi. 6.

IV. Before and after parenthesis :

adversae obluctor harenae | —
Eloquar an sileam? — | gemitus lacrimabilis imo.

A. iii. 37, 38.
Talibus adfata Aenean | — nee sacra morantur
Jussa viri — | Teucros vocat alta in templa sacerdos.

A. vi. 40, 41.

V. When a/V, inquit, etc., are embedded in Oratio
Recta; e^.

' Die,' ait, ' O Virgo, quid volt concursus ad amnem ? '

A, vi. 318.
Et mater, ' Cape Maeonii carchesia Bacchi :
Oceano libcmus,' | ait. G. iv. 381.

' Fas illi limina divom
Tangere,' | ait lb. 358.

'Vale, Vaie,' | inquit, | 'lolla.' -£. iii 79,

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PAUSES 7

vi. When inquit is omitted ; e,g,

Pluribus oranti Aeneas, | ' Haud talia dudum

Dicta dabas.' A. x. 599.

Turn sic Hjrtacides, | * Audite o mentibus aequis/

A, ix. 234.

vii. When hurried or eager questions are asked in close
succession, or tacked on with a transitional aut^ ve, or
fiAf; e.g.

Quae scelerum facies ? | o virgo, effare ; | quibusve
Urgentur poenis ? | Qui tantus plangor ad aures ?

A. vi. 560, 561.
Nate, quis indomitas tantus dolor excitat iras ? |
Quid furis? | Aut quonam nostri tibi cura recessit ?

^. »• 594, 595-

See also A. iv. 534-546, and mark the heavy and the
light pauses. ^

* 6. Diaeresis. — ^A sense-pause may occur in the middle
of a foot; but when a pause occurs after the end of a
word which is also the end of a foot we have a Diaeresis
[obviously the term does not apply to the pause at the end
of a line], e.g.

ist foot Et ferit

2nd foot Magnanimi Jovis.

3rd foot Montibus audiri fragor.

4th foot {v. § 18). Atque superba pati fastidia.

5th foot Acceleremus, ait Vigiles simul excitat

Thus there are five possible cases of diaeresis.

Diaeresis has the effect of producing a more abrupt and
striking pause than the more common pauses in caesura.

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8 LATIN HEXAMBTER VERSE

We will now advance along the line from the beginning,
and consider the force and coi&parative frequency of the
pauses occurring in the different places.

6. I. After i foot {t\e. first long syllable).

(a) Examples, —
Nos, tua progenies, caeU. A, i. 250.

(A light pause before and after parenthesis.)
O — quam te memorem, virgo ? 3, 327.

£t, si fata deum, si mens non laeva fuisset. A, ii. 54.

Ut, cum te gremio. A, i. 685.

Nunc, quibus . • .
Nunc, quales. lb, 751, 752.

(Again light, as the relatives introduce co-ordinate,
subdivisions.)
Heu, quis te casus. A, iiL 317.

Di, quibus imperium est A. vi. 235.

Scis, ut te cunctis unam. A. xii. 143.

So Ovid, Met i. 550, Pes, modo tam velox.

Cf. Milton, S. A, 201— •

* Fool ! have divulg'd the secret gift of God ' ;
a heavier pause than (876)

* I, before all the daughters of my tribe.'

ifi) Virgilian usage, — It is a somewhat rare pause, and is
always of a very light character. A heavy pause is felt to
be impossible in this place; a spondee is felt to be the
smallest independent unit of the hexameter, and therefore
to make a single syllable stand alone seems violent. The
pause is generally follow^ by (i.) a parenthetical phrase, or
(ii.) a clause of parenthetical character which may be an
adjectival clause, a noun clause, or an adverbial clause in-
troduced by si,

{c) History, — Ennius has effective examples. It is very
rare in Lucretius, who uses it lightly in such phrases as non>
ut opinor (ii 551), nil, ut opinor (iL 1037), but rather

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PAUSES 9

heavily and clumsily in ii 4S7, e le¥H>i]s atqoe rutundis |
Est, et squalida mnlta creant; and iii 271, et mobilis ilia
I Vis, initum motus. A heavy pause is found in vi 270,
omnia plena | Sunt ; ideo passim, etc. Ovid's usage is like
Virgil's.

(d) Imitate — especially the light pause before a paren-
thetical phrase or clause.

{e) Avoid— ^ heavy pause in this place.

{f) Words or word-combinations, — ^Words often preceding
are heu^ o^ en, quidt (of indignation), non^ uty et, di, da, nos,
parts of /tic, post, and / (as in I, sequere Italiam, A, iv. 381
and 424). These monosyllables are mostly in close con-
nection with a following ji-clause, qualifying relative, or
adverbial clause.

(g) Exercises} — ^Translate into complete hexameters : —

And, hark / the nightingale begins its song,

' Most musical^ most melancholy ' bird 1 ^

Most melanchol||^bird ! O idle thought ! . ' i.

And had the victor now ta'en instant thought

To burst the gate-bolts and let-in his friends.

That day the war had ended, and the race. 11.

* Say, maid, what means the thronging to the stream,'

He says. ui. (a)

Now, chosen crews, bend to your sturdy oars.

Lift and bear in'^the barks ; cleave with their beaks

This hostile land, and let the keel's sheer weight

Plough its own furrow. in. (fi)

And now, where late the goats did lithely browse

The grass, there seals their cumbrous forms lay down.

III. (y)

^ The italicised words in the exercises are those which when translated
are likely to produce the required effect ; but obviously there is more than
one way of producing it, and the italics are to be regarded as simply
hifUin^ at aj^ssibU solution.

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lo LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Follow me not with tears, I pray ^
- Or with these dark forebodings, to the war's

Grim strife. iii. (8)

* 7. II. After first trochee (- ^).

(a) Examples, —
Ilia, graves oculos conata attoUere. A, iv. 688.

Si nulla est regio, Teucris quam det tua conjux
Dura, A. x. 45.

(So Digna, E, ix. 36.)

Hie plurimus ignis
Semper, et assidua postes fuligine nigri. E. vii. 50.

Scilicet immemores supera ut convexa revisant
Rursus, -^4. vl 751,

(Here a pathetic emphasis is given to rursus which refers
to 1. 721, Quae lucis miseris tarn dira cupidof)
Speluncisque lacus clausos lucosque sonantes
Ibat, et ingenti motu G. iv. 364.

(So also Ibat, A, xii. 378.) *

Vim duram et vincula capto
Tende ; G, iv. 399.

Perge: decet. A, xii. 153.

(So Perge: sequar. A. iv. 114.)
At mater sonitum thalamo sub fluminis alti
Sensit. Eam circum G, iv. 334.

Cynthius aurem
Vellit, et admonuit. E, vi. 4.

Amnis abundans
Exit, et obducto late tenet omnia limo. G. i. 116.

Populeas inter senior se attoUere frondis
Visus : A. viii. 33.

Numerumque referre
Jussit, et invito processit Vesper Olympo. E, vL 86.

(Cf. also A. iv. 254, Misit,)

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PAUSES II

£t bibit ingens
Arcus, et e pastu. G. L 381*

Vires dabit omnibus aequas
Terra, G. il 287.

{b) Virgilian usage. — ^This is not an infrequent pause ; it
mdces a pleasing variety, but should be used with some
definite meaning. An examination of the above examples
will show that it is used (L) after verbs and most parts of
speech, to give them special emphasis in the first place of the
line ; (iL) after verbs, to express rapidity or suddenness ; (iii.)
and occasionally merely to produce a variety of rhythm, with
vocatives (Daphni, tuum; Vare, tuas; Mopse, etc.), and
ecce, ipse, ille.

In (i.) and (ii.) the pause is heavy or light, in (iii.) it can
only be light

{c) History. — Ennian use somewhat resembles Virgil^s ; eg.
Quem tu tolles in caerula caeli
Templa. Ann, 70.

Atque ora tenebat
Rebus, utri etc. lb. 86.

Also with vocatives like Teque, pater Tiberine, lb. 51,

The same may be said of Lucretian usage ; eg.
Verum aliquid genere esse ex hoc quod contigit ei
Scimus. Item. vL 711.

So 736 Crescat, 771 Multa; and Suave, mari magno.

Catullus only uses the pause once in the 408 verses of Ixiv.,
but it is used finely to emphasise a noun : —
Feris dabor alitibusque
Praeda, neque injecta.

But though his predecessors used it with right feeling and*
fidr success, Virgil may claim to have first regularised and
given intention to this pause.

Ovid uses it some ten times in Metamorphosis i., but with
little intention beyond mere variety of rhythm. He likes its

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It LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

jingle (see IL 518, 52S9 534) and uses it £edrly often. It is a
part oi his general leaning towards dactyls.

(d) Imitate — after emphatic adjective or adverb, or verbs
expressive of suddenness or rapidity, as either a light or a
heavy pause.

(e) Avaid-'-the intentionless use.

(/) Words which tend to stand before the pause are
feminine adjectives (dura), trochaic perfects (sensit, etc.), and
imperatives (perge), vocatives (Mopse, Vare), ipse, ille, ecce ;
and vocatives are apt to follow (as in Teque, Quirine pater).
Note also the phrase Dixit, et.

List of dissyllabic perfects suited by sense to this place in
the line : — ^A

Arsit, carpsit, cepit, cessit, civit, clausit, dempsit, dixit,
duxit, egit, finxit, fixit, flexit, fregit, fudit, fugit, fulsit, gessit,
haesit, hausit, i/cit, jecit, junxit, jussit, laesit, liquit, luxit,
mersit, misit, movit, novit, pressit, prompsit, rasit, risit, rupit,
scripsit, sensit, sivit, solvit, sparsit, stravit, strinxit, sumpsit,
texit, torsit, trusit, venit, vertit, vicit, vidit, vinxit, volvit.

(g) Exercises. — [N,B, The English given is intended
always for translation into a number of complete hexa-
meters.] .1 ^^ , .\ ^

Me only cruel immortality

Consumes ; I wither slowly in thine arms,

Here, in the quiet limit of the world,

A white-hair'd shadow roaming like a dream

The ever silent spaces of the East, iv.

like that strange song I heard Apollo sing,

While Ilicm like a mist rose into towers. v.

And hence the god sheer to the water shat

Himself, just as a bird, which round the sh^es

And rocks, the haunts of fish, low skirts the waves, ti.

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PAUSES 15

Then to his son's right hand, at point to go,

Fast clings Evander, and insatiate meegs. vii.

Rolling a blood-shot eye, she sudden shouts
Fiercely : * Ho ! Latian mothers, wheresoe'er.
Hearken ! * Tin.

Then Proteus from the waves advanced to seek

Th' accustomed cave ; around him the wet tribes

Of the vast deep splashed wide the briny spray

In gambols. ix.

♦ 8. Ill, After first dactyl (-^^). {a) In Aeneidi. note :—
3 Litora, (variety), 14 Ostia, (variety), 46 Ast egOj
(parenthesis), 65 Aeole, (vocative), 105 Dat latus ; (sudden
motion), 135 Quos ego — (aposiopesis), 203 Mittite; (deci-
sion), 236 Qui mare, (variety), 249 TroXa, (emphatic adjective,
repeating Teucrorum of previous line), 288 Julius, (emphatic,
and explained in remainder of line), 312 occulit; (? quick-
ness), 321 Ac prior, *Heus,' inquit, (introduction to speech),
325 Sic Venus, (transition from one speaker to another),
354 Conji^, (solemnity and emphasis), 372 O Deai
(vocative), 409 Non datur, (variety), 451 Louit; (sudden
idea), 459 Constitit, (suddenness), 464 Sic ait, (transition
from speech to acti(»i), 468 Hac Phryges, (otiose), 530 Est
locus, (paren^esis), 538 Dispulit : (decision), 550 Armaque,
(otiose), 603 Di tibi, (parenthesis), 606 Saecula? (variety),
671 Vodbus; (variety), 692 Inrigat, (variety), 697 Cmn
venit, (variety), 721 Indpit, (decision), 736 Abia; (variety),
731 Juppiter, (vocative).

Compare alsor-

undam | Elicit? (quickness). G, i. 109.

boumque labores | Diluit ; (suddenness). 3. 326.
Antiquasque domos avium cum stirpibus imis

Emit: (vi(^ence). G. ii 210.

exendta oirsu | Flimiiina, (varkty). G. m. 530.

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14 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Si forte morantis
Sparserit, (of a sudden gust of wind). G. iv. 29.

Floreat, (variety). lb, 32.

(Dido) oculos conata attoUere, rursus
Deficit ; (suddenness). A. iv. 689.

(Beroe suddenly seizes a lighted torch) Et jacit | A. v. 643.
saevitque juventus | Effera. A. viii. 6.

quid facta tyranni | Effera ? lb. 484.

Induit (in a hurry). A, ix. 366.

Four instances in consecutive lines : Gramina, (variety),
Hoc Venus, (parenthesis), Detulit; (quickness), Inficit,
(quickness) [a peculiarity of bk. xii.]. A, xii. 415-418.

Sagitta I Excidit, (suddenness). lb. 424.

Cum ruit, lb. 685,

Proluit (of sudden fall of a piece of diff). lb. 686.

Varium et mutabile semper | Femina.' (a touch of sarcasm,
also closing a speech). A. iv. 570.

Fungar inani | Munere.' (closing a speech). A. vi. 866.

Note the adjectives : horrida, fagina, ferrea, fervidus, etc.

(p) At the b^inning of a verse a dactylic word seems by
sound to separate itself naturally from the rest of the verse,
and hence it is especially effective before a pause. (Apart
from consideration of pauses, dactylic beginnings are much
in £5ivour with both el^iac and hexameter poets : and in
the same way dactylic-word b^innings are not uncommon,
amounting roughly to about 12 per cent of VirgiFs lines.)
Again, the frequent use of a dactyl rather than a spondee
before a first-foot pause is partly due to the fiEu:t that if a
Latin poet started with a spondee he had not, like Homer,
an abundance of dactyls to follow up with to right the
balance. Latin cannot easily imitate Homer's

^civos ; vo^ 8€ fiiv €^p€ ; Trdcrts vv ol eaxrerat avrg.

It is evident from the examples quoted that the pause is
a very frequent one ; it occurs in about 6 per cent of Virgil's

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PAUSES IS

lines; about twice as many instances are light as heavy
pauses. Its uses are : (L) for variety ; (ii.) in parenthesis,
and with vocative; (iii) to express quickness, suddenness,
decision and allied notions; (iv.) to emphasise adjectives
and nouns ; (v.) to introduce or close a speech ; (vL) in trans-
ition from one speaker to another.

(c) Ennius has both otiose and significant use, but rarely
employs it; e^. Ann, 226 Scripsere alii rem | Vorsibu,
quos olim, etc. (otiose). But 337 Fortuna repente | Reddidit,
exutus (sudden) ; 465 Concidit : et sonitum.

Lucretius also uses it rarely, about 2 per cent, but like Virgil
uses it light and heavy in proportion of about 2^^ to i. In
vL 83 Versibus : perhaps reflects Ennius. Words preceding
the pause are mostly third persons of verbs, or words
like fulmina, percipe (a noun-clause preceding), scilicet
Catullus (bdv.) uses it slightly more often than Lucretius,
roughly about 3 per cent. He uses it for emphasis 44
and 87, regia ; and mostly with verbs, and words like lumina,
carmine. Line 196, Quas ego, vae, reminds us of Virgil ;
322, accipe, of Lucretius. Ovid's use resembles VirgiFs,
about 5 per cent in book i. of Metamorphoses. Nouns like
corpora, and verbs coeperat (221), me parat (225), jusserat
(281), all expressing suddenness.

{d) Imitate — verbs, especially perfects, expressing sudden-
ness and decision; emphatic adjectives and nouns; intro-
duction or closing of a speech ; and even merely for variety
of rhythm,

{e) Almost any use of the pause is permissible.

(/) Words preceding are — neuter plurals^ praemia, corpora,
aequora, funera, gramina, Utora, lumina, etc.; adjectives^
horrida, fagina, effera, fervidus; ^rd persons of present and
perfect tenses^ concidit, eUcit, deiicit, abstulit; and impera-
tiveSy deiice, percipe, accipe.

Suitable instantaneous perfects— occidit, compounds of

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i6 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

do (abdiditi condidit, edidit, prodidit, tradidit, perdidit) ; of
sto (adstitit, constitit, i^estkit) ; and of sisto (destitit, exstitit,
obstidt^ re$titit, adstidt).

This pause is naturally followed by a certain combination
of caesuras, i^. 3 trochee and 3^ (a p. 84, § 51) ; 64^.

(f) I asked thee, 'Give me immortality.'

Then didst thou grant mine asking with a smile,
Like wealthy men who care not how they give. x.

Like some tail palm the noiseless £Eibric sprung.

Majestic silence I then tht harp awoke^

The qrmbal clangVL xi.

Mothers then for fear
Their vows redouble : more close on peril treads
Panic^ and larger looms the shape of war. xii.

The fury doffs grim face and fury-form,

Shifts to an old wife's semblance. xui.

So sayings with delight he miufifed the smell

Of mortal change on earth. xrv;

For me meanwhile the hidden sea^caves made

A ghostly echo : «id the sea-birds mewed

Around me. xv.

♦ 9. IV. After First Spondee :—
{a) EnsemquS clipeumque et rubrae comua cristae ;
Ensem, quan Dauno. A, xii. 90.

turrimque tenebat ;
Turrim, compactis trabibus quam eduxerat ipse. lb. 674.

Parthus quam felle veneni,
Parthus, sive Cydon. B. 858.

(Three cases of repetition of awordfrom the preceding line.)

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PAUSES 17

dum personat aequora concha,
Demens, et. A. vL 172.

divumque sibi poscebat honorem,
Demens ! qui nimbos. lb. 590.

Nee, quae te drcum stent ^deinde pericula, cemis,
Demens, nee. A, iv. 562.

quid me erepto, saevissime, nato
Terres? A. x. 879,

(Four cases of tragic excitement)

£t istam | Oro, si quis adhue preeibus locus, exue mentem.

A. iv. 319.
Misenum in litore Teucri
Flebant, A. vi. 213,

Super arma ferebant
Flentes, A. x. 842.

(All pathetic)
aliae purissima mella | Stipant, G. iv. 164.

saepe lapillos | ToUunt lb, 194.

(Hard effort)

Hasta sub exsertam donee perlata papillam

Haesit, A, xi. 804.

gemerentque repleti (»: choked)
Amnes, A, v. 807.

(The halting rhythm denotes dead stoppage.)

Dixit, deinde lacu A, viii. 66.

Testor, eara, deos A, iv. 492.

And perhaps 319 (quoted above) et istam | Oro.
(vox) exaudita silentes | Ingens, G, i. 477.

(Solemnity.)
Suosque | Ducunt, G. iii. 317.

(The slow motion of goats heavy with milk.)

graviterque rudentes | Caedunt, lb, 375.

(The heavy thud of a falling stag.)

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i8 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

In A. 1. note
Troas, (emphatic). 30.

Unam, (the emphatic position happily singles out one vessel
from the others.) 113.

Vestras (not otiose: pronominal adjectives are naturally
emphatic). 140.

Voltu, quo caelum tempestatesque serenat (as above, solem-
nity, and quiet dignity of the Father of the Gods). 255.

nee, si miserum Fortuna Sinonem
Finxit, vanum etiam mendacemque improba finget.

A, ii, 79, 80.
(The repetition of the word enforces the emphasis.)

(b) From the above it will be seen that the pause is
not infrequent, but in Virgil it is mostly a light one. A
spondaic word in the first foot is rare in Latin (though
more common in Greek), partly because it militates against
the original dactylic character of the hexameter by striking
the wrong note at the start, and partly because it contradicts
the principle of the diflferentiation ^ of the two hemistiches
by making the b^inning like the close of the verse. An
initial spondee is most expressive when followed by a pause,
which is naturally a violent one, well adapted to express
tragic excitement, grief, or indignation.

The chief occasions for its use are : —

(i.) Repetition of an emphatic word in previous line,
(ii.) tragic excitement, scorn or .indignation, (iiL) pathos,
(iv.) hard effort, (v.) a dead check, (vi.) solemnity, (vii.)
slowness, (viii.) strong emphasis.

{c) Ennius* usage may be illustrated by the following : —
Pars ludicre saxa
Jactant, inter se licitantur (effort). Ann, 64.

^ This principle is explained on p. 75, .§ 36. It is the principle of
making the two halves of the hexameter rhjrthmically as unlike one another
as possible.

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PAUSES 19

si forte feras ea nare sagaci
Sensit, voce sua. 376.

(Virgil's trochaic sensity G. iv. 334, is much more expressive.)
Spero, si speres quicquam prodesse potissunt 449.

Lucretius has little intention in most cases of this pause.
He appears to use it mostly for the very prosaic purpose of
accommodating a verb at the end of a sentence. Thus : —

qua possint corpora quaeque

Transire? Haud ulla. i. 357

te deducere vero | possit, 371

quin post loca pisces | linquant, 374,

inter se consistere summa | possunt : ii. 698.

neque autem | scindi; * iv. 153,

permanat odor frigusque vaporque | ignis vi, 953.
In general, his use is tasteless and clumsy, but in
tremere ignibus instant,

Instant, nee loca, v. 298

he hits upon a happy expedient, afterwards made much of
by Virgil (see a above).

Catullus Ixiv. provides no instances.

Virgil himself seems to have felt his way only gradually
with this pause. Thus, E. i. 23, Noram, seems to have
little point, but in the Georgics and Aeneid he uses it often,
mostly with a tragic force, and in A. xii. he has five in-
stances, three (11. 89, 674, 858) being of type (i.), effective
repetition; 1. 888, ingens (effort), 1. 92, exim (arresting
attention). The conditions of this pause gradually took
definite shape in his mind, and it is with a fine poetic sense
that he has assigned it its special functions.

Ovid in Metamorphosis i. has not a single instance. As
a kind of compensation, he had a much stronger leaning to
the first trochaic and first dactyl pause than Virgil. Ovid's
main aim was to make the Latin hexameter as Greek in
character as possible, and he therefore brought to bear his

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10 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

whole armoury of dactylic words. Few modem writers use
this pause.

{d) Imitate — ^with repetition of a word from previous
lines in tragic excitement; to express eflfort, chedc, slow-
ness, solemnity, and for strong emphasis.

(e) Avoid — ^the meaningless use, as in Lucretius.

(/) Strong adjectives and verbs are mostly found before
the pause ; t,g. demens, vestras, flebant, terres.

{g) While they hesitate,

Through Tagus' either temple sped the spear
Hissings and clave warm in the piercM brain. xvi.

But others, in hot haste
Retreating, with himself shuts safely in.
Madman / to see not midmost of the rout
Burst in the Rutule monarch — yea, wantonly
Within their walls to impound him. xvii.

Next, the strife allayed,
Lo ! these two kings were standing armed before
Jove's altar, cup in hand, as each with each
They knit firm treaty o'er a slaughtered swine, xviii.

Fearful in sooth and wondrous to behold

That sight was rumoured : for herself, they sang.

Should be renowned in future and in fame ;

But to her folk it boded mighty war. xix.

The Abominable, that uninvited came

Into the fair Peleian banquet-hall.

And cast the golden fruit upon the board. xx.

And now the world is black, and now the glee
Of the loud hills shakes with its mountain mirth.
As if they did rejoice o'er a young earthquake's birth.

XXI.

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PAUSES 21

They sit upon the nine enfolded q)heres,

And sing to those that hold the vital shears,

And turn the adamantine spindle round. xxii.

♦ 10. V. Pause after i J feet (-wwr | -, or — | -).
(a) Romanaque tellus | Debentur.' A. iv. 276.

Date vulnera lymphis | Ore legam.' A, iv, 685.

Lause, tropaeum | Aeneae.* -^. x. 776,

(Three instances of speech-endings.) Cp. also -^. vi. 155
and 197.

Haec secum : * Mene incepto desistere victam.' A, i. 37.
Incipiam. * Fracti hello A. ii. 13.

Anna refert : *0 luce magis dilecta A, iv. 31.

Pertulerit. * Tu nubigenas A. viii. 293,

Orsa refert : * O fama ingens A. xL 124.

Ore dabat : * Graditur helium 3, 535.

Pauca refert :

O pater, O hominum divomque aetema potestas ! A. x. ij,
Tumus ad haec :
O soror, etc. A, xii. 631.

(Instances of speech-introdliction, the last two being cases
of unfinished line. Virgil obviously regarded this as a
pause well adapted to speech -introduction and speech-
ending : hence frequent cases of lines broken at this point.)
He finishes a paragraph in A, iii. 218, Ora fame.

Pallas quas condidit arces

Ipsa colat : nobis placeant ante omnia silvae. E. ii. 62.

Instituit : Pan curat oves oviumque magistros. 3. 33.

Quicquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes. A. ii. 49.

Surgamus. Solet esse gravis cantantibus umbra. JE, x. 75,

(In these cases, the remainder of the line gives con-
venient space for the smooth expression of compact senti-
ments and maxims. In such cases Shakespeare uses a
rhyming couplet With this compare the part of the line

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22 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

producing the 3 J pause, which is used for the same purpose :
see instances, p. 40.)

Oppositi; ^. ii. 333.

Crudelis? -^. iv. 311.

Femineum. A. ix. 142.

Fulmineum, Id. 442.

Confossus, i^. 445.

(Emphatic adjectives.)
Quo maxima motu | Terra tremit. G. i, 330.

Corripuit. G. ii. 510.

Sed finem imposuit pugnae, fessumque Dareta | Eripuit.

A. V. 464.

(Verbs in present or perfect, giving the effect of sudden
and decisive accomplishment.)

avidusque refringit
Cunctantem. -4. v. 211.

(The overhanging word of three long syllables beautifully
pictures the reluctance of the bough and the eager haste of
Aeneas.)

So G, i. 134, Paulatim (the slow character of solid work).

Mersatur, missusque secundo defluit amni. G. iii. 447.

(Smooth gliding down a stream is described.)
But, quite apart from descriptive use, words of three long

syllables are very frequent in this place.

Note this pause in A. ii. — 52 contorsit (effort), 144
tantorum (weight), 329 insultans (contempt), 353 incensae
(hopelessness), 417 confligunt (violence), 426 procumbit
(weight), 448 devolvunt (weight), 480 aeratos (emphasis,
*for all they were of brass'), 545 conjecit (force), 616
insedit (majesty), 674 haerebat (delay).

{3) The prominent uses are — (i.) speech -endings, para-
graph endings (often with line unfinished), and speech -
mtroductions ; note that vTlecided close of a speech is signified,
and contrast the use of first dactyl pause ; (ii.) maxims ;

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PAUSES 13

(iii) emphatic adjectives; (iv.) sudden or decisive verbs;

(v.) slowness, smoothness and allied notions with wcHrds .

The pause is almost as often heavy as light

Lucretius makes this a fiEivourite pause : e^. in book vi.,
at 48, 197, 399, 434, S20i 609, 752, 763, 877, 882, 907,
948, 1043, 1073, 1242, 1254, 1260; and he has such a

decided preference for the form that it becomes almost

a mannerism. The words are mostly verbs, e,g, confluxit,
dimittat, crddatur : with him the pause is mainly light.

Catullus uses it five times in bdv., once in Lucretian
form with the verb agnoscam (237).

In Virgil, too, this form is undoubtedly frequent: e,g,
four cases (two heavy, two light), in first forty lines of A. ix.
(7, 20, 23, 41, auderet, tempestas, processit, Aeneas).

On the contrary, Ovid, as might be expected, has a very
decided leaning towards the dactylic beginning. In the 875
lines of Met xv. he has seventy-four instances of i^ pause ; a
proportion of about 8 per cent. But only seven out of the
seventy-four are of the Lucretian form : e.g. mSttirus. As in
Lucretius, a large proportion of the words are verbs : e.g. sus-
tineat, pertimuit, eripitur, praebetis, inspiciant, abstulerit, in
the first 157 lines. He shows a peculiar tendency to make a
monosyllable (often estmth elision) precede the pause : this is
clumsy, and a strong emphasis is often thus placed on
unimportant words, especially as in most cases in Ovid the
pause is a heavy one. E.g. Met xv, 195 Aetheris est,
202 Vere novo est, 422 Concidere has, 494 Sola tua est,
600 Nemo mihi est, 683 Annuit his.

{d) Imitate — speech-endings and introductions, maxims,
emphatic adjectives, decisive verbs, and descriptive effects
of slowness, etc., variety.

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U LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

(e) Afknd-^freqnent use of ^ unless de$cxq)tiye, and

clumsy monosyllable as in Ovid (vere novo ^ est).

(J) Speech introductions with refat (pauca refert, Orsa
refert) : subject introductions with nonne vides, quod
superest, etc.; adjectives — femineum, crudelis, etc; parts
of verbs, but especially perfects : e.^. accepit, cognovit,
concessit, conduxit, conjecit, consedit, contempsit, conticuit,
contorsit, contraxit, convertit, corripuit, decerpsit, defendit,
delevit, destnudt, direxit, divisit, emicuit, erubuit, exclusit,
extendit, immersit, impressit, increpuit, incubuit, infremuit,
ingemuit, occuluit, ostendit, perspexit, persuasit, surrexit, etc.

(^) In shaggy spoils here Theseus was beheld^

And Perseus dreadful- with Minerva's shield, xxiii.

Thou wilt see my grave ;
Thou wilt renew thy beauty mom by mom ;
I earth in earth forget those empty courts,
And thee returning on thy silver wheels. xxiv.

That day I oft remember, when from sleep
I first awaked^ and found myself reposed
Under a shade, on flowers, much wondering where
And what I was, whence hither brought, and how. xxv.
Again she jM»yed : * I woo thee not with gifts.
Sequel of guerdon could not alter me
To fairer. Judge thou me by what I am. xxvi.

' But hark ! the trump.
Its terrible note of clanging brass afar
' Has uttered; a shout follows, and the sky
Reverberates. xxvil

'Nowshalll
Be praised as winner of the splendid spoils,
Or for a famous death ; and either SzXjt
My sire can face. Away with threats,^ So saying.
He strides into the ar^ia's midst * xxviii.

^ It is true this is less harsh if pronoimced ncnost.

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PAUSES ts

But the other cried:
' Reft of my son, why thinkest thou, fierce man,
To fight me now ? Sole way was this whereby
To work my ruin. I shudder not at death,
No, nor spare any of thy gods. xxix.

Weeping he spake, and from his shoulder doffs
A gilded sword, which erst Lycaon of Crete
Wrought with rare skill, and fitted for the hand
With ivory sheath. xxx.

* 11. VI. Pause after second trochee (-^^ l-^)*

{a) Experiamur? E. iii. 28.

Ne prohibete ! G, i. 501.

Contemplator ; G. iv. 61.

Implevere ; , (?. li. 144.

Conticuere : A, ii 253.

(Instances of heavy pause.)

Infabricata, fugae studio. A, iv. 400.

Vestigemus, et a portu diversa petamus. A. vii. 13a.

(Effective variety of rhythm.)

Obruit Auster, A. vL 336,

(Description of a sudden overwhelming.)

See also G. ii 141, G, iv. 351.

{b) The pause, which is Greek in character, is very rare,
even in Homer. Virgil employs it a trifle more frequently
than Homer. It is mainly a light pause, but it is more fre-
quently heavy in Virgil than in other writers (cf. above),
and he tends to use it more frequently in his later work
{e.g. A, vi. in 200 lines, 628-829, no less than three examples:
630, 656, 705 — ^all light). Its uses are (L) for mere variety,
(iL) descriptive of sudden action.

{c) In the Iliad it is comparatively rare, about i per cent.
In Ennius the same proportion holds : it is nearly always a
light pause, mostly with parenthetic phrases : e^. Ann, 180.
Numini' Burrus, (uti memorant); 394, Nee, cum capta, capi.

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a6 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Lucretius uses it more frequently, nearly 2 per cent, but with
no apparent intention: it is mostly light, especially with voca-
tives : e,g, L 38, Hunc tu, diva. It tends to be associated
with the verb videri: e.g, iv. 391, Cuncta videntur ; 456,
nostra videmur; 502, Visa rutunda. Catullus (Ixiv.) re-
sembles Homer and Ennius, rather less than i per cent : e.g.
advenere.(32). Virgil uses it slightly more frequently than
Homer. Ovid, however, decreases trochaic pauses, especi-
ally the second : hardly ^ per cent, and always light. The
association with * ait ' continues : e,g. Met x. 603, Mecum
confer, ait. Vocative in 620, Dum licet, hospes, abi.

{d) Imitate — only occasionally, for variety of rhythm,
especially with the Virgilian full pause.

{e) Avoid — using it more than once in a copy, even of a
hundred lines.

(/) The pause is common with vocatives and parenthetic
phrases. It is often preceded by parts of videor^ and
followed by ait In the large majority of cases, verb-forms
ending in s precede, or adjectives in a: the third person
plural of perf. indie, in shortened form is also obviously
suited to this place : e^, conticuere, implevere.

Suitable verbs. — Delevere, quaesivere, consevere, desivere,
decrevere, concrevere, dormivere, assuevere, cognovere,
increpuere, consonuere, intonuere, infremuere, ingemuere,
concinuere, consuluere, accubuere, corripuere, persuasere,
illuxere, contorsere, impressere, contempsere, conflixere,
dilexere, surrexere, exclusere,decessere,contraxere,adjunxere,
consedere, commovere, accendere, defendere, accepere, etc.

{g) And mindful of the winter coming on
They ply their summer task, and so lay up
Their hard-earned gatherings in a common store, x^uci.
Day's better part o'erpast, for what remains.
Refresh you^ warriors, heartened by success,
And deem, so doings ye fit you for the fray. xxxii.

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PAUSES 27

As when two rams, stirt^d with ambitious pride^

Fight for the rule of the rich-fleecid flocke,

Their homed fronts so fierce on either side

Doe meete : both stand astonied at the shocke. xxxiii.

When the delectable hour those days did fully deter-
mine^

Straightway then in crowds all Thessaly flocked to
the palace,

Thronging hosts uncounted, a company joyous ap-
proaching. XXXIV.

* But come now : hasten on the way : perfect
The service now begim : hcLste we^ she said,

* See, I descry the ramparts which were cast
In furnace Cyclopean, and in firont

The arched gateway.' xxxv.

Again the shepherd Aristaeus' woe

Thrilled through his loving mother's ears, and all

Sat motionless upon their crystal chairs.

But Arethusa first before her sisters

Forth glanced, her golden head above the wave

Lifting on high. xxxvi.

*12. VII. Second Foot [always a dactyl (-c?o | -s/w):
a spondee is not admissible]. Diaeresis.

(a) Fit nodo sinus ; hue al^jsna ex arbore germen. G* ii. 76.
(A slit is made with a knife.)

Auxilium venit, (help comes just in time). lb, 130.

Viventes rapit, inferias quos immolet umbris. A, x 519.
(These three instances denote rapidity.)

Quis tantus furor ? G, iv. 494.

Notusque medullas | Intravit calor. A, viii. 390.

(A degree of tragic excitement.)

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a3 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Aut numerum lupus, aut tarrmtia flumina ripas. J?, vii 52.
Eligitur locus ; hunc angustiqjiQ imbrice tecti. G. iv. 296.
Magnanimi Jovis. Haec pro virginitate reponit.

A. xii. 878.

Three cases in which the pause and the absence of
caesura after the second foot help to reserve a strong
emphasis for a word in the second hemistich; cp. also
aliena in G. ii. 76 (above).

{p) In Virgil the pause is somewhat rare, and only used
with the purpose of strongly arresting attention : all diaeresis
pauses naturally produce a jolty effect. The dactyl in
Virgil always ends with a dissyllabic word containing two
shorts: e,g, r^p!t, flir5r. The pause may be either heavy
or light, though the balance is in favour of a light pause.
The chief occasions for its use are, (i.) rapid action, (ii.)
tragic excitement, (iii.) when it is desired to emphasise a
word in the second hemistich.

(f) In Homer's Iliad^ a long search revealed no example
of the use of this pause. In Ennius there are four in some
600 lines, three being heavy, and one light. Only one of
them assumes the Virgilian form, Perculit in latus. The
other forms are clumsy : corde capessere, celso pectore, ut
celerissimus. In two cases emphasis seems to be reserved.
Lucretius provides seven cases in bk. i. (1115 lines).
These are all light, and all in the Virgilian form: Haec
soliti sumus. In Bk. vi. appear the various forms: con-
fervefacit, mortiferam vim, quo cum conruit (possibly
descriptive). Catullus (Ixiv.) resembles the Iliad in ab-
staining from this pause. Cicero's youthful Araii Pheno-
mena has four in the first 100 lines, two being in the
Virgilian form, caetera pars latet. The forms inclinatiar:
septem dicier occur : five out of six are light. Ovid in Met
i. (779 lines) resembles Homer and Catullus in having no
example. Thus while Catullus and Ovid neglect the pause.

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PAUSES ^9

Lucretius and Cicero strongly suppcMt the Virgilian use of
a light pause preceded by a disyllable (ww).

{d) Imitate — especially the use descriptive of rapid action
or tragic excitement. The pause should more often be light
than heavy, and in the forms, fit nodo sinus, viventes rapit.
Of the less regular forms confervefacit, inclinatior is the best

(e) A meaningless use of this pause must be absolutely
avoided ; and the ungainly forms celso pectare, corde capessere^
mortiferam vim shunned unless to produce a descrq>tive
effect of ungainliness or some allied notion.

(/) Disyllabic verbs and nouns are best suited to precede
the pause.

Verbs — ruit, cadit, rapit, jadt, venit, videt, dedit, crepat,
sonat, salit, tonat, micat, fremit, gemit, petit, terit, sinit,
cupit, colit, jubet, quatit, nitet, trahit, vehit, fluit, canit,
vovet, sedet, agit.

Nouns — like locus, focus, opus, latus, nemus, equus, polus,
dolor, furor, etc. : the stock endings for the pentameter.

(^) At length with headlong bound,

Armed at all points Yat plunged into the flood.
Its tawny eddies took him, as he came,
Up-bore with buoyant waters, cleansed of blood,
And sent him b^ck rejoicing to his friends. xxxvii.

For, unlooked for, out of heaven
Came quivering flash and thunder-peal, and all
Seemed sudden to reel round them, and anon
A hostile trumpet-clang through heaven to blare.

XXXVIII.

Four galleons drew away
From the Spanish fleet that day.
And two upon the larboard and two upon the star-
board lay.
And the battk-thunder broke from them all. xxxix.

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30 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Rose clamour such as heard in heaven till now

Was never ; arms on armour clashing brayed. XL.

Again she said: * I woo thee not with gifts.

Sequel of guerdon could not alter me

To fairer. Judge thou me by what I am.' xli.

So till men's persons great afflictions touch,

If worth be found, their worth is not so much. xlii.

♦ 13. VIII. Pause after 2^ feet (- ^ I - ^ I -).

(a) Aetemumque vale.' A. xi. 98.

Quoque tenetis iter.' A, L 370.

Quisquis in arma vocas.' A, ix. 22.
(Three instances of speech-endings.)

Et cum clamarem, 'Quo nunc se proripit ille. E. iii. 19.
Tandem laetus ait: *Di nostra inceptasecundent. A. vii. 259.
Aeolus haec contra: *Tuus, o regina, quid optes. A, i. 75.
(Instances of speech-introduction.)

Fas et jura sinimt : rivos deducere nulla

Religio vetuit, segeti praetendere saepem. G, i. 269, 270.

Ostendit venis, atque auro plurima fluxit.

Haec genus acre virum, Marsos pubemque Sabellam.

G. ii. 166, 167.
Arma parate animis, et spe praesumite bellum
Ne qua mora ignaros,ubiprimumvelleresigna. A.yL i8, 19.
(Instances of same pause in two consecutive lines.)

Dardaniusque Paris. E. ii, 61

Tempora quae messor, E, iii. 42

Sensibus haec imis, Jb. 54

Umida velA legit. G, i. 373,

Corda pavor pulsans ? G, iii. 106.

Quassataeque rates, A, iv. 53.
And passim. (Ordinary rhythmical resting-places.)

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PAUSES 31

{b) In the Latin hexameter breaks in sense seem naturally
to coincide with strong caesuras {v. p. 74, § 35). (In the Greek
iambic trimeter, on the contrary, diaeresis pauses are far
more common than caesura pauses.) Hence the a^ pause,
being near the middle of the line, is a favourite pause. It
is a natural resting-place for the reciter, either as a light
or as a heavy pause, though in Virgil the light are five times
as numerous as the heavy pauses. It seldom has any
specific or descriptive meaning ; it is used rather as a con-
venient breathing-place. If the same pause is to be used
in two or three consecutive lines, 2^ is the most legitimate.
Special uses are (i.) speech-endings, and (ii.) speech-intro-
ductions. The heavy pause at this point is not to be used
more than about three times in a hundred lines*

{c) The history of this pause is interesting.

In Homer's Iliad it occurs in about 8 per cent of the lines,
the light pause very decidedly preponderating. It is less
fi^equent in Greek than in Latin, because the third-trochaic
pause in Greek performs the r61e of 2\. In Ennius we find
the pause advancing to about 1 1 per cent, and, so far as can
be determined from a firagmentary text, the heavy pause is
used hardly less frequently than the light one. Lucretius
returns to the Homeric proportion of 8 per cent, an^i is even
more decidedly in favour of the light pause. He gives us,
however, a jolty rhythm in lines like externa quasi vi.
Cicero in Phenomena closely resembles Homer and Lucretius
so far as this pause is concerned. Catullus (bdv.), like
Homer, gives the third-trochaic the functions of 2|, and
using it only about 6 per cent shows not a single example of it
as a heavy pause. In a passage of 116 lines (48-164) there
is not one 2\ pause. VirgiFs pastoral style as exhibited in
the Eclogues must be distinguished from the didactic and epic
manner of the Georgics and Aeneid respectively. In the
Eclogues the broken conversational style produces 2\ to

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St LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

nearly 40 per cent, and heavy pauses are to light as i to 2.
In the GeorgUs and Aeneid^ however, the average use is
about 15 per cent, heavy to light padses being as i to 5,
much as in Homer and Cicero. The pause is often found in
Vilrgil in two or three consecutive lines, but there are seldom
two h^vy ones together. In Ovid the use of the 2\ pause is
a desperate disease ; it attains to 50 per cent. That is, whereas
in Viigil you see the pause about once in seven lines, in Ovid
it is found in every other line. Further, the pauses are as
frequently heavy as light, more frequently even than in
E^nius. On the average we meet a heavy pause of 2^ once
in every four lines. The monotony produced detracts
greatly from the pleasure of reading the Metamorphoses.
For instance, read Met, viL 34-45. In twelve lines there are
seven pauses at 2^, no less than four of them being heavy.

{d) Imitate this pause, but do not use it more than two or
three times in a copy of 20 lines, and only occasionally as
a heavy pause. The best excuse for its use as a heavy pause
is at a speech-introduction or speech-endii^. The word
preceding the pause should be a disyllabic or a trisyllable.

{e) Avoid the Ovidian frequent use of the heavy pause,
and the jolty effect of the Lucretian line externa quasi vij
i.e. do not use a monosyllable to precede the pause. Again,
it is undesirable to " pentametrise " the hexameter by too
frequently using rhythms like Deteriora sequor, humida vela
legit, quisquis in arma vocas, Dardaniusque Paris, corripe
lora manu. This tendency in the pause caused later writers
to prefer 3J to 2 J.

(/) Any disyllabic or trisyllabic noims and verbs are in
place before the pause.

(g) Sir Richard sfoke and he UmgHd^ and we roared a
hurrahj and so
The little Revenge ran on. xuii.

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PAUSES 33

He on his impious foes right onward drove,
Gloomy as nigkt: under his burning wheels
The stedfast empyrean shook throughout. xliv.

Yet half his strength he put not forth, but checked

His thunder in mid volley j for he meant

Not to destroy, but root them out of heaven. xlv.

But far worse
Urged them behind ; headlong themselves they threw
Down from the verge of heaven : eternal wrath
Burnt after them to the bottomle^ss pit. xlvi.

At length
Joyful he cries: * Heaven prosper our intent
And its own presage ! Granted be thy suit,
O Trojan.' xlvii.

'Without thee.
For mine own lot no glory shall be wooed ;
Come peace or war, to thee, both deed and word.
Be all my heart unbosomed,^ Answer then
Thus made the other. xlviii.

* 14. IX. Pause after third trochee (-oc? | -oc? | -w).
(a) Addam cerea pruna : honos erit huic quoque pomo.

E, ii. 53.
(Note, in passing, the hiatus.)

Accipies secura : vocabitur hie quoque votis. A. i. 290.
Matronae puerique : vocat labor ultimus omnes. A. xi. 476.

(Examples of heavy pause, and of dactylic fourth foot
following.)

Nudus ara, sere nudus : hiemps ignava colono. G. i. 299.
Hue, pater o Lenaee, (tuis hie omnia plena). G, ii. 4.

Parce metu, Cytherea : manent immota tuorum. A, i. 257.

(Examples of spondaic fourth foot following : the Greek

pause is suggested by the presence of Greek proper names,

or, as in the first instance, by the feet that the words are a

direct translation from a Greek original — Hesiod ; cf. also

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34 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Cicero, Phenotn. 35, 36, Alcyone, Meropeque, Celaeno,
Taygetaque, | Electra, Steropeque, simul sanctissima Maia.)

Fertur equis auriga, G. i. 514.

Aut aliquis latet error : equo A, vl 48.

Tecta metu petiere : A. iv. 164.

Undique convenere; A, iv. 417.

Quem metui moritura? lb, 604.

Horrendum sonuere; A, ix. 732.
(Instances where excitement is portrayed.)

Deterior qui visus, G* iv. 89.

In medio duo signa, E, iii. 40.

Hinc metuimt cupiuntque, A. vi. 737.

(Instances of use for mere variety and of light pause.)

Turn Zephyri posuere : premit placida aequora pcmtus.

A. X. 103.
Cui Juno submissa : -^. ix. 61.

(Where the pause seems to have a softening or calming
influence.)

ip) Virgil does not use this pause except as an occasional
metrical variety, chiefly in cases where Greek words in the
context suggest its use, where excitement ^ is to be repre-
sented,or where calmness ^ is implied. The examples quoted
show his use of it as a heavy pause, but it is more often
used as a light pause.

(c) The history of the third trochaic pause is interesting,
mainly as pointing a contrast between the Greek and the
Latin handling of the hexameter. From an examination
of the Iliad it is clear that it is the pause par excellence of
Homer's metre; it occurs nearly in the proportion of 10
per cent, and is hardly less frequent as a heavy than as a light

^ It may appear that ideas so opposite can hardly be represented by
the same device ; but a great number of passages seem to warrant the
above statements. The sense of the word used of course contributes to
the efifect : but why are they so placed ?

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PAUSES iS

pause. In Julius it has follen to about i percent, and these
are mostly light in character, preceding a vocative or
parenthetic phrase. If anything, the use decreases in
Lucretius; but Catullus, as might be expected from the
Greek character of his verse, rises to about 3 per cent ; how-
ever, the pause is invariably light Virgil, like Cicero, seems
to hark back to the usage of Ennius and Lucretius ; he uses
it about I per cent, but makes it more frequently a decided
pause. Ovid employs this pause even more rarely than
Virgil, and with him it is of the lightest possible character.
When the dactylic Ovid and the Graecising Catullus cannot
do more to naturalise the pause, it must be obvious that
it seemed too delicate for the heavy Latin tongue, which
lacks the light diphthongs and dainty particles of Greek.
The more solid 2^ pause is set by the Latin poets to perform
the functions of Homer's third trochaic

(d) The pause should be imitated occasionally, less
frequently as a heavy than as a light pause. The best
occasions for its use are — (L) where Greek words in the
context, or translation from a Greek original, suggest it;
(ii.) where excitement is suggested by a bustling scene or
tragic train of thought ; (iiL) where a quieting influence is
to be described. As a rule the spondaic fourth foot is more
suited to follow it

(e) Most uses of the pause are legitimate.

(J) The enclitic gu^ is obvioiisly a favourite before the
pause ; but also the 3rd person plural of perfects, such as
petiere, convenere, sonuere. (Cf. second trochaic pause^
p. 26.) Beyond these, vocatives are most often found in
this place ; e.g. Pone tamen, Trojane, metum.

(^) And she half-whispered thus : * I promise thee
The ^est and most loving wife in Greece.'
She spoke ami laughed: I shut my sight for fear.

XLIX.

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36 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Strengthen ye the weak hands, and confirm die feeble

knees.
Say to them that are of a fearful heart, Be strongs
Fear not l. {a)

Thus spake he, but the seer replied with these :

' O FalinuruSy say what gave to thee

Such great overmastering passion.' l. {b)

Nay yet more,
Till God shall make our very spirit poor.
We shall not up to highest wealth aspire ;
But then we shall; and that is my desire. Li.

Darts flying vaulted either host with fire.

So under fiery cope together rusKd

Both battles main with ruinous assault

And inextinguishable rage : all Heaven

Resoimded. lii.

But thy strong Hours indignant work'd their wills,
' And beat me down and marr'd and wasted me,
And though they could not end me, left me maim'd
To dwell in presence of immortal youth,
Immortal age beside immortal youth.
And all I was in ashes. liii.

Grimly the lioness pursues the wolf,

The wolf in turn the she-goat : she pursues

Wanton the flowering cytisus : as thee^

Alexis^ Corydon : for each his own delight

Lures onward. liv.

The Dawn on roseate car
Shone safiron-tinted, when down dropped the breeze^
And the light breath of wind sank suddenly,
And on the slow smooth surface toil their oars. lv.

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PAUSES 37

15, X. Pause after third foot. Diaeresis (-cto | -oc? | -w^)^
The word before the pause must be a disyllable of two
shorts (^^).
{a) Aut Ararim Parthus bibet, aut Germania Tigrim. \

E.l 63.
Avolsumque umeris caput, et sine nomine corpus.

A. ii. 558.
Aut rastris terram domat, aut quatit oppida bello.

A. ix. 608.
Aut ubi odor coeni gravis, aut ubi concava pulsu. G. iv. 49,

(Four instances of alternatives with aut . . . aut : the equal
division of the line seems to suit two alternatives which are
roughly equivalent.)

Montibus audiri fragor : G. i. 358.

Porticibus longis fugit, et vacua atria lustrat. A, iL 528.
Dardanides contra furit. A. x. 545.

Armigerumque Remi premit, A, ix. 330.

(Instances where excitement or haste is well depicted by
the word of two short syllables, especially before diaeresis.)
Quam pro me curam geris, banc precor, optime, pro me.

A, xii. 48.
Da deinde auxilium, pater, atque haec omina firma. ^. iL 691.
Vos, o Calliope, precor, adspirate canenti. A. ix. 525.

(Instances where the pause is used in entreaty.)
Obiciunt portas tamen, et praecepta facessunt. A, ix. 45.
His lacrimis vitam damus, et miserescimus ultro. A, ii. 145.

(Emphasis thrown on tamen and damus by the rhythm
unexpectedly overflowing the 2 J pause.^)

{b) The pause, which is very rare (though apparently
more frequent in the later books of the Aeneid)^ can only be

^ I owe this solution to Mr. R. L. Du Pontet, who^comparea it to the
Greek type —

and adds the example,

Atque haec pompa domum me, non Pallanta, referret.

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38 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

used after a word of two short syllables. It is rare because it
offends against the fundamental principle of the Latin hexa-
meter that the two parts should be differentiated from each
other in rhythm as widely as possible. The division of the
Jine into two equal parts is certainly not pleasing to the ear.
Quicherat calls such lines * dactylic priapeans,' because, with
different feet, they recall the rhythm of such lines as
Hunc lucum tibi dedico | Consecroque, Priape (Catullus).
Virgil's rhythmical sense mostly steered clear of them ; for,
as Quicheraf s line expresses it,

Namque tome media est versu non apta severo.
Moreover, it cannot be a necessary pause, with 2 J and 3J,
excellent halting places, close at hand on either side.

Virgil's usage seems to confine it to the three cases illus-
trated above — (L) two alternatives with aut; (iL) to express
excitement or haste; (iii.) in entreaty, with a vocative or
precor. He does not seem to use it for mere variety,
because it produces an undignified jingle. It is more often
a light than a heavy pause.

\N.B, — Apparent cases of this pause which are not really
3-foot pause : —
Tertius Eurjrtion, tuus, o clarissime, fiater, A, v. 495.

where the sense throws tuus forward on to /rater.

Cf. Ovid, Met. xiv. 37—
Talia tentanti, *Prius,' inquit, *in aequore frondes.*

So also —
Magnanime Aenea, non, si mihi Jupiter auctor,
and
Quem struat his coeptis, quem, si Fortuna sequatur.

These are cases of a very slight halt after a somewhat
longer pause in 2^ caesura ; a parenthesis succeeds.
Haec omnis morbi causa ; hinc miserabile Nymphae,

G. iv. 531.

where the elision helps to obscure the diaeresis.]

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PAUSES 39

(c) The history of this pause is of arather negative character.
Homer does not seem to use it ; the third trochaic pause
renders it unnecessary. Ennius supplies two examples ; e.g.
Balantum pecudes quatit Omnes arma requirunt 177.
Spemitiur orator bonus, horridu' miles amatur. 277.

(a symmetrical! line which resembles Virgilian alternatives
with auf . . . auf), Lucretius and Catullus have very few, if
any cases. Cicero {Phenomena) has

Atque inter flexum genus, et caput Alitis, haesit. 46.

Exin semotam procul, in tutoque locatam. 139.

Ovid has here and there an instance ; e,g,
Obstitit incepto pudor : et complexa fuisses : Met vii. 145.

which comes under Virgilian usage (ii.).
Inde genus durum sumus, experiensque laborum, i. 414.

which seems otiose.

{d) This pause should be imitated rarely — (i.) with alter-
natives, as a light pause ; (ii.) to express haste or excitement,
mostly as a heavy pause.

{e) Avoid the otiose use of the pause, and never let it be
preceded by a spondee.

(/) Disyllabic verbs of two shorts are the main words
preceding, e,g. bibet, domat, furit, capit, premit, quatit —
i.e. verbs that are found at the end of the pentameter;
occasionally nouns, e,g, pudor, genus, fragor, sonus, pater.

{g) At these his tears we grant him life, and even

Accord our pity. Lvi.

Thou horned stream,
Lord of Hesperian waters, only grant
Thy presence, and, I pray thee^ set thy seal
Upon thy heavenly utterance. LVii.

And now at once from the four ships there broke
The battle-roar^ the iron voice of Mars. lviii.

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40 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Or light or darkness in perpetu^ round

Lodge and dislodge by turns, which makes through

Heaven
Grateful vicissitude, like day and night lix.

One mows he down while standing close, another
He cuts beneath the knee : 'neath spear's down-thrust
Chr6mis, Iphinous, and Sigeus fall. lx.

The Cretan now from bow lets loose the string.
The soldier from his head the helmet takes
And sword from thigh. LXi.

♦ 16. XL Pause after 3H "^ ' ""^^ ' ^"^ ' " )•
{a) Stemitur omne solum telis. Tum scuta cavaeque
Dant sonitum flictu galeae -: j)ugna Aspera surgit.

A. ix. 665, 666.
Creditis avectos hostes ? Aut ulla putatis ,
Dona carere dolis Danaum ? Sic tiotus Ulixes ? A, ii. 43, 44.
Hue ades, o formose puer : tibi lilia plenis
Ecce ferunt Nymphae calathis ; tibi Candida Nai's, etc.

E. ii. 4S, 46.

(The pause occurring in two successive lines.)
The ghost of Hector and Aeneas in Excited dialogue.

A, ii. 282, 291, 294.
Usque adeo turbatur agris. En ipse capellas. E. i. 12.
Sublimem expulsam eruerent : G, i. 320.

Inter se in foliis strepitant ; 7J. 413.

Hanc sine me spem ferre tui : audentior ibo. A. ix. 291.

(Excitement or, violence depicted: in the last case note
the hiatus. For this use cf. Lucan ii. 20-22.)
Tum variae venere artes. G, i. 145.

Exercete, viri, tauros. lb. 210.

Quinque tenent coelum zonae. lb. 233.

Dilectae Thetidi alcyones. lb. 399.

Quippe solo natura subest. G, ii. 49.

Divisae arboribus patriae. lb. 116.

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PAUSES 41

Sacra deum sanctique patres. G. ii 473.

(Suadet enim vesana fames) manditque trahitque

MoUe pecus mutumque metu ; fremit ore cruento.

Nee minor Euryali caedes : A, ix. 340-342.

(These are instances of a universal practice of using the
part of the line preceding the 3 J pause for the expression of
catch-phrases, truisms, proverbial sayings, and stress-pieces
generally; cf. on i\ pause, p. 21.)

Pluribus oranti Aeneas : ' Haud talia dudum. A, x. 599.
Incipit Aeneas heros : *Non ulla laborum. A, vi. 103.

(Speech-introduction. )
Attonitae magna ora domus.* Et talia fata. A, vi. 53.

Extemos optate duces.' Tum Etrusca resedit. A. viil 503.

(Speech-ending, especially when the last words contain a
bitter taunt : so often in Lucan.)

Et matri praereptus amor. A, iv. 516.

In regnis hoc ausa tuis. A, v. 792.

(Cases of lines left incomplete at this pause.)
Nee fuit indignum superis, G, i. 491.

Quippe ubi fas versum atque nefas ; lb, 505.

Tam multae scelerum facies ; lb. 506.

(Indignation, scorn, sneers, are oft«i expressed by this
pause.)

{p) This is quite a natiu-al pause, and in fact one of the
most important in the usage of Virgil as of other Latin
poets. Its use is exemplified in Virgil passim; it often
occurs in three successive lines. The part of the line that
precedes it stands to the preceding line much as the penta-
meter does to the hexameter in Elegiac verse, with the
great advantage that the writer can use it just when he
chooses and be free from all inconvenient trammels. Virgil,
in his rhetorical passages, which were written to be recited,
found the pause a good one for conveying * point'

The above examples illustrate Virgil's use to express (i.)
violence or excitement; (il) stress-pieces; (iii.) speech-

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42 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

ending and speech-introduction; (iv.) indignation, scom,
sneers.

(c) The pause is uncommon in the hexameters of Homer,
Hesiod, and ApoUonius, and its history is an important
point of differentiation between the Greek and the Latin
hexameter. In Latin it is well established by the time of
the early Augustan poets, and is found in two forms : A, not
after an iambic word, e,g. cresceret in ventrem cucumis;
B, after an iambic word, e,g, usque adeo turbatur agris.
Lucretius used it more frequently than Homer, but the
^^ appreciable change begins with Virgil, who using it as a Aeavy
pause I J per cent in Eclogues and GeorgicSy in Aeneid L-vi.
rises to 3 J per cent, and exceeds that proportion in Aeneid
vii.-xii. Ovid continues the use in the proportion of 3 per
cent. So far 3 J is enjoyed as a pleasing variety. With Lucan,
however, it reaches the frequency of a morbid growth, in the
same way as 2 J does with Ovid. The pause was found to be
an apt instrument in the rhetorical movement of the verse,
and the early part of the line was dedicated to stress-pieces,
just as the ending had been by the Greeks in sententiae like

The 2^ pause involved the risk of * pentametrising the
hexameter,' e,g, corripe lora manu, deteriora sequor; and
before long 3 J, especially in form B, was used to excess.

Lucan ^ carried the heavy pause to 7 J per cent, over 6^
being in form B ; and Claudian advanced to nearly 9 J per
cent, over 7 being in form B. Virgil in the Aeneid is about
equally divided between the two forms.

Cf. Lucan v. 481-488; Valerius Flaccus v. 538-546;
Statius, Theb, vii. 1 08-1 16, which has three pointless samples
in nine lines. Without rhetorical excuse it * produces an
effect of flatness and impotence'; cf. Lucan vii. 219 —

^ In the first 100 lines of Lucan's Pharsalia, bk. il., there are 28 pauses
at 3|. and no less than 18 of them are heavy.

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PAUSES 43

cornus tibi cura sinistri,
Lentule, cum prima, quae tum fiiit optima bello
Et quarta legione datur.
Lucan, howevei*, uses the pause to give effect to his
sarcasm, especially in the tail of a speech which contains
the sting. To forty-seven speech-endings at the end of a 1 1
line, Lucan has no less than thirty-eight at 3J. Virgil's
use of it for speech-endings is comparatively rare.

(d) To be imitated are — (i.) stress - pieces ; (ii.) speech-
endings (occasionally) and introductions; (iii.) to express
indignation, scorn, violence, excitement, and kindred ideas.
As a rule one case in a copy of twenty lines is enough ; and
the prettier case is that after iambic word ; 0.g. Posthabita |'
coluisse Samo.

(e) Avoid the otiose or pointless use of this pause, and do
not let it intrude too often.

(/) Almost all kinds of words and parts of speech are
associated with this pause.

(f ) * Myself unknown, in poverty I roam,
J^rom Europe exiled and from Asia too^
Through Libyan deserts.* But no longer plaint
Venus allowed, and thus spoke midst his grief. Lxn.
Then spake she thus to Jove : * Grant, son, the boon
Which thy dear mother for Olympus quelled

Now craves of thee.' lxiii.

* We Ve lost our hold on life. In war we Ve spent
Our days. Yea, send the old men down to death.
List to our awful prayer.' lxiv.

Nor less, the while.
The hapless Latins, far remote, have reared
Innumerable pyres : of many slain.
Some in the delvid earth they lay, some lift
And carry to the neighbouring fields, or send
Home to the city. Lxv.

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44 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

' Bear hence
Away, pluck Arthur from the impending fate ;
Such scope is mine to pleasure thee. But if
There lurk beneath thy prayer some ampler boon,
Or deemest that the war*s whole course may shift
And suffer change, thou feed'st an empty hope.' lxvi.

* Obscure to none
Nor needing voice of ours, O gracious sire.
The theme that thou debatest. One and all
Whereto the States weal tendeth well they know.
Yet dare but mutter.' lxvii.

* I first, whom thou
Feign'st for thy foe, nor reck /so to be.
Sue suppliant-wise. Have pity of thine own ;
Abate thy pride^ and^ vanquish* d^ quit the field.
Enough of routs and slaughters have we seen,
Vast tracts have left to desolation.' lxviii.

17. XII. After fourth trochee (-o^ | -oc? | -^^ | -w).
This pause is in peculiarly rare use. A fourth trochee
is in any case very rare, the caesura it would cause being
repugnant even to the Greek epic poets, and a fourth
trochaic pause is found only here and there in Virgil.^ There
is a case, a light pause, in Ennius, Ann, 195 —
Quod dono, noli remorare, sed accipe laetus.

CicQTO^ Fhenom. 268 —
Subter testatum cava tegmina, et intus et extra.

Canon T. S. Evans, a modem writer who leaves no
expedient untried, has the line —
Haec nimio angori medicina, quod instar amantis.
Ovid in Met, i, has no example.

It is an ill-sounding pause ; its effect is suddenly to check
the line when it has just begun to gallop to its finish. It
may safely be r^arded as a non-existent pause.

* E,g, A, V. 167 (heavy), 623 (heavy), 871 (light) : E, vil 33.

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PAUSES 45

*18. XIII. Pause after fourth foot (-oo|-qo!-oo
I -ws^). Diaeresis, —

The pause is called the bucolic (caesura^ or) diaeresis,
from its frequent use in the hexameters of the pastoral poets.
The fourth foot is nearly always a dactyl, very rarely a|
spondee.

(a) DadyL—
Atque superba pati fastidia? Nonne Menalcan. E, ii. 15.
Heu, heu quid volui misero mihi ? Floribus austrum.

lb, 58.
Aut aliquam in magno sequitur grege. Claudite, Nymphae.

E. vL 55.
Sed frumenta manu carpes sata : nee tibi fetae. G, iii. 176.

(So Calpumius, E, v. 84 —
Impressurus ovi tua nomina : nam tibi lites.)

(These are instances of the pause as a mere pleasant jingle
for variety's sake, in imitation of the traditional usage of
pastoral poets.)

Unum pro multis dabitur caput. A, v. 815.

(A line left unfinished at a decided break. Cf. also vi. 835.)
Et vera incessu patuit dea. lUe ubi matrem. A, 1. 405.

(The decided character of the break condones the hiatus.)
Per gentes humilis stravit pavor. G, i. 331.

Martius a stabulis rapuit lupus. A, ix. 566.

Corda licet longe praesciscere (of a battle about to begin).

G, iv. 70.

Unusual matter is being described in the account of a
terrible plague, G, iil 475-566 : —

Et genus omne neci pecudum dedit, omne ferarum. 480.
Rursus.abundabat fluidus liquor, omniaque in se. 484.

Hinc canibus blandis rabies venit, et quatit aegros. 496.
Victor equus fontesque avertitur, et pede terram, 499.

Spiritus, interdum gemitu gravis, imaque longo. 506.

2 Cf. p. 71, § 3a.

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46 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Nee gregibus noctumus obambulat : acrior ilium. 538.

A fire in a wood, G. ii. 303-311 : —
Ingentem caelo sonitum dedit ; 306.

Et totum involvit flammis nemus, 308.

Quae contra vetitum discordia ? -4. x. 9.

Obvius ardenti sese obtulit lb, 552.

Nunc manet insontem gravis exitus ; lb, 630.

CissdLs regina Parin creat : lb, 705.

Fallit te incautum pietas tua.' lb, 812.

(End of speech, as also 1. 594 and 1. 830.)

(A few examples of the use of the pause to express
excitement or unusual subject matter ; the point is illustrated
passim^ especially in the later books of the Aeneid,)

Nocte natat caeca serus freta : quem super ingens.

G, iii. 260.
Saepe sub immotis praesepibus, aut mala tactu. lb. 416.
Ipse rotis saliens juga deseris.' Haec ita fatus. A, x. 594.
Pilumnusque illi quartus pater; et tua larga. A, x. 619.
Nunc manet insontem gravis exitus ; aut ego veri. lb, 630.
(The pause naturally gives rise to the legitimate ending
in three words, a monosyllable and two disyllables; after
the pause the monosyllable necessarily belongs in sense to
what follows and counts as a proclitic.)

Et genus omne neci pecudum dedit, omne ferarum.

G, iii. 480.
Haec te prima dies bello dedit, haec eadem aufert.

A, X. 508.
Ite domum saturae, venit Hesperus, ite capellae. E,x. 77.

(Cases of repeslted word, and a light pause.)

Spondee, —
Non, mihi si linguae centum sint, oraque centum. G, ii. 43.
Quo lati ducunt aditus centum, ostia centum. A, vi. 43.
Ante fores subito non voltus, non color unus. 3. 47,

Quinque gr^es illi balantum, quina redibant. A, vii. 538.

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PAUSES 47

(Rare cases of spondee preceding the pause, which is very
light, and which serves as a bridge between two similar
words ; in each of these cases a word is repeated, centum^
non, quinque.)

{b) Virgil has two distinct uses for this pause— (i.) an
imitation of the pastoral pause, used in moderation, and aim-
ing simply at variety of rhythm ; (ii.) a more significant use
in striking passages of tragic or unusual import The pause
is in the majority of cases a heavy cme, and the preceding
foot is a dactyl, mostly ending in a word of two shorts ; e.g.
mihi, grege, caput, dea, venit, gravis, etc. When a spondee
is used, the pause is quite light, and followed by a repeated
word (this is sometimes the case with the dactyl). Like all
diaeresis pauses it is a somewhat marked pause ; indeed it
seems unduly to separate the end of the verse, with its purely
mechanical rhythm, from the rest of the verse. Miiller i
states that, except in pastoral poetry, the better the poet the ;
more carefully does he abstain from its use ; but this does
not seem correct in the light of Virgil's deliberate use of it
in the Aeneid, Virgil regularises it as a decided pause,
mostly with a definite meaning. Endings of the type aut
ubi flavo^ nam tibi lites^ will naturally have a tendency to be
associated with the pause ; thus in A, x., out of thirty fourth-
foot pauses, eleven are of this type, nineteen of other types.
The firequency of tile after this break should be noted.

(c) This pause has an interesting evolution. Homer ^ uses
it frequently, roughly in some lo per cent of his lines, and
about a third of these are heavy pauses. Coming to Ennius
we note a decided change ; they barely reach 2 per cent, and
they are mostly light, the word preceding the pause tending
to absorb i\ feet ; e.g. humanitus, Satumia. Lucretius raises
the percentage to 3, about a third of these being heavy.
He exhibits a remarkable preference for a i J-foot word before

^ See also Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus.

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48 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

the pause; e.g, monstravit, cognoscere, concursu; and in
about half the cases the fourth foot is spondaic. Cicero, in
his Phenomena^ agrees with the percentage of Lucretius, but
he has twice as many heavy as light pauses ; half the cases
have a pyrrhic preceding the pause; e^. morsum Lepus,
Nixi caput Lucretian spondees he reduces very consider-
ably. These tendencies in Cicero are further developed
by VirgiL Slightly increasing the percentage, he shows a
decided preference for a heavy pause at this point, making
heavy three times as niunerous as light pauses. He entirely
eliminates the Lucretian spondaic tendency. His preference
for the form me fuga^ classis tua^ umbra tegit preceding the
pause is very marked, more so even than with Cicero ; he
uses it four times as often as any other form.

In Ovid these tendencies are arrested. Using the fourth

^ diaeresis less than 2 per cent, he makes them pauses of the
very lightest character. In the 780 lines of Met i. there is

1 only one single instance of a heavy pause at this point
However, he agrees with Cicero and Virgil in his decided
preference for the form dixit mea^ pedibus petit He also
eschews a preceding spondee.

(d) The pause should be imitated when it has some
significance ; it should be more often heavy than light It
may be used about once in a copy of twenty lines, and a
decided preference should be giveh for the form in which
a pyrrhic precedes ; e.g, carpes sata. Occasionally the form
fastidia^ cognoscere may be imitated.

(e) Avoid the use of the pause as a mere meaningless
rhythmical variety. Seldom let a spondee, never a spondaic
word, precede the pause. It should not be often used as a
light pause, or exceed the average of about 3 or 4 per cent.

(/) Words preceding are mostly pyrrhics. These are
largely the verb and noun forms found at the end of the

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PAUSES 49

pentameter; e,g. vacat, t^t, dedit, agit, dabat^ fugit, ferit,
venit, pede, grege, pater, dea, liquor, freta, etc

{g) Him then he meets, and drives adown the plain,
Stands o'er him slipp'd and fallen, and sictughters him.
And in vast darkness whelms. The warrior's arms.
Up-gathered, Serestus shoulders and bears off.
Trophy to thee, Gradivus, lord of war. lxix.

So galloping
He dashed amidst them. In one single heart
Upsurges a vast tide of shame and grief
With fury mingled. Lxx.

Deaths little rift hath rent the faultless lute :
The singer of undying songs is dead. Lxxi.

As when two polar winds, blowing adverse
Upon the Cronian sea^ together drive
Mountains of ice, that stop the imagined way
Beyond Petsora eastward. lxxii.

Meanwhile murmuring waters ^
Down the slope hills, dispersed^ or in a lake.
That to the fringed bank with myrtle crowned
Her crystal mirror holds, unite their streams. Lxxiii.

He shall for lightning see
Black fire and horror shot with equal rage
Among his angels : and his throne itself
Mix'd with Tartarean sulphur and strange fire.
His own invented torments. Lxxiv.

Him first Alcides presses home with darts.
Calls every arm to aid him, and bombards
With boughs and mighty mill-stones. Lxxv.

One is for flight o'er land, another holds
The sea were safer than his fatherland.
Another yet prefers resort to arms.
Handling the sword while £aite doth goad him on.

LXXVI.
D

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19. XIV. Pause after 4j(-oa|-ocF|-oa|-oa | -).

Pauses in the final dipod» ue, in the fifth and sixth feet,
are rare in Greek, but more common in Latin. However,
a break immediately after the fifth arsis is felt to be so
cacophonous that it is almost unknown. We have an
instance in Homer,

\qXkuov Kdv€ov, hrl Sk KpSfAvov, iror^ 6\l/av. IL xL 630.

Ennius supplies an example : —
Et ripas raptare locosque novos. Ita sola
Postilla, etc. Ann. 33.

Also we may fairly assume that there was a pause before
simul in the following fiagment :—

Simul inter
Sese sic memorant, etc. lb, 114.

In Virgil, 6^. ii. 153 is apparently unique :—
Nee rapit immensos orbes per humum, neque tanto
Squameus in spiram tractu^^se colligit anguis.

Mr. Page comments : The striking pause after humum in
the fifth foot contrasts the serpent's stoppage as it * gathers
itself with all its huge train Into a spire ' with its previous
smooth and rapid movement.

The pause is a light one. Successful in this instance, it
is too rare a pause to attempt to imitate.

*20. XV. Pause after fifth trochee (- oc? | - 00 1 - oc? |

- CIC7 I - w).

(a) Vimineasque trahit crates, juvat arva, neque ilium.

G. i. 95-
Et puer ipse fuit cantari dignus, et ista. E, v. 54.

(Light pauses with variety for their main object.)
Et nunc omne tibi stratum silet aequor, et omnes,
Aspice, ventosi ceciderunt murmuris aurae. i?. ix. 57.

Here aequor is slightly antithetical to aurae. This

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PAUSES SI

suggests a very frequent use of the pause, as in the follow-
ing:—

Hie vertex nobis semper sublimis : at ilium

Sub pedibus Styx atra videt Manesque profundi G, i. 242.

Multi ante occasum Maiae coepere ; sed illos

Expectata s^es vanis elusit aristis. lb. 225.

Et Cererem clamore vocent in tecta. Neque ante,

^. 347.
Here the description of a new festival is introduced.

Flumina, qua juvenis gressus inferret. Ai ilium, etc.

G. iv. 360.
Nee plura effatus ; et illi
Ocius incubuere, etc. A. viii. 443.

(All these express a contrast, or a sharp transition from
one idea or person to another ; it is ioxoA pcLSsim.)

The same idea underlies those cases where the pause is
used in a series of short interrogations.
Quo molem banc immanis equi statuere ? Quis auctor ?
Quidve petunt ? Quae religio ? Aut quae machina belli ?

A. ii. 150.
Quae scelerum fades ? O Virgo, effare : quibusve
Urgentur poenis ? Qui tantus plangor ad auras ? A, vi. 560.

Note also the sudden change of mind described in
Verum anceps pugnae fiierat fortuna : fuisset A, iv. 603.

Ronstnbm wrongly labels these instances as cumbrous.

The success of this pause in antithesis* is partly due to
the singular prominence given to the word immediately pre-
ceding the pause, e.g.

At si non fuerit \£^'& fecunda^ sub ipsum, etc. C i. 67,

where non-fecunda is contrasted with Pingue solum in 1. 64.

The best instance of this in Virgil is
Scilicet omnibus est labor impendendus^ et omnes, etc.

G, ii. 61,

where the weight of impendcndus is irresistible, the

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Sa LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

effect being heightened by the previous absence of

caesuras.^

Pars autem posito surgunt de semincy ut altae

(in contrast to spontaneous generation of trees).

This line suggests a very pretty use of the pause, where
the end of the line repeats by way of echo a word already
occurring in the line ; here, omnibus— omnes. So also,
Et te, Bacche, vocant per carmina laeta, tibique. G, ii. 388.
Ante etiam sceptrum Dictaei regis, et ante lb, 536.

Quoted above; omne — omnes, E. ix. ^j.

The pause is very light, and perhaps hardly to be taken
count of, in —

Quae nemora, aut qui vos saltus habuere, puellae
Naiades, indigno, etc. £. x. 9.

Quis jam locus, inquit, Achate. A, i. 459.

So — tibi, Phoebe, sacravit : procul este, profani : paucis,
adverte, docebo : quis te, Palinure, deorum.

(Pause caused by vocative, imperative, or inquit)

{b) Viigilian usage may be summed up thus : — (1.) Variety
of rhythm, rarely. (iL) Antithesis, and sharp transition from
one idea or subject to another, often, (iii.) To give special
prominence to a particularly strong word before the pause,
(iv.) With word echoed, (v.) With vocatives, imperatives,
inquit^ etc : a very light pause. The pause is mainly heavy
with (ii.), and light in other cases, especially with echo.
It is a pretty pause, but should not be used above 2 or

I 3 per cent; Virgil does not exceed 2 per cent, but Ovid

f reaches 5 or 6.

{c) In Homer one may look in vain through 1000 lines
for a single example of a pause in the final dipod. The
fourth diaeresis performs all the pause functions for this
part of the line. Ennius has some four mild examples in

1 See § 76, pp. 100, zoz.

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PAUSES, S3

400 lines ; and in Lucretius (about i per cent), who nearly j
always uses the pause lightly, there seems to be little point '
in its use. Catullus, like Homer, practically does not use
it, except in two cases of vocatives. Cicero recalls Lucretius.
Virgil*s proportion rises to about 2 per cent, and he more
often makes it a heavy pause: still the preponderance b
largely in favour of a light pause. Ovid maJces the pause
(light : heavy : : 9 : i) quite a feature of his hexameters,
employing it nearly 6 per cent

(d) Imitate especially the transition use, with a heavy
pause, and the echo with a light one ; also where a word
is to be strongly emphasised. Once in a copy of twenty
lines is generally ample.

{e) As a rule a meaningless use of the pause should be
avoided.

{/) This pause is specially associated with the words (tf/,
a/, sedy neque) ilk, following the pause ; also et omnis with
echo; («/, ety at) ipse; vocatives often precede or succeed,
and inquit often precedes.

{g) Up speeds Aeneas, and plucks sword from sheath,
TJien o'er him : * Where is bold Mezentius now.
And all his heart's wild violence ? ' Unto whom
The Etruscan, as up-glancing he drew in
A draught of heaven, and to himself returned :
* Why, bitter foe, dost taunt and threaten death ? '

LXXVII.

The Sarazin, sore daunted with the buffe,

Snatcheth his sword and fiercely to him flies ;

Who well it wards and quyteth cuff with cuff, lxxviii.

The Pigmies, on their mirth and dance
Intent, with jocund music charm his ear ;
At once with joy and fear his heart rebounds. lxxix.

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54 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

So spake the queen of heaven ; then she ceased,

And Paris pondered, and I cried, * O Paris,

Give it to Pallas ! ' but he heard me not lxxx.

Him, my son, must thou first enfetter^ that he may fully
unfold the source of the sickness, and give prosperous issue.
For without force he will give counsel in nowise, nor wilt
thou bend him by entreaties ; with sheer force and fetters
must thou tie thy prisoner ; aroimd them his wiles at last
will break unavailing. (The emphatic words are italicised.)

LXXXI.

Then on what ground sends he (his flaming shaft)

Into the sea ? Of what doth he impeach

The waves, the liquid mass, and swimming plains?

LXXXII.

Here too these many slain, o'er all the shore
These heaps which I have made and see, do tell
Thy right arm hath prevailed^ and still prevails,

LXXXIII.

Down hurled the twain, Orion and Broteas :
Orion^s mother was that Mycale,
Who (so 'twas told) by oft-repeated strains
Charmed down the horns of the reluctant Moon.

LXXXIV.

But nearer as the youthful hearer came

All sounds of all the multitude were hushed.

And not a whisper rose. Lxxxv.

He spake, and, dashing forward, hurled his lance
Full at the foe : the hurtling cornel hissed,
And cleft the air^ and erred not Hard upon.
Rose a vast shout: through all the welded ranks
Confusion ran, and hearts beat fiery-fast lxxxvi.

♦ 21. XVI. Pause after fifth foot. Diaeresis. In all cases
a dactyl

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PAUSES 55

(a) Acceleremus, ait Vigiles simul exdtat. Illi

A. ix. 221.

Traxerit ad letum patriae sub moenibus ! O gens

A. V. 624.
Nullane jam Trojae dicentur moenia ? Nusquam Jl. 633.
Aeneas Tumusque ruunt per proelia ; nunc, nunc
Fluctuat ira intus, etc. A. xii. 526.

Italiam petiit fatis auctoribus ; esto ; A, x. 67.

(Cases where strong feeling and excitement are well
depicted by the sudden pull-up of the diaeresis : these are all
heavy pauses.)

Germanum fugiens. Longa est injuria, longae
Ambages; A. i. 341.

Non injussa cano. Si quis tamen haec quoque, si quis
Captus amore leget. £, vi. 9.

Astrum, quo segetes gauderent frugibus, et quo E, ix. 48.
cum messis inhorruit, et cum G. i. 314.

amissis superant qui navibus, et quos. A, v. 713.
Cf. also A. xi. 170, and xii. 48.

(The pause is followed by a word repeated in the way of
echo from the earlier part of the line, as in fifth trochaic
pause ; these are all light pauses.)

Tritonia, respice, Pallas. A, ii. 615.

tua limina, Phoebe. -^. iii. 371.

quantas ostentant, respice, vires. -4. vi. 771.

quo mis,' inquit. A, ii. 520.

Adveniet justum pugnae, ne arcessite, tempus. A. x. 11.

(A very light pause caused by vocatives, fVi^/V, or paren-
thetic phrases and clauses.)

frugibus, et cum G. iii. 133.

frontibus, atque -/?. 24.

aethera, nee cum I^. 358.

fontibus, et dum I^. 428.

tam litora, nee quae. E. v. 83.

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5^ LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

(The pause succeeded by two monosyllables, either two
conjunctions, or a conjunction and a pronoun, especially the
relative.)

^(^) The pause does not average more than i per cent in

j Virgil, except perhaps in the later books of the Aeneid^ when

it reaches about ij. The very large proportion are light

pauses; e,g, in A. x. only three cases out of fifteen are

heavy, and in A, iv. only one out of seven.

(i.) The most frequent are the very light pauses caused
by vocatives and parenthetic phrases.

(ii.) Next come the light pause with echo.

(iii.) Least frequent the heavy pause to describe mental
excitement. Virgil likes to follow the pause with two
monosyllables, mainly a conjunction and a relative leading
rapidly on to the next line.

i {c) The pause has practically no history in Homer, or
' even in Ennius. Lucretius hardly attains to J per cent,
nearly always a very light pause ; the same with Catullus ;
and Cicero does not reach i per cent. Virgil slightly
increases the percentage and regularises the pause, especially
in the matter of echoed word^ with a light pause, and
\ excitement with a heavy one. Here again Ovid strikes out
a new line, and increases to 3 per cent. Thus in Met. xiii.
are twenty-four examples, with four of them heavy.

{d) Imitate especially (i.) the light pause with repeated
word; (ii.)the heavy pause descriptive of mental excitement.
But as a rule one example in a copy of verses is enough.

{e) Carefully avoid using the pause without some definite
reason ; and it must not be used often.

(/) The pause is very often succeeded by two mono-
syllables, mostly a conjunction and a relative ; e^. et quae,
^ Juvenal has «/ noi . . . , «/ not.

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PAUSES 57

nee quae, et cum, utque, nee cum, et dum, qui se, qua se,
nee te, etc. Preceding the pause most often are vocatives
and imperatives.

(g) Then warns he him

How mutable things human, and with pleas
Mingles entreaties. Without more ado
Tarchon joins forces, and strikes treaty, then
Thus speaks he. lxxxvii.

The son, embarked with all his warlike peers,
Urges with oars the mighty Centaur on ;
Who leans above the flood, and menaces
With monstrous rock the billows, towering high.
And furrows with long keel the watery deep.

LXXXVIII.

Dear one, thou seest how bustle fills the shore.
From every quarter they have gathered round ;
And now their canvas woos the breezes, and
The sailors glad have garlanded the stems. lxxxix.

They too, astonished, all resistance lost^

All courages down their idle weapons dropt xc.

Then, when I am thy captive^ talk of chains.

Proud limitary cherub I but ere then

Far heavier load thyself expect to feel

From my prevailing arm. xci.

And let the blazing star of Cretan crown

Retire before thou yield their debt of seed

To the furrows, or before thou hasten on

To entrust the year's hope to imwilling earth. xcii.

Or shall I tell the seas that wash her shores
Above, below ? Or her great lakes ? And thee^
Great Larius, and thee Benacus, heaving
With billows and with roar as of the sea ! xciii.

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SB LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

When west winds first ruffle the water's face,

This do they, ere the meadows are afiush

With colours fresh, ere yet the chattering swallow

Doth hang below the rafters her sweet nest. xciv.

22. XVII. Pause after 5^ feet (-oc; I -^^ | -^y^ I -ocf |
- o^ I -).

This pause has but to be mentioned to be dismissed.

Its awkward abruptness renders it totally unfit for dignified

metre. Even Ennius, with his multitude of monosyllabic

endings, seems nowhere to have introduced a pause after

the sixth arsis. Lucretius also scrupulously avoids it.

Cicero {Phefwm, 189) seems to have made an experiment

in the line —

Hie tamen, aetemo invisens loca curriculo, nox

Signa dedit nautis.

Horace, in the conversational style of the Satires^ natur-
ally does not shrink from lines like

Nee soleas fecit, sutor tamen est sapiens' — Qui? i. 3, 128.
Furiis, quam ii. 3, 135.

neque sollicitum, ne ii. 7, 51.

* 23. Final Pauses, — In Virgil's ordinary heroic or didactic
hexameters, as in the Aeneid and Georgics^ as distinguished
from the pastoral and conversational verse of the Eclogues^
60 per cent of the lines have pauses at the end, these being
about equally divided between heavy and Hght, with a slight
preponderance in favour of the light pause; the remain-
ing 40 per cent are run-on lines without pauses. On the
average, lines with heavy final pauses are about i in 3;
and the ratio of final-pause lines (including both heavy and
light) to run-on lines is as 3 to 2.

These figures are instructive as showing Virgil's rule of
taste in the matter of pause variation. The final pause,
even with partial or fused types (p, above, p. 3), tends to rescue

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PAUSES 59

the hexameter from rhetorical confusion. As was said
above, the extreme of pause variation must be avoided as
well as that of metrical regularity. The occasions when
complete types are apt to occur singly or in groups of two
or three are —

(l) The opening or close of a speech or subject ; or

(ii.) The opening or close of a complex period.

In a long passage final pauses should occur on the average
about once in three lines.

A standard of divergence for six lines might be represented
thus : — I. Light pause. 4. Run on.

2. Run on. 5. Light pause.

3. Heavy pause. 6. Heavy pause.

General Summary on Pauses

* 24. The legitimate pauses^ have thus been found to be —
(i.) Five diaeresis pauses after feet i, 2, 3, 4, 5, either '•
spondee or dactyl in all cases except 5, which
is necessarily a dactyl,
(ii) Four strong caesura pauses, J, ij, 2|, 3 J. |

(iiL) Four trochaic or weak-caesura pauses, i, 2, 3, and 5. t
Thus there are thirteen pauses in use out of a possible \
sixteen.

25. Aposiopesis, — This is an effective pause at which the
sentence is broken off abruptly before the sense is completed.

After first half-foot —
O — quam te memorem, virgo A, i. 326.

After first foot —
Quos ^o — ! sed motos lb, 135.

^ The chief pauses might be roughly arranged in order of frequency
thus:

ia) For general use : ij, aj, 3^.

h) For special use : z dactyl, a dactyl, a troch., 3 troch,, 4 diaeresis.

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6o LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

After 3j —
Itque reditque viam totiens — quid Thesea magnum,

A. vi. 122.

At the end of a line it causes a halt longer than the usual
rhythmic break, and may therefore be mentioned among
pauses-r-

Donec Calchante ministro —
Sed quid ^o haec, etc. A, ii. loo.

This can obviously be employed only in rhetorical

26. Incomplete lines in the Aeneid, — These should be
considered as incomplete because they did not receive
Virgil's final touch. His plan of composition seems to
have been to write fluently as the rhythm led him, and,
rather than lose a lilt, he sometimes left a thought at *a
sympathetic pause,' with the intention, doubtless, of com-
pleting the metre satisfactorily at leisure.^ However, some
think that the extra correctness of the metre of these
unfinished lines goes to prove that the poet deliberately
left and did not wish to complete them.

The Georgics appear to furnish no examples, but towards
the end of Aeneid i. are several — 11. 534, 560, 636, and
thereafter they are never far to seek. They are valuable
as showing to what sort of pauses Virgil's sense of rhythm
naturally led him ; it is not to be supposed that the lines
are arbitrarily broken off at any point.

Imperfect lines, — An examination of them shows that the
breaks off —

A. In diaeresis.

1 Of course this is not inconsistent with the art of

••Virgil who would write ten lines, they say.
At dawn and lavish all the golden day
To make them worthier in his reader's e:jt&,*'
But Mr. R. L. Du Pontet leans to the view that the lines were deliberately

left unfinished.

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PAUSES 61

1. In first diaeresis, three times : A. iii. 640 Rumpite,

and X. 580, xi. 375.

2. In second, once : i. 334 Hie cursus fuit.

3. In fourth, five times : iL 468 Telorum interea cessat

genus, and 785, v. 815, vi. 835, ix. 721.

These breaks in diaeresis are naturally employed to convey
the idea of an abrupt or jolty ending.
B. In arsis.

1. Trihemimeral (ij), thirteen times, e^. i. 560 Dar-

danidae, iii. 218, viii. 169.

2. Penthemimeral (2J), eighteen times, e.g, il 233

Numina conclamant, and 614, 623, 640, iv. 44, ix.
167, 295.

3. Hepthemimeral (3^), sixteen times, e,g. i. 636 Munera

laetitiamque dei, and iii. 316, v. 294.

Naturally the majority of cases occur at 2J and 3J
caesuras.

* 27. Some successions of pauses, —

(i.) Two pauses in one line. This is naturally common
in colloquial and easy style, or in descriptive narrative,
mostly to convey an additional notion ; e,g,
Pierides ; sunt et mihi carmina : me quoque dicunt

E, ix. 33.
meos incidere amores
Arboribus : crescent illae : crescetis amores. E, x. 54.

Aspicio. Ille ubi me contra videt : * Ocius, inquit. E, vii. 8.
Nudus ara : sere nudus : hiemps ignava colono. G, i. 299.
Carduus : intereunt segetes, subit aspera silva. lb, 152.

Insula, dives opum, Priami dum regna manebant A, ii. 22.
Accipimus ; Fauno Picus pater : isque parentum. A, vii. 48.
Procubuere : silent late loca. Percipe porro. A, ix. 190.
Ponite. Spes sibi quisque : sed haec quam angusta videtis.

A. xL 309,

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6a LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

(iL) The first-foot pause is often used as the close of a
series of lighter pauses in previous lines, and the sense is
concluded —

(a) At the end of the line.

()8) At the end of the next line,
(a) Hie ver purpureum, varios hie flumina circum
Fundit humus flores, hie Candida populus antro
Imminet, et lentae texunt umbracula vites. E. ix. 40-42.

Cingite, ne vati noceat mala lingua futuro. E. viL 28.

Deferar; extremum hoc mimus morientis habeto. E. viii 60.
Ingredere, et votis jam nunc adsuesce vocarL G. L 43.

So G. iii. 321.
Femina.' Sic fatus nocti se immiscuit atrae. A, iv. 570.

A. X. 226, 227 ; XL 857.

()8) End of next line : —
Aequora : nee miseri possunt revocare parentes,
Nee moritura super crudeli fiinere virgo. G. iiL 262.

Incidit. Ast alii subeunt, nee saxa nee uUum
Telorum interea cessat genus (line incomplete). A, ii. 467.
Robora; restinctus donee vapor omniset omnes,
Quattuor amissis, servatae a peste carinae. A, v. 698.

So the close of the Aeneid (xii. 951) —
Fervidus. Ast illi solvuntur frigore membra,
Vitaque cum gemitu fugit indignata sub umbras.

Combinations of pauses at the (A) opening and (B) close
of a passage

* 28. A. To start a passage.

Virgil's practice is in the vast majority of cases (i.) to
start with a single line with light pause at the end, a more
decided pause often following at end of second line ; e,g,
Altemis idem tonsas cessare novales,
Et s^nem patiere situ durescere campum. 6^. i. 71.

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PAUSES 63

Dicendum et quae sint duns agrestibus arma,
Queis sine nee potuere sen nee surgere messes : lb, 160.
And ib, 287.

Or with a single line closed by a definite stop : —

Conripuere viam interea, qua semita monstrat. A, i. 418.
Conticuere omnes, intentique ora tenebant. -4. ii. i.

Nee modus inserere atque oculos imponere simplex.

G. ii. 73.
Nee vero tenrae fenre omnes omnia possunt. lb, 109.

Forsitan et scrobibus quae sint fastigia quaeras. lb. 288.

(ii.) With two lines ending with a moderate pause ; e,g,

Inde ubi prima fides pelago placataque venti

Dant maria et lenis crepitans vocat Auster in altum, A, iii. 69.

Hie incredibilis rerum fama occupat aures

Priamiden Helenum Graias regnare per urbes, A, iii. 294.

Primus init bellum Tyrrhenis asper ab oris

Contemptor divum Mezentius agminaque armat : A, vii. 647.

(iii.) The first pause is often found in the second line —
(a) mostly at the natural pause 2\ : —

Ipsa dies alios alio dedit ordine Luna
Felices operum. G, 1. 277.

Si vero Solem ad rapidum lunasque sequentes
Ordine respicies. lb. 424.

Hoc pius Aeneas misso certamine tendit
Gramineum in campum. A. v. 286.

And A, vi. 494, viii. 307, ix. i, etc.

()8) at I :-
Interea magno misceri murmure caeluiri
Incipit; A. iv. 160.

Ut belli signum Laurenti Turnus ab arce
Extulit, A, viii. i.

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64 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

(y)atii:—
Turn vero andpiti mentem formidine pressus
Obstupui, A. iii. 48.

Servatum ex undis Strophadum me litora primum
Excipiunt, etc. i?. 209.

(8)at3i:-
Postquam res Asiae Priamique evertere gentem
Immeritam visum superis, A, iii. i.

Sacra Dionaeae matri divisque ferebam
Auspicibus coeptorum operum, Id. 19.

And id. viii. 203.

The first pause is seldom before the end of the first line.
If it is, it is light and comes either (a) after first foot ; such
words as Dixerat, Haec ait, Nox erat.

Or(y3)3i:-

Postquam altum tenuere rates, A. iii. 192.

Jamque propinquabam portis, A. ii. 730.

Ut pelagus tenuere rates. A, y. S.

0r(y)4:-
Aeneas scopulum interea conscendit, A. i. 180.

* 29. B. The close of a passage.

(i.) By a complete type, which serves as summary to a
paragraph.

Infelix superat foliis oleaster amaris. G. ii. 314.

Hoc juvenem egregium praestanti munere donat. A, v. 361.

And A. V. 603, 718, 778; vi. 547.

(il) Often by a word or phrase like sensit, dixit, haec
loquitur, tantum efFata, and the remainder of two lines. Thus

Haec loquitur, juguloque baud inscius accipit ensem,
Undantique animam difiundit in anna cruore. A, x. 907, 908.
And A. xii. 885.

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PAUSES 65

(ill.) i^, and remainder of two lines : —

Concipiunt : hinc ille avium concentus in agris,
Et laetae pecudes et ovantes gutture corvi. G. i. 422.

Fida petmit : pars ingentem formidine turpi
Scandimt rursus equum et nota conduntur in alvo. A. ii. 400.
And A, X. 604.

(iv.) 2 J, and the remainder of two lines (this is a favourite
closing rhythm) : —

Nescivere hiemem, testa cum ardente viderent
Scintillare oleum et putres concrescere fungos. G. i. 391.
In manibus terrae : non hie te carmine ficto
Atque per ambages et longa exorsa tenebo. G, ii. 45.

Aut moriere simul.' Sic ore effata recepit
Ad sese et sacra longaevum in sede locavit. A, ii. 524.

Also -<4. ix. 75 and xi. 98.

(v.) 3i, and remainder of two lines : —

Ante reformidant ferrum ; tum denique dura
Exerce imperia, et ramos compesce fluentes. G, ii. 369.
Cum sociis ardent animi ; furor iraque mentem
Praecipitant, pulchrumque mori succurrit in armis. A, ii. 316.
Quam tua te Fortuna sinet. Via prima salutis,
Quod minime reris, Graia pandetur ab urbe. A. vi. 96.

Also A, vi 266 and ix. 222.

(vi) 4, and remainder of two lines : —

ei mihi, quantum
Praesidium Ausonia et quantum tu perdis, lule. A, xi. 57.

Ocius omnes
In mensam laeti libant divosque precantur. A, viii 278.

(vii) 5 th trochaic and remainder of two lines : —

sed aurae
Omnia discerpunt et nubibus inrita donant. A. ix. 312.

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66 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

etaltum
Pelion hinnitu fiigiens implevit acuto. G. iiL 93.

But this is rare.

(viiL) Probably the most common ending is i, and
remainder of the line.

Thus*—

Ingredere, et votis jam nunc adsuesce vocari. G. L 42.

Excipit, ac fessos opibus solatur amicis. -<4. v. 41.

Exiguam ; inceptus clamor frustratur hiantis. A, vi. 493.

Imperat, et laetus fluvio succedit opaco. A, vii. 36.

And A. xii. 499, x. 197, ix. 366.

(ix.) Hardly less frequent is i J, and remainder of line.

Flore piri, glandemque sues fregere sub ulmis. G. ii. 72.

In numerum, versantque tenaci forcipe massam. A. viiL 453.

And A. X. 307.

(x.) A favourite and weighty ending is 2 lines, each having
a pause, the former generally a light one, and the two
being connected by et or que.

Nee frustra signorum obitus speculamur et ortus,
Temporibusque parem diversis quattuor annum. G,\, 257.
Haec loquitur, juguloque baud inscius accipit ensem,
Undantique animam difiundit in arma cruore. A, x. 907.
Sed nos immensum spatiis confecimus aequor,
Et jam tempus equum fumantia solvere coUa. G, ii. 541.
And ib. 418. Cf. also A, ix. 689.

(xL) A complete line —

Ancora de prora jadtur, stant litore puppes.

A. vi. 901 (end).

1 Mr. Du Pontet rightly suggests that there are here three types
instead of one :

Imperat, definite stop after dactyl
Ingredere, anticipated elision.

Exiguam, elision not anticipated, i,e. not known to be coming till the
next word is heard.

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PAUSES 67

Mox illos sua fata manent majore sub hoste. A. x. 438.

Or a line divided by 2^ pause into two short clauses —

Mens immota manet : lacrimae volvuntur inanes.

A, iv. 449.

Ore favete omnes, et cingite tempora ramis. A, v. 71.

Parcere subjectis, et debellare superbos. A, vi. 853.

A, viL 600, 640, 690, 732 ; viii. 65, etc. ; xi. 915 ^ ; xiL 17.

(xii.) A short final clause, after 2 J.

Ipsa canas oro.' Finem dedit ore loquendi. A. vi. 76.

Corde dolor tristi : gaudet cognomine terra. li, 383.

Instituere pedis ; crudus tegit altera pero. A, vii. 690.

Remigioque aptat : socios simul instruit armis. A, viii 80.

(xiii.) A similar close, but after i|.
Aspicies.' Dixit, pressoque obmutuit ore. A. vi. 155.

Passages of Virgil illustrating Pauses

* 30. For passages of Virgil of varying length which will
illustrate his use of pauses cf. among others —

G. i. 1-42, 147-154, 322-334, 356-359, 370-378.
iii. 146-151, 258-263, 498-502.

A, iv. 590-629.

vi. 3-8.

X. 51-62.

xii. 928-952.

We will conclude by considering a few passages in the
light of Virgirs use of pauses.

Detailed description in narrative is often accompanied by
a broken style with many pauses at short intervals ; e,^.

^ This is the end of Book xi. Books ii. and iii. also end with a
single line.

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68 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

The points of a good cow : —

Optima torvae
Forma bovis, cui turpe caput, cui plurima cervix,
Et cninim tenus a mento palearia pendent ;
Turn longo nuUus lateri modus ; omnia magna,
Pes etiam ; et camuris hirtae sub comibus aures.

(J.iiLsi-SS.

So also the points of a good horse : —

Illi ardua cervix
Argutumque caput, brevis alvus obesaque terga,
Luxuriatque toris animosum pectus. Honesti
Spadices glaucique, color deterrimus albis
Et gilvo. G. iii. 79-83.

So also ib, 504-508, where Virgil is describing in detail the

symptoms of plague in cattle.

Est in conspectu Tenedos . . .

. . . certare solebant. -r4.ii 21-30.

Mental excitement and consequent broken speech may
be well represented by frequency of suitable pauses.

Thus note A, iv. 416-436, Dido to Anna on the in-
tended departure of Aeneas. Study the passage. In
twenty-one lines there are no less than seventeen final pauses,
two first foot, four 2J, one 3 trochee, two 3J, and one 5.
Of these the 3 trochee, two i and one 5, are prominent in
producing the effect desired. Ten internal pauses figure in
the passage.^

.^ain, in A, v. 136-143, note how the excitement at the
start of the boat-race is depicted by pauses. In eight lines
there are four final pauses, one i, one 2J, three 3J, and
a bucolic diaeresis (dactyl). Of these the first-foot

^ Note also Bk. ii. 4i-44> 289-295, 322-327.

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PAUSES 69

pause and bucolic diaeresis give the unusual effect There
are six internal pauses in the passage.^

lb, 693-699, a sudden storm of rain. In seven lines the
pauses are two finals, one i, one 2|, three 3^, one 5 troch.
Of these the i and 4 J excite attention. Six internal pauses
in seven lines.

In G, iii. 237-241, a big wave rolling in. In five lines
we have two finals, one ij, one 3 trochee, one bucolic
diaeresis, one 5 trochee. Of these the last three arrest
attention.

In A, vL 557, 558, note how in two lines experiences com-
ing quickly one upon another are described by the pauses.

Hinc exaudiri gemitus, et saeva sonare
Verbera ; turn stridor ferri, tractaeque catenae.

For another storm cf. G* i. 328-334. Seven lines give
seven pauses, among them being a i and a bucolic diaeresis
(dactyl).

* Cf. Bk. V. 195-aoo, where the strong pause in the middle of each
successive line seems to imitate the effort renewed again and again.

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CHAPTER II

CAESURAS

*S1. In the evolution of the hexameter it early became
apparent that it was not enough that the first four feet
should be indifferently dactyls or spondees, the fifth a
dactyl, and the sixth a spondee. A sense of rhythm soon
dictated that certain words in each line should be divided
between two feet, since otherwise the reader or listener gets
the impression of a chain, the links of which are placed
side by side without being actually joined. This is the
effect of the lines of Ennius,

Poeni pervortentes omnia circumcursant,
and

Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret.

On the other hand, when the feet and words mutually are
interconnected, the verse seems to gain organic unity, and
the temptation to make any appreciable pause before the
end of the verse is done away : thus —

Hoc dicens ferrum adverso sub pectore condit

But while, on the one hand, the principle of the caesura

is to prevent the monotonous impression of a number of

disconnected words, it also seeks to prevent the ear of the

listener or attention of the reader from tiring.by hearing or

reading a long line without break. Hence it suggests a

brief pause in which to regain energy ; this pause naturally

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CAESURAS 71

enough is usually placed towards the middle of the verse,
and breaks in the sense are often made to coincide with
this natural rhythmic rest. The balance of the two parts
is best when likeness and contrast are both suggested, when
the two parts are left unequal, but nearly equal.
Thus,

Tollentemve manus || saxumye immane moventem,

both in sense and rhythm obviously suggests a break after
manus. This adaptation of rhythm to sense was seldom 1
attained by Ennius, but was gradually attained by the efforts '
of later writers like Lucretius and Virgil. As to the extent
of this interlacing of words and feet, in course of time it
was felt to be satisfactory if there was not in the line a
majority of feet, the ends of which corresponded with the
ends of words, the last foot of course not counting. Thus,
though a line in which there were two cases of the co-
incidence of ends of words and feet might be held to be
permissible, taste was against the threefold repetition of
this arrangement, and hence the second Ennian line quoted
above excited the just ridicule of Lucilius.

* 32. We are now in a position to attempt a definition of

a caesura.^ A caesura is a rhythmic break, incision, or

pause occurring after a long syllable, which is at once the

last syllable of a word and the first of a foot ; e,g, —

Armatam | saevi | Parthus | quam felle veneni

Tum I pingues | agni.

Cum I medio | celeres | revolant | ex aequore mergL

N,B, — (i) A caesura is a pause after a syllable, not the

syllable itself.

(2) The name is sometimes applied to other breaks in the

verse besides those occurring between two words which help

to make up a foot Thus the break in sense in the line —

^ Quicherat defines : ' On appelle c^ure une syUabe longue qui finit on
mot et commence un pied. *

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72 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Die mihi, Damoeta, cujum pecus ? An Meliboei ? '
where a pause perceptible to the ear comes after a dactylic
fourth foot which ends with the end of a word, is often
called a Bucolic Caesura.

For this phenomenon (which is not a break in but after the
foot) we shall, withGossrau, reserve the term ^\ic6&c Diaeresis^
and use the word caesura only in the sense defined above.

*33. The caesura as we have defined it is called the
strong caesura^ distinguished firom the weak or trochaic
caesura^ in which the pause follows not the first syllable of
a spondee, but the trochee contained in a dactyl, i,e. after
a long and a short (- ^). The following are weak or trochaic
caesuras: —

JussKt I et invito.
Dlgn^ I sed argutos.
Irg : I Ubet Partho.
Taurus, | St averso.

In the memorial line

Sole I cadente | juvencus | aratra | relinquit in arvo,^ ;

all the caesuras are weak or trochaic.

[Strong and weak are sometimes called masculine and
fgminine,']

*34. Axiapparentcaesura{somti\mescs\\tA a^^t^^Z caesura)
is one which would fall after a final elided syllable, if that
syllable were not elided.

Thus in

Magnanimi Jovis ingratum | ascendere cubile,

though the syllable um is really lost by elision into c^Cy the
impression is left that the word ingratum which supplies
the third foot also contributes something to the fourth.

^ This line, of course, is hardly preferable to Sparsis hastis, etc. (§ 31).

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CAESURAS

Thus also
Aspicio. I Ille ubi me contra videt : * ocius,' inquit
Indigetem | Aenean sds ipsa, et scire fateris.
[A recent writer on metre, Rdnstrdm, takes no account of
either weak (trochaic) caesuras or apparent (quasi) caesuras,
holding strictly to the definition of a caesura given above.
They are of value, however, as supports to one or more
principal caesuras, and must be taken into account]

It is obvious that a caesura, strong or weak, may fall in any
foot of the line, except the sixth, where only strong is possible.
Thus :—

Nee I currus usquam videt

Semper, | et assidua.'

Si quando | letum horrificum.

Eripiare | mihi? Pallas.

Quinque orbes explent | cursu.

Tormento sic saxa | fremunt

Consurgunt gemitu Rutuli, | totusque

remugit.
Labitur et labetur in omne | volubilis

aevum.
Semianimi lapsoque supervenit, et |

pede coUo.
Roboris Aeneas. Dum nititur acer

I et instat
Concurrunt : haeret pede pes, den-
susque viro | vir.

However, the usage of Roman poets shows that caesuras
in certain feet are important, while in others they are im-
material and practically without effect on the rhythm. It
will therefore be our next business to discover (i.) which are
the more important caesuras; (ii.) which combinations of
caesuras most commended themselves to Roman ears;
(iii.) the effects produced by the use of certain caesuras or

First foot

Strong.

Weak.

Second foot

Strong.

Weak.

Third foot

Strong.

Weak.

Fourth foot

Strong.

Weak.

Fifth foot

Strong.

Weak.

Sixth foot

Strong.

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74 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

combinations of them ; and (iv.) what restrictions must be
placed on the use of caesuras.

*35. 1. Caesuras may be arranged according to their
relative importance in three groups; in each group the
most important is mentioned first.

A. Principal. Caesuras.

Those after two and a half feet (a long syllable as being
equivalent to two shorts counting as a half foot), three and
a half, one and a half, and after the third trochee reckoned
thus: —

These in future for brevity will be thus indicated : —
2i, Sh ^h 3 troch.

[Other names for these are penthemimeral,hephthemimeral,
trihemimeral, Karol rpirov rpoxalov, or semiquinaria, semi-
septenaria, semitemaria, tertia trochaica.]

MB. — i^ is considered by Miiller and Plessis, among
others, to be a secondary caesura, but Birt places it among
the principals. At any rate it seems to have more weight
in the Roman hexameter than 3 troch.

B. Secondary Caesuras.

I troch., 2 troch., 4 troch.

C. Tertiary Caesuras.

4h S troch., and all apparent ^ (or quasi) caesuras in what-
ever foot occurring.

In the construction of hexameters our concern is seldom
with others than the Principal Caesuras ; those of groups
B and C may be regarded as merely subsidiary, helping out
deficiencies caused by the absence of one or more of those
in group A.

It having soon been felt that every hexameter should

^ These are in later pages referred to by the symbol A : thus 2^ A,
3JA

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CAESURAS 75

contain at least one caesura, or rhythmical pause (between
two words) less long than that at the end of the verse
separating it from the next verse, but longer than the other
interior pauses, the different places in the verse would soon
be placed in competition as to which should generally have
the honour of this pause. As we have already seen, the
most natural positions for a single pause are about the
middle of the line —

either after 2^, called penthemimeral (semiquinaria),
or after 3 J, called hephthemimeral (semiseptenaria).

36. But 2^ has other advantages beyond the faqt that
it gives a natural resting-place for the voice. It has the
effect of giving to the two halves of the Verse (hemistiches)
a very distinct character, making the former half appear
dactylic,^ and the latter anapaestic.

Thus—

Ilium ubi terrifici | superesse in tempore sacri

when read according to the stress of the rhythm seems to
run —

Iir iibl I terrifilcl | siipSrass' | in temp|6rg sacr|i,

the former half having a dactylic, the latter an anapaestic
rhj^hm.

This differentiation in some measure also accounts for
the Latin preference for a strong caesura. With a strong
caesura the first hemistich ends on an accented syllable, the
second on an unaccented.

Again, the medial caesura helps to promote another end
which was regarded as desirable in itself, i.e, the discrepancy
in the first four feet between word-accent and metrical stress.
Take, for instance, the third trochaic caesura as a sample of
medial caesura, and note the effect it has in the following line —
£t saevas inferte | faces, sacer efifera raptet
^ Spondees being accepted as the equivalents of dactyls.

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76 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

The word-accent faAls in Latin on an early syllable. Let
A = word-accent, and S = metrical stress. Then we get the
result —

A A

SASAS ASA S S

Et saevjas injferte x facjes, sacer | efTera raptet,

where the strife of word-accent and metrical stress is
maintained until a reconciliation is effected in the last two
feet. The line would be intolerable if the second and fourth
arses {t\e. metrically stressed syllables) did not coincide
with the last syllables of words.

37. But while the caesura is useful in promoting this
needful differentiation between the former and latter
distiches, it does not fulfil this function in such a way as
to detract from the unity of the verse ; for

(L) The caesura pause is not so long as the pause at the
end of the verse.

(iL) The metre is broken in such a way that the reader is
impelled to continue in order to grasp it again ; in other
words, he feels the suspense of the pause ; e^.

Silvestrem tenui | Musam meditaris avena,

where the last word of the first limb, fenut\ is an anapaest,
i.e, the opposite of a dactyl, a clear reminder that the verse
is not yet concluded.

Besides, the suspense of the incomplete foot is felt
Now the caesura which effects the division of the line into
its two parts is t/ie (principal) caesura, and in most verses the
principal caesura can without difficulty be determined. In
the Aeneid, for instance, the occasions when 2^ is the
principal are to those when 3^ has most authority as
3 to I. So important is the 2^ caesura that Bergk has
a theory that originally the hexameter was written distinctly
in two parts, which, however, were bound together by

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CAESURAS 77

the 2^ caesura. This theory may be taken for what it is
worth. But our desire for uniformity must not lead us to
suppose that the poet in all cases deliberately intended that
the verse should be controlled by one principal caesura.
Thus, when the caesura does not coincide with the sense
pause, which of the two, the caesura or the sense pause, is
to be regarded as more authoritative ? What is to be done
in cases where two caesuras seem to have equal weight ? e^.
in such lines as

Italiam fato HI ^ profugus ||| Lavinaque venit,
Audierat Tyrias ||| olim ||| quae verteret arces.
At Capys, et quorum ||| melior ||| sententia menti,

in all of which 2 J and 3 J are rivals.

In short, absolute rules for the relative importance of
caesuras cannot be framed, although we have principles
enough to go upon for practical purposes. In reciting
verses we should observe a// the caesuras of the verse in due
proportion. They are intended for ornaments and should
be so treated.

38. In Homer the principal caesuras were 2\ or 3 troch.,
the verse thus being divided equally, if the strong metrical
stresses are counted, into two practically equal parts,
represented by 3 + 3. Indeed, third trochaic hexameters give
the effect of two exactly equivalent half-lines, if we consider
the latter half as preceded by an unaccented syllable called
the anacrusis) e.g. in Virgil —
Addam cerea pruna : || hon|os erit huic quoque pomo.

^. ii. 53-
Comua detorquentque ; || fer|unt sua Alumina classem.

More rarely 3I was used (in the Iliad about i per cent,
in the Odyssey \ per cent), the divisions of the line then
being represented by 4 + 2 ; but as it was mostly supported
^ For meaning of ||| see next page, § 39.

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78 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

by a secondary calesura in the first hemistich, the Hne
generally became 2 + 2 + 2.

In Virgil's Latin Hexameter 2 J is the most frequent, and
is alone by itself felt to be sufficient ; it is the only caesura
which has this authority. Thus

Aspice ventosi | ceciderunt murmuris aurae,
a line with 2 J only, seems perfectly organic. Again,
Imminet adversasque | aspectat desuper arces.

39. Owing to the Latin dislike of weak caesuras the
3 troch. which in Homer ranks in the second place gives
way in Latin to 3J. However, 3J is not able as a rule to
stand by itself and needs the support of another caesura
earlier in the line, which otherwise would run too long
without suggestion of pause. Thus in

Corripiunt || spatia audito ||| limenque relinquunt

3 J is supported by ij.

[JViB. — In future Principal caesuras will be indicated thus |||
Secondary „ „ jj

Tertiary „ „ |.]

40. The 3 troch., much rarer in Latin than in Greek for
the reason above named, is also as principal usually supported.
Thus in

Labitur et || labetur ||| in omne volubilis aeviun,

Hon JSp. i. 2. 43.
Junonis || gravis ira ||| nee exsaturabile pectus, A. v. 781.

3 troch. is supported by ij^.

The bucolic style of Virgil's Eclogues seems particularly to
aflfect the soft and languid effect of the 3rd trochaic

41. The 1 1 is also entitled to rank among principal
caesuras. It is true it had no importance in the Greek
hexameter, but Latin usage gave it almost equal weight and
importance with the others, and it is in effect well adapted

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CAESURAS 79

for beautifying and dividing the verse. Not sufficient in
itself, it often supports 3^, thus preventing the line from
fisdUng into two rather unequal parts. Thus

Concumint|||ultroque|||ruunt ||| in funera Colchi= 2 + 2 + 2.

Here 3^ is supported by i J and third trochaic.

Very frequently its function is to supplement the Greek
3 troch., and even as an apparent caesura it may perform
this office.

Thus I j^ A(pparent) + 3 troch. + 3J —

Diriper||e excussosque ||| jubet ||| laxare rudentes ;
and iJ + 3 troch. —

Hinc Drepani ||| me portus ||| et inlaetabilis ora.

This was obviously the usage even as early as the time of
Ennius, who, though in ten cases he allows a 3 troch. to stand
without a 2 J, only twice fails to support a 3 troch. by a i J.

Again, the usage of Ennius and his immediate successors
was clearly against allowing the first foot to consist of at
dactylic or spondaic word, because in these cases the first \
word tends to seem separated from the vrest of the verse.
This feeling, no doubt, helped to bring about the frequency
of the 1 1 caesura in Latin.

42. Of the secondary caesuras^ i troch., 2 troch., and 4
troch.,^ it may be said that their use is only subsidiary. No
line depends upon any one of them for its pause ; they are
used mainly as extra ornament for lines which already stand
provided for. Thus

Luctus II et ultrices ||| posuere || cubilia Curae
supplies a i troch. and 4 troch. as additional ornaments to
the already sufficient 2 J.

A 2 troch. supporting a 2^ is found in

^ Mr. Munro has an interesting note on 4 troch. in Criticisms and
Elucidations of Catullus, pp. 152, 153.

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8o LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Immemores que || mori : ||| sed non isdem artibus aeque.

The I troch. is a very favourite caesura, owing to the Latin
dislike of spondaic words at the opening of lines (such as
Parthus, sive Cydon). Among possible beginnings, such as

One word, arguto, or -v^v^-, reltgio,

Two words, - | — dant signum,- | -[et nunc,- | v^ ^sed fore,
the first trochaic is obviously a favourite ; e,g.

Astra sequi,

lUe caput

Dicta, ferox. A, xii. 893-895.

43. The tertiary caesuras^ J, 4J, 5 troch. and all the
apparent caesuras in whatever place of the line, are often,
like the secondary, entirely disregarded by metricists. Thus
Ronstrom takes no account of any beyond our principal
caesuras; and authorities like Christ and Alexanderson,
taking account only of the Principals, omit even from those
I J. Still a completely logical scheme of caesuras demands
that account should be taken of these, although their
functions are mostly little more than otiose.

Thus in a strong line like

Hi I dominam |{| Ditis |{| thalamo ||| deducere adorti,

already fortified by a 2^, 3 J, and i|, the force of | is hardly
appreciable ; though in

Di, I quibus imperium est ||| animarum umbraeque silentes,

the slight pause in punctuation increases its importance.
So too in

Dux I Anchisiade |||, nee me ||| deus aequore mersit,

2 1 and 3^ seem to get some support from |, dux being
emphatic.

As the I caesura seems to occur somewhat needlessly
before the verse has fairly started, so the 4^ and 5 troch.
are usually disregarded as falling in the end of the verse.

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CAESURAS 8 1

44. II. Having determined the comparative worth of the
caesuras considered separately, it remains to consider them
in combination. From an examination of any fifty con-
secutive lines of the Aeneid it will be at once obvious that
lines with one caesura only are extremely rare, while the ,
vast majority of Virgil's lines are rendered organic and J
musical by the presence of three principal caesuras. The
practice of so good a poet as Virgil of employing mostly
two or three caesuras is convincing when we notice the
effect. How beautifully dove-tailed are the parts of the
line, and how smooth, yet various, is the whole when read !
A happy combination of caesuras imparts to a line unity,
swiftness, smoothness, and general charm.

In considering the various combinations, as 2 J is beyond
dispute the most important, let us first take those which
include the 2 J. There are four such arrangements.

*45. (i.) ij -I- 2^-1-3^(2^ dominant); e,g.
Italiam ^ || fato ||| profugus || Lavinaque venit.
Quam Juno || fertur ||| terris || magis omnibus unam.

In Virgil this combination occurs in rather more than
I line in 3.

♦46. (ii.) 2J-I-3J (2 J dominant).

This arrangement has the effect of cutting off the two half
feet between 2\ and 3 J fi^om the five half feet preceding.

Sed si tantus amor ||| casus || cognoscere nostros.
Est in conspectu ||| Tenedos || notissima fama.

The frequency of this is about i in 4. The rhythmic
division of the verse is obviously 3-1- (1-1-2). Lucan
has a great leaning to the use of a 2 troch. before 2\ 4- 3^,
as in
Rumpunt fata mpras, Conipe lora manu.

^ These symbols now represent the relative values of the caesuras in
the line.
F

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8s LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

♦47. (iiL) 1J + 2J (2 J dominant).
Luctantes || ventos ||| tempestatesque sonoras.
Aedificant, || sectaque ||| intexunt abiete costas.

Frequency, roughly i in 7.

* 48. (iv.) 2 J by itself (though often of course supported
by secondary or tertiary caesuras, or by both).

Aspice ventosi ||| ceciderunt murmuris aurae.

Imminet, adversasque ||| aspectat desuper arces.

Pars I stupet innuptae ||| donum | exitiale Minervae,

where J and 3I A. come to the rescue.

Et recidiva manu ||| posuissem Pergama victis. A. iv. 344.

Here supported by | + 2 troch. Frequency about i in 11.

To pass on 'to arrangements, seven in number, which
contain no 2J. These involve very largely the use of 3
troch., mostly supported by one or both of the more Latin
caesuras i\ and 3^.

49. (v.) ij + 3 troch. + 3 J (owing to Latin preference for
strong caesura 3^^ is dominant, and next i|, 3 troch. being
least important).

Dividing the line thus : 2 + (i + 1)+ 2 —

Insignem || pietate | virum, ||| tot adire labores.
Italiam || petiere : | luant ||| peccata, neque illos.
Infandum, || regina, | jubes ||| renovare dolorem.
Carmina sunt || dicenda : | neget ||| quis carmina Gallo.
Hue ades, O || Meliboee : | caper ||| tibi salvus et haedi.

This form was used to excess by Lucan, the 3J pause
coming after an iambic word.

It will be noticed that the 3 troch. is usually followed
by an iambic, as in Lucan. This is due to the exigencies
of the Latin vocabulary.

At first Lucretius used words v^ — ; e,g,

Concava, raucisonoque | minantur | comua cantu : ii. 619.

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CAESURAS 83

but this rhythm is very halting, and seems to anticipate the

end of the line. Again, words v^ v^ are very scarce in

Latin. Hence iambic words necessarily fall into this
position.

Frequency, like that of 2 J alone, about i in 11. But
this combination commended itself more and more to Latin
ears. From the proportion of 2 per cent in Lucretius it
advances gradually, through 5 per cent in Catullus, 8 per
cent in Ovid, 11 per cent in Manilius, 15 in Silius, 16 in
Lucan, 17 in Statius {Thebaid)^ 21 in Claudian, to 22 in
Valerius Flaccus.

In this form a slight sense-pause after 3^ is very frequent ;
e.g.

Tunc questus tenuere suos, magnusque per omnes
Errabat sine voce dolor. Sic funere primo
Attonitae tacuere domus, cum corpora nondum
Conclamata jacent. Lucan ii. 20-23.

50. (vi.) i| + 3i (apparently of equal importance, or
perhaps 3J more authoritative).

Necdum | etiam || causae | irarum ||| saevique dolores.

(Supported by J A.^ + 2^ A.)
Haec secum : || Mene | incepto ||| desistere victam.

(Here with the addition of 2 J A.)

Aut pelago || Danaum | insidias ||| suspectaque dona.
(With addition of 2\ A.)

Aeneas : || si qua interea |{| fortuna fuisset.
(Also with addition of 2 J A.)

It is helped out by a 2^ A. also in

Permittit || patria ? | Hospitio ||| prohibemur arenae.

Frequency about i in 35 : comparatively rare. The line
is best begun with a dactyl.

^ A. denotes Apparent (or Quasi) Caesura : cf. p. 74, footnote.

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84 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Occasionally 2 troch. takes place of i J as in

Nee I potuisse || propagando ||| procudere prolem.

Lucr. V. 853.
It is obvious that 3 J unrelieved by i J makes the parts
too unequal ; with i J there are three practically equal parts,
with two stresses in each. They are very generally sup-
ported by 2 J A.

51. (vii.) 3 troch. + 3^ (3J dominant owing to Latin pre-
ference for strong caesuras).

The line should begin with a dactyl.

Cornua detorquentque ; || ferunt ||| sua flamina classem.

Omnia corripuisse, || metum ||| jam ad moenia ferri.
Impulit effunditque || solo, ||| Tumusque secutus. A, xiL 380.
Moenia, sublimemque || feres ||| ad sidera caell

The pause after first dactyl mostly accompanies this com-
bination.

Combined with i^ A. in
Diripere | excussosque || jubet ||| laxare rudentes.

Frequency about i in 400 : very rare.

As to vii. (3 troch. + 3 J), Miiller is inclined to under-
rate the importance of 3 troch., urging that the better the
Roman poet, the more carefully does he abstain from its
use.

However, it must not be disregarded in lines like
Moenia, sublimemque || feres ||| ad sidera caeli,

where to mark only after feres is postponing the "caesura

too long. So also in

Substitit, infremuitque || ferox ||| et inhorruit armos.

Still less is he right in neglecting it when it coincides
with a sense-pause as in
Litora deseruere : || latet ||| sub classibus aequor.

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CAESURAS 85

It is obvious that the Roman poets recognised its use,
and also knew its limitations. The 3 troch. being essentially
Greek (in Greek it is frequent and can stand alone), they
nearly always supported it by a more Latin caesura, like i^
or 3i, or both.

52. (viii) 1^ + 3, troch. (apparently of equal importance,
though possibly ij, as strong, has priority).

Hinc Drepani || me portus || et inlaetabilis ora.
Accipies || secura : || vocabitur hie quoque votis.
Tumus Itym || Clonixunque, || Dioxippum Promolumque.
Nesaee || Spioque || Thaliaque Cymodoceque
Messapus || Croniumque || Lycaoniumque Erichaeten

(Three lines with Greek rhythm, in which 3 troch. is
possibly prior.)

Roughly about i in 800 : very rare.

This combination is especially used in lists of names.

53. (ix.) 3^ alone.

Navibus,^ infandum ! | amissis, ||| unius ob iram,

here helped by 2^ A.
Munera praeterea | Iliads ||| erepta minis,

also helped by 2 J A,

Like I J + 3 troch., about i in 800, and very rare.

54. (x.) 3 troch. alone.

Spargens humida mella ||| soporiferumque papaver.
Per I conubia nostra, ||| per inceptos hymenaeos,
where J caesura helps the line out.

^ M. Plessis MTOuld defend Navibus in|fandum, etc., by counting a
caesura by tmesis after first syllable of infandum. Such caesura, he
says, is permissible by tmesis between the prefix of a compound word and
the rest of the word : thus de|torquet, imlmensus. In this way he would
account for the line of Horace {A, P. 263), Non quivis videt im|modulata
poemata judex, which otherwise has only i^ and 4 troch. See Page's note.

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86 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Tempora cunctantique ||| natantia lumina solvit.
Frangeret indeprensus ||| et irremeabilis error.

Very rare indeed.

Miiller is inclined to underrate the importance of the
third trochaic (see above on vii.), but it is obvious that
the above lines are not constructed without full intention.

55. (xi.) i^ alone.

Magnanimi ||| Jovis ingratum | ascendere cubile,
helped here by 3 J A.

56. To apply these averages roughly to a passage of
twenty lines, Virgil would — special descriptive effects for the
time being discounted— certainly include sixteen lines with
a, ^^ caesura. The proportion, roughly, would work out
as follows : —

Seven lines with combination i J, 2J, 3J \

Five „ „ ^h si fallcontain-

Two „ „ li, 2j r ing 2j.

Two „ 2 J alone /

Two „ combination ij, 3 troch., 3 J.

Two made up at will out of the three combinations —

i^h Sh\ (3 troch., 3j), (i|, 3 troch.)
In short, every Latin hexameter must have at least one
ot the three caesuras, 2 J, 3J, 3 troch. ; and i J is so frequent
in the combinations that it merits inclusion with these three
as a principal caesura.

* 57. It will be at once noticed that the most frequent
arrangements of caesuras are those in which there is a
succession ; e,g, arrangements i.-iii. —

1^ + 2^ + 3J, 2 J + 3i, li + 2^, all containing 2 J,
and that the broken orders are comparatively rare, as in
arrangements v. and vL —

I J + 3 troch. + 3 J, and ij + 3^.

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CAESURAS 87

Arrangements vii. and viii. are rare because of the presence,
in an important r61e, of the un-Latin 3 troch.

And rarest of all are the cases where one caesura only
appears (with the exception of the case of the always
dominant 2J), />. ix., x., xi., i.e, the 3^, 3 troch., and i J in
isolation.

This is borne out by an examination of 675 verses of the
Aeneid taken at random.
In4i9arefoundboth 2\ and 3^.
In 159 is „ 2 ^unsupported byanyother principal caesura.

^^ 97 >» >» 35 »» " " "

To illustrate this we may draw up a series of main types
of lines placed in order of preferability (in point of caesuras).

58. Types of lines in order of preferability in point of
caesuras.

1. Carpebat | somnos, | rebus | jam rite paratis.

Byeforms,

With addition of \ —
Centum | errant | annos | volitantque | haec litora circum.

With addition of \\ A(pparent) —
Errabant | acti | fatis | maria | omnia circum.

2. Conjugis antiqui, | miro | quod honore colebat.

Byeforms,

With \—
Cui I datus haerebam | custos | cursusque regebam.

With ij A.—
Eumenidum | aspicies, | ripamve | injussus adibis.

3. Aetherias Italo commixtus sanguine surget.

Byeforms,

With I troch. +4 troch. —

Cernit | ibi | maestos | et mortis | honore carentes.

uigitizea Dy V^OOQ IC

88 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Compare also —
Quippe I tuis | ferimus, | famamque | fovemus inanem.

4. Laomedontiaden : | sed cimctis altior ibat
Bye-forms.

With 2 troch + 3j A.—

Omnia tuta | timens. | Eadem | impia Fama furenti.

Withi+3iA.—
Pars I stupet innuptae | donum | exitiale Minervae.

With 3j A.^
Moenia respiciens, | quae jam | infelicis Elissae.

With I J A. + si A. + 4 troch.—
Balatum | exercent : | ille | asper | et improbus ira.

With ij A. +4 troch.—
Aurora | ejrtulerit | radiisque | retexerit orbem.

With J + 4iA.—
Res I Agamemnonias | victriciaque | arma secutus.

5. Fulmineum, | strictoque | ferit | retinacula ferro.

Bye-forms,
Withi—

Hue I ades, O | Meliboee | : caper | tibi salvus et haedi.

6. Respondet : | Mene incepto | desistere victam.

Byeforms,
Withi—

Nee I ripas | datur horrendas | et rauca fluenta.

With 2\ A.—
Impulerat | ferro | Argolicas | foedare latebras.

This addition is almost general ; v. type above, § 50.

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CAESURAS 89

7. Omnia corripuisse, | metum | jam ad moenia fern.

Bye-forms.

With I J A.—
Diripere | excussosque | jubet | laxare rudentes.

With I troch.—
Jura I magistratusque | legunt | sanctumque senatum.

8. Accipies | secura : | vocabitur hie quoque votis.
Bye-farms,

Withi + 3JA.—

9. Munera praeterea Iliads | erepta minis.
Byeforms,

With J + 2 troch.—
Nee I potmsse | propagando | procudere prolem.

With 2| A., as above (v, type § 53), and
Talibus afiata | Aenean, | nee sacra morantur.

10. Falleret indeprensus | et irremeabilis error.
Byeforms,

Withi—
Per I eonubia nostra, | per inceptos hymenaeos.

11. Magnanimi | Jovis ingratum | ascendere cubile.

In these bye-forms we have examples of all the possible
help-meets to the four principal caesuras (2^, 3^, i|, and
3 troch.).

59. As to the question which caesura in these combina-
tions takes precedence, it may be said generally that 2^
takes precedence over all others ; e,g,

Urbs I antiqua | fuit, HI Tyrii || tenuere colonL

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90 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

And this is not generally hindered by considerations of
close grammatical connection or slight punctuation ; e,g.

His I tibi Grynei ||| nemoris || dicatur origo,
where the connection of adjective and noun might seem to
militate against the 2^ caesura ; and

Victrix causa | deis ||| placuit, || sed victa Catoni,
where the unity of the clause ending with placuit would
tempt the reader to hold his caesura till the comma.

The same is the case with

Ilium non || populi ||| fasces, || non purpura regum.^

This rule, however, is modified in the case in which 2\
and 3 J are both present, there being no stop after 2^, but a
decided pause after 3^ ; in this case the caesura is given to
3 J. Thus the two lines —

Stemitur omne | solum || telis. ||| Tum scuta cavaeque,

Dant sonitum || flictu || galeae ; ||| pugna aspera surgit,
seem to have their dominant caesura at 3^.

It seems probable that 3 J is more important than 3 troch.,
though this is not the case in Greek. This is due to the
decided preference of Latin for strong caesuras. Thus, even
if there is an appreciable pause after 3 troch., we mark —

Carmina sunt || dicenda : || neget ||| quis carmina Gallo?

Hue ades, o || Meliboee : || caper ||| tibi salvus et haedi.

*60. Exercise, — In composing, your general sense of
rh3^hm gained from reading aloud and learning passages of
Virgil by heart will be your best positive guide in the matter
of caesuras. The points summarised above (pp. 86-89,
§§ S^'S^) should be used regularly for a time to test your com-
position when completed. The scheme for twenty lines
(§ 56) may be used roughly as a standard of divergence,
and your lines may readily be put alongside of the sample

^ Cf. also, Orabunt causas melius, caelique meatus, A, vi 849 : and
851.

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CAESURAS 91

lines given. Obviously the majority of your verses should
approximate to types 1-4, and only the minority to types
8-1 1.

To gain facility in caesura analysis, try your hand on any
twenty lines taken at random from VirgiL

Thus A, iii. 506-524, a passage of nineteen linies.

Combination (i.) Five lines: 510, 513, 516, 519, 524.
„ (iL) Eight lines: 508, 509, 511, 515, 518,

521, 522, 523.
„ (iii.) Four lines: 506, 512, 514, 517.

„ (iv.) Two lines : 507, 520.

Every one of these nineteen lines contains the 2\ caesura ;
and the only point not quite r^ular is the prominence of

The first twenty lines of Georgics iii gives the following
result : —

Combination (L)

(ii.)

(iii.)

(iv.)

(V.)

The remarkable feature here is the prominence of li + 3
troch. + 3 J, a type which we have said gradually grew in
popularity with later writers.

After analysing several passages of Virgil, subject your
own composition to the test, so that if the proportion of
anomalous lines is too large the balance may be righted.

III. Certain combinations of caesuras obviously produce
certain rhythmical efiects. Among these note the following : —

♦61. {a) 2J + 3J.

Because of the 3J break there is a strong tendency to
make the close of the line {ue, last 2^ feet) consist of two
polysyllables, because a caesura cannot be tolerated immedi-

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93 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

atdy after the fifth arsis; thus — tentare latebras, petiisse
Mycenas, compagibus alvum, monumenta nefandae, pro-
mittere nemo.

These endings are dignified in tone, and naturally often
cap high-sounding lines consisting of five words, as

Marmoreo referunt thalamo stratisque reponunt.
Talia dicentem jamdudum aversa tuetur.
Oceanum interea surgens Aurora reliquit
Cf. pp. 226, 227.

When the ending consists of three words, the caesura is
5 troch., followed by monosyllables like et, in, ab, ad, ob,
per, sub, etc. Thus —

Telluris in altum, effingere in auro.
Palinurus ab alta, ratione quod instat.
Penetravit ad urbes, fugisse per ignes.

In these the break in the final dipod is toned down by
the short syllable following the fifth arsis.

* 62. {b) 2 J alone (owing to the break and the fact that the
Latin hexameter is partial to a spondee in the fourth foot,
and that a long monosyllscble or a pjmrhic and a dissyllable
of two longs are not euphonious as filling up the last half of
foot 3 and foot 4) often produces a word of three longs
in this place of the line ; thus —

Completur mensibus orbis.

Conceptum flumine mater.

Divinique ossa parentis.

SoUemnesque ordine pompas.

Cunctantem ad limina primL

Lucretius, however, has a peculiar liking for a fourth foot
wholly contained in one word and ending with that word.
Thus in the first forty-three verses of his poem — a highly
elaborated passage—more than half the lines have move-
inents like the following : —

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CAESURAS 93

Quae terras fhigiferentis (not terras quae),
Tibi suavis daedala tellus (not suavis tibt),
Tibi rident aequora pontL
(This kind of fourth foot produces a peculiarly halting
rhythm.) Also note the following ; —
Exortum lumina solis.
Dif!uso lumine caelum.
Genitabilis aura FavonL

Lucretius does not seem to appreciate, like Virgil, the
melody of the 3 J caesura. Cf. Virgil —

Anna virumque cano Ttojae qui (not qui Trojae).
What is true of Lucretius is equally true of Catullus. The
Peleus and Thetis exhibits a very monotonous cadence.
Prognatae vertice pinus.
Neptuni nasse per undas.
Argivae robora pubis.
Abiegnis aequora palmis.
The 3 J caesura is not prominent enough.

*63. (c) 2 troch. + 3 troch. produces an impression of
hurry —

Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque procellis.

Certain caesuras are occ^ionally used to produce special
descriptive effects.

* 64. (i.) 3i (coincident with a pause in sense) is thus used
by Virgil to represent excitement : —

Qualis ubi ad terras abrupto sidere nimbus
It mare per medium ; miseris, | heu, | praescia longe
Horrescunt corda agricolis ; | dabit ille ruinas
Arboribus, stragemque satis ; | met omnia late ;
Ante volant sonitumque fenmt ad litora ventL

A. xii. 451-455.

Miiller explains that Virgil uses 3^ alone in passages wh^

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94 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

the effect of the verse hurrying to its close represents the
turgid state of things described

*65. (ii.) 3 troch. appears to produce an efflect of
smoothness, languor, calm.

Tempora cunctantique | natantia lumina solvit
Spargens humida mella | soporiferumque papaver.
Praecipitat, suadentque | cadentia sidera somnos.

IV. We may proceed to consider a few restrictions on the
use of caesuras.

66. (i.) A caesura loses its force when interposed after a
monosyllable, unless the monosyllable is an enclitic or
closely attached to the preceding word, or is preceded by
another monosyllable or a pyrrhic, preferably closely
connected with it in sense.

Thus in

Et cum frigida mors ||| anima seduxerit artus,

the 2^ caesura with its slight halt between mors and anima
is hardly appreciable because of that which naturally falls
between mars znA frigida.
But in

Ille autem : Neque te ||| Phoebi cortina fefellit,

the close connection between the pyrrhic neque and te^ by
obscuring the monosyllabic nature of te, helps to keep the
pause after te in evidence.

Thus the 1 J caesura has no force in the first of these two
lines of Valerius Flaccus {Arg, vi. 239, 244) —

Orbibus hos rapidis mollique per aequora Castor
Tollitur ac mediam moriens descendit in hastam.

Ac is rescued by a special rule in favour of monosyllabic
conjunctions.

The longer, in the matter of syllables, the word preceding
the monosyllable, the more marked is the pause between

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CAESURAS 95

the two words, and the more defective is the caesura after
the monosyllable, owing to the difficulty of marking it. In

Pandere res || alta terra et caligine mersas

the I J caesura after res is made easier of observance by
the close grammatical connection of verb and object, and
the two preceding short syllables.

Pierides ; sunt et ||| mihi carmina : me quoque dicunt.

Here the close connection of et mihi ( = me too) saves the
situation.

In Georgic ii. 402-404,

Atque in se sua per vestigia volvitur annus,

the per is saved by the preceding pyrrhic sua closely
connected in sense.

Line 61,

Scilicet omnibus est labor impendendus^ et omnes,
is descriptive of a series of harsh hammer blows.

Line 62,

Cogendae in sulcum ac multa,

comes under a special dispensation in favour of words like
ac, et.

67. In many cases, however, a special exception from this
rule must be made in favour of the 2^ caesura, the necessity
for accepting which is so strong that we must over-ride
considerations of monosyllables, whether they be enclitics
or conjunctions or prepositions, and whether they do or do
not make elision with the preceding word.

This is abundantly proved. Thus there are practically no
cases where the 3 J is the first caesura in the line ; yet this
would be the case if 2 J were not accepted, in spite of
its falling after a monosyllable elided into the preceding
word, in

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96 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Et genus invisum et ||| rapti Ganymedis honored.
Remigio alarum ac ||| Libyae citus adstitit oris.
Molirive moram aut ||| veniendi poscere causas.
Sole repercussum aut ||| radiantis imagine Lunae.

Note also (without elision)

Vestigemus et a portu diversa petamus,
and

Hi proprium decus et ||| partum indignantur honorem,
and

An Phoebi soror ? an ||| Nympharum sanguinis una ?

We have seen that 1^ + 2^ + 3^ is the most frequent
arrangement, while 1J + 3J is comparatively rare. This
inclines us to accept 2 J in

Exitium || ruit ad ||| portus || et litora complent
Conventus || trahit in ||| medios | turbamque sonantem*

Most of these cases come under the provision for mono-
syllabic conjunctions, and the remainder are prepositions
which, as proclitics, have close relationship with the words
following them.

Further, we have noted that 3 troch. and 3J are apt to
be supported by i J ; therefore we shall be inclined to regard
even the i J, in spite of its monosyllable, in

Implicat et || geniumque || loci || primumque deorum.

68. (ii.) A caesura after 4 troch. is to be avoided,
because, especially if it is followed by a word of three
syllables^ the ear catches too early the sound of a verse-
ending; e,g,

Imbuerat conjux memorique |I tenebat amore,

where with memorique tenebat the ear anticipates the close
of the line.

69. (iii,) Avoid also the simultaneous use of caesuras after

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CAESURAS 97

I troch. and 2 troch., which causes the beginning of the
verse to resemble the end. Thus —

Noctis I agebat | equos, trepidusque assurgit honori.

Stat. Theb. ii. 60.
However,

Anna, | fatebor | enim, miseri post fata Sychaei,

is permissible, because fatebor distinctly makes a separate
group with enim^ and is drawn apart from Anna,

70. (iv.) Again, owing to the Latin distaste for dactylic
rh3rthms and weak caesuras, the simultaneous use of 2
troch. and 3 troch., or of 3 troch. and 4 troch. is to be
avoided, unless for special descriptive effect ; v, supra § 63.

Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt
Horace ^ uses all three in
Dignum mente | domoque | legentis | honesta Neronis,

Epist i. 9, 4,'
where the use together of 2, 3, and 4 troch. is over-
poweringly Greek.

71. (v.) Elisions in caesuras are awkward, and therefore
to be avoided, the effect of the elision being naturally to carry
the attention forward^ and so to vitiate the pause. Yet,
although the binding of the two words might seem to
bridge over the break, the caesura is not cancelled by an
elision. For note the line —

Laetitiaque | metuque : ||| avidi || conjungere dextras.
Here at 2^ there is elision, yet the caesura must be the
2^, because

i. the sense makes a strong pause after metuque ;

ii. there is no principal caesura preceding it (j,e, ij),

^ Of course Horace's hexameters are not negligent : in this metre he
writes, as he himself states, sermoni fropiora.
G

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loo LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

foot, the ending of the second or third foot may only be a
monosyllablei or a disyllable of two shorts.
Thus, second foot —

Libertas quae sera tamen respexit inertem.
Congeminant : fors et virtus miscentur in unum.
Magpanimiy^wily. Haec pro virginitate reponit.
Auxilium venit^ etc.
Anchisae domus arboribusque obtecta recessit.

Third foot—

Nos patriae fines et dulcia linquimus arva.
Amphion Dircaeus in Actaeo Aracyntho.
Pierides : sunt et mihi carmina : me quoque dicunt.
Aut Ararim Parthus bibet aut, etc

[To express this rule in other words : —
Neither the second nor third foot of a line may end with
the end of a word, unless the foot is already divided by a
caesura. The best form of line is more organically con-
structed; thus —

Arboribus clausam circum.
Huic conjux Sychaeus erat]

* 76. Some notable exceptions to this rule are

(a) Per conubia nostra, per inceptos hymenaeos.

There being no caesura after second foot, a special im-
portance is given to the Greek 3 troch., which is in place
in a line ending with Greek word hymenaeos. This line is
possibly adopted from Catullus' Sed conubia laeta, sed
optatos hymenaeos bdv. 141.

(p) Et cum frigida mors anima seduxerit artus.

Here emphasis is thrown on mors to convey a shiver of
unusual horror.

(r) Spargens humida mella soporiferumque papaver.

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CAESURAS loi

Here again special stress is reserved for the resonant
second syllable of sop<Sriferumque.

(d) Primus abundare | et spumantia cogere pressis.
Here an apparent 2 J softens down the irregularity.

(e) Scilicet omnibus est labor impendendus, et omnes.

The rule is broken for both second and third feet. Of
this Mr. Page says rightly: *The three opening dactyls
without caesura fall hammerlike on the massy impendendus^
vehemently emphasising the great law of labour.' This is
probably a conscious imitation of the rhythm of Lucretius.

(J) Omnia secum

Armentarius Afer agit G. iii 344.

The unusual rh3rthm is descriptive of a weird unusual
scene. Cf. also

Sed tu desine velle.

It thus appears that exceptional treatment of caesuras is
due either to desire to place special emphasis on a particular
word, or to produce a particular descriptive eflfect It is
obvious that the most perfectly welded lines are not always
in place. Several reasons, such as variety, melody, or some
fitness of rhythm to sense, may make the least organic lines
at times desirable.

ig) Non quivis videt imjmodulata poemata judex.

According to M. Plessis, this line, which has only ij +
4 troch., has a 2^ by tmesis after the first syllable of
imtnodulata.

*11. Lucretius and no Caesura after 2, — It should be
noticed that Lucretius repeatedly and intentionally neglects
the caesura after 2, in such combinations as the following : —

(a) After two dactyls, in hundreds of instances.

Religionibus atque minis.

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loa LATIN HE2SAMETER VERSE

Omnia denique sancta.
Suscipiendaque curarit

{b) After spondee and dactyl, frequently.

Ergo vivida vis.

At primordia gignundis.

Praetermittere et hunianis.

Cicero has in his early work, Aratea, Verum tempora sunt,
Inclinatior atque, but in his later De Consulaiu suo there
are no instances.

{c) Dactyl and spondee, or two spondees, which must
be followed by a monosyllable. This is rarer.

Sive voluptas est.
Non temere uUa vi.
Immortali sunt
Nam cum multo sunt
Vis est, quarum nos.

In the same way in the following lines of Virgil there is
no vital caesura before 3J, though the roughness is toned
down by i\ A. and 2J A.

Linqui poUutum hospitium, et dare classibus austros.
Insontem infando indicio, quia bella vetabat.
Sublimem expulsam eruerent : ita turbine nigro.

The intention is obviously descriptive, the lines being in
the first two cases strongly charged with feeling, and the
third describing a vehement rush of wind.

78. (x.) Restrictions on Caesuras,— V^\i<^n the third trochaic
caesura is used, in order that the line may be thoroughly
euphonious the following conditions must be observed : —

Both the second and fourth stressed syllables (or arses)
must be the ends of words.

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CAESURAS 103

By reference to combination v. (ii + 3 troch. + 3j)^ this
will be found to hold ; e.g,

Insign^ pietate yixlitn tot adire labores.
ToUere hum6 victorque virdm volitare per ora.

The comparative rarity of 7 (3 troch. + 3J), 8 (ij +
3 troch.), and 10 (3 troch. alone) is due to the fact that
the combinations are not euphonious because this rule is
violated.

Lucretius, however, is particularly partial to the third
troch. without the above restrictions. His favourite rhythm
is not common in Cicero, Catullus, or Virgil.
Thus—

Quid nequeat finita potestas.
Detulit ex Helicone perennL
Amnibus inveniuntur aperto.
Omne genus perfusa coloribus.

The peculiarity of these verses is that they seem to be
pulled up sharply at the end of the fourth foot with a
spondee (rarely a dactyl), which is all the more marked
because it is preceded by the gallop of a dactyl.

In Lucretius the third trochaic caesura almost always
entails the fourth foot being wholly contained in one word,
and ending with that word.

Caesura Exercises^

My eyes are full of tears (§ 48), my heart of love,

My heart is breaking (§ 46), and my eyes are dim.

And I am all aweary of my life. xcv.

The long brook falls adown the cloVn ravine

In cataract after cataract (§ 63) to the sea. xcvi.

1 See § 49, p. 82.

' Here, as in the Pause exercises, the references are intended to hint at
a possible solution, not to fetter the composer.

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I04 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

As if on earth
Winds under ground (§ 77), or waters, forcing way,
Sidelong had pushed a mountain from its seat
Half sunk with all his pines. Amazement seized
The rebel thrones. xcvii.

So spake our Morning (§ 74, 2J alone) Star, then in his rise,

And, looking round (§ 74, 2J), on every side beheld

A pathless desert (§ 74, 2 J), dusk with horrid shades, xcvin.

The season smiles (§ 74, 3 troch.), resigning all its rage.
And has the warmth of May. The vault is blue
Without a cloud, and white without a speck
The dazzling splendour of the scene below. xcix.

The redbreast warbles still (§ 74, 3 troch.), but is content
With slender notes and more than half suppressed,
Pleased with his solitude as lone he flits. c.

The roof, though moveable through all its length

As the wind sways it (§75), has yet well sufficed.

And, intercepting in their silent fall

The frequent flakes, has kept a path for me.

No noise is here (§ 75) or none that hinders thought ci.

Mind, mind alone, bear witness earth and heaven —

The living fountains in itself contains

Of beauteous (§ 48) and sublime (§ 62); here hand in

hand (§ 45)
Sit paramount the Graces. cii.

The peers of Pluto's realm assembled been

Amid the palace (§ 74, 2 J) of their angry king. cm.

The ancient foe to man (§ 75) and mortal seed.

His wannish eyes upon them bent askance. civ.

Then the almighty sire, • ^
Prime potentate, brake silence ; as he speaks.

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CAESURAS X05

Hushed is the gods' high palace, and the earth
From her base trembles : the deep vault is still ;
The winds are dropped (§ 65) : the sea smooths flat his
floor. cv.

Here blooms perpetual spring, and summer here

In months that are not summer's (§ 48). cvi.

Come, my friends,
It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles,
And see the great Achilles (§ 74, 2 J) whom we knew.

CVII.

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CHAPTER III

THE BEGINNING OF THE VERSE

* 79. A. The First Foot—Tent Hexameter, it is probable,
was originally composed of six dactyls ; next, in the manner
of catalectic verse {ue, verse which has suffered shortening
by one or more syllables), it lost a part of its last foot, and
was composed of five dactyls and a trochee ; and finally,
spondees (though probably not more than two) were allowed
in the first four places.^ The foot in which |the primitive
metre should be chiefly preserved in catalectic verse is
the last but one ; in the case of the hexameter, the fifth,
which, of course, is a dactyl. But it would not be surpris-
ing if the first foot also should have a tendency to show the
original character of the line, and it does this by a decided
preponderance, even in Latin verse, of dactyls over spondees.
In Virgil, as in Homer, verses beginning with spondees
are to those beginning with dactyls as 2 to 3. Later
writers like Ovid give the dactylic beginning a still greater
preference, making the proportion of spondees to dactyls
as I to 5.

Thus there is a decided preference for starting with a
dactyl, though not necessarily with a dactylic word. The
objection to starting with a spondaic disyllable is more

^ Cf. Horace, De Arte Poetica, 254-257 : —

Non ita pridem,
Tardior ut paullo graviorque veniret ad aures,^
Spondees stabiles in jiira patema recepit : and the whole passage.
Z06

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BEGINNING OF VERSE loj

decided. The first book of the Aeneid has some bundired
verses beginning with a dactylic word, but only twenty with
spondaic words. The tendency in Ovid, according to Birt,
is to use spondaic words at the b^;inning even less. The
objection to the use of initial spondaic words, therefore,
seems to rest partly on their contradicting the original
dactylic character of the line ; and partly, also, the principle
of the differentiation ^ of the two hemistiches, it not being
thought desirable that the verse should begin with a foot
which is so often identical with the last foot
I Initial spondaic Ward, — The Virgilian use pf the initial
spondaic word, apart from first spondaic pause (». p. i6, § 9),
is very seldom otiose. It may be said that he has three
main uses for it — (a) Descriptive ; (j3) Emphatic ; (y)
Fortuitous.

*80. (a) Lucian Miiller notes that it describes 'gravitas
rerum vel difficultates.' This is true, but the stateinent
is hardly comprehensive enough. It seems to describe
generally the notion of greatness, either in size, sound, or
weight, physically or morally; and naturally it describes
derivative ideas which imply size, such as slowness, still-
ness, etc.

Often it describes men doing things with an effort, or
walking at a slow pace.

Thus-
Instant ardentes Tyrii. A,'\, 423.
Stipant et dulci distendunt nectare cellas. lb, 433.
Infert se saeptus nebula. 7?. 439.
Fortes invertant taiui. G, i. 65.
Esset robigo. lb, 151.

In vL 127,

Noctes atque dies patet atri janua Ditis,
continuity is portrayed.

* Cf. p. 75. § 36.

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io8 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

In vL 8x0,

Nosco crines incanaque menta
Regis Romani,

the spondees add dignity ; as also in G. iL 173,

Salve, magna parens fnigum,
and 490,

Felix, qui potnit reram cognoscere causas.

(?. iv. 432 describes admirably seals lying down cum-
brously : Stemunt se somno diversae in litore phocae.

What better description of solidity could there be than
G, iii 34, Stabunt et Parii lapides ?

Torpent mole nova, G, iii. 370, is happy for stags standing
numbed and motionless in the snow.

In G. iiL 488 the slow movements of the priests and the
swiftness of death are well contrasted in the spondees and
dactyls of

Inter cunctantes cecidit moribunda ministros.

Hesitation is portrayed in
linquens multa metu cimctantem. A, iv. 390.

Drowsiness in

Spargens humida meUa soporiferumque papaver. A, iv. 486.

In this line the spondee must be taken in relation to the
wider effect produced by the whole line.

Pathos is admirably given in

Mater, Cyrene mater. G, iv. 321.

Tandem is naturally frequent in this place.

* 81. (P) The emphatic use of the initial spondee often
overlaps the descriptive use.

Thus—
Saltem si qua mihi A. iv. 327.

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BEGINNING OF VERSE 109

It is open to interpret this as a stressed word, or as a word
to be pronounced slowly with a pause of regret
There is a solemn emphasis in

Testor, cara, deos. A. iv. 492.

Vobis laetus ego (the gods are addressed). A, v. 236.

Troas, reliquias Danaum. A. L 30.

Quarto terra die. A, iiL 205.

Certain words have in Virgil a special affinity to the initial
spondee ; among these note ingens, demens, nullus, tantus,
qualis, talis, parts of ille, iste and ipse, primus, tandem, solus,
omnis, unus.

Thus ingens —
Vox quoque per lucos volgo exaudita silentes
Ingens, G. i 477.

Ingens, quod torva solum sub fronte latebat A, iii. 636.
Ingens argentum. 3, 466,

And A. xii 927.

Demens —

forte cava dum personat aequora concha,
Demens, et cantu vocat. A. vL 172.

Ibat ovans, divumque sibi poscebat honorem,
Demens ! qui nimbos. lb, 590.

And A, iv. 562.

Nullus—
Nulli fas casto (an emphatic prohibition). A, vL 563.

Tantus—
Tantae molis erat Romanum condere gentem. A. i 33.
Tanta mole viri turritis puppibus instant A, viii 693.

And A. iv. 553.

Quails —
Qualis populea maerens philomela sub umbra. &. iv. 511.

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A.\.

280.

lb.

375-

A.\.

254.

A.xs.

245-

G. iii. 17.

lb.

269.

G.vr.

563.

G.i.

251-

G. iii

546.

A.y.

752.

G. iL

440.

no LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Talis—
Tali remigio navis se tarda movebat.
Talis prima Dares caput altum in proelia tollit.

Jlle (or archaic form, olie) —
Olli subridens hominum sator atque deorum.
Ilia fretus agit ventos.
lUi victor ego (in his honour),
illas ducit amor.

Illo Vergilium me tempore dulcis alebat.
IlKc sera rubens accendit lumina Vesper.

Ifse—
Ipsis est aer avibus non aequus.
Ipsi transtra novant
Ipsae Caucaseo steriles in vertice silvae.

Primus —
Primus vere rosam atque autumno carpere poma. G. iv. 134.

Omnis —
Omnis quam chorus et socii comitentur ovantes. G. i. 346.

82. (y) A few instances may be considered fortuitous^
though no doubt in some cases refinements of explanation
might find reasons for their use.

Thus—
Casu deinde viri tanto, et sic ore locuta est A, i. 614.

Addunt se socios. A, ii. 339.

Linqui^ pollutum hospitium. A, iii 61.

Scirent et longos. A,y. 131.

Exercises on Spondaic-word Beginnings

O mother, hear me yet before I die.

Hear me, O earth. I will not die alone,

Lest their shrill happy laughter come to me. cviii.

^ Here the spondee is a part of the general plan of the line, which, by
avoiding caesiira, seems to throw an unusual stress otk pollutum*

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BEGINNING OF VERSE iii

Tlien to the bower they came,
Naked they came to that smooth-swarded bower.

cix.
The purple flowers droop: the golden bee
Is lily-cradled ; I alone awaJce. ex.

Not distant far from thence a murmuring sound

Of waters issued from a cave, and spread

Into a liquid plain, then stood unmov^t

Pure as the e3q)anse of heaven, cxi.

He, busied in his majesty, surveys

The singing masons building roofs of gold. cxii.

So stood these twaine, unmovW as a rocke,

Both staring fierce and holding idely

The broken reliques of their former cruelty. cxiii.

The city which thou seest no other deem

Than great and glorious Rome, queen of the earth,

So far renowned and with the spoils enriched

Of nations. cxiv.

To whofn thus Eve, with perfect beauty adpmed.

cxv.

How STveet^ how fragrant is the fertile earth ! cxvi.
So his rough front, his horns so lifted he. cxvii.
Oft let me range the gloomy aisles alorie. cxviii.

High-plumed helms
Jiose o*er the martial ranks, and prancing siteeds
Made answer to the trumpet's stirring voice. . cxix.

All hearken while unshorn Apollo sings

To the touch oi golden wires, while Hebe brings

Immortal nectar to her kingly sire. cxx.

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112 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

His visage drawn he felt to sharp and spare,

His arms clung to his ribs, his legs entwining

Each other, till, supplanted, down he fell

A monstrous serpent on his belly prone. cxxi.

Goddess ! I have beheld those eyes before,

And their eternal calm, and all that face,

Or I have dreamed. cxxii.

Then lambs are fat, and wines are mellowest,
Then sleep is sweet, where thickens the deep shade
Upon the hillside. cxxiii.

83. Initial dactylic word. — ^A dactylic word is not un-
common although it seems to be separated awkwardly from
the rest of the verse. Ennius undoubtedly avoided beginnings
with dactylic and spondaic words, and it was due largely to
this usage of Ennius and his successors that the i| caesura
soon became prominent in the Latin Hexameter.

The favourite beginnings of lines are —

V (i) A monosyllable, -, Hie.

(ii.) Disyllabic, -s^ Saepe.

(iii.) Trisyllable, , Arguto.

(iv.) Quadrisyllable, -w-, Religio.

It is the desire to attain a i J caesura: that helps to exclude
one case of dactylic beginning. Given a dactylic beginning,
in order to secure a i J caesura, the second arsis must con-
sist of a monosyllable. But this combination has an unpleas-
ing sound ; e.g. Val. Flacc. Arg, vi. 239, 244 —

Orbibus hos rapidis moUique per aequora Castor.
Tollitur ac mediam moriens descendit in hastam.

Virgil's ear is not drawn towards this combination. Thus
in a hundred lines taken at random from A. viii. 510-609,
there are only five cases —

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BEGINNING OF VERSE 113

Arcadas huic. Funera, tarn.
Abstulit haec. Extulit os.
Volneret. Haec.

In two of these cases the inddehce of a pause after first
foot mitigates the harshness.

Extulit OS requires a descriptive emphasis for os.

The other two cases, like Volneret. Haec^ have a part of
the demonstrative hie for the monosyllable, a word which
naturally carries some emphasis.

Cf. A. viiL 466, Filiushuic Pallas, and the line of Valerius
Flaccus just quoted, Orbibus hos rapidis.

The monosyllable is often a preposition, clinging closely
to the word it governs ; e,g. Mollibus e stratis, Dejicit in
terras. Cf. also Mortua quin etiam.

* 84. B. — DcLctyls and spondees in the first four feet —
Having dismissed the first foot, we advance to a subject of
great importance, the arrangement of dactyls and spondees
in the first four feet

It is obvious that there can be sixteen possible combina-
tions of feet.

Let D = dactyl, and S = spondee.

The combinations are then thus represented : —

rDD

(•DD

DS
SD

ss-

DS
SD

•ss

l-ss

Iss

ISS

Si^frid Lederer calculates the percentages of all these
combinations for the whole Aeneid. The nine most im-
portant rank thus : —

1. DSSS 14.3 per cent

2. DDSS 12 „

3. DSDS 1 1.2 „

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9Spei

■cent

7-1

6.8

5-9

5-8

S-7

114 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

4. SDSS

5. SSSS

6. DDDS

7. SSDS

8. SDDS

9. DSSD

The least frequent combination is SDDD, which is in the
proportion of 1.9 per cent, and DDDD is almost equally
rare at 2.2 per cent.

VirgiFs favourite line, when no special descriptive purpose
is to be served, is thus a dactyl followed by three spon-
dees; e,g.

Volnus alit venis et caeco carpitur igni,

or better, without the spondaic word in the fourth foot,

Corporaque agresti nudant praedura palaestrae,

or perhaps better, not beginning with a dactylic word.

Nee requies quin aut pomis, exuberet annus.

The initial dactyl is probably due to the necessity of
striking the dactylic note at the outset All the Roman
hexameter writers, as well as Ovid in his elegiac poems, are
conscious of this preference. This concession made to
origins, the genius of the Latin language makes itself
decidedly felt in the three following spondees. In Ennius
four spondees to start with is even a more frequent combina-
tion than any other. He over-emphasises the contrast with
Greek, in the manner of pioneers. Even where feet 2, 3, 4
are not all spondees, all the Latin hexameter writers agree
in giving a majority of spondees to these three feet On
the other hand, there are only 210 lines in the whole Aeneid
in which the first four feet are all dactyls ; and these are,
for the most part, deliberately descriptive. After the initial
dactyl, the statistics of Lederer show that in the fourth foot

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BEGINNING OF VERSE 115

the average number of spondees is greater than in the third,
and in the third greater than in the second.

Thus in advancing from the second to the fourth foot,
the spondaic necessity becomes greater.

♦ 85. Virgil's favourite line might be thus represented.
1234
D s S S

According to Drobisch, Latin poets, excepting Lucretius,
have more spondees than dactyls in the second foot, and
also in the third, with the exception of Valerius Flaccus.

Two strong tendencies are noteworthy : —

(L) For the first foot to be a dactyl.

Drobisch states that excepting Ennius, Cicero, and Silius
Italicus, Latin poets have more dactyls than spondees in
the first foot

(ii.) For the fourth to be a spondee.

Drobisch states that without exception Latin poets have
more spondees in the fourth foot.

[In the Aeneid there are only 2873 dactylic fourth feet to
6940 spondaic]

86. Drobisch has some interesting tables showing a slight
development in Virgil's versification in the Bucolics^ Georgics^
and Aeneid.

The following figures show the numerical superiority of
dactyls in —

BucoUct, Gtorgies, Aeiuid*

ist foot 65 per cent. 63 per cent 61 per cent
2nd foot 51.3 „ 54.5 » 52.6 „

The numerical superiority of spondees in —
3rd foot 60.2 per cent 61. i per cent 59.6 per cent
4th foot 62.8 „ 71.5 „ 72.3 „

Though there is no very marked development shown,
still two points are worth noticing. Virgil's later manner is

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ii6 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

to lessen the use of the first foot dactyl, and to emphasise
the use of the fourth foot spondee.

The artistic reason for this preference for a spondaic
fourth is, no doubt, that the rhythm seems to be thus best
held in check and prevented from ebbing too rapidly.
Secondarily, it gives point by contrast to the necessary
dactyl of the fifth foot The general effect of such a line is
that of a swinging start, followed by a rallentando con-
centrating weight and dignity in the spondaic fourth. This
feature it is that imparts to the Virgilian hexameter much
of its peculiar grace and pathos.

The next most frequent line in Virgil is

DDSS. Multa Jovem manibus supplex orasse supinis.

And the next
DSDS. Aspice ventosi ceciderunt murmuris aurae.

This latter type becomes the prominent model in Valerius
Flaccus, Lucan, Statius, and Claudian.

[87. Homeric hexameters are mostly after these models :
DDDD, DSDD, SDDD, the dactyls preponderating. Pure
dactylic hexameters (i.e. those with dactyls in five feet) are
frequent in Homer; e.g, in Iliad i with its 6ii verses,
1 20 are purely dactylic; and this fact, as Professor Tyrrell
has pointed out, should be borne in mind by those who are
anxious to read descriptive purpose into many Homeric
passages. The difference is, of course, due to the nature of
the two languages, a difference which Ovid tried in vain to
overcome by searching out for use all the dactylic words
known to the Latin tongue ; with him, Valerius Flaccus and
Statius have a decided leaning to dactylic verses. The
gravity and dignity of the Roman character, however, were
against them, as also the weight and length of I^tin word-
formation, and heavier inflexions.]

88. Drobisch finds that the most spondaic poets are (in

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BEGINNING OF VERSE » 117

order of frequency of spondees) Catullus, Cicero, Silius, and
Ennius.

Virgil stands midway between these and the poets in
whom we find a majority/ of dactyls (in order of frequency
of dactyls), Ovid, Valerius Flaccus, and Statins. .

These results are no doubt due to a general preference
which commended itself more or less unconsciously to the
ear of the poet. We need not suppose that the poets
deliberately set themselves to vary the combinations verse
by verse ; for it is very common to find two, three, or four
verses following with the same structure of feet

The normal line being constructed as we have described,
departures from it in the direction of preponderating
spondees or dactyls, or a quick alternation of both, are
frequently made by Virgil with dj^^^xzXjt descriptive purpose.
It is one of VirgiFs chief charms as an artist that he uses
this kind of descriptive line so frequently and so success-
fully ; and that his practice has been taken as an example
by a long series of successors ; e^, Tennyson's

Ruining along the illimitable inane.

We may consider this subject under the heads — (I) spon-
daic lines; (iL) dactylic lines; (iii.) mixed lines.

[On this subject it is well to be on one's guard against
fanciful interpretation. It is easy to read too much meaning
into dactylic passages of a metre which is originally dactylic.
Spondees, and even spondaic words in the first foot, we
have seen, are so frequent as to be often due merely to a
wish for variety rather than for intentional description.^]

In his Essay on Criticism Pope lays down the principle
in the well-known couplet —

^ While drawing attention to lines which are undoubtedly descriptive,
I do not wish to contend that many dactylic and spondaic lines are not
due to the mere desire to attain variety. Virgil imdoubtedly in the main
writes the rhythm that is pleasing to \^ ear, apart from considerations of
meaning.

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ii8 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Tis not enough no harshness gives offence,
The sound must seem an echo to the sense.

♦89. (i.) Spondees.

Pope's couplet describes the principle —

When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw,
The line too labours, and the words move slow.

So of Sisyphus Pope wrote —

Up a high hill he heaved a huge round stone,

and with this contrasted

Impetuous thundering bounds and smokes along the plain.

Spondees describe stateliness, size, weight, physical strain,
grief, difficulty, and cognate ideas.

Thus
Illi inter sese multa vi brachia tollunt. A. viii. 452.

Inter se adversis luctantur comibus haedL G, ii. 526.

(In both these cases the effect is heightened by elision.)

Note the description of massive, handsome gifts —

stipatque carinis
Ingens argentum Dodonaeosque lebetas,
Loricam consertam hamis auroque trilicem,
Et conum insignis galeae cristasque comantes
Arma Neoptolemi. A, iii. 465-469.

Descriptive of a heavy weight of care —
Nimc hue ingentes, nunc illuc pectore curas. A, v. 701.

Similarly, dejection —
Maerentem abjungens fratema morte juvencum. G, iii 518.

So also

Pascentem et serae solam decedere nocti. 7^. 467.

Extinctum nymphae crudeli funere Daphnim. JE^. v. 20.

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BEGINNING OF VERSE 119

Harsh and heavy sounds are well accumulated in
Turn demum horrisono stridentes cardine sacrae
Panduntur portae A* vL 573.

And in

Saxum ingens volvunt alii, Jd. 616,

the spondees reflect the heaviness of the task.
Laocoon, ductus Neptuno sorte sacerdos
Mater, Cyrene mater, quae gurgitis hujus. G. iv. 321.

Qualis mugitus fugit quum saucius aram. i^, 223.

A. iv. 404-406 is a finely humorous description of a
stately procession of ants —
It nigrum campis agmen, praedamque per herbas
Convectant calle angusto ; pars grandia trudimt
Obnixae frumenta umeris.
Solemnis taurum ingentem mactabat ad aras. A, ii. 202.

(A solemn sacrifice.)

Spondees and harsh elisions signify violence —
Sublimem expulsam eruerunt G. I 320.

The mock stateliness is unmistakable in
Et sola in sicca secum spatiatur arena. Id, 389.

The cumbrous seals settle down heavily to sleep—
Stemunt se somno diversae in litore phocae. G. iv. 432.
(Saepe fugam Danai Troja cupiere relicta)
Moliri et longo fessi disosdere bello. A, ii 109.

(Monotonous eflbrt)

Nee dulces natos exoptatumque parentem. Id. 138.

(A sense of longing.)

It is to be noticed that in any spondaic line the effect is
emphasised if the first foot is a spondaic word.

Lines composed solely of spondees (cf. //. xxiiL 221) are
very rare. Ennius, who has three in the Annals^ seems to
use them with intention —

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120 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Olli respondit rex Albai longai. 66.

Gives Romani tunc facti sunt CampanL 169.

Olli crateris ex auratis hauserunt. 467.

Study further the following lines of Virgil: — G. L 78, 403 ;
ii. 80, 198, 304, 497; iii. 14, 24, 28, 29; A, ii. 251, 265.

Exercises on Descriptive Spondees

Arthur pressed onward^ brandishing his spear ^
Huge, like a tree-trunk, and with wrathful heart
Made utterance. cxxiii. (a)

But Lancelot, laid on shield, a lifeless corse.
His friends in tears were bearing — mighty soul
Quelled by a mighty wound, cxxiv.

" Here, here am I, the doer, on me, on me
Turn all your steel ! " cxxv.

Beneath the solitary night they went

Darkling through dusk. cxxvi.

The woods decay, the woods decay and fall cxxvii.

He with his surly hum
Delivers o'er to executors pale
The lazy yawning drone, cxxviii.

All creatures else on earth were easing care

With slumber, and their hearts forgot to ache, cxxix.

By a mighty effort on its turning hinge

He swings the gate back. cxxx.

To him spake Henry, smiling, calm at heart. cxxxi.

At length the Teucrian leaders hear the tale
Of their friends' slaughter, and together meet,
Mnestheus and keen Serestus. cxxxii.

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BEGINNING OF VERSE 121

At length, with headlong bound,
Armed at all points he plunged into the flood.^ cxxxiii.

*90. (ii) Dactyls.

Pope's couplet is in point —

Not so, when swift Camilla scours the plain,

Plies o'er the unbending com, and skims along the main.

Dactyls express speed, lightness, frequent action, freedom,
grace, softness, tenderness.
Cf. (of the speed of stags)

Agmina cervi
Pulverulenta fiiga glomerant montesque relinquimt A, iv. 155.

Th6 rhythmical patter of a galloping horse, ue, broken
rapid motion —
Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum.

A. viii 596.

[Cf. Ennius 259 —

Labitur uncta carina volat super impetus undas.]

The lightness of stubble and the spasmodic shooting of
flames is well depicted by

Atque levem stipulam crepitantibus urere flammis. G, i. 85.

The sound of hurrying footsteps —

Subito cum creber ad aures
Visus adesse pedum sonitus, genitorque per umbram, etc.

A. ii. 731, 732.
Speed and flutter are apparent in

Ilia levem fugiens raptim secat aethera pinnis. G. i 409.

The quick patter of hail is thus described —

Crepitans salit horrida grando. lb, 459.

^ Here run on to second dactylic pause.

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122 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Riding and driving are described in a highly dactylic
passage in G, iii. 113-119.

Tenderness is expressed in
A, tibi ne teneras glacies secet aspera plantas. E. x. 49.

Grace in

Ulla dolum meditantur ; amat bonus otia Daphnis.

E. V. 61.

An intentional series of dactyls is found in Ennius* line —
Poste recumbite vestraque pectora pellite tonsis, 168,

which is not un-Virgilian.

Exercises on descriptive Dactyls

The moment gales are gathering, the sea straits
Begin to shudder and heave, and a dry roar
Is heard on the mountain heights, and sound confused
Runs far along the shore, while through the woodland
Swells out the undertones, cxxxiv.

Of showers mistrust thou, for a gale bears hard

From seaward, of /// omen for your trees

And crops and herds, cxxxv.

1 11 to the wild Cassandra, for she says

Afire dances before her, and a sound

Rings ever in her ears of armkd men, cxxxvi.

The lor^ brook/alls adown the clov'n ravine

In cataract after cataract to the sea, cxxxvii.

At once with joy and fear his heart rebounds, cxxxviii.

And meanwhile murmuring waters fall
Down the slope hills, dispersed, or in a lake.
That to the fringed bank with myrtle crowned
Her crystal mirror holds, unite their streams. cxxxix.

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BEGINNING OF VERSE 123

They move in anns : a shout goes up,
And in formed column, hark ! the four-foot tramp
Of galloping horse-hoofs shakes the crumbling plain. CXL.

But he comes crouching up
Silly, while der him the shaft quivering flew. CXLI.

E^n as, while southern winds conspire,

On standing harvests falls the fire,

Or as a mountain torrent spoils

Field, Joyous crop, and oxen^s toils.

And sweeps whole woods : the swain spell-bound

Hears from a rock the unwonted sound, CXLI. {a)

* 91. (iii.) Mixed, — For variety's sake dactyls and spondees
must be intermixed, but the intermixture should vary in the
composition of each individual line. The variation must
not be allowed to become regular. Study in G. iii., lines
77, 83, ZZ, 142.

Most interesting, perhaps, are the cases where Virgil
markedly changes his rhythm, to use Coleridge's words,
*in correspondence with some transition in the nature of
the imagery or passion.'

Note, e,g,, the change of eflfect in.

Vix ea fatus erat, quam circflmfQsa repente, '

Scindit se nubes et in aethera purgat apertum. A. i. 586.

Is it fanciful to see reflected in the rhythm, the delay of
the shifting clouds and the sudden contrast of the free
clearness of the open sky ?

The general eflectiveness of alternating spondees and
dactyls is well illustrated by two passages quoted by Miiller.
A storm is described — A. i. 81-91 and 102-123,

Tam multa in tectis crepitans salit horrida grando. G. i, 449.

Spondees express the heavy felling, dactyls the rattling
and dancing, of the hailstones.

In A, ii. 460-468 is a description of a tower felling on

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124 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

the DanaL Lines 460, 461 are deliberately loaded with
spondees —

Turrim in praecipiti stantem summisque sub astra '
Eductam tectis, unde omnis Troja videri,

while lines 465, 466 are equally deliberately loaded with
dactyls to describe the toppling and falling —

Sedibus, impulimusque : ea lapsa repente ruinam
Cum sonitu trahit, et Danaum super agmina late.

Note in A. v, 215-217 the description of a bird first
fluttering and then sailing smoothly along —

Fertur in arva volans, plaasamque exterrita pennis
Dat tecto Ingentem ;

thus &r note the spondees, the elisions, and the meeting
of consonants in adjoining words ;

mox acre lapsa quieto
Radit iter liquidum, celeres neque commovet alas ;

here the dactyls, and freedom from elisions and meetings of
consonants impart an easy and graceful speed.

In V. 87, 88 the change of rhythm combines with the
artificial diction to produce the impression of an artificial-
looking skin of a snake —

Caeruleae cui terga notae, maculosus et auro
Squamam incendebat fiilgor.

One line conveys the sudden change firom the scramble
at the start, and the steady running after a start —

campum
CcMTlpfierg, riiOntque efftisi carcere currus.

G, iii 104.

Cf. also
Saxa per et scopulos et depressas convalles. lb. 276

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BEGINNING OF VERSE 125

Mr. Page explains this rhythm more correctly than
Conington or Ellis. *The opening dactyls express the
bounds and leaps of the animals over '* boulders and rocks,"
and the balanced spondees of depressas convalles mark their
smooth ^ven gallop along the level valleys.'

Exercises in alternating Spondees and Dactyls

The stream falls fast Jrom gradual slope to slope ;

With mild infracted course and lessened roar

It gains a safer bed, and steals at last

Along the mazes of the quiet vale, cxxxii. (a)

Thrice and again must all the soil be loosened^

And everlastingly the mattock turned

To break the clod, and all the orchard too

Be lightened of his leaf. The farmer's toil

Circling returns e'en as the year rolls back

Upon itself along the well-known path. cxxxiii. (a)

Whence is the earthquake ? By what force do seas

Swell high o'er their burst barriers and sink back

Into themselves again f cxxxiv. (a)

Wher^er her pinions cleave the air inflight^
Lo^ hostile, fierce, loud-swooping down the wind,
Nisus is on her : where Nisus mounts the wind,
Her hurrying pinions cleave the air inflight, cxxxv. (a)

Here, there in the vast whirl swimmers appear.

Armour of men and timbers *mid the waives,

And Trojan treasure, cxxxvi. (a)

Alert they wait the signal: throbbing fear

And passion wakened drain their riotous blood.

Then when the trumpet-note rang clear, forward

All in a moment leap they from their line :

The shouts strike up to heaven, cxxxvii. (a)

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CHAPTER IV

THE END OF THE VERSE

{t\e, structure of the last two feet or dipod)

*92. The normal or classical endings are disyllables or
trisyllables such as —

1. ubera tendunt

In this case for the trisyllabic in the fifth foot may stand
a group made up of a word and a proclitic or enclitic ; thus,
proclitic : quem sua noto ; enclitic : nullaque circa.

2. lacte saporem.

Here also for the final word trisyllabic groups like (vita)
per auras, (sceptra) Jovemque, will stand. Often, however,
the ending involves connection with the fourth foot, as in

3. postrema, sed una.

4. compesce priusquam.

5. incursusque luporum.

6. silvestribus apros.

Other possible types are —

7. aut mala tactu.

8. fontibus, et dum.

9. lapsus ad ossa.
10. avertSre et inter.

These specimens comprise all the normal endings. Some
of these, as 7 and 8, are regulated by special conditions.

^ 93. The reason of this stereotyped form is to be found in
xa6

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END OF VERSE 127

the doctrine of the caesura, and the principle of difierentia-
tion between the two hemistichs.^ Thus, if the hexameter
ends otherwise than with a word of two or three syllables or
their equivalents, it is necessary —

(i.) Either that a strong caesura occxir either in the fifth
or sixth foot, or in both together ; e,g.

di I genuerunt
interimat | res
et I sapiens. | Quid?

In each of these cases the end resembles the beginning
when the strong caesura is both an ornament and practically
a necessity.

(ii) Or that the fifth and sixth be made up of one word ;
e^, sollicitabant

In this case there is no break between fifth and sixth
arses,^ as there is in

caecus | amore,
or culmina | tectL

94. 1. Non-classical or abnormal endings.

It is instructive to note the evolution of the Hexameter
in this matter of abnormal (or non-classical) endings.

In Ennius they are 14 per cent He has a special
fondness for monosyllabic endings, and also favours quadri-
syllables.

In Lucretius, bk. i., 8J per cent

In Catullus (62 and 64) a trifle more than 2 per cent
(excepting hymenaee, and hymenaeos).

In Cicero (Aralea) about 2 J per cent

In Virgil about 3 per cent.

* The main point in this differentiation is the securing in the last two
feet of the coincidenQM|f verse and word accent. Mr. Du Pontet points
out that Lucretius ^^Bft^cally always uses the form which secures
coincidence, e.^. vim inQIrunt ; only 3 lines in 1457 (Bk. v. ) are of the
form li!icis cdput fpsum where the coincidence fails.

^ Arsis is the first or stressed syllable of the foot

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128 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

The Latin poets do not avoid polysyllabic ©tidings for the
reason urged by Christ (§ 223) and others, i.e. that Latin
has so few words of four or five syllables fit to be placed at
the end.

Rdnstrdm finds in the first 250 verses of Aeneid i. no less
than twenty-four such words placed in the beginning or
middle of verses : —

studiisque, dicione, dapibusque, aquilone,
verubusque, graviora, scopuloque, veterisque,
geminique, coluisse, jaculata, penitusqui^,
latuere, patiuntur, rapuitque, revocate,
revocato, dederatque, meminisse, potuere,
penetrare, superare, incubuere, intonuere.

The fact would seem to be that quadrisyllabic (non-
spondaic) endings ' seem to sAggest something soft, supine,
or effeminate, unsuited to Roman taste. In any case,
Virgil uses them to portray this idea'; e.g. semiviro
comitatu, femineo ululatu. Otherwise he generally avoids ^^
such endings. .-""^^

*95. A. Spondaic fifth foot. — The most remarkable

diversity firom the normal types is the spondee in the fifth
foot. Cases of this are due in Latin hexameters to one
of two principles —

(i.) Carelessness and inexperience ; i.e. want of definite
purpose.

(ii.) A cultured and deliberate imitation of Alexandrian |
models.

(L) Ennius and Lucretius.

Both these use spondaic endings with Latin words.
Ennius has only nine in 523 verses.

Lucretius is also sparing; he use^|^^^o in the 7415
verses of the De Naiura^ i.e. at theViPof one in 231, or
less than \ per cent.

se^^^Rwc
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END OF VERSE 129

(ii.).In Catullus and his successors they are used as an
ornament in deliberate imitation of the Alexandrians;
and the Augustan poets use them sparsely, and mostly
with Greek words.

Even in the hexameters of Catullus and his school, the
use of spondaic endings is rarer than in Homer, who
averages one in 18 verses. But in Latin hexameter verse
generally it is rarer still. In the Ciris there are eleven in
541 verses,

Catullus alone ventures on three spondaics successively —

Electos juvenes simul et decus innuptarum

Cecropiam solitam esse dapem dare Minotauro,

Quis angusta malis cum moenia vexarentUr. Ixiv. (78-80).

Horace in the Satires and Epistles has one example
only —

Invitum qui servat, idem facit occidenti. Epist, ii. 3, 467.

In the post-classical poets the usage becomes rarer and
rarer. Thus Silius has only six examples, Valerius Flaccus
^ one, and Statius seven (all in the Thebaid),

* 96. Two rules with respect to the use of spondaics are
valid in Latin.

(i.) The fourth foot must be a dactyl. This is obviously
on the principle of contrast which almost necessitates a
spondee in the fourth before a dadtyl in ttiA fifth, \ V u V*" l^

Cprnua W3atarufli pbjvertimus | anfcm|naruiB. A, iii. 449. ijCi'N''*^^

Virgil seems to have observed this rule strictly ; he breaks
it only twice in the Aeneid —

Nereidum matri et Neptuno Aegaeo. A, iii. 74.

Aut leves ocreas lento ducunt argento. A. vii. 634.

and once in the Georgics : depressas convalles.

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130 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

The first case is justified by the obvious imitaticm of
Greek, as the rule does not apply, at any rate so strictly, to
the Greek hexameter. Cf. Iliad^ Prj 3^ #cay Ovkviiiroio
Kafyqv(av dt^acra (of Iris leaping to earth).
. The second is probably excused by the descriptive eflfect
produced. The working up of armour out of silver is a
matter of great difficulty, and requires continuous effort.

The third case has already been explained as a descriptive
contrast of dactyls and spondees.

In A. ii. 68 Sinon's deliberate manner is well given by

Constitit, atque oculis Phrygia agmina circumspexit

Virgil's great predecessor, Ennius, did not observe the
rule. He has nine spondaics, and has a spondee in the
fourth in no less than five cases,

Lucretius has only one example of spondaic fifth preceded
by spondaic fourth, so that he as well as Virgil deserves the
credit of correct artistic feeling. Ovid breaks the rule —

et inaequales autumnos. Met i. 115.

But observes it —

monticolae Silvani. 3. 193.

celeberrima Nonacrinas. 689.

et luctisono mugitu. 730.

(ii.) The second rule is : The end of the fifth foot should
not coincide with the end of a word; otherwise the
impression of the end of the verse is prematurely given,
especially if Rule i is duly observed, and the fourth foot is
a dactyl. This makes it necessary that the lines should end
with (a) Quadrisyllables ; (/i) Trisyllables.

*97. (a) Quadrisyllables. — Virgil and Ovid deliberately
imitate Catullus in the use of Greek proper names. These
three use spcmdaics rather firom delight in learned artifice

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END OF VERSE iji

and recondite d^ance than from Lucretius' reverence for
ancient practice.

Armatumque auro circumspicit Oriona. A, iii. 517.

Ac lucus late sacer additur Anchiseo. A, v. 761.

Cf. also Aigileti, Pallanteum, Thermodontis, Orithyia.

In his later manner Virgil extended the use (both for
quadrisyllabics and trisyllabics) to common nouns and other
words, often with the descriptive purpose of detaining the
reader by the slowness and weight of the ending.

Thus slowness is expressed in

Comua velatarum obvertimus antemnarum. A, iii. 549.

and
Ante tibi Eoae Atlantides abscondantur. G, i. 221.

Proximus huic, longo sed proximus intervallo. A, v. 320.
Descriptive : a gap is fitly described by a word which
produces a sense of suspension.

In E. iv. 49 dignity is the note in
magnum Jovis incrementum.
So also

Discedens chlamydemque auro dedit intertextam (effort).

A. viii. 167.
agmina circumspexit (deliberation). A. ii. 68.

Lucretius and Catullus use dispondaic quadri^llables
(not proper names) firequently. Cf. Catullus Ixviii. 65 —

Jam Castoris implorata (el^iac) ;

and elsewhere admirantes adludebant j in Lucretius — naturai,
aeternumque (though no spondaics occur in book vi.).

A safe rule for beginners is, if no description is intended,
to use, apart from proper names, only the quadrisyllables
used by Virgil.

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132 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

♦ 98. (p) Trisyllables.^— The three last half-feet are often
immediately preceded by a vowel causing hiatus or by a
lengthened foot Thus Aia^s —

Tune ille Aeneas, quem Dardanio Anchisae. A. i, 617.

Nereidum matri et Neptuno Aegaeo. A, iii. 74.

turrigerae ant.emnae. ^. viL 631.

Parrhasio Evandro. A. xi. 31.

Stant et juniperi et castaneae hirsutae. E, vii. 53.

Lengthened foot —
Sceptra Palatini sedemque petit Evandri. ^. ix. 9.

Muneribus, tibi pampineo gravidas autumno. G, ii 5.

Ordinary examples, with words other than proper names,
are —

Quod fieri ferro liquidove potest electro. A, viii. 402.

Aut leves ocreas lento ducunt argento. A, viL 634.

culminibus desertis. A, xii 863.

Pro moUi viola, pro purpurea narcisso. E, v. 38.

\N,B, — An instance of a monosyllabic ending combined
with a spondaic fifth is the antiquarian and rugged ending
of Ennius, et magnis dis,^ adopted by Virgil]

99. As Antonius Viertel says, these spondaic endings in
any particular poet have two possible origins : either they
are invented by him, but never in greater number than
two or three phrases which are used frequently by him;
or they are borrowed, perhaps out of compliment, ostenta-
tiously firom a predecessor.

Thus in Virgil the inventions are —

Anchisae, Pallanteum, Pallantea, Evandri, Evandro.

^ Spondaic trisyllables are less frequent than quadrisyllables because in
cases like Neptuno Aegaeo the coincidence of verse and word stress in
the fifth foot is lost.

' Mr. Page suggests that the rude, rugged rhythm gives a sense of
iomething primeval

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END OF VERSE 133

All of these are used more than once, and are obvious
imitations of Greek metre.
The borrowings are —
From Ennius, et magnis dis (twice).
From Lucretius, intervallo.
From Cicero, Oriona.
From Propertius (probably), Orithyia (later appropriated

by Ovid).
From Catullus, argentum.

In Virgil these spondaic trisyllables are found preceded
by a dactyl ten times ; e.g,

culminibus desertis, A. xii. 863,

and preceded by a spondee three times ; e^.

depressas convalles. G, iii. 276.

lento ducunt argento. A. iiL 634.

Lucan fails to avail himself much of the variety afforded
by spondaic endings. The Pharsalia only gives fourteen
spondaic endings, mostly proper names or Greek words.
Cases of ordinary words so used are ix. 329 armamentis,
X. 216 incrementis, the latter obviously carried on from
VirgiL

Exercises in Spondaic Endings

And also from the violets her light foot

Shone rosy white.^ cxxxviii. (a)

On the tree-tops a crested peacock lit. cxxxix. {cC)

I waited underneath the dawning hills. cxl. {a)
And Jura answers, through her misty shroud^

Back to the joyous Alps who call to her aloud. cxli. {p)

And, looking round, on all sides he beheld

A pathless desert, dusk with horrid shades. cxlii.

^ Run on to sj pause.

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134 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

The peers of Pluto's realm assembled been

Amid the palace of their angry king. cxliii.

For in Glencoe and Ardnamurchan (Lat. Ardethmus) we have
Dwelt in peace in the years that have gone by. cxliv.

Art thou that Aeneas whom Venus the bountiful

Bore to Dardanian Anchises by the wave of

Phrygian Simoi's ? CXLV.

And prophetess of sooth, who first foretold

The future greatness of the Aeneadae

And Pallanteum^s glory. cxlvi.

Words ending lines are usually disyllabics or trisyllabics.
The chief exceptions to this rule, introduced mdnly for
variety's sake, may be taken in order through pentesyllabics,
quadrisyllabics, two disyllabics and monosyllabics.

* 100. B. Pentesyllabics, — ^These are only admitted under
two conditions : they must be proper names ; e,g, Alcime-
dontis, Alphesiboeus ; or they must be specially descriptive
words; e.g,

perfractaque quadrupedantum
Pectora pectoribus rumpunt A. xL 614.

Cf. also A, V. 589, ancipitemque (descriptive of pausing in
doubt in the misleading maze).

In early verse, endings like sollicitabant were frequent,
but classical usage dispensed with them. However, they
appear to have been less offensive to Lucretius* ear than
any other type of non-classical ending, for in the De Nat
Rerum^ bk. i., there are sixty pentesyllabic ^ endings, as
against thirty of the other types taken together ; e,g,

principiorum, materiai, simplicitate.

Lucretius did not use such endings ^ a concession to
Greek rhythm and prettiness, but in imitation of Ennius.

^ This ending was probably the more easily passed by Lucretius because
s611icitdbant does at any rate give a secondary word-accent in the fifth foot

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END OF VERSE 135

* 101. C. Quadrisyllables (in the normal ending of dactyl
and spondee). — ^These are, as a rule, to be avoided, but
their use is conditioned by certain well-defined circumstances.
Virgil seems to have reduced the arbitrary usage of his prede-
cessors to these limitations.

(L) Greek words, often involving hiatus and other imita*
tions of Greek metre.

Proper names.

Amphion Dircaeus in Actaeo Aracintho. E. ii. 24.

an Meliboei ? E, v. 87.

So Aonie Aganippe, navifragum Scylaceum, genitore
Adamasto. Cf. A. x. 749 ; xi. 659.

Common nouns^ mostly Greek.
Aetas Lucinam justosque pati hymenaeos. G, iii. 60.

This word hymenaeos supplies fourteen instances.
Munera sunt, lauri et suave rubens hyadnthus. E, iii. 63.

Hyacinthus occurs five times at end of line. •

Cf. also sectoque elephanto (3), Oricia terebintho, coni-
ferae cyparissi, alboque orichalco, odoriferam panaceam,
ululatus (2), comitatu.

Cf. Lucretius^ often; e,g. vis animai, saecla animantum,
mente animoque; and cf. Lucan x. 318, praecipites cata-
ractae.

(ii.) To produce some particular effect

Sound long drawix out in
femineo ululatu. A, iv. 667.

gemitu lacrimisque. A, x. 505.

^ With a quadrisyllable the coincidence of verse and word accent is
secured only if it is preceded by a monosyllable or an elision. The three
Lucretian examples conform to this rule, but the example from Lucan is a
hint that the restriction was felt to be irksome.

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136 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

In Ennius verse endings like di genuerunt were frequent,
and not regarded as harsh.

The same eflfect as that of a quadrisyllable is given by a
trisyllable (a) followed by a monosyllabic enclitic, e,g.
mentem animumque, or (P) preceded by a monosyllable
(proclitic or non-enclitic) ; e,g. ad amores.

Exercises on Pentesyllabic and Quadrisyllabic
Endings

By turns we catch the vital breath and die,
Like bubbles on the sea of matter borne,
They rise, they break, and to that sea return.
Nothing is foreign, parts relate to whole. cxlvii.

So lonely 'twas, that God himself

Scarce seemed there to be.
Oh, sweeter than the fnarriage'it2i&\.^

'Tis sweeter far to me,
To walk together to the kirk

With a goodly company. cxlviii.

In such a night
Did Jessica steal from the wealthy Jew
And with an unthrift love did run from Venice
As far as Belmont (Lat. CallkSlone). cxLix.

But his friends meanwhile
With many a groan and tear throng round and set
Pallas on shield, and bear him from the fray. CL.

They gather round, and as they throw them in
A helm of brass receives the lots. Comes out
First and before them all, *mid prosperous cheers,
Turn of Hippocoon^ son of Hyrtacus. CLI.

As once of old they say in lofty Crete

The labyrinth had a tangled path between

Blind walls, and^ with a thousand ways misleading^

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END OF VERSE 137

Deception, where no token aught availed

To follow in the maze xinmastared aye

And irrecoverable. clii.

Thetis and Melite keep the left, and maiden Panopea,
Nesaea and Spio^Thalia and Cymodoce, CLiii.

Sighing he sees them in their long array,

Glaucus, and Medon, and Thersilochus. CUV.

Thou mayst behold pillars and roofs,
Carved work, the hand of famed artificers.
In cedar, marble, ivory ^ or gold. clv.

Midmost, all aglow,
Herself uplifts a blazing pine, and chants
The marrtage-song of Turnus and ha: child. CLVi.

Heavy he fell as sometime there will fisdl

A hollow pine on Erymanthu^ height

Or mighty Ida, torn up by the roots. CLvri.

The towers of Caulon, Scylaceum too

Wrecker of ships. CLViii.

*102. D. Two disyllables. — This ending is not un-
frequently used by Virgil, but under well-understood con-
ditions.1 It is very rare in the earlier books, but commoner
in the later work; e,g. bk. x. of the Aeneid. C ii. 153 is
an exception, and only justified by the specially descriptive
efifect (cf. Pauses, 4 J, p. 50, § 19)—

Nee rapit immensos orbes per humum, neque tanto
Squameus in spiram tractu se colligit anguis.

The serpent is represented by the rhythm as suddenly
stopping to gather itself.

Ditis tamen ante. A, v. 731, is distinctly unpleasing and

. ^ In efifect these conditions secure coincidence of verse and word stress.

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138 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

not to be imitated. This ending occurs only eighteen times
in Virgil, five cases beii^ found in -^. x.

The normal conditions are three : —

(i.) The two disyllables must be preceded by a mono-
syllable, which is itself preceded by an appreciable pause.
(Cf. Pauses, 4, p. 46 (a).)

(ii.) There must be no stop at the end of the line.

(iiL) The monosyllable must be an important word,
closely connected in sense and emphasis with what follows.
This condition obviates the unpleasant break after the arsis
of the fifth foot which would otherwise occur ; e,g.

adstitit : ' Hunc ego Diti
Sacrum jussa fero/ A. iv. 702.

Here all these conditions are fulfilled. So in

uritis. En, ego vester
Ascanius. A. v. 672.

Cum placidum ventis staret mare: non ego Daphnim
Judice te metuam. , E, ii. 26.

procedere : non bene ripae
Creditur ; E,m. 94.

These last two examples suggest that non is often the
monosyllable, being naturally emphatic. Other examples
where the emphasis is clearly present are E. vii. 47,
A, V. 414, G, ii. 486.

Dum spiritus hos regit artus. A. iv. 336.

ITos is emphatic and proclitic, and saves the situation.

Weak examples are E, vi. SoNgmd vii. 21, et and aut being
unemphatic.

Quoque (being by nature enclitic) after the monosyllable
has a strong tendency to emphasise it, so much so that even
in the absence of either or both conditions (i.) and (ii.) the
line may still stand if the sense of the monosyllable is

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END OF VERSE 139

thrown forward on to the remainder of the line by a quoque
in the fifth foot Cf.

vestigia. Tu quoque magnam. A, vL 30.

Thus—

Addamcereapruna: honos erit huic quoque porno. -£. iL 53.
Both conditions (i.) and (iL) are here absent So in

habitarunt di quoque silvas. E. li 60.

veniat quo te quoque gaudet E, iiL 88.

And E. V. 52 and 80.

In ^. iii 52, in me mora non erit ulla, the emphatic non
saves the situation.

dum per mare magnum {per proclitic). A. v. 628.

haec loca Trojam {hau proclitic). lb, 756.

In G, i. 80, pudeat sola, neve, the two disyllables are
discounted by the fact that there is a fifth-foot pause,
followed by a word echoed firom the earlier part of the
line. Cf. Pauses, fifth foot (p. 54, § 21).

In the majority of cases the explanation is that the
grammatical relation of the monosyllable and disyllable
gives the group the character of a dactyl

Virgil uses two disyllables preceded by a monosyllable
over a hundred times. Cf. also Calpumius, E, viii. 79 —

Ante dabit flores autumnus, ver dabit uvas.

Exercises on Lines ending with two Disyllables

Oh, mayst thou come, god of the boundless sea.

And sailors laud thy deity alone.

And utmost Thule tribute pay to thee. CLix.

Of Nature's ancient gift these ways : in these

Do all the tribes of forest wear their green,

Ay, and of underwood and sacred grove. clx.

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I40 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Withies grow thick on osiers, leaves on dms ;

On myrtles strong spear-shafts and on the cornel

Trusty in battle: into bows is bent

The Ituraean yew. clxi.

What is this feud, defiant of my ban ?

What terror hath seduced or these^ or those.

To rush on battle, and provoke the sword ? clxii.

First to arms
Come thou, and take the shield, the lord of fire
Gave thee himself ^ of adamantine might.
And edged the rims with gold. clxiii.

* Not long shalt thou
Enjoy thy victory : for thee, too, Vik& fates
Are watching : the same fields thou soon shalt press.'

CLXIV.

Rest thee sure
That / shall love thee well and cleave to thee,
So that my vigour, wedded to thy blood.
Shall strike within thy pulses, like a god's. clxv.

Here is
The crown of Troas. Hither came at noon
Mournful Oenone, wandering forlorn. CLXVi.

Cf. also on pause afta: fourth foot. Exercises lxxiii.
and Lxxvi.

E. Mono^llables.

(L) Preceded by a monosyllable.

(ii.) Preceded by a word longer than a monosyllable.

*103. (L) (a) Of lines ending with two monosyllables
(a group which practically equals a disyllabic) the best are
those in which the two monosyllables are preceded by a

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END OF VERSE 141

pause, no pause occurring at the end of the line. The fifth
foot diaeresis (v. Pauses, p. 54, § 21) often expresses excite-
ment and strong feeling, especially if it is a heavy pause ; e^.

sub moenibus ! o gens
Infelix. A, v. 624.

And A. xii. 526. Cf.

Tamen haec quoque, si quis
Inserat G. ii 49.

at tenuis non gloria, si quern
Numina laeva sinunt, etc. G, iv. 6.

aeris rauci canor increpat, et vox
Auditur, etc. i?. 71.

And A, iii. 151 manifesti lumine, qua se, vL 117, xi. 164,
xii. 360.

It will be noticed that one of the monosyllables tends to
be a relative, and that often both are pronouns.

Ovid tends to end with the negative non^ a suitably
emphatic word ; e^.

Primus amor Phoebi Daphne Phineia, quam non

Fors ignara dedit. Met L 452.

videt oscula, quae non
Est vidisse satis. lb, 499.

posset credi Latonia, si non
Comeus, etc. lb, 695.

A specially pretty case of this is when a monosyllable
already used in the line is repeated by way of echo at the
end; e,g,

Quam pius Aeneas, et quam magni Phryges, et quam.

A. xi, 170.
Non injussa cano. Si quis tamen haec quoque, si quis
Captus amore l^et E, vi. 9.

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142 LATIN HEXAMETER VEJISE

So—
Anne lacus tantos, te, Lari maxime, teque,
Fluctibus, etc. G, ii 159.

and

ut versis discedat frontibus, utque
Purpurea intexti, etc. G, iiL 24.

In these two last examples the enclitics obviously give
the impression of a disyllabic ending to the line.
Stricter examples, however, are —

Astrum quo segetes gauderent frugibus, et quo

Duceret E. ix. 48.

cum mesas inhorruit, et cum

Ftumenta, etc. G, i. 314.

Cum . . ., et cum. G, iii 133.

Nee cum . . ., nee cum. Ih. 358.

dum . . ., et dum, etc. lb, 428.

Also

subter mare, qui nunc. A, iii 695.

104. (/?) The use is less attractive when there is no pause
either before or after the two monosyllables.

Sed neque quam multae species nee nomina quae sint,
Est numerus. G, ii. 103.

Alpes et Norica si quis | Castella, etc. G. iii 474.

omniaque in se | ossa minutatim, etc. lb, 484.

Tyria Carthagine qui nunc | Exspectat. A, iv. 224.

immani corpore qui se | Bebrycia veniens. A, v. 372.

106. (y) When there is no appreciable pause before,
but a pause after, the effect is harsh, and not to be imitated.
* Quem fugis ? Extremum fato, quod te adloquor, hoc est*

A, vi 466.
Et Troes et Arcades hi sunt.^ A, xii 231.

^ In these two cases the harshness is increased, in the first instance by
the gutturals q and c, in the second by the repeated sibilant

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END OF VERSE I4S

The emphatic deictic use of the pronoun Mc seems to be
the only excuse for such a sudden jolt.

Virgil uses two monosyllables at the end about forty times.

* 106. (ii.) A monosyllable preceded by a word other than
a monosyllable; ue, a true monosyllabic ending. Virgil
has in all more than forty instances, Ovid eleven.

The loose colloquial usage of Horace, by which a pause
is allowed before the monosyllable, is never admitted in
Virgil; e^. Hor. Satires^ ii. 7, 51 —

neque sollicitum, ne.

In all cases where a monosyllable is allowed to end a line,
it is better that there should be no pause after the mono-
syllable.

\N,B. — It seems likely that the earlier poets avoided the
monosyllabic ending from the feeling that the word-accent
and the verse-stress should coincide at the end of the line.
It is practically a universal rule that Latin words end either
with a dactyl or a spondee (trochee) accented as is natural
in verse: susp^ndere, vid^ntur, minitintes. This fact
naturally influenced the treatment of the hexameter. We
find (i.) a strong preference for beginning the line with co-
incidences, e,g, v^nerit, v61nus alit : (ii.) an almost constant
avoidance of coincidence in the middle of the verse, this
being secured by the normal caesura, e^, vdlnus dlit vinis :
(iii) a natural contrast furnished by the return to coincidence
in the verse ending, which imparts a certain smoothness and
restraint, because the words fall into the metre with their
natiural pronunciation. Thus

A A A

S S S ASA

Lumina volgus, but procumbit humi bos.

Virgil's monosyllabic endings are shown by §§ 1 07-1 10 to be
exceptional.]

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144 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Obviously, the monosyllabic ending is quite exceptional.
It is therefore fitly used to call the attention of the reader
to something out of the ordinary, either on the sotous or
humorous side. This may be taJcen for granted, although
Madvig scoffs at the idea.

* 107. (a) To add dignity or seriousness : —

cum rapidus sol
Nondum hiemem contingit equis. G, ii. 321.

Unus qui nobis cunctando restituis rem. A. vi. 846.

So also
Penatibus et magnis Dis. .^. iii 12.

* 108. (j8) The humorous ending is frequent in Virgil : —

Tum variae illudent species : saepe exiguus mus
Sub terris posuitque domos atque horrea fecit. G. i. 181.
Sabellicus exacuit sus.^ G. iii. 255.

in litore conspicitur sus. A, viii. 83.

inventa sub ilicibus sus. 3, 43.

Horace probably copies this in

Parturient montes, nascetur ridiculus mus ;

and Ovid also in

In juvenes vasto sic in^te vulnificus sus.

* 109. (y) It is a slightly different usage when the poet
aims at being vivid, descriptive, picturesque, or laying a
special emphasis on a particular word : —

etiam tu, si qua tibi vis,

Si patrii quid et artis habes. A. xi. 373.

et odora canum vis. A, iv. 132.

legitque virum vir. A, xi. 630.

^ It is possible that this and the next two lines should come undo*
§ X09 (7), or even (a) as imitations of some hexameter oracle.

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END OF VERSE 145

So A. X. 864, viam vis ; x. ^61, viro vir (also x. 734 and
XL 632) ; V. 481, humi bos ; i. 105, aquae mons ; ii, 250, ruit
oceano nox; G, i. 247, silet nox; xii. 851, deum rex; and
deum pater atque hominum rex {passim), Cf. Lucan's
sole instance of a monosyllabic ending, ix. 723, tabificus
Seps.

Under this heading it should be noted that Virgil has a
special leaning to the words, rex, res, rem, yis, and vi ; e^,

A, X. 648, hominum rex; x. 743, iii. 375, deum rex;
V. 638, tempus agi res ; viL 592, nutu Junonis eunt res ;
ix. 320, ipsa vocat res, and 723, agat res; iv. 132, odora
canum vis; xl 373, si qua tibi vis; ix. 532, opum vi; and
xii. 552> opum vi.

It is certain that Virgil in (a) and (y) deliberately borrows
from Ennius; e^. ^. iii 12, magnis dis, from Ennius'
Annals^ 203 —

Dono ducite doque volentibu' cum magnis dis.

Hominum rex from Ennius, 216 —

Tum cum corde suo divum pater atque hominum rex.

And restituis rem from Ennius, 286 —

Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem.

The following in Ennius suggest Virgilian endings: 172
juvat res, 208 refert rem, 532 virum vis, 593 aquae vis,
165 and 431 opum vi, 438 oritur nox.

It is plain that the poets on the one hand deliberately
restricted themselves in the invention of monosyllabic
endings, and on the other generally adopted two or three of
those in use among their eminent predecessors by way of
compliment, just as they did with spondaic fifth feet
(cf. § 99).

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146 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

110. (S) In a few cases ^ these endings seem to have no
definite purpose beyond that of introducing a slight variety ;
e,g, A. vi. 346, fides est; ii. 355, lupi ceu; iv. 314, tuam te
(here the speech is agitated, and smooth rhythm is sacrificed
to get strong emphasis from the juxtaposition of tuam and
te)'y X. 259, parent se; 802, tenet se.

Phoebo sua semper apud me
Munera sunt (certainly an imgainly rhythm). E. iii. 62.

Ipse. Bonum sit. E. viiL 106.

* 111. (e) The word 'est' with an elision — ^a fairly firequent
ending — is almost always followed by a final pause.

Semiputata tibi frondosa vitis in ulmo est. E. iii 70.

Locuta est. lb, 72.

Mens omnit^us una est. G. ii. 212.

Duorum est A. iv. 95.

xi. 369, cordi est, and 683, supra est, xii. 319 and 755.

This subject will be more fitly treated under the head of
elisions (v. p. 169, § 139).

Exercises on Monosyllabic Endings
And all I was, in ashes (trans. : add * like a torch ').

CLXVII.

Each other's (introduce phrase, ^tnan to man') equal

puissaunce envies.
And through their iron sides with cruel spies
Does seeke to pierce. clxviii.

And universal Pan,
Klnit with the Graces and the Hours in dance,
Led on the eternal spring. CLXix.

^ Perhaps these could be explained : est, ceu, te, se, and sit are re-
garded as enclitics, and apud is a proclitic. If this is so, strictly speaking,
these are not monosyllabic endings.

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END OF VERSE 147

Next eventide comes on ; then silent night

With this her solemn bird, and this iak moon. clxx.

And now their work went on with lucky speed
And (introduce jam) reared rams their horned fronts
advance. CLXXi.

See my hxdcvepack: now to the head they press,
Jostling in close array CLXXii.

Thrice miserable (introduce phrase, • the deadly force
ofiir)they
Who here entangled in the gathering ice
Take their last look of the descending sun. CLXxiii.

I salute thee, Mantovano,

I that loved thee since my day began. clxxiv.

But azure chasms of calm
Stretch o'er this isle, or spring descends in dew. clxxv.

His heart
Ill-boding, recognised their wail afar. CLXXVi.

They hurl their javelins, and bear back the foe
With darts from far. Aeneas storms with rage.
And keeps {himself) shield-covered. CLXXVii.

See, Arthur, facing him, his noble foe
Dauntless abides, zxA plants {stands with) his ponderous
bulk. CLXXViii.

He meets him face to fece
And man to man encounters, by no stealth
Filching the vantage, but sheer force of arms, clxxix.

White, of one colour with her milk-white young,

Along the wood, on the green bank lay stretched

A saw, conspicuous. clxxx.

He, travelling, still is Nature's priest,

And by the vision {light of the gods) splendid

Is on his way attended. clxxx. (a)

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r48 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

And the rest they came aboard us, and they fought us
hand to hand, CLXXX. (V)

* 112. F. Hypennetre, — Hypermetric endings are not
generally to be imitated. The hypermetrical syllable is really
only partially so, as it is always absorbed by elision in the
next line.

Its use constitutes an important difference between the
Greek and the Latin hexameter. It is very doubtful whether
it was ever practised in Greek hexameters, three instances
in Homer being generally rejected, and one in Callimachus
(in el^iac verse) remaining doubtful.

fjfiuru fioi ^xrjs eri rh wviov^ ^/lurv B' ovk oS*
€4T* ^pos, ttr 'AtBrfS ^pnaxrtv €k fukiiav.

In Latin the usage is fairly frequent; both Miiller and
Christ give complete lists. They both defend it by urging
that in all cases a spondee precedes the hypermetrical
syllable, and therefore the two hexameters hang together
as it were by a continuation of the metre, much as the
section in Shakespearian dialogue (called by Dr. Abbott ^
the * amphibious section') connects a preceding and a
succeeding half line.

This theory does not seem to be correct ; for —

(i.) In two passages — arbutus horrid|a, G. ii. 69, and
vivaque sulphurla, G, iii. 449 — ^there are trochees, the text,
where these are not thus given, having almost certainly
been tampered with by editors putri gratia.

(ii.) Virgil in one or two cases even allows the former
verse to close the sense with a decided pause ; e.g.

^ See Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar^ § 513.
Cf. Prosp, Against what should ensue.

Mir. How came we ashore?

Frosp, By Providence divine.

Temp. i. 2, 158.
Miranda's words either end the previous or begin the next line.

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END OF VERSE 149

Imprecor, arma armis : pugnent ipsique nq>ote8que I

A. iv. 629.

[In this Une the hypennetre is probably descriptive of the
heritage left as a bane to the Romans.]

And
Se satis ambobus Teucrisque venire Latinisque. A. viL 470.

[Here the excuse is the double que^ v. infrOy § 113.]

(iii.) It is more probably due to the faint sounding of the
final letter, as in tanton'.

It is probably used, therefore, not so much for connection's
sake as for deliberate ornament and variety.

[In A, iv. 558, however, the desire seems to be to connect
all the points — ^voice, complexion, hair, limbs — ^in the one
idea of similarity to Mercury.]

The extra syllable is mostly que or c^, in which cases it is
really apocope rather than elision proper. LuciUus (whose
metre we do not here consider) is interesting as supplying
the first example : —

Magna ossa lacertique ^
Adparent homini. Saiur, xvii. 15.

Catullus has two examples : —
Inde pater divum, sancta cum conjuge natisque
Advenit caelo. bdv. 298, 299.

And (el^iac)

saltusque paludesque
Usque ad Hyperboreos et mare ad Oceanum. cxv. 5.

C£ Ovid, Met, ii. 779, both que, and vL 507 also que.

Virgil has no less than twenty cases.

In two of these cases the syllable is neither ve nor que^

but a final m.

Jamque iter emensi turres ac tecta Latinorum

Ardua cemebant A, vii. 160, 161.

^ Note that VirgO adopts the ending magna ossa lacertosque \ Exuit
A. V. 432.

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ISO LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Decoquit umorem | Et foliis G. L 295.

This genitive and this accusative^ are unique.

113. Virgil breaks away from his predecessors, and is not
followed by his successors, in venturing to finish a clause
with a hypermetrical verse. This he does three times : —

Pugnent ipsique nepotesque {v. supra). A. iv. 629.

Tenerisque venire Latinisque. A, vii. 470.

Caelum Troesque Latinique. A. x. 895.

In these three cases the marked pause renders difficult
the idea of elision. But it is to be noted that in each
case the word is gue^ and being of the very slightest
character in sense, as a mere co-ordinate enclitic, is probably
to be pronounced very slightly.

[After Virgil hypermetre is rarer. Horace uses it twice (in
Satires\ Ovid three times, and Valerius Flaccus once.]

The fastidious Lucan has no examples.

* 114. It is interesting to examine the Virgilian uses ; e,g.
Ignari hominumque locorumque
Erramus. A, L 332.

and A, L 448, iv. 558, v. 422, v. 733, vL 602, viii. 228, x.
781, X. 895.

In the majority of cases the enclitic que is the syllable
lost : the que is mostly doubled. It is always doubled
when the verse ends with a final pause : e,g, ii 745, iv. 629,
vii. 470, and x. 895. Cf. for double que and no final pause,
G, ii. 344» 443-

In these cases at any rate, and possibly in others, it
appears that the poetical liberty is used not so much to join
the verses as to secure the repetition of the que, Virgil is

1 The line G. i. 395 is, of coarse, descriptive : the pot runs over and
so does the line.

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END OF VERSE 151

especially fond of the cumulative eflfects of repeated que^ as
in

Tereaque, Harpalycumque, et Demophoonta, Chromimque.

A, xi. 675.

Cf. also tectumque Laremque

Armaque, Amyclaeumque canem Cressamque pharetram.

G. iii. 344-

As instances of cases when the que is not doubled may be
quoted : A, i. 448, vi. 602, viii. 228, x. 781.

Of these
jam jam lapsura cadentique | Imminet assimilis, A, vi. 602.
seems to resemble, in its descriptive overhanging, A, iv. 629
and G. i. 295 (quoted above).

It is very possible that Virgil regarded this kind of ending
as a pleasing variety, something similar in character to
Sophocles' light endings in iambic verse: r^Xtlv 8' ar* civ |
/LtcAAjys— €yci) /i€v €?/*' kirl | vavv.^

Exercises on the Use of Hypermetrical Syllable

And hideous forms and shapes 'tofore unseen,
That fear, death, terror, and amazement bring ; *
With ugly paws some trample on the green,
Some gnaw the snakes that on their shoulders hing.

CLXXXI.

Yea all on earth, the race of man and beasty
The tribes of sea, cattle and coloured birds
Break into fury and fire : in all is love the same.

CLXXXIL

1 Mr. Bemays suggests that a closer parallel is afforded by Sophoclean
S3maphaea. Sophocles has eight instances of b4 or re elided, and only one
other (raOra). Cf. Soph. 0,T. 39 lUKas d' l^Aidrp ffTeyayfxois, and
Jebb ad loc.

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1S» LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Themselves in caverns deep
Sunk under earth they fleet their careless time,
And to the hearth roU oak from the wood-pile,
And elms entire to feed the blaze. CLXXXiii.

Lo ! he of Tiryns, in a frenzy of wrath,

Was close upon him, to this side and that

Turning his eyes as each approach he scanned, clxxxiv.

He paused amain : and then, with sudden shout,
Forward they burst, (anS) cheer on their maddened

steeds.
And all together, from all sides, pour forth
Darts thick as snowflakes, that obscure the sky.

CLXXXV,

So spake he, and, throwing back his raiment's fold
From off his shoulders, bares his massive joints
And limbs, his bones and muscles huge,
And in the arena's midst a giant stands. clxxxvl

Maidens, wives, and mothers
Falling about their shrines before their gods
Are wailing * Save us.' CLXXXVi. {a)

* 115.* II. Emphatic words at the end of Unes with final
pauses. — If a line ends with a pause its last word should be
a strong one, usually either a verb or a substantive. An
adjective must not hold this place unless it be a predicate or
especially emphatic.

In Georgics L there are 514 lines. Of those ending with
a stop only thirteen end with adjectives proper, and seven
with participles. All of these are obviously emphatic : e^.
apibus quanta experientia parcis. G. i. 4.

venas adstringit hiantes. Jb. 91.

I §§115-117 should receive ^special notice from beginners, who must
be taught to observe that Virgil's style is essentially periodic.

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END OF VERSE 153

Again oi 109 lines taken at random from A. iv. (584-692),
lines ending with stops are seventy-five.
Of these

Lines ending with nomis are 56
„ „ verbs „ 32

„ „ adjectives ,,15

„ „ participles „ 4

„ », adverl:^ „ 2

It is obvious from this that Virgil's rule was to make the
great majority of his endings nouns or verbs.

Of the fifteen adjectives found two are practically nouns,
and the remaining thirteen are emphatic, t\e. strongly
distinctive, predicative, or antithetical. Of the two lines
ending with adverbs neither has a stop at the end. This
suggests the rule that—

* 116. If there is no stop at the end of a line^ the last word
may be of any kind. Note the adverbs in

Vis ergo inter nos quid possit uterque vicissim

Experiamur. E. iii. 28.

Felix, heu nimium felix, si litora tantum

Nunquam Dardaniae tetigissent nostra carinae. A. iv. 658.

Ilia, graves oculos conata attollere, rursus

Deficit lb. 68a

To this rule, however, there is an exception for adjectives.
Even when the line has no stop at the end, it must not end
with an adjective preceded by a noun with a similar short
ending, e,g, 3, ^ S ^, as tenebris et sole cadente^ flumina
notaj unless the adjective comes quite clearly under the
rule of emphasis just given.

* 117. This is more to be noted because such endings in
the inverse order — ^adjective, noun — are common and pretty,
in spite of Latin dislike of pure trochaic endings (c£
p. 154, §118); e.g.

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154 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

E. Sordida rura, frigida rura, lasciva capella, mitia poma,
injusta noverca, roscida mdla, mascula tura, roscida luna.

G, mortalia corda, umida Una, aspera silva, arida prata,
mollissima vina, non innoxia verba, umida r^na, umida vina.

A, florea rura, liquentia mella, resonantia saxa, horrida
bella, stridentia plaustra, eta

\N.B, In E, viL 56, videas et flumina sicca, the order
is excused because sicca is a predicate.

In ^. ii. 51, hie inter flumina nota, again the adjective is
emphatic.

In G, iil 262, Ac neque eos jam frena virum neque verbera
saeva, the adjective is emphatic = however cruel the lash.]

' 118. iii. 7%?^«^i4(2^/>^>«a/jry//a^^.— The final syllable
was preferably long, because of the Roman partiality for
spondees, and no doubt partly because the last foot stands
for an original dactyl. The last syllable is long either by
quantity (^.^. silvis, silvae) or position (^.^. poscunt, latebant),
or (with consonantal endings) by a pause in the sense (e.g,
juvabit), or by the mere metrical pause {e,g, nataret): in
this last case a consonant preferably b^ins the next line.

A pure trochaic ending like arm^ is not so easily lengthened
and is therefore rare. Nixon calculates that in the first 300
lines of A, ii. and A, xii. pure trochaic endings are only
about 4 per cent In the same lines are about 14 per cent
of endings with final m^ about 19 per cent of other con-
sonantal trochaic endings (most of them followed by a pause
in the sense). Over 60 per cent of the endings are long
vowels or diphthongs. In short, trochaic vowel endings
should be used sparingly, and should be almost entirely
confined to cases where an adjective precedes a noun with
similar ending ; e^. mortalia corda, umida lina, florea rura,
roscida luna. Cf. supra^ §117. Other trochaic endings may
be used freely, but when a vowel commences the next line, a

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END OF VERSE 155

sense pause should mostly follow the ending. In the
majority of cases a long vowel or diphthong should end the
line.

Exercises on Final Words and Syllables

As when to Ytdxn proud cities war appears,

Waged in the troubled sky, and armies rush

To battle in the clouds, before each van

Prick forth the airy knights, and couch their spears

Till thickest legions close ; with feats of arms

From either end of heaven the welkin burns. CLXXXVii.

Full many a phantom flitting he discerns

In wondrous wise. CLXXXViu.

Do thou teach thy bard.
Thou goddess. I will tell oi grisly wars,
Tell of embattled hosts, kings to their death
By fury driven. CLXXXix.

Here woods with knots and knares deformed and old ;

Headless the most, and hideous to behold :

A rattling tempest through the branches went,

That stripped 'em bare, and one sole way they bent. cxc.

They in a silent vale retiring, sing

With notes angelical to many a harp

Their own heroic deeds and hapless fall

By doom of battle ; and complain that Fate (qualify with

an adjective)
Free Virtue should enthrall to Force or Chance. cxci.

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CHAPTER V

THE MEETING OF VOWELS, CONSONANTS, AND COMPOSITE
SOUNDS

* 119. Alliteration. — Rhyme proper is not only identity of
sound, but identity of sound occurring in accented syllables.
These accented syllables are found at the end of words in
English, but in Latin the accented syllables were mainly
initial. Therefore the rhjrme most employed in Latin is
that in which initial syllables play the chief part, i,e. allitera-
tion. In ancient German alliteration was bound by positive
rules, but in Latin it was only an extra adornment, as in
modem English poetry. Both in prose and verse it com-
mended itself to the Latin ear.

Ennius exaggerates its use in the line —

O Tite tute Tati tibi tanta tyranne tulisti. Ann. io8.

As does Shakespeare in

Whereat with blade, with bloody blameful blade,
He bravely broached his boiling bloody breast

Very largely it was r^arded by Virgil and his successors
as an antiquarian ornament Ennius used it to produce
poetical effect, and Lucretius, his reverent imitator, uses
alliterations by thousands. He employed almost every
letter of the alphabet to this end, but more especially »», p
and V.

«S6

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ALLITERATION 157

* 120. V. — Alliteration on v expresses

(i.) Pity-
Lucretius — Viva videns vivo sepeliri viscera busto.
Virgil — Neu patriae validas in viscera vertite vires.

Cf. A» iv. 460.

(ii.) Something trivial —

Si vero viciamque seres vilemque phaselum. G. i. 227.

(iii.) Force or violence. (This is due mainly to the feet
that many of the words indicating such effects b^;in
with v) —

Lucretius — ^Vivida vis pervicit.

Venti vis verberat

Vel violenta viri vis.

Quid volnera vellent.
Virgil — Fit via vi
And Victorque virum volitare per ora. G. iil 9.

(iv.) Sometimes it has little significance, but is merely a
jingle. Cf.

Victori velatum auro vittisque juvencum. A. v. 366.

A. vi. 190, 191 ; viiL 576; and Lucan, iv. 590.

♦121. M. — (L) Softness, effeminacy, weakness (hence
scorn) —

Maeonia mentum mitra crinemque madentem. A. iv. 216.
MoUe pecus mutumque metu. A. ix. 341,

(ii.) Mere jingle —

Vota metu duplicant matres, propiusque perido
It timor, et major Martis jam apparet imago.

A. viiL 556, S57.
Mitteret in magnum imperium, metuensque moneret

A. xl 47.

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i.S8 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

* 122. P.— (i.) Peace, calm—

Turn Zephyri posuere : premit placida aequora pontus.

A. X. 103.
Qui pacem potuere pari. Lucan, ii. 559.

(ii.) Mere jingle —
Prospectum late pelago petit. A, i. 181.

Dixerat. lUe patris magni parere parabat
Imperio : et primum pedibus talaria nectit. A, iv. 238.

♦ 123. S.— (i.) Grandeur, dignity—

Et sola in sicca secum spatiatur harena. G. i. 388.

Interea Dryadum silvas saltusque sequamur. G, iii. 40.

(ii.) Softness, quiet, and cognate notions —

Post, ubi jam thalamis se composuere, siletur

In noctem, fessosque sopor suus occupat artus. G, iv. 189.

(iii.) Descriptive of hissing noise of water in sea or
rivers, of fire, or of tearing, sparkle and brightness —

Inter saxa virum spumosa immerserat unda. A, vi. 174.

Ceu septem surgens sedatis amnibus altus

Per tacitum Ganges. A, ix. 30.

Discissos nudis laniabant dentibus artus. G. iii. 514.

Depresso incipiat jam tum mihi taurus aratro

Ingemere, et sulco attritus splendescere vomer. G, i. 45, 46.

Ut quondam in stipulis magnus sine viribus ignis

Incassum furit G, iii. 99.

See also G. i. 356-359-

Virgil uses s in passages descriptive of snakes ; e,g.

Fit sonitus spumante salo. Jamque arva tenebant,

Ardentesque oculos suffecti sanguine et igni,

Sibila lambebant linguis^ vibrantibus ora.

Dififugimus visu exsangues. A. il 209-212.

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ALLITERATION 159

* 124. The following seem intended merely to catch the
ear:— F—
Qui dicta ferant et foedera firment. A. xl 330.

And id, 646. Cf. Lucan, ii 253.

R—
Nunc rapidus retro, atque aestu revoluta resorbens.

A, xi. 627.
T—
Tempestas sine more ftirit, tonitruque tremescunt
Ardua terrarum et campi : ruit aethere toto
} Turbidus imber aqua. A, v. 694-^96.

Exercises on Alliteration

S.
Like the cold south a-sighing in the wood,
Like waves that hiss in a restless ebbing sea.
Like fierce fire roaring 'gainst the furnace doors. cxcii.

L, P, M.
The purple flowers droop : the golden bee
Is lily-cradled : I alone awake.
My eyes are full of tears, my heart of love.
My heart is breaking, and my eyes are dim,
And I am all aweary of my Ufe. cxciii.

V.
Scarce loosed by sorrow, words at length win way. cxciv.

Bid them not become
Trojans, or pass for Teucrians on men's lips.
Nor alien speech assume, nor altered garb. cxcv.

I Loose stoop they o'er the rein, while fiercely on

\ The glowing axle flies. cxcvi.

\ T, F.

E'en now thou 'It see the main with broken timbers
Weltering, wilt see the fiercely glaring torch,
. The beach a riot of flame. cxcvil

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i6o LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

T,L.

Then down dropped the breeze,
And every breath of wind sank suddenly,
And on the slow smooth surface toil their oars, cxcviii.

But plainly will the savour tell the tale :

The bitterness, when felt, will warp and writhe

The taster's mouth. cxcix.

Now the dykes fill fast.
And the void river-beds swell thunderously.
And all the panting firths of Ocean boil. cc.

Nor crop
Of warriors bristled thick with lance and helm. cci.

M, S.
The oxen's lowing, soft slumbers 'neath the tree
There fail not : there are glades, and there
Covers for game. ecu.

For him, his leaf shall fade not, neither fall. ecu. (a)

125. Lucretius often uses several letters in elaborate
combination ; e.g. »», /, v —

parare
Non potuit, pedibus qui pontum per vada possent
Transire, et magnos manibus divellere montis
Multaque vivendo vitalia vincere saecla.
Cf. also Lucretius i. 87-100, and Ennius, 533 —
Marsa manus, Paeligna cohors, Vestina virum vis.

Virgil does not use such combinations nearly so often.
However, cf. A. vi. 683, /, m —

Fataque fortunasque virum moresque manusque.
And A. X. 96-103,/ ?;,/, ^ and A. v. 49S-497i ^ ^1 A fi/ /•

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HOMOEOTELEUTA i6i

Also G, L 388, 389,/, v,c,s\ G.vL 49-53> A »»•
Lucan, like Ovid, is not skilful in the use of alliteration,

often using it with no eflfect ; e^,

J?obora ^jmplexus nitilo oirvata metallo. ix. 364.

An instance of his combined alliteration is ix. 229-331.

126. Avoidance of Homototeleuta, — ^Whatever rhymes may
occur inside the line, Virgil is too good an artist often to
allow two lines to end with similar sounds. There are a few,
however, in the Aeneid (cf. G, ii. quoted above) which may
be specified by way of warning rather than example : —

-entis diffundere ventis,

collecta fluentis. i. 319, 320.

-entem mole moventem,

nota petentem. iii. 656, 657.

potentem,

serentem. vi. 844, 845.

-ebat dicione tenebat,

laude ferebat,
stirpe volebat i. 622, 625-6.

-ebant ore fremebant,

promissa jubebant v. 385, 386.

qxiae maxima semper,

quae maxima semper. viii. 271, 272.

In this last case the repetition is obviously deliberate.^
Lucan is careless in this respect. Cf. i. 115, furentem;

116, parentem ; iii. 13, 14 ; iv. 661, 662 ; viii. 600, 601, 603 ;

and especially ix. 355-358, four endings in s.

* 127. Assonance, — Both Lucretius and Virgil are fond ot

^ I am indebted to Mr. Becnays for the following parallel from Paradise
Lostt i. 295-296 : —

To support uneasy steps
Over the burning marl, not like those steps
On Heaven's azure.

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1 64 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Virgil, like Goldsmith, made great advance on his prede-
cessors.
Thus

Exanimata sequens impingeret agmina muris.
Saepe sinistra cava praedixit ab ilice comix.

Tityrus hinc aberat Ipsae te, Tityre, pinus,
Ipsi te fontes, ipsa haec arbusta vocabant

Cf. E. i. 46 and 58, £. ii. 13 and 70, G. iii. 7 and 32,
A. iv. 284.

Contrast these with the consonantal tone of this line of
Lucretius —

Et frutices inter condebant squalida membra. v. 956.

Although Lucretius has many pure lines ; e.g.

Non alia longe ratione atque ipsa videtur. v. 1030.

Praeterea si non alii quoque vocibus usi. v. 1046.

These perfectly pure lines are naturally not very frequent,
but a line is musical in so far as it approximates to this
model. Thus

Dixerat lUe Jovis monitis immota tenebat A. iv. 331.
And id. 339, 353, amd passim.

The negative rule which arises from this is, avoid —

(a) Harsh meetings of consonants.
^ (P) Harsh elisions of vowels. Virgil was a great innovator
in the artistic use of elisions.

Both these rules, of course, may be deliberately set aside
for descriptive purposes.

131. (a) This point is the more subtle and the less
attended to by English writers of Latin verse. Virgil, how-
ever, makes a great point of it

Notice, by way of contrast, how often consonants come
together in this passage of Ennius, even when the apostrophe

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PURE LINES 1 6s

is used to discount some, and what a decidedly consonantal
ring there is in the whole.

Percellunt magnas quercus, exciditur ilex,

Fraxinu' frangitur atque abies consternitur alta, ;

Pinus proceras pervortunt Omne sonabat

Arbustum fremitu silvai frondosai. 189-192.

In this respect Ennius was improved on by Lucretius, and
Lucretius in turn by Virgil.

Exercises on Pure Lines

They have a king and officers of sorts :

Where some, like magistrates, correct at home ;

Others, like merchants, venture trade abroad ;

Others, like soldiers, arm^d in their stings.

Make boot upon the summer's velvet buds. cciii.

There, one saith, either dead night is soundless, and the
gloom thickens in night's perpetual pall, or Dawn returns
from us and leads back the day; and when day-spring
touches us with his panting horses' breath, there crimson
Hesperus kindles his lamp at evenfall. cciv.

He on his impious foes right onward drove.
Gloomy as night : imder his burning wheels
The steadfast empyrean shook throughout.
All but the throne itself of God. Full soon
Among them he arrived, in his right hand
Grasping ten thousand thimders, which he sent
Before him, such as in their souls infixed
Plagues. They, astonished, all resistance lost,
All courage ; down their idle weapons dropt.
O'er shields and helms and helmed heads he rode
Of thrones and mighty seraphim prostrate. ccv.

* 132. (j8) Harsh elisions of vowels, — In English poetry

uigitizea Dy V^OOQ IC

1 66 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Milton considerably reduced the number of harsh elisions.
Goldsmith ^ practically limited himself to the dropping of v
before a vowel, and of a vowel before r.

In Latin the excellence of Virgil on this point will best
show up by comparison with Lucretius. Taking two passages
of nine lines each at random we get these results : —

Lucretius, iii. 152-160 — sixteen elisions, eight of which
may fairly be considered harsh.

Virgil, A, vi. 156-164 — five elisions, two of which may
be considered harsh.

Practically, any passage of Lucretius and Virgil will
illustrate this, although the distance which separates Virgil
and Lucretius on this point is not so great as that between
Lucretius and Ennius. Moreover, it is not in number, but
in significance of elisions, that Virgil may claim to be
superior to Lucretius, e.g, p. 183.

Elision is less frequent in Lucan than in most hexameter
writers, but he is not therefore superior to VirgiL

There is an artistic use of elisions^ and the trained ear
expects them in due proportion and with proper intention.
They are a pleasant foil to the excessive smoothness which
Ovid and some later writers cultivated.

The meeting of vowels in the hexameter must now be
treated fully.

There are three cases of such meeting: — Elision (Apocope,
Aphaeresis), Synizesis, and Hiatus.

I. Elision

* 133. Some general principles, — When a final vowel, diph-
thong, or syllable am^ em^ im, um comes before a vowel or h
in the next word, the final and initial syllable together, for

^ Thus, For talking age dnd whispmng lovers made, D. F., 1. 14
With sweet succession taught even toil to please, /i,, L 32.

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ELISION 167

metrical purposes, make one syllable. This is so because
separate syllabic articulation is difficult —

Nemo tam rusticus est qui vocales conjungere nolit (Cicero).

However, when the preceding syllable is strongly accented,
the difficulty is felt to be less ; e.g,

T6tae adeo.

Multi ante occasum.

Of the final and initial syllables it is the final (except in
aphaeresis; see § 139) which, after the union in pronuncia-
tion, is heard faintly or not at ajl, because the weaker goes
to the wall, and the general rule is that * one vowel before
another vowel is made short.' Cf. dehinc, dorsum, prafeire,
Mifiotis; cf. rdiovros; cf. also p. 197, § 169, Hiatus (jS).

It is obvious, then, that the rules of elision depend on
the comparative ease in producing the fusion of soimds.
In this resp^t it is incontestable that

The shortening of long vowels offers some difficulty.

It is harder to fuse a long vowel into a following short

than a short into a long : eg, open vowels like o and u

into ^ ^, than ^ ^ into 6 and u.

For the process is not simply the dropping of the
final vowel, but-rather its partial assimilation to the next
one; e,g.

Me, me-adsum, qui feci, in me convertite ferrum. A. ix. 427.
Per te-^o (Ovid).

The final vowel sounds might be arranged in order of ease
of elision in four classes thus —

1. ^, ^ 6, L

2. -m (in sound between a long and short vowel).

3. €, 1.

4. ae, oe, o, a, u.

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1 68 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

* 134, Elisions mostly to be avoided.

(a) All these will elide better before a long vowel and an
accented syllable than before a short vowel and unaccented
syllable. Hence A, x. 179, Alpheae ab origine, is haish,
because really after elision there remains a hiatus, which
causes difficulty in articulation ; moreover, ab is unaccented.

{b) Elision of long vowels {e,g, demissae aures) must be
used sparingly ; the Greeks avoided it almost entirely.

* [135. Occasionally it is excused by emphatic words or
the depicting of force or feeling ; e.g.

Totae adeo conversae ades (emphasis). A. xii. 548.

Collectae ex alto nubes. G, i. 325.

Diluit ; implentur fossae et cava flumina crescunt. 3, 327.
Omatus Argivae Helenae. A, L 650.

Stant terra defixae hastae. A, vL 651.

Antiquae imitamina vitae. Ovid, Met, iv. 445.

Cf. also in Virgil, improvisi aderunt, genitori Amyco,
concipio et si adeo, uni odiis, visu exsangues, scio acerba
meorum, Cocyto eructat

Virgil perhaps went too far in his use of elisions; e,g.
A, X. 689-789, where there are fifty elisions in 106 lines,
thirteen cases being those of long vowela or diphthongs, and
fourteen final -m. This, it is true, is a battle-scene, and
will bear the elisions if any subject will. Compare this with
the smoother lines in G. iii. 322-337 (a peaceful subject),
or G, ii. 458-473-]

* 136. {c) Other instances of harsh elision (a stronger sound
being absorbed into a weaker) are provided by dactyls
in -m and cretics, i,e, - vy - (because in hexameters the
initial vowel following must be short) ; e,g. omnium ^enos,
fluminum amores (Ovid), and (a cretic) tantuli eget (Hor.
Sat). In Virgil, E, iil, we have Pollio amat, and Pollio et
ipse.

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ELISION 169

*137. {d) Again, iambic words like mSnti, mStO, s6l6
should only very rarely be elided, and then before long or
lengthened vowels, generally before et, at, atque. The
objection is that metrically more than half the word is
absorbed by the elision. So even with middle endings, like
viam, enim ; e.g, ipse feram ante oculos.

138. {e) Spondaic disyllables, and pyrrhics, i.e, ^ ^ (unless
irideclinable), although short, are not often elided before a
short vowel; e,g, certe ego, quare age, vix ita ego, would be
permissible, but not sed pia ^o, soli ea.

Spondaic disyllables are oftener elided before a long
syllable; e,g.

saxo atque, at vero ingentem.

ITie Fusion of two Syllables

To return to the method of fusion of two syllables. This
result may be attained by one of two processes : —

(i.) The former vowel may be ejected : Apocope,

(ii.) liest is the second word, the e of the est is expelled :
Aphaeresis,

* 139. We will first dismiss (ii.) Aphaeresis.

Est is often used in the last foot, its connection being
very close with the preceding word. This close connection
should be marked in pronunciation, though the words should
be written in full.

Thus i. 64, write usa est, but pronounce usa'st.
i. 601, „ ubique est, „ ubique'st.

V. 716, „ pericU est, „ pericli'st.

vii. 263, „ cupido est, „ cupido'st.

This est in the sixth foot may be regarded as aphaeresis,
not apocope, because ordinary elision is very rare in the

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lyo LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

sixth foot. Forms like putandumst are found in literary
monuments.

Est^ therefore, in these cases is not to be treated as a
strictly monosyllabic ending {^, p. 146, § iii).

Possibly ille es (vi. 345) should be considered as an
aphaeresis, ille's.

[Maurice Haupt and Lucien Miiller hold that we should
write divasty homosty etc. ; but it does not seem that this is
warranted except in colloquial language.]

For other examples cf. A, iv. 371, 557; v. 178, 679; vi,
189; vii. 51.

We now return to the larger subject of

140. (i.) Apocope (or elision proper).

All the examples which do not belong to aphaeresis
may be treated as coming under the head of apocope.

[M. Plessis distinguishes between apocope, which he
restricts to the rejection of the vowels in the enclitics que,
ne, ve, and elision generally, urging that in the latter a sound
is wittled down rather than suppressed.]

Speaking generally it may be said that elisions as found in
the Virgilian hexameter run through a great range between
the extremes of rough and smooth.

A well-trained ear, no doubt, guides the average Latin
versifier correctly the greater part of the way ; but in many
cases he will have to refer to principles. These we will now
proceed to state.

141. A rough and tentative order of, vowels, arranged
according to their ease in elision, was given on p. 167, the
smoother in elision coming first.

1. e, ^ 6, i.

2. am, em, im, om, um (in sound between a long and
short vowel).

3. e, I.

4. ae, oe, 5, a, u.

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ELISION 171

142. With this arrangement according to ease of pro-
nunciation the frequency in use of certain inflexions will
interfere : thus i and 6 are in practice probably more
frequently elided than am and em^ because syntax brings
these inflexions more into evidence.

Thus an ascending table of harshness in elisions could
be constructed, the smoothest elision being S or ^ before
ae, e, a, a, and the roughest, ae, 6, a, Q, before 6 or ^

But if worked out this table would be open to some
contradictions. The meeting of two similar short vowels,
e,g, two S's or two ^'s,^ was almost as repugnant to the Romans
as that of a long before a short, e,g, 111^ Sgo ; or as a case
like A, X. 514, Ardens limitem agit, where m with a short
vowel makes a harsh elision into ^.

A long vowel should not elide into a short similar, thus T
into \ ; e,g, corpori inhaeret — is very rare and cacophonous.

With these principles of the relative ease of elisions before
us, we will now consider in detail ordinary elisions (apocope)
from two points of view : —

(a) A short vowel before any vowel.

(j8) Long syllables (including long vowels and diph-
thongs) and middle syllables {i,e, am, em, im, om, um) before
any vowel.

* 143. (a) A short vowel elided, — Que, ne, ve offer scarcely
any obstacle; they nearly always undergo elision in
caesura.

As a rule the worst cases of harsh elision are concealed

by the poet in places where they most easily escape the

reader's notice owing to the absence of any caesura. When

therefore an elision is tolerated in caesura the fact is worthy

of notice. Elisions should as a rule not be coincident with

caesuras.

^ Virgil certainly supplies examples : e,g. Efiuge et haec, sidera adibam,
limina adirem ; but he was nothing if not bold in his use of elision, and
probably in advance of the general feeling.

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172 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

[An exception is made in favour of the 3^ caesura, in
which even long vowels and diphthongs are elided; v,

S 148, 152.]

Que, ne, ve are exceptions to this, because they are so
easy in elision. Thus the apocope is scarcely noticed in A, L
125, Emissamque hiemem sensit Neptunus et imis, and 175,
218 (Spemque metumque inter), and 337, all in \\ caesiura;
or in i. 57, Sceptra tenens, moUitque animos, and 61, 98, and
149 in 2\ caesura.

144. Ante and atque^ like gue^ are often elided in caesura ;

AnU — Multa tibi ante aras nostra cadet hostia dextra.

A. i. 334 and 347.
In somnis, ecce, ante oculos. A, ii. 270 and 773.

Atque, Cf. ii. 68—
Constitit, atque oculis Phrygia agmina circumspexit,
and 200, 514.

As a general rule, short vowels may be elided in any place
in the line except the last foot.

* [145. VirgiPs elisions at the end of the verse (i,e, in the last
two feet).

It will be convenient here to treat together VirgiVs elisions
at the end of the verse.

I. Short syllables, — For a good ending elisions should be
absent.

Thus in sixth foot^ Virgil abstains from all except the
aphaeresis with est, except in the passage A, ix. 57, Hue
turbidus atque hue.

\n fifth footy in all its syllables, a short vowel is fairly
often elided.

R6nstr5m has classified the elisions in the fifth foot in the
first six books of the Aeneid, The following seem to have
been approved by Virgil.

(L) Short e of abl. of third declension; e,g, iL 65,

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ELISION 173

crimine ab uno ; L 485 ; ii. 210, 500 ; iv. 1 1, 445 ; vi. 55, 136,
SoSi 594, etc.

(ii.) Vowel tf of infinitive; e,g, L 721, praevertere amore;
ii- 315, 63s; iii- 162; iv. 414; v. 534; vL 32, 128.

(iii) Enclitic que-, e,g, i. 177, cerealiaque anna, 569, 640;
ii. 491 ; iv. 99; V. iii ; vi. 733, 869. Cf. also I 65 and ii
648, atque hominum rex.

(iv.) Short a; e,g, iv. 322 sidera adibam; v. 846; vi. 115.

146. II. Long and middle syllables. — For completeness'
sake, we may here include (though they properly belong to
()8)) the elisions of long and middle syllables in the fifth
foot. These are to be avoided as being rare and distasteful

(v.) The middle syllables urn and em; e,g, i. 599,
omnium egenos; ii. 325, Ilium et ingens; iii. 169; vL 11,
mentem animumque.

(vi.) Long vowels; e.g, i. 99, Hector ubi ingens; v. 733,
me impia namque. So also te alloquor, hoc est — , te ora
Latini — ^ hoc animo hauri.]

(j8) Long and middle syllables elided, — It remains to
consider these ^only in the first four feet (for feet 5 and 6
see § 146).

147. Ronstrom made a table of elisions in Aeneid ii. and
V. with regard to their frequency in various places in the line.

The table need not be given here, but from an examina-
tion of it, it appears that the most frequent elision of a long
or middle syllable (i,e, I, 6, ae, a, e, u, um, am, em, im, om)
is immediately after the first foot.

Next in order that after second foot

And next that in 3 J caesura.

The rarest elision by far is that after fourth trochee ; the
next rarest being in i^ and 2^ caesuras ; and slightly more
frequent are elisions in first foot and after third foot.

Long or middle vowel elisions occur in Virgil on the
average about once in four lines.

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174 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

*148. Here is a table^ of approximate frequency of elisions
of long and middle vowels according to position in line,
b^inning at the most frequent places and working down to
the rarest

1. Very frequent, directly after first foot {i.e. in second

arsis). Note not in caesura.

2. Very frequent, directly after second foot {i.e. in third arsis),

especially in Virgil with i^ + 3^ caesura.

3. Frequent, directly after 3J {i.e, after fourth arsis, or in

fourth thesis), ue, in 3^ caesura.

4. Fairly frequent in first foot (especially after first arsis, i.e.

in first thesis).

5. Fairly frequent after third foot {i.e, in fourth arsis), especi-

ally in Virgil after 2^ caesura.

6. Rare, directly after 2^ {i.e. in third thesis), i.e. in 2J

caesura.

7. Very rare, directly after i| {i.e. in second thesis), i.e. in

i\ caesura.

8. Very rare, directly after 4 {i.e. in fifth arsis) (frequent

in Lucretius).

9. Rarest, directly after fourth trochee {i.e. in second part

of fourth thesis).

In fifth and sixth feet elision of longs and middles is
avoided. Cf. illustration, p. 185.

As to 4 (in first foot) it should be noted that elision in
the first arsis or strongly accented syllable is very rare both
in Latin and in Greek (cf. p. 178, subter).

Thus Hor. Sat. i. i, 52—

Dum ex parvo nobis tantundem haurire relinquas.

Lucretius has a marked and peculiar liking for elision in
fifth arsis. Thus, perdelirum esse videtur, permutato ordine
solo, minus oblato acriter ictu, nisi concilio ante coacto.

1 The student should make his own collection of examples to illustrate
this Uble.

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ELISION 1 75

[149. M. Plessis sums up by saying that the best places
for elisions in the stichic (or continuous) hexameter are —

1. Accented syllable of the second foot : nee spatium

evasit

2. Unaccented syllable of the fourth : subeuntem ^

tela ferentem.

3. Unaccented syllable of the first: ecce autem

gemini.

4. Accented syllable of the third : aut herbae campo

apparent.

The rarest j)laces for elisions are —

Accented syllable of first foot : Si ad vitulam spectas,

imique in Virgil.
Unaccented syllable of sixth ^ : turbidus atque hue.

A. ix. 57.
Unaccented syllable of fifth: nee tempore eodem;

crimine ab imo.
Unaccented syllable of second : Monstrum horrendum
informe.]

150. Frequency of elision of long and middle syllables, —
Where euphony {i,e. ease in pronunciation) and practical
grammatical exigency are combined {v, § 142), we get the
following table of frequency of long or middle syllables
elided.

Table illustrating the compromise between euphony and
grammatical usage as it actually works out in the
Virgilian hexameter : —

Syllable. Frequency. Remarks.

I. um Most frequent. Because slight in sound.

) About half as fi-equent Because of fi-equent use

o j as um. of terminations.

^ In ulmo est ; this is a case of aphaeresis, not of apocope.

■n

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176 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Syllable. Frequency. Remarks.

3. am Fairly frequent Slight in sound.

4* em „ „ ,1 II
5. ae Rather rare.

ac JK^iner rare. \

{I }^- [

( a Very rare. /

In sound harsh, in in-
flexion rare.

im „ „ Very rare inflexion.

161. We may sum up by saying generally —

(i.) That to Latin ears generally the elision of a short
vowel was easy and natural

(ii.) Except for descriptive purposes ^ an elision of a long
vowel was felt to be distasteful.

(iii.) The tendency is to elide most frequently middles
which are undoubtedly lightest in pronunciation (im being
rare simply because the inflexion is rare).

(iv.) The two long vowels I and o are so frequent in
elisions simply because they are so frequent in inflexion,
in spite of their natural harshness in fusioa

162. Elision in 3^ caesura. — It remains to explain the
frequency of elision in 3^ caesura.

The fact is that in all such cases the 2^ caesura is valid,
so that 3^ is not of primary importance ; e,g,

Hinc fore ductores, | revocato a sanguine Teucri. A. i. 235.
Venerat, insano | Cassandrae incensus amore. A, ii. 343.

In the same way, if the elision falls in 2 J caesura there is
usually a valid caesura both at i^ and 3^ —

163. Elisions and caesuras. — To sum up the relation of
elisions to caesuras : —

^ Virgil's free use of elision certainly seems to put him outside the pale
of this rule.

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ELISION 177

(a) In caesuras elisions are felt to be awkward ; hence the
best place for the admission of elisions is just before or just
after a caesura.

(d) The worst place for an elision is the 2^ caesura.

Certain combinations of caesuras and elisions are affected
by Virgil : —

(i.) Elision after second foot, accompanied by ij and 3^
caesura; e,g,

lUi se I praedae accingunt | dapibusque futuris. A. i. 210.
Miratur | molem Aeneas, | magalia quondam. Jd, 421.

(iL) Elision after third foot very often succeeds a 2J
caesura; e^.

Penelei dextra | divae armipotentis ad aram. A. ii. 425.
Culpatusve Paris | , divom inclementia, divom. Id, 602.

* 154. Elision of monosyllables, — ^The elision of monosyl-
lables (long or middle) is obviously inexpedient because in
the process so large a proportion of the word disappears (cf.
elision of iambic words, § 137); for instance, praecipuum
jam inde a teneris). It is interesting to see how in the
evolution of the Latin hexameter the elision of monosyllables
grows more and more rare. Thus it occurs in

Ennius 1

[ 600 verses) 8 times

p.c.

1.3

Cicero <

[ 700

n ) 7

Lucretius 1

7,400

„ ) 100

1.3

N \s^ Eclogues \

829

„ ) 17

„ Georgifs{

2,188

» ) 21

»»

.96

„ Aeneid {

9,896

» )I27

1.28

Ovid,! Met. (

12,000

„ ) 12

.00

Miiller's rule is that long or middle monosyllables do not
elide luiless indeclinable or of irregular inflexion. They elide

^ The chief result of this Uble is to show that Ovid is particularly
averse to the elision of monosyllables.
M

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178 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

most freely in speeches and battle-scenes where rapidity is
deliberately aimed at.

< Thus these words may elide : cum, tum, num, jam, nam,
quam, tam, sum ; e,g, nee sum animi dubius.
(Quem elides with specially descriptive effect in v. 274 —

Aerea quem obliquum rota transiit aut gravis ictu.)
Monosyllables ending in a diphthong rarely elide.
(An exception is i. 109 —

Saxa vocant Itali, mediis quae in fiuctibus Aras.)

* 155. In Aeneid i.-vl by far the most frequent mono-
syllabic elisions are those of me (accusative) and jam ; e,g,
me, ii. 69, 78, 134; iv. 96, 540, etc.; jam, i. 219, 623; ii.
112, 148, 447, etc. Among others in these books are elisions
of te, 5 ; se, 5 ; tu, 2 ; de, I ; si, 3 ; qui (singular), 3 ; quae, i ;
quem, i ; nam, i ; tam, i ; quam, i ; dum, i ; quum, i.

Inflexions like spem, spe, rem, sim must not be elided,
though Ovid elides sum and dum, as also does Virgil —

Nee sum animi dubius. G. iil 289.

An elided monosyllable, whether it makes arsis or thesis,
makes it so that the elision is contained inside the half foot ;
thus —

quae | me aequora | possunt A. iL 69.

(Arsis, inside first half foot.)

Eripui, fateor, leto me et | vincula rupi. 3. 134.
(Thesis, inside second half foot.)

Consequently in eliding monosyllables it is immaterial in
what caesuras or place in the verse they happen to be, with
two exceptions.

Elision of monosyllables is excluded from —

(a) First arsis.

\b) Three last half feet.

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ELISION 179

Of (a) there are no examples in the Aeneidy but one in
E, iii. 48, Si ad vitulam spectas.

This is a harsh beginning afterwards discarded by VirgiL

156. Elision before consonants.'^ — Short enclitics, -que, -ne,
-ve, are elided so freely that by analogy Virgil elides -n^ even
before a consonant — tanton', mortalin', Pyrrhin*.

* 157. Descriptive use of elisions. — In English verse the
effect of elisions is twofold. Every elision of a short vowel
adds pace to a line, as Pope suggests in the couplet —

Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain.

Plies o'er th' unbending com, and skims along the main.

On the other hand, two long vowels meeting seem to retard
a line.

Without indulging in fanciful interpretations, or reading
into Virgil what the poet did not intend, we may safely say
that Virgil used elisions, as he did spondees and dactyls,
very largely to help in the description of certain kinds of
action and feeling. He loads or roughens his lines to make
sound and sense agree.

Sometimes one, sometimes several in a line describe —

{a) Force or vehemence —
Quos animosi Euri adsidue. G, iL 441.

{b) Magnitude —
Porta adversa, ingens, solidoque adamante columnae.

A. vL 552.
Saxum antiquum ingens. A, xii. 897.

{c) Difficulty—

Non aliter quam qui adverso vix fiiumine lembum

Remigiis subigit G. i. 201.

Sed frustra oppositum. G, iiL 373.

^ According to another view this is s3mcope. Cf. Lindsa3r'8 Latin
Language^ cap. iii. § 36.

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i8o LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

(J) Persistency —

Ilium absens absentem auditque videtque :
Aut gremio Ascanium, etc. A. iv. 83, 84.

(e) Indignation —

totumque a sedibus imis
Una Eurusque Notusque, etc. A, L 84.

(J) A soul full of anger —
Promisi ultorem, et verbis odia aspera movL A. ii. 96.

(g) A soul full of horror —
Monstrum horrendum informe ingens, etc. A, iiL 658.

(at the deformity of Polyphemus).
Quamquam animus meminisse horret, etc. A, iL 12.

(A) Perturbation and confusion —
Namque furens animi dum proram ad saxa suburget.

A. V. 202.
Excutit effunditque solo hunc lora et juga subter.

{i) Haste—
Fer stabulis inimicum ingens, atque interfice messes.
Dat stragem atque aggerat ipsis. G. iiL 556.

(/) Grandeur —
Divum pater atque hominum rex.

(k) Violence —
Sublimem expulsam eruerent. G. L 320.

Quas animosi Eiui adsidue franguntque feruntque.

G, ii. 441.

158. History of Elisions, — The history of the usage of
the poets in the matter of elision is interesting. A few
points may here be touched upon.

Catullus carries elision to excess in badii. 6 (a penta-
meter) —

Quam modo qui me unum atque unicum amicum habuit,

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ELISION i8i

though in the Peleus and Thetis he uses elisions, after the
Alexandrian method, comparatively rarely.

Virgil makes elisions a distinct and omnipresent feature
of his verse. Two elisions in a line is very common ; even
three are often allowed, as in —

Seque ortum antiqua Teucrorum ab stirpe volebat.

A, L 626.

Suffecit ; postquam arma dei ad Volcania ventum est

A, xii. 739.

The nature of the subject-matter naturally controls the
predominance or absence of elisions. In a battle -scene
where vigour and impetuosity are looked for rather than
musical refinement, a careful and scrupulous pronunciation
of each syllable and letter would seem tame, while a hiatus
or scattering of elisions would please. Unfortunately VirgiPs
successors were over-refined in this matter. Contrast ViirgiPs
later books with such passages as Stat. Theb. i. 336-354;
Lucan iii. 399-425; Sil. Ital. Punic, xiii. 562-573.

It must not be forgotten, however, that often, even in
Virgil, " the harsher forms of elision or hiatus are deliberate
archaisms or imitations of Homer andEnnius," or of Lucretius
as an imitator of Ennius. Thus Virgil's — magnam cui mentem
animumque, anel, simul hoc animo hauri, produce a striking
effect owing to their rareness, and suggest the Lucretian
endings, mentelanimoque, quandoquidem extat, perpetuo
aevo, praeterea usquam, and such harsh and prosaic endings
as constare, id ita esse. For passages of Virgil illustrating
his use of elision, cf. A, x. 689-790, and xL 612-639.

Lucan, like Ovid, was fastidious and too sparing in his
use of elisions. These two poets, yielding to the tendency
for ears to grow more sensitive as a language gets more fixed,
eliminated the strongly archaic and descriptive element of
elision which Virgil had used so masterfully.

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i82 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

* ♦159. A rough table will show the usage of difFerent
poets : —

Ennius

has about ]

[ elision

in 8

Lucretius

Catullus

Cicero

Virgil 1

9»

Ovid

Lucan

Statius

Valerius Flaccus

Silius Italicus

Claudian

}}

Notice that in regard to number of elisions Virgil reaches
the highest point in the series, ffis experiments in elision
did not apparently commend themselves to his successors,
with the exception of Silius, who simply aped his manner.

Of the places for elision (v. p. 174, § 148) No. 3, t\e, after
fourth arsis, predominates in Ennius, Ovid, I-»ucan, and
Statius j while No. i, t\e, in second arsis, predominates in
Lucretius and Virgil.

Lucretius and Virgil are, perhaps, closer in respect of
elisions than in any other point of their metre. It may be
said that while Lucretius is occasionally more violent than
Virgil in elision, as a general rule he is less so ; his elisions
are certainly less frequent. No. 2, t,e, in accented syllable
of third foot, is favoured by Ennius, Cicero, Virgil, and
Ovid.

An Examination of Elisions in 300 Lines of Virgil
160. Applying the above principles to 300 lines chosen at

^ For a passage characteristic of Virgil's use of elisioiis, see A. xi. 742-
874. Free elision is one of the points which distinguishes Virgil from all
other poets.

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ELISION 183

random from three diflferent contexts of Virgil {G. iii. 242-
343 j A, iv. 437-536; and A, vii. 655-755), we get the follow-
ing results : —

In the three sets of lines in respect of smooth, middle, or
harsh elisions, there is wonderful uniformity of proportion.

In the 300 lines are 128 elisions in all, i,e, on the average
I elision in less than 3 lines.

Of these 128, 70 might be called smooth, 31 middle, and
27 harsh; i,e, the smooth elisions are more than twice as
frequent as the harsh, the middle are more numerous than
the harsh, and a harsh elision only occurs, on the average,
once in 1 1 lines. Only some fifth of the total number of
elisions are harsh.

Virgirs descriptive use of elisions is well illustrated. A
piece of tranquil description {G, iii. 305-312) has no elisions
at all in 8 lines. Again, the pretended calmness of Dido
{A. iv. 476-488) gives 13 lines with no elision. Night
{A. iv. 522-528) produces only 3 very light elisions in
7 lines. The description of an agricultural folk among
warriors {A, vii. 723-732) has no elision in 10 lines. On
the other hand, strong perturbation {A, iv. 463-473) brings
4 harsh and 5 middle elisions into 1 1 lines ; and in one line
{A. viL 673) the clash of fight is represented by 3 elisions : —

Et primam ante aciem densa inter tela feruntur.

Examination of the smooth elisions : —

Out of 70 cases, short ^ is elided 53 times; short ^15
times.

Therefore it is nearly always short S which gives smooth
elisions (of course mainly que)y sometimes short ^

These are elided before longs (by nature or position) in
51 cases, before shorts only in 19 (before a similar short
vowel, € into S, only twice).

From this it is obvious that, as was stated above, a short
eliding into a long is far preferable to a short eliding into a

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i84 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

short, and that a short vowel eliding into a similar short is
distasteful.

Of the 31 middle elisions^ those before a long (by nature
or position) are 29, those before a short (i, ii) only 2.
Hence it is abundantly evident that middles preferably
elide into longs.

It is also clear that the middle eliding syllable is prefer-
ably preceded by a long syllable (thus : mortem orat, matrem
et). This happens in 26 cases, while a short syllable
precedes {e,g, gr^gem atque, v!am et, gem!num et, gal^am et)
only in these 5 cases.

Of these 31 no less than 14 cases are elisions of um^ this
elision being therefore more frequent that that of any other
sound in the passage (cf. § 150, p. 175). Am is fidrly
frequent (9 times). Em less so (6 times).

Out of 27 harsh elisions those before longs (by nature or
position) were 25, those before shorts only 2 (6 into ^
i into h6). This goes far to prove that the elision of long
into long is less harsh than that of long into short

In two cases iambic words were elided into longs : cavae
atque, queri et — in no case into shorts.

In three cases anapaestic words were elided into longs :
Sic adeo insistit {A. iv. 533), qui Tetricae horrentes {A.
vii. 713), and generi et {A, vii. 753).

Spondaic disyllables were nearly always elided into longs
{e,g, ergo omni, campo aut) ; only once into a short (eigo
ubi, A, iv. 474).

Of monosyllables only three were found in elision : sum
animi, quae imbelles, se ostendere, cf. § 154.

The most frequent elisions were of i (8 times — 7 into
longs, I into a short), and d (8 times).

Next was ae (6 times).

Next e (twice, both se), and a (twice).

Last comes a (once only in a descriptive line —
I terribili monitu horrificant).

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ELISION 185

This goes to prove that of long syllables I and 6 are the
most frequent in elision, ae frequent, but 6 and a less
frequent ; u very rarely.

With reference to the place in the line of these elisions,
smooth elisions occur in all parts of the line, twice in the
sixth foot, both sine uUis. Of fifth-foot elisions there
are 4 normal instances.

On examination of the middle and harsh elisions in the
same lines with respect to their places in the line we find in
order of frequency —

In second arsis 14 cases ; e^, —
Currentem ilignis.

In third arsis 14 cases — '
Aut Hermi campo aut Lyciae.

In fourth thesis 1 1 cases —
Urgueri volucrum raucarum ad litora nubem.

In first thesis 8 cases —
Centum angues.

In fourth arsis 7 cases —
Ufens, insignem fama et felicibus armis.

In third thesis 2 cases only —
Quosque secans infaustum interluit. A, vii. 717.

In second thesis i case only —
Qui Nomentum urbem.

In fifth arsis i case only —
Decrevitque mori, tempus secum ipsa modumque. A, iv. 475.

In first arsis none.
In sixth arsis twice.

This, somewhat remarkably, agrees absolutely with the
order of table on p. 174.

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i86 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

In relation to caesuras —

In I J caesuras . . i elision only

„ 2 J „ . . . 2 elisions only

„ 3i » • • • " cases.

This goes to affirm that elision in ij and 2 J is on the
whole to be avoided, while in 3J caesura elision is fairly
frequent.

Of 14 cases of elision in third arsis, no less than 12 are
combined with \\ and 3^ caesuras, as is usual with Virgil,

Aut Hermi | campo, aut Lyciae | flaventibus arvis.
The two exceptions are —

Sub pedibus terram et descendere montibus omos.

A, iv. 491.
Fronde super galeam et felici comptus oliva. A, viii. 751.

As to elisions of monosyllables it has been stated above
(§ 154) that they may occur anywhere in the line except in
first arsis or three last half-feet. In the lines before us the
three cases are respectively in first thesis, third arsis, and
fourth thesis.

Nee sum animi dubius. G, iii. 289.

Atque canum ? Quid quae imbelles. lb, 265.

Et solem geminum et duplices se ostendere Thebas.

A, iv. 470.
Thus our examination has completely vindicated the
rules given above.

♦161. Chief Rules as to Elision

1. Long vowels should be elided sparingly except for
descriptive purposes.

2. Dactyls in -m and cretics practically avoided.

3. Spondaic words seldom before a short vowel.

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ELISION 187

4. The harshest elision is that of a long before a short.

5. The smoothest elision is that of a short before a

long.

6. A long vowel should never elide into a short similar.

7. Only light elisions are permissible in the ending.

8. The best places for elision are 2nd and 3rd arses, 3J
caesura, and 4th and ist theses.

9. The worst places are i^ and 2^ caesuras, after 4th
trochee, and ist arsis.

10. In practice the order of frequency of elision is : um,
I and o, am and em, ae, 6 and S, a, im.

11. Long or middle monosyllables should not be elided
unless indeclinable words or of irregular inflexion.

12. Smooth elisions should be to harsh at least as 2 : i.

13. In a long passage of verse, elisions may average i in
two or three lines.

Exercises on Elisions

{a) Descriptive.

He, high-souled, had said,
And hurled from hand a hissing spear : it flew,
And glanced from off" the shield, and pierced afar
Noble Antores betwixt side and loin —
Antores, friend of Hercules, who, sent
From Alps, to Evander clave, and found
Beneath Italian walls a home. ccvi.

The kids are wrestling with confronting horns, ccvii.

The Norman ranks
Rally together, and on him alone.
Alone on him, with gathered fury press,
And showering missiles. ccviii.

Ominous, awful, vast she is : for every feather on her
body is a waking eye beneath, wonderful to tell. ccix.

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i88 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Here too Porsenna, bidding them take back

The banished Tarquin, with a mighty siege

Hemmed in the city, while Aeneas' sons

Rushed on the sword for freedom. cox.

These (woods) the angry east winds perpetually shatter
and toss. ccxi.

But while they (stags) deep-braying vainly push against
the breasting hill (of snow), they slay them steel in
hand. ccxii.

So saying, a noble stroke he lifted high.
Which hung not, but so swift with tempest fell
On the proud crest of Satan, that no sight.
No motion of swift thought, less could his shield,
. Such ruin intercept : ten paces huge

He back recoiled ; the tenth on bended knee

His massy spear upstaid ; as if on earth

Winds under ground, or waters, forcing way,

Sidelong had pushed a mountain from its seat

Half sunk with all his pines. Amazement seized

The rebel thrones, but greater rage, to see

Thus foiled their mightiest ; ours joy filled, and shout

Presage of victory, and fierce desire

Of battle. ccxiii.

The reefs were bare, and then before my eyes —

Oh terrible ! a huge and loathsome snake

Lifted his dreadful crest and scaly side

Above the waves. ccxiii. (a)

(d) Aphaeresis,

God is thy law, thou mine : to know no more

Is woman's happiest knowledge and her praise, ccxiv.

He propped upon their hides
And outspread fells was lying, when suddenly
A voice gave utterance from the forest-depth. ccxv.

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ELISION 189

I by Aaieas am subdued.
Well, if my deity lack might enow,
I 'd spurn not aid to ask from whence-so-e*er. ccxvi.

O father, must we think that any hence

Gk) into upper air ? ccxvii.

(For) jealous Triton, if belief is due,

Had caught among the rocks and sunk the wretch

Deep in the foaming waves. ccxviii.

Nor was that slumber : but openly I seemed
To know their features and their veiled hair
And gracious presences. ccxix.

Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting :

The soul that rises with us, our life's star.

Hath had elsewhere its setting,

And cometh from afar ;

Not in entire forgetfulness.

And not in utter nakedness (do we come). ccxx.

Helmets and shields and bodies of brave ones

He bore. ccxxi.

First of all the prizes are laid out to viewin the racecourse.

CCXXII.

To a stand it (the horse) came, and four times armour

rang
Inside its womb. ccxxiii.

(d) Arses 2 and 3 : theses 1 and 4,

The ascending pile
Stood fixed her stately height ; and straight the doors.
Opening their brazen folds, discover wide
Within her ample spaces, o'er the smooth
And level pavement : from the arched roof.

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tgo LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Pendent by subtle magic, many a row

Of starry lamps, and blazing cressets, fed

With naphtha and asphaltus, yielded light

As from a sky. The hasty multitude

Admiring entered ; and the work some praise.

And some the architect : his hand was known

In heaven by many a tower'd structure high, ccxxiv.

This quickly said, he swiftly gat him home. ccxxv.

And now he holds
The Teucrian host and his own camp in sight,
Upon the high poop standing : suddenly
On his left arm the blazing shield he rears.
The Dardans from the wall raise shouts to heaven ;
Hope comes to heighten wrath. ccxxvi.

(e) At end of Verse,

What promptings from heaven, or what fortune keeps
thee from rest, that thou didst desire to draw nigh these
sad sunless dwellings, this disordered land ? ccxxvii.

Their heads they lift right back and out of reach

Of blows. ccxxviii.

When she sought Troy towers and a lawless bridal.

ccxxix.

And rumour is, so often as he changes his side, all
Trinacria shudders and mourns, veiling the sky in
smoke. ccxxx.

And hence he shot himself sheer to the water. ccxxxi.

The vanquished make covenant to withdrawto Evander*s

city. ccxxxii.

(/) Of Monosyllables,

And already the Argive army was starting in its array of

ships. ccxxxiii.

What else is left us yet to pray to ? ccxxxiii. {p)

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SYNIZESIS 191

Thou didst disdain me in death. Thou shouldst have
summoned me to share thy fate. ccxxxiv.

Why hide the truth ? Or for what further wrong
Now wait I ? ccxxxv.

(He sees) a double sun, and Thebes shows herself two-
fold to his eyes. ccxxxvi.

Nor am I of doubtful mind how hard it is to win all this
in words, and crown things so slight with honour.

CCXXXVII.

II. Synizesis

This name is given to the meeting of two vowels in the
same word when for metrical reasons they have to make one
syllable. Synizesis takes three forms —

(a) Contraction,

(P) Artificial fusion,

(y) Consonantal lengthening.

*162. (a) Contraction, — In this case the nature of the
vowels allows them to coalesce by ordinary contraction.

(i.) Two similar or two short vowels contract into one long,
as in verb and noun forms.

ii — eat (exiit) oppositasque, etc. A, ii. 497.

tempora taeniis. A. v. 269.

ee — deerit A, viii. 262.

gramina deerunt. G. ii. 200.

deest. A, x. 378.

uu — gratia curruum. A, vi. 653.

ea — Orphea, Mnesthea, eadem, aurea (abl.); cf. also
alvearia.

(ii.) Greek diphthongs : e with following i or u, especially
in Greek proper names.

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192 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

eu — ^^Mnestheus, -<4. v. 1 16 (cf. 117, 210), Ilioneus, Rhipeus,
Idomeneus, Antheus, Briareus, etc.

ei — Mnesthei (dative, A, v. 184), Ilionei (i. 120),
Idomenei, Nerei, Oilei (L 41), Terei, Orphei.

* 163. {P) Artificial fusion, — ^The vowels being of very
different character have to be, as it were, artificially fused.
This usage is of course freely admitted in the living language,
e,g. the colloquial language of the comic poets (as — mi,
meus and its forms, and disyllabic forms like eo, eum).
But Virgil guards it jealously. We have to consider the
fusion of ei, eo, and oi.

ei — this is a very rare diphthong in Latin. Though
f contraction is not feasible, the second vowel devours the
» preceding short vowel.

D'inde, d'hinc, aur'is, alv'o {E, iii. 96, reice). Quid
deinde rogabo ? (Ovid).

Baltei, A, x. 496 ; cf. ferrei, aerei, aureis, etc ; anteirent,
xii. 84.

eo — ^aureo,^. x. 116; alveo, grave61entis (here, both vowels
being short, the first elides into the second), Eurystheo.

oi — ^proinde. A, xii 383.

[oa is violently blended in Horace, Sat iL 3, 91 —

Heredes voluit ? Quoad vixit, credidit ingens.

Two exceptional cases must be noticed : —
Dehinc sometimes makes two syllables : A, v. 722, viii. 337,
xii 87.
^ Dehisco {A, v. 142, vi. 52) never seems to admit synizesis.]

* 164. (y) Consonantal lengthening, — The vowels i and u
are apt to be lengthened or hardened before a vowel into
consonantal i and v for metrical reasons. This occurs in
simple (not compounded) words where three or four short
syllables come together, so that a dactyl may be made by
the lengthening of the syllable preceding i or u.

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SYNIZESIS 193

Stelio, et lucifugis. G, iv. 243.

Intexunt abiete costas. A. ii. 16.

Genua labant A, v. 432.

Quin protinus omnia. A, vi. 33 ) Note that ia is a very

Verba precantia. ^. vii 237 J rare synizesis.

These last two examples are at the ends of lines and unique.
Cf. tenuia (e.g, Lucr. Nam quae tenuia sunt), ariete,
arietat, fluviorum rex Eridanus (6^. i 482).
Cf. Ennius 90—

Cedunt de caelo ter quaituor corpora sancta.

[Some discussion is suggested by particular words.

Laviniaque {A, i. 2) should rather read Lavinaque, because |
of the rarity of ia in synizesis.

In the two instances above, it is admitted into the sixth, not
fifth foot.

* 165. Words with semid^ first component — These should
be read (without synizesis), semesam, semustum, semanimis,
semhominis, the first syllable being already long by nature
and not requiring any synizesis to lengthen it as in arjete,
abjete, etc. Cf.

Fama ^st Enceladi semustum fulmine corpus. A, iii. 578.
But in Hoc sat erit. Scio me Danais e classibus unum.

A, iii. 602,
scio is not a case of synizesis. The o is short ^ as in volo,
veto, eo, peto, puto, dabo, tollo, findo, nescio, obsecro, dixero.
Hie mihi nescio quod. A, ii. 735.

Here nescio is a dactyl.

166. Connubium (when the first syllable is in arsis).
This is not a case of synizesis.

^ This o is either pre-Virgilian or post-Virgilian. Virgil as a rule only
uses nesci6 in compounds. As an instance of Virgil's carefulness on this
point : both he and Horace wanting to name Pollio, Horace reconciles
himself to "et consulenti Pollio curiae," but Virgil in preference three
times accepts a harsh elision.
N

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194 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Virgil uses the u either long or short, just as he does i in
Italia or Italus, ipslus or ipslus, and y in Sychaeus or
SJfchaeus.

Long: condbia nostra, A. iv, 213; cf. 316, ix. 600.

Short : conniibio jungam (not conubjo), i 73 ; cf. iil 136,
iv. 168.]

Synizesis is very frequent in fifth and sixth feet, which are
most free from elisions, because at the end the verse should
proceed slowly and with dignity. Synizesis is in keeping
with this principle, whereas light elisions (the only elisions
normally admitted in these feet) tend to hurry the verse.

* 167. Dialysis (sometimes called Diaeresis). — This is the
opposite process to synizesis, by which a consonant (J and
v) becomes a vowel, or a diphthong becomes resolved.

Thus persoluisse, siliiae, Gaiiis aulli, aural, pictii
(Virgil); and Ennius (140) —

Arbustum fremitu siluai frondosal

A peculiar case is alituum for alitum, A. viii. 27, in
imitation of Lucretius.

Exercises on the Use of Synizesis and Dialysis

With rosy slender fingers back she drew

Her hair. ccxxxviii.

And I beheld great Herd's angry eyes,

As she withdrew into the golden cloud. ccxxxix.

(They) besiege the city and batteries apply. ccxl.

In the halPs midst goblets of wine they sipped. ccxLi.

What tribes, what hearts have I not joined in love?
Birds, cattle, beasts in their wild herds my charm
Have not withstood. CCXLII.

Shall I betray thee suing for my child
In marriage ? CCXLUi.

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HIATUS 195

With dying heel he hammers the Rutule plain, ccxliv.

And half-quick
The fingers quiver, and clutch the sword anew, ccxlv.

And so the Chinese comb their delicate down

From off the leaves. ^ ccxLVi.

Furthermore the bees too hide their swarms in the
hollow bark or the shell of a mouldering ilex.

CCXLVII.

As thus spake Ilioneus, Latinus held

His face set firmly in one downward stare,

And to the earth cleaves motionless. ccxlviii.

My he-goat, lord of the flock, had wandered down, and
I espy Daphnis. ccxlix.

And Mnestheus follows on him, but now conqueror in
the ship race, Mnestheus with his chaplet of green
olive. CCL.

Under the seething cauldron's sides up-dance

With heat the waters : the pent flood within

Rages and reeks and surges high with foam. col. (a)

So saying, with delight he snuffed the smell

Of mortal change on earth. ccl. (d)

III. Hiatus

The later epic poets firom Ovid onward studiously avoid
hiatus, while the older poets firom Ennius to Vir^l admitted
it as a conscious imitation of Homer.

There are two cases of its use : —

(a) Where in arsis a long final vowel does not elide, and

remains long.
(fi) Where in thesis a long vowel is not elided, but is

shortened (semi-hiatus).

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196 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

* 168. (a) Hiatus after a long vowel in arsis.

(i.) A special and frequent case of this is in spondaic
verses, the three last half- feet being separated from the
fifth arsis by hiatus. This is of course specially Greek ; e,g,

Dardanio Anchisae. -4. L 617.

turrigerae antemnae. A, viii. 631.

(ii.) The hiatus usually occurs in a principal caesura, and
mostly corresponds with a sense pause, aposiopesis, or strong
emphasis. Greek rhythm or Greek words often suggest its
use. It may occur in the second, third, fourth and fifth
feet, most rarely in the second.

In second foot, \\ caesura —

Sit pecori, apibus, etc. G, L 4.

Si pereo, hominum. A. iii. 606.

In third foot, 2 J caesura —

Quid struit? aut qua spe inimica. A, iv. 235.

This is a unique example of monosyllabic hiatus with
exception of interjections o, a, and heu.

Nereidum matri et Neptuno Aegaeo. A> iii. 74.

Antiqua e cedro, Italusque paterque Sabinus. A, vii. 178.

See E, viii. 44 and G, i. 341.

In fourth foot, 3 J caesura —
Posthabita coluisse Samo : hie illius arma. A/\, 16.

Concilia Elysiumque colo. Hue casta Sibylla. A, v. 735.

And xii. 31.
Oleae armentaque laeta. G.vl 144.

And iii. 155.

In fifth foot—
Evolat infelix et femineo ululatu. A, ix. 477, iv. 667.

Justosque pati hymenaeos. dr. iii 60.

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SEMI-HIATUS 197

In these last two cases there is no spondaic ending, no real
caesura, and no pause. But in the last line we have (i) a
Greek word; (2) an ending used out of compliment to
Catullus.

The hiatus is thus nearly always justified by break in the
sense; occasionally the collision of two similar vowels,
always hard to elide, adds an excuse, as—

Ter sunt conati imponere Pelio Ossam. G, i. 281.

. Sancta ad vos anima, atque istius inscia culpae.

A, xsL 648.

Two hiatuses in one line are not uncommon ; e,g. A, iii.
79, and

Stant et juniperi et castaneae hirsutae. E. vii. 53.

Cf. also Ovid—
O et de Latia, o et de gente Sabina. Met, xiv. 332.

This line suggests that the exclamations Oy a, and A?«
come under a special dispensation. They can always make
a hiatus and remain long whether the next syllable be short
or long. However, may be shortened before a short
syllable —

Te Corydon, o Alexi : trahit sua quemque voluptas.

^. ii. 65.
Here it is in thesis.

Virgil has a relatively large number (about forty) of these .
hiatuses in his work. Ovid is sparing, and his successors ^
still more so. Virgil leaves final / unelided fourteen times, >
sixteen times, e four times, ae ^y^,

* 169. (j8) Semi-hiatus, — Shortening of long vowel in thesis
(mostly with Greek words, or in passages where there are
Greek words). This did not commend itself even to the

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198 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

earlier poets^ who admitted it solely as an imitation of Gceek
metre; e^.

Insulae lonio in magno, quas dira Celaeno. A, iii. 21 1.

and
Credimus ? An qui amant ipsi sibi somnia fingunt

This Quicherat explains with insight, thus : —

A long « two shorts.

One short is elided, the other remains, as InsuUlS lonio,
Insula lonio; and Et longum 'formose vale vale,'
inquit, *Iolla!' {E, iil 79), and Hyla Hyi^ omne
sonaret, both descr^jtive of further distance. Cf. A.
V. 261, Sub Ilio alto.

Besides HyUl there are only two cases in Virgil where
there is an unelided short vowel in thesis —

Et vera incessu patuit dea. lUe ubi matrem. A, i. 405.
Addam cerea pruna : honos erit huic quoque pomo.

E, ii. 53.

These look like cases of pure licence. The distinct pause
is the mitigating circumstance in each case. Lucretius has
a similar example ending a line : Invadit Ariminum. Ignes.

As to usage (j8) it is fairly frequent in Lucretius. It
occurs only once in Catullus, xcvii. i,

Non (ita me di ament) quicquam referre putavi,

in elegiac hexameter.

Virgil uses this variety frequently, but in Ovid it is very
rare.

Valerius Flaccus, i. 662, has Aut Athfi aut Rhodopen.

In G. i. 437, Glauc6 et Panopeae, a long vowel in thesis

not shortened.

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SEMI-HIATUS 199

Exercises on the Use of Hiatus

The Lydian folk at heaven's behest
Beneath an alien's banner leap aboard.
The good ship of Aeneas leads the van,
The Phrygian lions yoked beneath her prow. CCLI.

Thy name and armour keep the spot : but thee,

Thee, O my friend, I could not see nor lay

In the native earth I left. cclii.

The Rhodopeian fortresses wept the loss of Persephone.

CCLIII.

This plague — for it attacks more fierce at noon —
Thou shalt ward off from breeding flocks ; thy herds
Pasture thou shalt when now the sun is risen
But newly, or stars usher in the night ccuv.

But harvests and the Massic juice
Of Bacchus fill its borders, overspread
With firuitfiil flocks and olives.

The junipers and shaggy chestnuts tower.

The other met Hyllus, as he rushed along

Immeasurably exulting in his pride.

And at his gold-bound temples hurls a dart.

She comes, and at her side
The maid Lavinia, source of all that woe.
Her comely eyes cast earthward.

O Sire, O sovereign power eteme of man
And all things !

In mid-sea lies a holy land most dear

To the mother of the Nereids and Neptune,

The lord of Aegae.

CCLV.

CCLVI.

CCLVII.

CCLVIII.

CCLIX.

CCLX.

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CHAPTER VI

METRICAL CONVENIENCES

From the point of view of the hexameter writer we may
here suitably group together certain devices by which
metrical difficulties are overcome, such as synizesis, dialysis,
hiatus, the lengthening and shortening of vowels, tmesis,
syncope, and the use of archaic forms.

The first three of these — synizesis, dialysis, and hiatus —
have already been treated as cases of the meeting of vowels.

To proceed, then, to t?ie Lengthening of Vowels,

♦ 170. (a) Of a final syllable (ectasis).

(i.) Que. — The older poets use the licence, or rather
liberty,^ of lengthening a short vowel in arsis, especially que
before a consonant, in imitation probably of Homer^s
lengthened tc This lengthening in arsis must not be
confounded with the principle of lengthening short vowels
according to the dictates of archaic prosody.

The conditions of lengthening are : —

It takes place specially in second or fifth arsis.
The que is repeated immediately.

^ As to so-called poetic licences it is perhaps not too much to say that
among good poets there are none. The origin of peculiarities is often
just the reverse of licence. The poet, perhaps, is consciously imitating
a foreign or an ancient metre, or desires to produce some special efifect,
or, pronimciation being ill-defined, exercises a choice which he is perfectly
free to make. Hence the strongest name by which we can justly call
such anomalies is " metrical liberties."

aoo

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LENGTHENED VOWELS aoi

The word to which que is attached is longer than a
monosyllable, preferably with short syllables preceding
the que.

The word following must b^in with two consonants (or
a double consonant), a liquid, or a sibilant. Virgil lengthens
before two consonants fourteen times, before sibilants twice,
before a liquid once j e.g,

Brontesque Steropesque. A, viii. 425.

And cf. the following : —

In second "arsis, A. iii. 91, Liminaque laurusque (the one
case of lengthening before a liquid); vii. 186, Spiculaque
clipeique; xii. 89; G, i. 153, Lappaeque tribulique, and
164 and 371 ; C?. iv. 222, Terrasque tractusque maris.

In fifth arsis (one instance only in Virgil), A, ix. 767,
Noemonaque Prytanimque (a direct imitation of //. v. 678,
Noiy/iova T€ Upvraviv tc). Accius {Ann, xxvii.) already
has a similar example — metallique caculaeque.

The reason for the preference for second arsis is that it
coincides with i\ caesura Just as a hiatus is preferable in
a caesura with a sense pause, so a short vowel is most
easily lengthened in a caesura, because the division of the
verse is then so marked that the syllable gets the same
benefit of stress as the last syllable of a verse. The presence
of a Greek word in the verse often suggests lengthening
according to Greek prosody.

Ovid is not so careftil in his use of lengthened que as
Virgil. He makes it precede any single consonant, as Met
iv. 10, Telasque Calathosque infectaque pensa reponunt.
After Ovid its use is rare. Silius uses it once, vii. 618.

171. (ii.) Lengthening of Forms of Verbs, — ^This is done
in accordance with the dictates of archaic prosody.

A, i. 308, nam inculta videt, hominesne feraene; 651,
peteret; vii 174, erSt

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aoa LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Once in the fifth arsis of a spondaic verse in the same
way as with hiatus.
Sceptra Palatini sedemque peUt Evandri. A. ix. 9.

* 172. (iii) Of Other Forms, — Sanguis, originally long, is
always used so 'by Lucretius, and once (-4. x. 487, Sanguis
animusque sequuntur) by Virgil. Lucan generally uses it
short, but long in ii. 338, Dum sanguis inerat A, L 478,
Pulvis inscribitur j il 369, pav6r et ; iii. 464, gravil. sectoque
elephanto \ iv. 64, Pectoribus inhians ; v. 337, Euryalus et ;
vL 254, super oleum; 768, Numitor et; viii. 98, procul
ac; X. 51, Paphus (3^ caesura); 68, ebur (\\ caesura);
422, dolor omnis. Occasionally the lengthening is explained
by the retention of Greek quantity ; e,g. A, vl 640, aether et ;
326, Charon; vii. 327, Pluton odere. In x. 720, linquens
profugQs hymenaeos, and G, ii. 5, gravidas auctumno, the
quantity is due to the imitation of Greek rhythm.

Spejdcing generally, it may be said that Virgil, in the
lengthening of short final syllables, follows the early traditions
of Roman poetry, taking these liberties, however, only in
arsis. While he regarded these lengthened syllables as
antiquarian ornaments, he was probably unconscious of the
etymological propriety of certain of them. It must be
remembered that considerable uncertainty prevailed in early
poetry, both Greek and Roman, as to quantity of final
syllables, and this was exaggerated in Latin by the ac-
centual rule that no accent should fall on the last syllable.

Ennius made very firee with such quantities, while Catullus
and Lucretius and Cicero were much stricter with themselves.
Thus Catullus lengthens verb forms twice in stichic ^ hexa-
meters — Ixii. 4 and Ixiv. 20, Jam veniet virgo : jam dicetur
Hymenaeas, and despexit hymenaeos. He has not re-
stricted himself to the conditions usual in Virgil; the
lengthening is not after a short syllable, nor before a
^ f.tf. continuous, not in the elegiac couplet.

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LENGTHENED VOWELS 203

principal caesura. There is, hqwevet, Greek word and
Greek rhythm, as in E. vl 53, fultus hyacintho. Virgil,
while apparently recognising the services done by this trio,
consciously harks back in order to adopt some of the
licences of Ennius. He has fifty-seven examples of such
lengthening, nearly always in words ending in a consonant.
There are only three cases of final vowel lengthening —

Auto gravia sectoque elephanto. A, iii. 464.

Immanisque Gela fluvii cognomine dicta. I^. 702.

Sancta ad vos animl, atque istius inscia culpae. A. xii. 648.

where the hiatus and pause help the lengthening. Ovid
has many examples ; Silius four or five ; Claudian two.

[173. Professor Nettleship points out that in (i.) verd
formsy Ennius uses or according to its natural length —
VenerSr horamque Quirini. Virgil does not adopt this,
while he does use ur long — ^Altius ingreditOr et mollia crura
reponit — although it is short in Ennius. So also Nostrorum
obruimur, oriturque miserrima caedes.

at of the imperfect Ennius uses long even in thesis,
Virgil only in arsis —

Noenum rumores ponebat ante salutem. Ennius, Ann. 287.
Tityrus hinc aberat : ipsae te, Tityre, pinus.

So A, V. 853, amittebat; also dabat, stabat.

it (present) is short in Ennius. Virgil lengthens in —

Versibus ille facit : aut si non possumus omnes.

// (perfect indicative) is strangely made short by Ennius,
whereas the vowel was originally long. Virgil lengthens in

At rudis enituit impulso vomere campus.

Ovid retains this in compounds of eo like subiit.

(Other points of Ovid's usage in this matter are short
syllables lengthened in arsis before Greek words, or in the
2\ caesura before et and out,)

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204 LATIN HEXAMETEfl VERSE

Propertius also (iv. i, 17)—

Nulli cura fuit extemos quaerere divos.

// (future) Ennius has short in 153, pendebit Etniria tota.
Virgil has erit twice long —

Ipse ubi tempus erit, omnes in fonte lavabo. £. iii. 97.

Te sine, frater, erit ? O quae satis ima dehiscat A. xii. 883,

It must be remembered that in archaic Latin prosody
syllables ending in / or r were r^arded as long when the
vowel was long. Thus third persons in -at, -et, -it were long
when the vowels a, e, i were long in the other persons. In
classical prosody /and r finally shortened the preceding vowel.
In (ii.) nouns and adjectiveSy or is always made long by
Ennius; e,g.

Germana soror, errare videbar.

O pater, o genitOr, o sanguen dis oriundum.

Originally the quantity was in Greek w/o, and therefore
Ennius lengthens both in thesis and in arsis. Virgil, whose
ear was his etymology, restricted himself to arsis.

Omnia vincit Amor et nos cedamus Amori.

Luctus ubique pavor et plurima noctis imago.

us. Ennius imitates Homer's ^ lengthening of os in
lamque expectabat populus atque ora tenebat,
and Virgil follows with
Invalidus, etiamque tremens, etiam inscius aevi. G, iii. 189.

Whether Ennius lengthened the dative plural is unknown j
but Virgil does not hesitate to write

Pectoribus inhians. A, iv. 64.]

In all, about eighty instances of lengthening occur in
Virgil including que.

More than four times in five Virgil makes the lengthened
short follow a short because immediately after a genuine
^ Cf. Xudfuwos, &r Apurrov 'Axcuwp oifHh ^t0-as< //. i. 344.

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LENGTHENED VOWELS 205

long syllable the factitious long is more likely to reveal
its inferiority; e,g, Pectoribus inhians, and Omnia vincit
amor, et.

* 174. Sp, sc, st, sq^ sm, mn, or double consonant (x and z)y
or two consonants the second of which is not a liquid, — Virgil is
very careful not to use a vowel short before spy sc^ st.
In cases like viii. 425 Brontesque Steropesque, que is
legitimately lengthened in arsis, and the licence is not to
be used of lengthening any short vowel, as nulla spes.
Lucan lengthens in arsis, v. 118 —

Aut pretium : quippe stimulo fluctuque furoris.

The only real case of a violation of the rule is xL 309,
Ponite. Spes sibi quisque, etc., where the pause causes an
interruption of speech. This is its excuse. Smaragdus,
Scamander, Zacynthus must be excused, as it is impossible
to admit them without a short preceding. Ovid and Silius
supply other examples.

Thus, if the final vowel remains short before such
consonants, it is mainly in the fifth foot ; occasionally it is
placed in the first foot as in Virgil's example.

Virgil does not admit a case like Ennius, Ann, 93 —

Auspicio regni stability, scamna solumque.

Lucretius, however, often admitted such cases ; cf. iv. 772,
Inde statu (first foot).

175. {P) Of first syllable (diastole).

1. Mere imitation of Hom^r is responsible for Priamiden
(iii. 29s, vi. 494).

2. The inseparable prepositional prefix re. Re is short,
but religio, religiosus are not suitable for metre. Religio is
given in many monuments, and the etymology seems doubt-
ful; therefore Virgil is justified in lengthening in A, 11. 151,
365 ; iii. 363, 409 ; vii. 608 ; viii. 349.

Reliquiae is used i. 30 ; iv. 343 ; v. 47.

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2o6 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

There is prose authority for rettulit (compounded of red-
as seen in reddo), v. 598, viii. 34, etc. ; reppulit, iv. 214.

The adjective Italus: the first syllable is short, v. 117,
703; viii. 331, 626; ix. 133, 532 et ai. (long Itala in
iii. 185).

But the noun Italia lengthens its first syllable metri
gratiay I 2, 233, 263; iii 253, 254, 364, 523, 524, and so
on.

' Exercises on Lengthened Syllables

And floods I call, and Fountains, and what Awe
Dwells in high heaven, what gods in the blue sea. cclxi.

Next with hurled spear, to bear him company.

He sends Asbutes, Chloreus, Sybaris,

Dares, Thersilochus. cclxii.

And demigods I have, and country gods,

Nymphs, Fauns, and Satyrs, and Silvanuses,

The denizens of the hills. cclxiii.

On rush the crowd — men, mothers, brides together,
Rabble and lords stream to the rites unknown.

CCLXIV.

There steeps she roots plucked in Thessalian vale.
And seeds and flowers and juices harsh io taste. CCLXV.

Such words he spake, and, holding fast the tiller,

Slackened his hold no whit, but to the stars

Looked steadily up. cclxvi.

Here was a nation's death : there flowed Achaean blood.

CCLXVII.

I go to meet him. Bring the holy rites,

Sire, and rehearse the treaty. cclxviii.

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SHORTENED VOWELS 207

He, resting on soft blooms of hyacinth

His snowy side, is munching the pale grass

'Neath some black ilex. cclxix.

Here 'twas auspicious that kings first receive

The sceptre, and uplift the rods of power.

This temple was their senate-house. cclxx.

He sets the pearls glowing with hidden light, cclxxi.

Now in mid sea is coming into view

Woody Zacynthus. CCLXXII.

And deafen'd with the stammering cracks and claps

That followed, she flew back still crying out,

* O Merlin, save me.' cclxxiii.

This remnant still she dogs, the bones and ashes
Of murdered Troy. I pray the goddess know
Wherefore so fierce her passion. ccLXXiv.

There is a vast grove near cold Caere's stream,

Wide-worshipped with ancestral awe : a cirque

Of hollow hills enfolds it, with black pine

Girdling the forest. CCLXXV.

But she most fierce, as he lay faltering there.
Searching what more to say, now spumed him back,
Twin serpents rearing from her locks. cclxxvi.

When now we could descry dim hills afar

And the low line of Italy, the cry

Of * Italy ' Achates raises first.

And with glad shouts my comrades Italy

Salute. ccLXXvii.

♦ 176. The shortening of vowels, — This metrical feature is
in accordance with incipient prose usage.

(L) Adjectives and pronouns with genitive in iW.

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2o8 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

The i is probably originally long. It is kept long in

ilHus, ii 361.

ipsTus, V. 35, 410; xi. 747.

unlus, i. 251.

ullius, xi. 354.

However, in far the greater number of cases it is short,
metri gratia; e,g,

ips!us, i. 114.
ilUus, L 16.

unlus, i. 41 (cf. Lucr., UnJus ad certam formam).
) alterius (otherwise inadmissible in hexameters), iil 31, 33.

(il) Prefix /ro^ before a vowel.

praeeunte, v. 186.
praeustis, viL 524.

(iii.) Consonantal i, which generally makes the preceding
vowel long by position, does not so lengthen in compounds
with jugum ; e,g.

bijugo, V. 144; X. 575, S9S» etc.

quadrijugo, x. 571.

(iv.) Hie, hoc.

The adverb hie is always long.

Hie and hoc (pronoun, nom. and ace. neut. sing.) Virgil
piakes long ; e.g.

hic, iv. 347, 591, etc.

hoc, iL 60, 394, 660, 703, etc.

But in two places the pronoun hic is short ; e.g.
hic vir hk est, vi. 791.

* 177. (v.) Shortening in the middle of a word (systole) ;
e.g. the penultimate of the 3rd pers. plur. perf. indie. Snint. '

steteruntque comae, ii. 774 (cf. Lucan iv. 771).
constitSrunt, iil 681. -

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SHORTENED VOWELS 209

Cf. also miscuSrunt, fuSrunt, tiil^runt, E, iv. 61 ; paniSrunt,
temi^runt, homierunt, praebuSrunt.

This vowel, originally long, was shortened in everyday use.
It is nearly always long in erunt, and always long in ere.

Er^ is obviously more suited to the needs of a dactylic •
metre, and this is proved by its frequency as compared with
grunt.

Cf. A, ii., conticuere, cupiere, obstupuere, assensere, tulere,
statuere, corripuere, and ten others.

In A, ii. and iii. there are only three instances of €runt : .
ii. 113, sonuerunt; iii. 363, suaserunt; and 399, posuerunt

* 178. (vi.) The shortening of the second syllables of words
like mihi, quasi, ego, cito, is due to a law of archaic prosody.
This law was originally applicable only to poetry of a more
or less popular character, to comedy, inartistic inscriptions,
and Satumian verses ; e.g.
Est equos perpulcer sed tu veW non potes istoc.

C/.Z. L 1442.
And in the rude hexameter
Quod fiigis, quod jactas, tibei quod datur spemere noli. •

It is called the law of initial iambic groups. It provides
that the second syllable of an initial iambic group may be
shortened at will ; e,g, fero, voluptas, quid est, quid abstulisti,
tibi istum.

Though accent and length are theoretically different
phenomena, still languages have a tendency to confound
them, and this interaction between the two, common in
archaic Latin, survives in Augustan usage, and sanctioned
put^ cave, V0I5 ^ (especially imperatives).

♦179. In post-classical times the true principle of the
distinction was forgotten, and the shortening, of final o, for
instance, appeared arbitrary. Hence it came to be shortened
in non-iambic words for convenience' sake ; e,g, nol6.
^ Cf. Plautus, Efidicus 727, N6v6 liberto opus est.
O

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2IO LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Lucan shortens o in cardo, turbo, pulmo, Scipio (as in
Ovid), virgo, tiro, oblivio, ergo, as well as in leo, Cato,

Valerius Flaccus iv. 7 has Jun6; 14, virg6; and i. 621,
turb6 (inis). Statius, Theb, ix. 437, quaerd; ii 187, v6r6.

Many scattered instances of short final 6 occur in Ovid ;
e,g, cano, dabo, nego, rogo, scio, volo, tollo, credo, odero,
desino, confero, homo, leo, esto, ergo, Scipio, Curio, Gallio.
Put5 (parenthetical); non-parenthetical put6 (four times);
pet6 and nem6 (four times each). But these must not be
imitated. Virgil has sci6 twice, and elides the o in PoUio,
nuntio, audeo.

Eg5, du6, mod5 (adv.), postmod5, dummod5 are always
short in Virgil, Horace (pdes\ and Ovid.

Exercises on Shortened Vowels
This gift shalt thou have as from aged Anchises' own hand.

CCLXXVIII.

His overflowing harvests burst his gamers. cx:lxxix.

All consented ; and each one's particular fear was turned, ah
me ! to my single destruction. CCLXXX.

And must I see
Either in other's blood hewn down? cclxxxi.

Now the new rods precede, new purple shines. cclxxxii.

He, as to smite them, with the steel

His team has chidden. cclxxxiii.

Rides King Latinus on a four-horse car. cclxxxiv.

For this in chief you bade me to be glad. cclxxxv.

He only touched my heart and wavering soul. CCLXXXVi.

All motionless I was, my hair stood up.

And even the accents ^tered on my tongue. cclxxxvii.

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TMESIS, SYWCOPE 211

What time the cruel step-mother has drugged

The cup with mingled herbs and baleful charms, cclxxxviii.

Two valuable means for gaining regularity and evenness
of rhythm are Tmesis and S3mcope.

Hmesis, — Ennius' line, saxo cere comminuit brum, is often
quoted as a sample of the bad use of tmesis by the older poets.

Any violent wrenching of parts asunder, e^, of inseparable
prepositional prefbces from verbs, is obviously inartistic.

* 180. (a) The mildest usage is illustrated by Virgil in A,
ix. 288, Inque salutatum linquo (cf. Ovid, Met inque cruen-
tatus) ; ^. X. 794, inutilis inque ligatus ; G, ii. 366, interque
legendae, where enclitic que is inserted between two easily
separable parts of a word.

With these cf. Lucr. iii 343, conque putrescunt; 484
inque pediri ; ii 394 perque plicatis ; and L 319, praeterque
meantum.

* 181. {b) We have wider separation in super —
lamque adeo super unus eram. A. ii. 567.

(Cf. Ovid, Fast v. 600, Nox erit una super, and G, iii.
381, Septem subjecta trionl)

praeter —
Fugientem Rhoetea praeter. A, x 399.

circum —
Circum dea fudit amictu. A. i. 412.

usque —
Quo me decet usque teneri ? A, v. 384.

nam —
Quis est nam ludus in undis ? J?. ix 39.

cumque —
Quae me cumque vocant terrae. -^. i. 610.

Quae jaciuntur | Corpora cumque ab rebus Lucr. vi. 959, 960.
Miiller omits in this connection xmiversal relatives with cum-
que. It is true, as Kiihner urges, that cumque (quomque)

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212 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

is in origin an independent and r^ular word, but in usage
qui and cumque generally cohere, even in poetry ; e^, A. i
330, iii. 445, 652, 654, etc. So they should be included in
cases of tmesis ; cf. besides iL 709, Quo res cumque cadent.

To these add v. 603, Hac celebrata tenus.

(We omit a fanciful form of tmesis discovered by Miiller
which he says occurs when a part of a compound is
separated from the verb by caesura.)

* 182. Syncope^ or the shortening of a word by dropping a
short vowel between consonants, a usage frequent in prose.
Convenient forms metri gratia are — periclum ii 709 ;
reppstum i. 26 ; supposta vi. 24 ; imposta ix. 716.

Also porriciam, porgite, prendere, aspris ( = asperis) (ii. 379),
oraclum, gubemaclum.

Contraction, by dropping a syllable, ue, a vowel and one
or more consonants — admorunt iv. 367 -, extinxem (for
exstinxissem) iv. 606 ; finxe (finxisse), vixti (vixisti), norunt,
traxe.

Note also the archaic contracted forms — lenibant, nutribant,
insignibat, vestibat, polibant, for leniebant, etc.

Exercises on the Use of Tmesis and Syncope

He pours fat oil upon the blazing entrails. cclxxxix.

Wilt thou not have plenty to love to sing thy deserved

praises,
Varus, and to chronicle sad wars ? ccxc.

Then thrice he essayed to clasp him round the neck.

ccxci.
Whencesoe'er upsprings
The pool that holds thee, pitiful of our woes.
By me shalt thou be graced evermore
With pleasing gifts. ccxcii.

Where'er I wander, glory waits for thee. ccxciii.

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TMESIS, SYNCOPE

213

CCXCVII.

CCXCVIII.

CCXCIX.

Thus far let follow us the star of Troy. ccxciv.

Thus far Arethusa. The goddess of harvests yoked the twin
serpents to her car, and put bridle to their mouths.

ccxcv.

Along the walls every detachment watches at its assigned
post of peril, and takes up the task of guarding in
turns. ccxcvi.

With thee for guide so many seas I Ve known.
The far remote Massylian tribes, the fields
That fringe the Syrtes.

He should have lived to whom the god gave life
Or his right hand.

Thyself and me, my sister, hast thou slain,
My people and its elders.

Himself to steer he to the tiller goes.
Himself as captain.

Steersman and tiller in the glassy waves.
Calling in vain and often on the crew.
Headlong he hurled.

The Nymphs Corycian and the mountain gods
They worship, Themis too who fate foretells,
And then was mistress of the oracles.

Bind on their necks collars of light osier.

For this accursed hate 'tis not enough

The Phrygians' city to have rooted out

From 'midst the people, nor to have dragged the race

Through every punishment. ccciv.

Phoebus, aye pitying Troy's most grievous toils,

Thou didst direct the shaft of Dardan Paris

Poised in his hand. cccv.

ccc.

ccci.

CCCII.

CCCIII.

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214 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

The bee
Was first informed her venturous flight to steer
Through trackless paths and an abyss of air. cccvi.

*183. Archaic forms,

1. Certain verbs vary between second and third conjuga-
tion — ^fervere, fulgere, tei^ere, stridere, Ct

litora fervSre late. A. iv. 409.

fervSre litora flammis, lb, 567.

stridit sub pectore volnus. lb, 689.

quas fulgSre cemis in armis. A, vL 826.

2. One between first and third : lavare, lavere —

lavit improba taeter | Ora cruor. -4. x. 727.

lavit ater corpora sanguis. G,vL 221.

3. Between fourth and third : potiri —

Vi potiftur. . A, iil 56.

Cf. Ovid—
Conveniunt: potiturque sua puer Iphis lanthe. Mef.isL'jgS,

4. Archaic passives infinitive: defendier, admittier,
dominarier, fisirier, immiscerier.

Catullus, who admits archaisms sparingly, has citarier.

Exercises on the Use of Archaic Forms

And fleets of brass i' the centre could be seen.

The battle-lines of Actium ; you might mark

Leucate all aglow with war's array.

And billows gleaming gold. cccvii.

Aetnaean vaults are thundering : the strong strokes
Of anvils to the ear bring echoing groans ;
Hisses the steel ore through its hollow depths^
And firom its fiimaces pants fire. cccviu.

They descry bees humming among the dissolving flesh
of the carcases, and swarming forth firom the rent
sides of the oxen. oocix.

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ARCHAIC FORMS 215

But if spots begin to mingle with fiery red, then wilt
thou see all a single riot of wind and storm-clouds ;
not on such a night at any persuasion would I voyage
through the deep or part moorings from land. cccx.

He, 'mid the carnage, safe to Rutule soil

Flies, and finds shelter with the firiendly host

Of Tumus. cccxi.

Then Nisus and beside him Euryalus

In eager haste crave entrance. cccxii.

The vine I would dare to entrust to ever so slender a
fiirrow. cccxiii.

I '11 make them nowise deem they have to do

With Danaan and Pelasgic chivalry,

Whom Hector till the tenth year baffled. cccxiv.

Our boys hunt tireless, and wear out the woods, cccxv.

Nor is the journey far. Be Jupiter

But favourable, the third day brings our fleet

To anchor on the Cretan coast. cccxvi.

Had Ida's land
Borne twain beside, such heroes, Troy herself
Had stormed the gates of Inachus, and Greece,
With doom reversed, were wailing. cccxvii.

A stag of matchless mould
There was, and spreading antlers, from its dam
Stolen and nourished up by Tyrrheus' sons
And their sire Tyrrheus, of the royal herds
Ruler, and ranger of the wide domain. cccxviii.

And they eagerly
With serpent-scales of gold were burnishing
The terrible aegis, stormy Pallas' arm. cccxix.

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CHAPTER VII

RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURES

* 184. To get to the root of the rhythmical structures,
which are so marked a feature of the Latin hexameter,
we must examine the order in which words are disposed
in the verse. We shall find that the strongly characteristic
feature is the perpetual symmetry of substantive and epithet

The principle ultimately governing such arrangement is
that the order of words is determined by rhetorical considera-
tions. *The grouping of words in Latin poetry is not
promiscuous, or due to metrical difficulties.' In Latin verse
we certainly have not more freedom in the arrangement of
words than in Latin prose ; in both the order of words is
due to the needs of the period. All the parts of the
sentence give the impression of working towards the
completion of the sense in the closing words, and the effect
on the mind is that of the satisfaction produced by a perfect
whole. This is shown in the complete type of hexameter
(p. 3) by the fact that verb or substantive is placed at the
end, and in the fused type when a sentence flows over into
another verse, the words essential to the sense will as a rule
be foimd at the end of the clause. Naturally the grammatical,
are as far as possible adapted to the rhythmical divisions of
the verse.^

^ Thus, Tantum inter fagos, umbrosa cacumina, densas, would be
intolerable ; but with fagos and densas interchanging places, densas before
the 2^ caesura heralds fagos, which falls in its place to the complete
satisfaction of the reader.

216

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RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURES 217

* 185. The most constant arrangement is — '

. , , adjective | . . . noun,
or (less often)

. . . noun I . . , adjective.

Perpetual or emphatic adjectives tend to come last. Cf.
A. iv. 261, 265, 283, iaspide fulva (perpetual), Carthaginis
altae (perpetual), reginam ambire furentem (emphatic) = in
spite of her rage. Cf. G, i. 4, parcis. E,g,

Tityre, t\xpatulae recubans sub tegmine^^^'.
Silvestrem tenui musam meditaris <wena.
Floribus atque apio crines omatus amaro.
Quam sibi quae Vari praescripsit pagina nomen.
Naturally, varieties of arrangement with respect to the
caesuras which are the ends of rhythmical divisions are
numerous.

Sometimes the first of the pair of words comes before a
3i or I J caesura —

Bucina cogAaX priscos ad verba Quirites,
A ! timidos n^utas canibus lacerasse marinis,
Puniceo stabis duras evincta cothurno.

At other times one of the words is placed before a 3J
caesura and the other before a i J caesura —

Aetemam moxiens famamy Caieta, dedisti.
Tu calamos inflare leveSy ego dicere versus.

Again, each of the words may come before a slight pause —
Frigida, Daphni, boves ad flumina : nulla neque amnem.
Lastly, one word may come last of the first hemistich, the
other first of the second. Here there is danger of the reader's
neither regarding them nor pronouncing them as separated.
The caesura should be frankly observed so that the im-
pression is given that the words belong to difierent limbs of
the line ; e^.

His tibi Gfynei\\\ nemoris dicatur origo.
Si curatus inaequali ||| tonsorc capillos.

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3X8 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

* 186. This symmetry of noun and adjective undoubtedly
gives Latin poetry its distinctive character.

It contributes largely towards its solidity and regularity —
so much so that it would be well to look at some of its
phenomena from a different point of view.

Pretty and effective cases of the separation of noun and
adjective are : —

* 187. (i.) When an oppositional phrase intervenes —

Nee tamen interea raucae, tua cura, palumbes.
Tantum inter densas, umbrosa cacumina, fagos.

Cf. Ovid, Met, iii 421 —

Spectat humi positus geminum, sua lumina, sidus.

* 188. (ii.) Or an ablative absolute —

Aut ibi flava seres, mutato sidere, farra.

* 189. (iii.) Or a vocative, a very pretty effect —

Sterilemque tibi, Proserpina, vaccam.
Tumidis, Bumaste, racemis.
Primus Idumaeas referam tibi, Mantua, palmas.
Infelix o semper, oves, pecus I

* 190. (iv.) A parenthetical clause — ,

Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, Musam.
Hinc sinus Herculei, si vera est fama, TarentL

(v.) Ipse or pronoun interpolated—

oculos ante ipsa meos. A. xii. 638.

per has ^o te lacrimas. 3, 56.

Exercises in separating Noun and Adjective

Then pass I through the spheres of watchful fire,

And misty regions of wide air next under.

And hills of snow and lofts of pil^d thunder. cccxx.

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RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURES 219

How earnest thou over Ac unfooted sea?

Or hath that antique mien and rob^ form

Moved in these vales invisible till now? cccxxi.

1 11 see the great Achilles whom we knew. cccxxii.

So all night long upon the sandy shore

I heard die hollow murmur of die wave. cccxxiii.

Nor woodlands old, like Druid couches spread,

The master's feet shall tread. cccxxiv.

For all thy blessed youth
Becomes as aged, and doth b^ the alms
Of palsied eld. cccxxv.

Blind Thamyris and blind Maeonides. cccxxvi.

Darkling she sings in shadiest covert hid. cccxxvii.

His walk
The fiery serpent fled and noxious worm.
The lion and fierce tiger glared aloof. cxx:xxviii.

*191. It may safely be said that in this separation
adjectives tend to be attracted to the beginning and their
nouns to the end of the line, the final place being the more
emphatic ; e^, De caelo tactas memini praedicere quercus.
Thus Lucan uses monotonously adjective before 2\ caesura
and noun at end ; e,g, L 80, Machina divolsi turbabit fimera
mundi; and 86, 90, 95, 96, 97, 538, 539, 540.

* 192. The perfection of this separation produces iduit is
commonly known as the 'golden line,* which consists of
two adjectives at the beginning and two nouns at the end,
with a verb in the, middle; as a rule, the first adjective
agrees with the first noun, and the second adjective with
second noun. Cf. Dryden, 'That which they call golden,
or two substantives and two adjectives, with a verb betwixt
them to keep the peace.' There could be no better device

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aao LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

for drawing a comparison or pointing a contrast, nor more
musical in its perfect balance. Thus—

Mollia luteola pingit vaccinia calta. E. ii. 50.

Grandiaque effossis mirabitur ossa sepulchris. G. L 497.
Incultisque rubens pendebit sentibus uva. E. iv. 29.

This perfect golden line is not often used by Virgil, who
apparently adopts it only where he evidently wishes his style
to be particularly ornate and elaborate; e,g. A, v. 45-71.
Line 46 runs —

Annuus exactis completur mensibus orbis
(a golden line by chiasmus).

Line 66 nms —

Prima citae Teucris ponam certamina classis.

The whole is a dignified speech by Aeneas.

G. i. 467, 468 (in the highly rhetorical passage closing

G.iy-

Cum caput obscura nitidum ferrugine texit,
Impiaque aetemam timuerunt saecula noctem.

Ovid, however, naturally uses it more frequently; the
Egyptian Claudian has golden lines to the verge of
monotony. E.g, Ovid —

Barbara Mopsopios terrebant agmina muros. M. vi. 423.
Flammifera gemini fumant adspergine postes. M. xiv. 796.
Congestoque avidum pinguescere corpore corpus.

M, XV. 89.
Tristia sanguinea lambentem vulnera lingua. M. iii. 57.

Lucan uses this cadence excessively ; e.g. i. 3 —

In sua victrici conversum viscera dextra,
and 40 —

Ultima funesta concurrant proelia Munda,

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RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURES 221

and 62, 95, 170, 180, 329, 500, 675, 691, these being a small
selection.

Statius —
Tantus ab exiguo crudescit sanguine Mavors (by chiasmus).

Theb, viL 624.
Ilissos multa purgavit lumina lympha. Theb. viii. 767.

Claudian —
Omnia Cecropiae relegis secreta senectae.

De Cons. Fl. Mai Theod, 67.
Circumfusa tuae conscendant rostra secures.

De Cons. Stil. iii. 201.

Catullus uses them somewhat too freely ; cf. Ixiv., eight
instances in 11. 59, 129, 263, 264, 309, 339, 344, 383; e.g. '

59—

Irrita ventosae linquens promissa procellae.

* 193. Virgil, however, often uses lines which are very
nearly golden, and many which have a similar rhythm, just
as Goldsmith abounds in such lines as —

And every stranger finds a ready chair,
and

Where rougher climes a nobler race display.

Thus (a) the verb alone is slightly displaced —
Silvestrem tenui musam meditaris avena.

So Ovid—
Sexta resurgebant orientis comua Phoebes. M. viii. 11.

And
Stuppea praerumpit Phrygiae retinacula classis. M. xiv. 547.

(j8) Extra words find their way in —
Pinguis et ingratae premeretur caseus urbi.

And Ovid —
Nee mora : diversis lapsi de fontibus omnes. M. xiii. 954.

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222 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

(y) Adjectives and nouns are in inverse order — an inter-
rupted chiasmus — with extra words introduced ; cf.

Majoresque cadunt altis de montibus umbrae.

Ipse ^o cana l^am tenera lanugine mala. ^. ii. 51.

And Ovid—
Sunt auro similes longis in vitibus uvae. M, xiii. 813.

Lucan abounds in this arrangement to monotony ; e^.
Assyrias Latio maculavit sanguine Carras, i 105.

and
Hesperios audax veniam metator in agros. l 382.

Also 243, 476, etc.

Claudian —

Parturit innumeros angusto pectore mundos.

Z>e Cons. MaL Theod. 81.
^ ^ /

This inversion of parallelism calls attention to words
which it IS desired to emphasise, and has a pleasing effect.

Exercises on Golden and Symmetrical Lines

Nor is the fleece's whiteness ever stained

With dye Assyrian. cocxxix.

The mellow vintage on the sunny rocks

Ripens. cccxxx.

Nor yet withal had' they heard war-trumpets blown, nor
yet the hard anvil cUnk under the sword. cccxxxi.

Th' unwarlike Indian thou dost keep aloof

From towers of Rome. cccxxxii.

They put on frowning masks of hollow cork. cccxxxiii.

Th' inwoven Britons lift the purple curtain. cccxxxiv.

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RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURES 2*3

By wells or by deep pools I '11 bid the flocks

Drink of the wave that runs in oaken troughs. cccxxxv.

Spears will he find eaten with scaling rust,

Or strike on empty helms with heavy hoe,

And marvel at the mighty bones he digs

From out their tombs. cccxxxvi.

The yearly circle of the months is measured out to fiilfilment

cccxxxvii.

And rivers undergliding ancient walls. cccxxxviii.

Thus all their vines do ripen with increase

Abundant, and do teem in hollow dells

And deepening lawns. cccxxxix.

Aquarius would have poured Deucalion's rains,

And the whole earth lain hid in watery wastes. CCCXL.

* 194. It is practically a corollary of this rule of separation
that two or more words ending in open vowel sounds like
aSy osy ts, aruntf etc., should, as a rule, not be allowed to i
come together, but be separated by some word or words ; ■

Squalent abductis arva colonis. G, L 507.

Et simulacra modis pallentia miris. /A 477.

Aut summas carpentem ignavius herbas. G. iii. 465.

Stare decemque alios Priamum superesse per annos.

A. viiL 399.
(Cf. on Rhyme, p. 162.)

Ennius often fails to separate adjectives and nouns and
similar sounds. Hence (firom assonance) he reads im-
musically over whole passages ; cf. 294-312, and such
separate lines as —

Nutantes pinos rectasque cupressos. 267.

Stant rectis foliis. 266.

Parerent, observarent, portisculu' signum. 241.

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224 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Regni dant operam simul auspicio augurioque. 74.

Et ripis raptare locosque novos ita sola. 33.

Consilio indu foro lato sanctoque senatu. 298.

Symmetrical Order ^

*195. I. Parallelism. — Notice the following, extending
over the whole line —

Obscenaeque canes | importunaeque volucres. G, i. 470.
Chaoniam pingui glandem mutavit arista. lb, 8,

Poculaque inventis Acheloia miscuit uvis. lb, 9.

. Over part of the line, as —

Per silvas : turn saevus aper, turn pessima tigris. G, iii. 248.
Carpamus, dum mane novum, dum gramina canent'i^. 325.
Troja, fidem, si vera feram, si magna rependam. A, ii. 161.
Di patrii,|servate domum, servate nepotem. lb, 702.

* 196. 2. Chiasmus, extending over the whole line —
Exesa inveniet scabra robigine pila. G, i. 495.
Imbellem avertis Romanis arcibus Indum. G, ii 172.
Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen. lb, 176.
Impositos duris crepitare incudibus enses. 3, 540.
Litoraque alcyonem resonant, acalanthida dumi. G, iii 338.

Over part of the line —
Ascanium : superant montes et flumina tranant. G, iii. 270.

Chiasmus, or juxtaposition of contrasted adjectives, will
often bring adjective and noun together, e,g, Parturit
innumeros angusto pectore mundos (Claudian). Otherwise
this arrangement is rare ; there are few such lines as
Pascitur in magna | Sila formosa juvenca. G. iii 219.

* This is a phenomenon so common in Virgil's writing that it is perhaps
not necessary to quote more examples, but the student should notice in his
reading that it is practically omnipresent. Rh3rthmically, it is the chief
means of obtaining a variety of breaks without jerkiness ; rhetorically,
it is the secret of the majesty and serenity of Virgilian verse. It is to the
fact that the two sjrmmetrical phrases constantly supplement and illustrate
each other that Virgil owes his matchless lucidity, repose, ' ampleur,'

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RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURES 225

In this line, however, as in

His tibi Grynei | nemoris dicatur origo
and

Si curatus inaequali | ton^ore capillos,

it should not be forgotten that a separation is really made
by the dominant caesura of the line (cf. p. 77).

Other pretty rhythms are connected with the arrange-
ment of syllables in the feet.

197. (a) The fourth foot (not followed by a heavy pause
in sense) ending in a dissyllable of two shorts. This is
improved by the presence of a ij or 2 J pause; e^.
Ilicibus crebris sacra nemus accubet umbra. G. iii.; 334.
Praecipitem Oceani rubro lavit aequore currum. -/^. 359.
Insequitur, jam jamque manu tenet et premit basta.

-4. ii. 530.
Confixi a sodis : nee te tua plurima, Panthu. i^. 429.

198. (P) The fourth foot a dactyl, contained in one word,
preceded by a monosyllable. (The monosyllable is mostly
et or a preposition.) This is a favourite rhythm in Virgil.

Frondibus hirsutis et carice pastus acuta. G, iii, 231.

Luciferi primo cum sidere frigida rura. Id, 324.

Solis ad occasum cum frigidus aera Vesper. 7^. 336.

* 199. (y) A line divided into three parts by ij and 3J
(or 3rd troch.) caesuras corresponding with sense pauses,
though not very common, is effective.
Per silvas : tum saevus aper, tum pessima tigris.
Nudus ara : sese nudus : hiemps ignava colono.
Arboribus: crescent illae, crescetis, amores.
Delitui, dum vela darent, si forte dedissent.
Obtulerat, fidens animi, atque in utrumque paratus.
Obstipui, steteruntque comae, et vox faucibus haesit
Volvitur : exsuperant flammae, fiirit aestus ad auras.
Procubuere : tenent Danai, qua deficit ignis.

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S86 lATIN HEXAMET1;R VERSE

Exercises on Separation of Rhyming Words,
Dactyuc Fourth Foot, Three-fold Lines, etc

Ah ! little think they, while they dance along.

How many feel this very moment death

And all the sad variety of pain. cccxli.

^ When all the plain.

Covered with thick embattled squadrons bright.
Chariots, and flaming arms, and fiery steeds,
Reflecting blaze on blaze, first met his view, cccxlil

No forest fell
Where thou wouldst build ; no quarry sent its stores
To enrich thy walls : but thou didst hew the floods.
And make thy marble of the glassy wave. cccxliii.

The very voyager
Out of the sea shall cease : the sailing pine
Shall not exchange her merchandise : all lands
Shall bear all things : the ground shall not endure
The mattock, nor the vine the pruning-hook.
Now likewise the strong ploughman shall unloose
His bulls from 'neath the yoke. cccxlfv.

She lies
In some far stony gorge out of his ken,
A heap of fluttering feathers : never more
Shall the lake glass her, flying over it ;
Never the black and dripping precipices
Echo her stormy scream as she sails by : —
As that poor bird flies home nor knows his loss—*
So Rustum kpew not his own loss, but stood
Over his dying son, and knew him not. cccxlv.

M. Arnold, Sohrdb and Rustum.

* 200. (S) Virgil produces a dignified and weighty efiect by

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RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURES 127

makinglinesconsistof five words (the enclitic ^M^ not bdng
counted as a word); e^.

Piaedpue infelix pesti devota futurae. A. L 712.

and G, L 463-514, in which are eleven five-worded lines,
four running in the lines 472-475.

In a passage (Cr. iiL 1-48), which is intentionally in the
grand style, there are eight of these in forty -eight lines.
So, too> G, iv. 315-558, the episode of Aristaeus, the
nature of the passage suggests a highly-finished style, and
lines like

Milesia vellera nymphae
Carpebant, hyali saturo fiicata colore,
and, Deprensis olim statio tutissima nautis,

are firequent

Ovid also makes great use of this rhythm ; as usual, he
overdoes it Virgil's proportion is about 15 per cent, Ovid's
considerably greater. In forty lines of Ovid as many as
ten lines are of the five-word type. A glance at Met L will
show how excessive is Ovid's use of them.

In five lines (197-202) are three examples.
In four „ (387-390) i» »

In „ „ (446-449) „ „

In eight „ (722-729) are five „

He has a trick of using such lines in pairs ; there are at
least seven pairs, 201 and 202, 387 and 388, 424 and 425,
435 and 436, 446 and 447, 609 and 610, 714 and 715, and
three lines together at 569-571, and 722-724.

*201* (c) Four- worded lines also occiu: in rhetorical
passages; e,g, G^.i. 463-514.

Obscenaeque canes importunaeque volucres. 470.

Laomedonteae luimus perjuria Trojae. 502.

Catullus has

Tecti frustraretur inobservabilis error.

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338 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Ovid is very fond of such lines — j

Huctibus ignotis insultavere carinae. Met i. 134.

Effodiuntur opes irritamenta malorum. lb, 140.

Silvaram tenebris captivarumque ferarum. lb, 475.

Nescia gratentur consolenturne parentem. lb, 577.

Inter Hamadryadas celeberrima Nonacrinas. lb, 689.

A similar effect is produced by Milton's line (Samson
Ag. 87)

Irrecoverably dark, total eclipse,
and Shakespeare's (Macbeth)

The multitudinous seas incarnadine.

Lucretius has in one case (iii. 907) an expr^sive line
composed of three words —

Insatiabiliter deflevimus aetemumque.

Exercises in Five-worded and Four-worded Lines
Returning I will lead back the Muses from the Aonian hilL

\ CCCXLVI.

It rolls along its scaly back with uplifted breast, cccxlvii.

But cloud instead, and ever-during dark

Surrounds me, from the cheerful ways of men

Cut off, and for the book of knowledge fair,

Presented with a universal blank. cccxLVin.

It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles. cccxlix.

Chiron son of Phillyra and Amythaonian Melampus. cccl.

He, busied in his majesty, surveys

The singing masons building roofs of gold. cccli.

And he loads the hulls with massy silver and cauldrons of
Dodona, CCCLIi.

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RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURES 229

And he scans Orion in his armour of gold. cccLin.

(They) conjure the gods, and on Latinus call. cccliv.

Ovid, who followed up Virgil's lead in all points that
made for smoothness and symmetry, works most of his
devices of form very hard. He affects

(a) a fourfold arrangement of symmetrical clauses
in two complete lines.

Jussit et extendi campos, subsidere valles,

Fronde tegi silvas, lapidosos surgere montes. Met i. 43, 44.

Canities eadem est, eadem violentia vultu :

Idem oculi lucent : eadem feritatis imago. lb. 238, 239.

Quos neque Tydides nee Larissaeus Achilles,

Non anni domuere decem, non mille carinae.

A, ii. 197, 198.

* 202. (/J) A threefold arrangement ; e,g,
Nat lupus inter oves, fulvos vehit unda leones,
Unda vehit tigres. Met i. 304, 305.

Sic aquilam penna fugiunt trepidante columbae ;
Hostes quaeque suos : amor est mihi causa sequendi.

^. 505* 506.

*203. (y) A double symmetry of noun and adjective
between the two halves of the line is frequent ; e,g,

Arbuteos fetus montanaque fraga legebant. lb, 104.

Flumina jam lactis, jam flumina nectaris ibant. lb, iii.
Auro deterior, fulvo pretiosior aere. lb, 115.

And so on in 327, 549, 659, 769, etc.

A chiasmus is not unfrequent, as in

Concipit Iris aquas alimentaque nubibus adfert. lb, 271.

Ovid pushes his experiments in symmetry farther than
Virgil. Thus he has two lines in corresponding order
throughout.

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333 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Prata, lacus, rivos, steles,

Ossa, cnior, venae, calor, umor, viscera, nervi,

Volneribus, clamore, fuga, terrore, tumultu,

are not to be found in VirgiL

* 208. Careless as opposed to artistic repetition is by no
means unknown in Viigil, but Lucan is a great offender in
this matter ; e.g.

i. 25, 27. urbibus, urbibus.
80, 86. foedera, foedera.
iL 292, 295. furorem, furorem.
iiL 436, 441, 445. silvam, silva, silva.
viL 157, 160. suture, sulpure.

Lucan casually repeats phrases as well as words.

Exercises in Repetition

For the field is drained by flax-^iarvest and wheat-harvest,
drained by the slumber-steeped poppy of Lethe.

CCCLVIII.

Now let the basket be lightly woven of briar-rods, now parch
corn over the fire and poimd it in the stone. cccLix.

By night the light stubbles, by night the parched meadows
arc better mown ; clinging moisture fails not through
the night cccLX.

Now the vines are tied, and the shrubberies lay by the
pruning-knife, and the vine-dresser at their end sings
over his finished rows {anUs). cccLXi.

But time meanwhile fleets beyond recovery. ccclxii.

He, soothing his love-sickness on his hollow shell, sang of
thee, O sweet wife, of thee alone on the solitary shore,
of thee at dayspring, of thee at the death of day.

CCCLXIII.

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RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURES 233

* 209. Occasionally only variations of order are due to
metre, but the better the poet the less frequently does he
allow anything but the strongest necessity to interfere with
the order of ideas. The displacement of a word from its
natural order is called Hyperbaton, We may notej three
cases.

(L) Relative qui is often found second, third, or fourth
of its clause ; e,g,

Trojae qui primus ab oris.

(il) Prepositions (mainly dissyllabic) ; cf.
haec inter, me sine.

N.B, — Monosyllabic prepositions must not be so used
unless they can be inserted in the middle of the phrase they
govern; c^,

Transtra per et remos. A, v. 663.

Virgil and Ovid do not even use quocum, but cum quo/
(Virgil has quicum once).

(iiL) Conjunctions.
Est mihi namque. E, iii 33.

Bt is often used as second word.
Juppiter et laeto descendet plurimus imbri. E, vii. 23.

Sub pedibusque. E. v. 35.

An hj^erbaton of que is rare in hexameters, although it
has special conditions for use in Ovidian el^iacs. The
need for it is largely obviated by the device of repetition :
c£ § 207.

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CHAPTER VIII

DESCRIPTIVE VERSE — DIFFERENTIATION — HINTS ON
TRANSLATION

* 210. In making his verse fit very closely to the idea to be
conveyed, Virgil yields to no artist The resources in his
armoury are manifold : the caesura, the smaller rhythm of
the arrangement of feet in the line, the larger rhythm of
pauses throughout a passage, the use of vowels and conson-
ants, elisions, and endings of lines. Thus, it is always easy
to feel the languor of the third-trochee caesura, the halting
movement of a spondaic word in the fourth foot, the tragic
excitement contained in a pause after a first spondee, or the
abrupt and jolty draw-up at fourth spondaic diaeresis, the
mental excitement portrayed by a passage splintered by
firequent pauses, the ease and smoothness when each word
ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning with a
consonant and vice versa, the dignity or humour of a mono-
syllabic or spondaic ending, the imitation of sounds or ideas
by the alliterative use of expressive consonants like J, and
above all the depicting of force, anger, confusion in an
accumulation of harsh elisions.

It will suit our purpose better, however, to imagine that
we have certain effects to produce, and to consider by what
various means Virgil would have produced them.

* 211. Softness, languor, supineness, tenderness, effeminaiy,
— ^The 3 troch. caesura (§ 54). Quadrisyllabic endings
(§§ 97t loi)* Many dactyls in line (§ 90).

834

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DESCRIPTIVE VERSE 93s

* 212. JSase^ smoothness^ peaceful calm. — Even interchange
of consonants and vowels. Freedom from elision. Diaeresis
after fourth dactylic (bucolic), especially in pastoral style

(§18).

*213. Dignity^ grandiose slowness^ solemnity^ rhetorical
statements^ stateliness^ seriousness^ and kindred ideas*

Caesuras. — ^A combination of 2\ + 3I (§ 46). Only one
caesura in the line (§§ 53-55).

Pauses. — Pause after first spondaic word (§ 9). Pause
after 3 J to close expression of a sententia (§ 16).

Feet. — Initial spondee (§ 80). Spondees through the
verse (§ 89).

Endings. — Spondaic ending (§ 95). Monosyllabic ending
(§ 106).

Rhythm. — Four- or five-worded lines (§§ 200, 201).

*214. Halting^ jerJ^ pull-up^ check.

Feet — Fourth foot a spondaic word (§ 86).

Caesura. — Third troch. caesura followed by a word w —

(§49).

Pauses. — Fourth spondaic diaeresis (§ 18). Any diaeresis.
After first spondee (§ 9). Immediately after fifth arsis

<,-... 4) (§19).

Endings. — Monosyllabic (§ 106).

* 215. Tragic excitement^ strong feelings hurry^ arresting
attention^ etc.

Pauses. — After first spondee (§ 9). After second dactyl
(§ 12). i\ pause (§ 16). 3 troch. (§ 14). Third foot pause
(dactyl) (§ 15). Fourth dactylic diaeresis (§ 18). Fifth
foot pause (§21). i trodi. (§ 7). i dactyl (§ 8). \\
(dactyl + long) (§ 10).

Caesuras. — 2 troch. + 3 troch. (§ 63X or 3 troch. + 4 troch.
No real caesura before 3J (§ 53).

Rhythm. — Frequent pauses.

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«36 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

-^/.—Dactyls through line (§ 90).

Endings. — Monosyllabic (§ 106).

Elisions, — Harsh (§ 157). Of monosyllables (§ 154).

* 216. Sharp contrast — Pause 5 troch. (§ 20). Change
from spondees to dactyls (§91).

'^217. DulnesSy monotony y weariness. — Same rhythm in
several consecutive lines.

* 218. Scom^ indignation^ sneer. — Pause 3^ (§ 16).

* 219. Cumulative ejfect. — 3 troch. caesura (§ 49).

* 220. Emphasis on word.

Caesura. — Reserve caesura (§ 76).
Pause. — ^First dactyl for adjective (§ 8). Just before 5
troch. pause (§ 20).

Foot. — Adjective placed last of line before a pause.

* 221. Humour. — Monosyllabic ending (§ 106).

* 222. Detailed description. — Broken style, brief clauses,
many pauses.

* 223. — Special sounds. — Alliteration on various con-
sonants.

Exercises on the Descriptive Use of Dactyls and
Spondees — Original Lines

For dactyls. Describe —

A bird fluttering in the air.
^ Hail pattering down.

A horse galloping free.

Flames spreading.

Stags running over a plain.

A ship before a good wind.

Waves beginning to rise in a storm.
For spondees. Describe —

Two bulls butting each other.

A man troubled in mind.

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DESCRIPTIVE VERSE 237

Men rolling huge stones.
A funeral procession.
Big animals settling to sleep.
A queen with stately walk.
A monotonous song.
Evening coming solemnly on.

For transition from dactyls to spondees, or vice versa.
Describe —

Chariots scrambling at the start and then settling to

work.
A stream running down hill, then along the plain.
Warriors massing and rushing out to battle.
A man alternately sad and gay.

The Differentiation of the Parts of the Hexameter

224. The principle of the Latin hexameter is to differen-
tiate the two hemistichs, yet in such a way that there is
likeness in the difference. As a rule the best hexameter is
that in which the two parts are nearly equal without actually
being equal, and in which in spite of differentiation the
unity of the verse is preserved.

ITius at the beginning a spondaic word is avoided because
it militates against the ending, which is spondaic.

In the matter of caesuras and diaeresis a third trochee
caesura approaches the equalisation of the hemistichs too
closely to let the line be acceptable in Latin : there is only
a short unaccented anacrusis preening the second hemistich
to prevent equality.

The simultaneous use of a i troch. and 2 troch. caesura
has the effect of making the first two feet resemble the close
of a verse {e,g, noctis agebat equos), and is therefore to be
avoided.

The third foot diaeresis (especially with a spondaic word)

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as8 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

or a pause after third foot is very rare, because thus the
verse is split into two equal halves.

As to endings, — ^The end (ue. two last feet) has agreement
between verse stress and word accent, whereas the strife
between these two is purposely maintained throughout the
middle of the verse.

The stereotyped classical endings owe their existence to
the fact that otherwise the strong caesura in fifth or sixth
feet would make the ending resemble the middle of the line.

How TO SET ABOUT THE TRANSLATION OF A PASSAGE

* 225. Read the English several times.

1. In so doing catch the general spirit and style, and

search in your memory for a similar passage in Viigil
on which to model your composition.

2. Note remarkable rhythms, pauses, alliterations, emphatic

words, phrases which lend themselves to translation
by hendiadys or apposition, chances for descriptive
metre, intentional archaisms, etc., with a view to
correct translation into Virgilian style.

Read or recall a passage of some thirty lines with
a view to unconscious imitation of your model

3. Then^ and not till this is done^ begin to think about

details of vocabulary^ jotting down as many alterna-
tives as possible.

4. Finally, consider the exigencies of metre^ using suitable

forms and devices, but do not allow metrical neces-
sities to dictate to you paus^, caesuras, and the
general scheme of the passage. What processes i
and 2 have prescribed must not be allowed to be
brushed aside because of difficulties of scansion.

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DESCRIPTIVE VERSE 2^9

How TO BEGIN AN ORIGINAL POEM

226. Do not invoke the Mus^, but try one of the follow-
ing methods of beginning : —

(I) Give a short exposition of the main heads of the
subject in the form of indirect questions depending on
eocpediam^ referam^ canam^ etc. Cf. G, L 1-5 ; A. vi 756-
759, speech of Anchises ; A, viL 37-40.

This form suits philosophical and didactic poems gener-
ally; e^.

HoRTUS Angliacus

Quae cura Angliacos tandem exomaverit hortos
Natur^ monstrante viam, quae gratia silvis
Redditur, etc.

(iL) A short and quick description of places and circum-
stances connected with the subject —
Forte sub arguta, etc. E, viL 1-5.

Cf. also A. iii 1-3, Milton, In Quintum Novembris^ and T.
S. Evans, Damon and Thyrsis.

This method is according to the precept of Horace, * Non
fiimum ex fulgore, sed ex fumo dare lucem,' and is especially
adapted for descriptive and historical subjects ; e^,

1 \ \ MONTES PyRENAEI

Gallorum campos inter, vicinia regna,
Europae extremos ubi claudit Iberia fines
Tollitur in montes Isthmus, etc.

Milton in Epitaphium Damonis (i-io) addresses the
Muses, and combines (i.) and (ii.).

(iil) An abrupt breaking into the subject by means of
a iu quoque^ ergOy or some similar word, as if you had been
thinking of the subject, and had b^un to write in the middle
of your thoughts ; cf. A. vii i.

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340 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

This mode follows Horace's precept of hurrying the reader
in medias res — Haud secus ac notas. It will suit almost all
kinds of subjects.

Milton, in his Ode to Mansus, b^;ins —

Haec quoque^ Manse, tua meditantur carmina laudi
Pierides, etc.

For pauses to be used in opening see above (p. 62).

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EXERCISES .
A Demonstration
(Which will take about an hour to work out in class)

ApoUo and Mnemosyne

Thus with half-shut suffused eyes (185 ^) he stood (8),

While from beneath some cumbrous boughs hard by (185)

With solemn step (89) an awful goddess came (18]^

And there was purport in her looks for him,

Which he with eager guess began to read

Perplexed, the while melodiously he said (23) :

* How (185) camest thou over the unfooted sea (23)?

Or hath that antiquQ mien and rob^d form

Moved in these vales (187) invisible till now (23)?

Sure I have heard those vestments sweeping o'er

The fallen leaves (185), when I have sat alone

In cool mid forest (185 and 13), Surely I have traced

The rustle of those ample skirts about

These grassy solitudes (190), and seen the fl<iwer$

lift up their heads, as still the whisper pass'd.

Goddess ! I have beheld those (81) eyes before,

And their eternal calm, and all that face (18),

Or I have dreamed' ^gats, Hytperian, ui. 44*

The numbers refer to sections.
341

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34a LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

First apply the hints given in § 225. The passage is rather
one of graceful description than of physical or mental excite-
ment The appearance of a deity, you remember, is well
described in A. I 305-417, especially ^14-334 and 402-417.
Read these passages over. Now look to the rhythms
suggested by the English. Adjectives and nouns must be
separated in the renderings of half-shut eyesy boughs hard fy^
these vales y fallen leaves ^ mid forest^ grassy solitiMUs, With
solemn step suggests spondaic treatment. Turning to the
pauses we shall be struck by an awful goddess came^ the
unusualness of the incident suggesting a bucolic pause (§ 18).
The excitement of the penultimate line, all that face^ may
also demand a bucolic pause or a first dactyl (§ 8). Final
pauses -will certainly fall at least at he said, pas/d^ and at
the end ; perhaps also they may be necessary at sea and till
now. A 2\ pause seems likely for midforest^ and the first
line looks like overflowing into the second.

Now take the first group of lines, and insist on the
bucolic pause at goddess came, Virg. A, i. 405 gives you
patuit dea. The active construction suits both Latin idiom
and the versification better than the passive : moisture
suffused the eyes of the god (ethic dative) as he thus stood.
Try the Latin : Lumina sic stanii deo prope clausa suffusit
(or pluperf. suffuderat) umor. There is too much matter
here for a line, so k6ep over prope clausa perhaps, or
lumina: the latter is better, as it is a nOun, and gives a first
dactyl pause —

Sic stanti prc^ clausa deo suffuderat umpr
Lumina.

While: Latin prefers paratactic constructions ; so interea.
Cumbrous^ when examined in this context, means obscuring.
Hard by ^neighbouring: ex coeds vicinis ramis^ quite im-
possible in verse. Coeds can be replaced by a noun, latebris
with genitive : e vidnis ramorum Mebris^ which seems more

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EXERCISES »43

tnicitaUe. E suggests the favourite past participle, egressa.
Hold interea for the ne3ct line :

vicinis ramorum egressa latebris | Interea.

TTure came^ appeared: the tag sese tulit obvia virgo
perhaps occurs to you. To whom f Phoebo.
Phoebo sese tulit obvia virgo.

Keep it in mind that your pause in the next line is fixed
at the foiuth.

With solemn step an awful goddess. Solemn step = incessus :
awful ^metuenda, venerabiliSy augusta. We have a verb
already in tulit^ sopatuit may hecomt patens dea —

Augusta incessuque patens dea.

And so ends our first group.

Our next flight takes us over three lines to a final pause
at he said. We must rest there, as we have already exceeded
the average of three or four lines without final pause. There
was . . . for him becomes more direct in Latin : he {Apollo)
sees her prophetic look, Apollo will end the line, and cemit
precede. Prophetic ^praesdgus^ fatidicus^ praenuntius : fati-
dicamfaciem —

cemit Apollo
Fatidicam faciem.

Here let us look to our final pause. He spoke without
waiting for the goddess to address him : in such cases Virgil
uses the idiomatic ultro. He said: vocem dicta edidit ultro,
Vocem preferably, because it will carry a spondaic adjective
for melodiously : the while = simul,

Dulcemque simul vocem edidit ultro.

At the beginning of the line there are i^ feet to spare for
the middle phrase ; this is best used for a strong word, |)re-
ferably the verb. Began to read: inspicit^ quaerity exploraty
or better, scrutatur, Scrutabatur would make a pretty

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244 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

trochaic pause if a short vowel followed ; however, we have
only room for scruiatur. Guess : best done by omen : per-
plexed wfll agree with guess by hypallage: dubio amine.
Some padding is wanted. The context readily supplies in
voltu, or poetical plural, volHbus —

dubiumque in voltibus omen
Scrutatur.

Our next final pause, tentatively, is till now. Within the
next three lines we can allow ourselves some freedom of
movement. How : quo . . . modo^ mostly separated.

Camest thou : the implication is wert thou able to come :
and at any rate possum is nearly always legitimate to secure
an infinitive. Venire, or te ferre poteras.

Quo te ferre modo poteras.
The unfooted sea : pontum avium, impervium, inhospitum^
inaccessum; but better in such cases, avia, impervia ponti.

Super avia ponti.

Till now : hactenusj the verbs will be imperfect Moved:
perhaps simply intereras. These vales : his salHbus {nostris
. . . lucis) ; the second alternative is better, as separating
noun and epithet, and this suggests filling up with an
appositional phrase (§ 187), supplied from the context : as
a native (incola). Adj. vetus, timida,

Hactenus intereras nostris vetus incola luds.

Ideas still to be rendered are : antique mien and robed
form, invisible. Invisible: possibly a verb, kept secret: cela-
bas, tegebas. Remember invisa = hated,

Secreta (remota) t^ebas.

Vultusque antiquos vestitamque formam. This must be
reduced : formamque antiquam vestesque, or less wooden —

Et formam antiquam vestesque remota t^ebas ?

Proceed. The English suggests perhaps a 2^ pause at

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EXERCISES 245

forest We will aim at this variety. Note, Vestments
sweeping der fallen leaves : this is obviously a case for inter-
weaving the nouns and adjectives of the two phrases, the
adjectives having the preference for an early place in the
line or phrase. Sure^sdltcet, which will start Audivi
illas^ has vesteSy hanCy illam pallam verrenteSy verrentem
folia occiduay marciday uty cuniy dum solus sedebamy sedeo.
The important idea is really to seek the cool shade : frigidae
umbrae causa ; and the idea of sitting is only subsidiary.
Make the verb thus, quaerOy peto frigora umbraruniy in
umbris. Mid forest ^longinquay secretay remota, A little
wrangement gives us for the desired pause —

ut secreta solus in umbra
Frigora quaesieram.

To return to the first phrase, which can now take up
two feet of the next line, the words not being adjectives, but
verb or noim : audivi folia fills the space admirably, and
marcida can stand in the fifth foot with vestes to follow :

Scilicet verrentes has marcida i^estes. But vestes

has already been used* in the near context, so substitute
verrentem hanc pallam. Where ? In silvis.

Scilicet in silvis verrenten^ hanc marcida pallam •
Audivi folia, ut secreta solus in umbra
Frigora quaesieram :

It would lend a lilt to the passage if we could now take
a longer flight and pause finally at pas^d. Surely : scilicet
again, or nisifallory crede mihi. Such a phrase has a pretty
effect when sandwiched between noun and adjective of
similar termination. About these grassy solitudes is an
adverbial phrase which cannot come last in its clause in
Latin, so make sure of it at once. GramineiSy nisifallory
in : the difficulty of vocabulary here suggests the inter-
change of noun and adjective, as often : soHs (vacuis) . . .

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246 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

in kerbis, I have traced: vestigariy pussi^ ursi, but get the
infinitive with soledam, videor mifd: vestigare^ ox vestigasse.
Skirts : vestis^ palla^ amictuSy chiton. Ample : as the adjec-
tive is important, as before, try a noun and genitive : volumen
amictus \ Vestigasse tut. Now pad —

Vacuis, nisi fallor, in herbis
Jamdudum videor mihi grande volumen amictus
Vestigasse tuL

And seen . . . pas^d. The phrase, as still the whisper
pass^d^ should come early, unless it is translated by an abla-
tive absolute, which has a sort of prescriptive right to the
, end place : praetereunte susurro will make a pretty, smooth
close. Seen: keep the construction after videor mihi: et
flores aspexisscy vidisse^ spectasse (the last of these is the most
eflfective) capita attollentes. This is metrically difficult ; ;a
good alternative would be sese refleocos. Jam jnay go (without
seeming unnecessary, as often) with the ablative absolute.
Thus—

et flores spectasse reflexos
Sese attollentes jam praetereimte susurro.

Goddess . . . dreamed, A speech may quite well close
on a 2\ pause, but as our passage ends here it would perhaps
be better tp run on to a final pause.

O Dea^ istos oculos aut (because one of the two alternatives
must hold) ante^ prius^ olim vidi. And their eternal calm
»in which is eternal calm. Is eternal may be turned by a
verb perennai: ubi pax {tranquilla) perennat. Istos has a
fondness for first foot (§ 8i). O Dea can wait —

Istos nempe oculos ...
O Dea . . .

Thai face implies lovely face : as before, a noun with
genitive : decus voUus —

et omne tui voltus decus, aut prius olim.

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EXERCISES 347

Vidi: this would be an effective spondaic beginning,
but that it would be too near istos to stand. Try the plural :
vidimus^ aut Dream «= vana — *— imago^ and vana suggests
the verb ilhmt: aut somtti nos vana illusit imago.

Istos nempe oculos, ubi pax tranquilla perennat,
O dea, et omne tui voltus decus, aut prius olim
Vidimus, aut somni nos vana illusit imago.

A. Exercises with References to Sections

iVIA — Pauses referred to are to be regarded simply as
suggestions, and in no way binding on the composer.
When references affect the whole line, the number is placed
to the left of the text.

Dear mother Ida, hearken ere I die (28).

He prest the blossom of his lips (205) to mine,

And added (8), 'This was cast upon the board (21),

When all the full-faced presence of the Gods

Ranged in the halls of Peleus (163) ; whereupon

Rose feud, with question tinto whom 'twere due (10) :

But light-foot Iris brought it yester-eve.

Delivering, that to me, by common voice

Elected umpire (8), Her^ comes to-day^

Pallas and Aphrodite, claiming each

This meed of fairest (10), Thou, within the cave

Behin4 yon whispering tuft of oldest pine,

Mayst well behold them unbeheld (203), unheard

Hear (203) all, and see thy Paris judge of Gods.'

Dear mother Ida, hearken ere I die (28).

It was the deep midnoon (80) : one silvery cloud

Had lost its way between the piney sides

Of this long glen (10). Then to the bow^ they came.

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(aoo) Naked (8i) they came to that smooth-swarded bower,

(200) And at their feet the crocus brake like fire,
Violet, amaracus, and asphodel (98),

Lotus and lilies (21); and a wind (112) arose (ii)^
And overhead the wandering ivy and vine,
This way and that, in many a wild festoon
Ran riot, garlanding the gnarled boughs

(201) With bunch and (170) berry and flower thro* and thro'.

*in.

{no)\l

fit was the time when by the gift of God
(The flist rest steals so sweet on hapless men.
In slumber, lo 1 before mine eyes methought
Hector stood by, shedding abundant tears
From depths of grief— torn by the chariot,
As once of old, and black with gory dust,
His swollen (115) feet pierced through and through

with thongs.
Ah me, in such a guise ! How changed he was
From Hector (8), when returning with the spoils
Of great Achilles on his back, or fires
(193) Of Phrygia launching on the Grecian ships !

His beard unkempt, matted with blood his hair.
And all the shameful wounds upon him, wounds
That he received round his ancestral walls (13) !
In tears, like him, methought I first addressed
(16) The hero, and fetched forth these moumfiil words.

^iv.

More furiously than when the foaming river

Bursts dirough its banks and overflows (8), beats

down
Th* opposing dykes with torrent of its waves ;
Raging and towering o'er the fields it goes,

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EXERCISES 949

And herds and pens it sweeps o'er all the plams

With my own eyes Neoptolemus I saw

Raging in carnage, and within the gate

Twain sons of Atreus : Hecuba too I saw,

And all the hundred daughters (niirus) of her house,

And Priam staining with his blood the fires

Of altars he himself had hallowed. There

The fifty bridal chambers, promise proud

Of long posterity : their doors, with spoils

Of gold barbaric so magnificent.

Have sunk in ruin (i i) : where the flames are not.

The Greeks are in possession of the place.

Come, shepherds, come, and with your greenest bays
Refiresh his dust (13), who lov'd your learned lays.
Bring here the florid glories of the spring (193),
And, as you strew them, pious anthems sing ;
Which to your children and the years to come
May speak of Daphnis, and be never dumb.
While prostrate I drop on his quiet urn
My tears, not gifts ; and like the poor, that moiim
With green but humble turfs (16), write o'er his

hearse
For false foul prose-men this fair truth (206) in

verse.
* Here Daphnis sleeps (13) ! and while the great watch

goes
Of loud and restless Time (16), takes his repose.
Fame is but noise (13); sdl learning but a thought

^ Here, as in yi. vii. and xiv., Uie regularity of Uie heroic couplets is
apt to produce too many final pauses in the Latin version unless the
composer is on his guard.

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aSo LATIN HEXAACETER VERSE

Which one admires^ another s^ts at nought ;
Nature mocks both (199) ; and wit still keeps adoe :
But death brings knowledge and assurance too.'

*vi.

(a) Thare wintry frosts and snow fot tvex last ;

And ever (207) keenly drives the northern blast :
There, Sol ne'er curls the vapoury clouds away,
By dint of rising beam or (21) setting ray.
With ice congealed, the rivers cease to flow ;
And waves that heaved erewhile the stately prow^
Now, on their rigid bade are wont to feel
The grinding trundling of the waggon wheel
The frozen vase of brass is crack'd and starr'd;
And softest linen fabrics stififen hard.
The joyou5 wine (117) that erst was wont to flow,
Is cut through with the hatchet by a blow.
Each pond one solid mass of ice fits in,
(195) And hoar firost stiffens on the bearded chin.

(d) /^Impending snow-storms darken all the sky,
And flocks, unsheltered and neglected, die.
(222)- There stands the frozen ox I Whole herds of deer
Lie buried (80), where their antlers just appear
^ Above the snow : no longer do they bound
At sight of net, or (207) deep-toned voice of hound ;
Nor crimson feathers flaunting in the wind,
Drive onward to the toil th' affrighted hind.
Javelin in hand, is struck the severing blow ;
They bellow, vainly struggle (157}, die beneath the

snow!
With joyous shouts men make the welkin ring.
As homeward they the slaughter'd victim bring :
Then to their subterranean haunts retire,

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EXERCISES irji

Pile their huge blocks (21), whole elms, upon the fire ;
(89) In laughter, songs, and midnight revel join,
And ale, or cider pour, and feign it wine.

♦vii.

Scarce the third glass of measured hours was run, '
When like a fiery meteor sank the sun.
The promise of a storm (16) ; the shifting gales
(120, 124, 125) Forsake by fits, and fill, the flagging sails ;
(124) Hoarsemurmursofthemainfi'omfarwereheard,^
And night came on, not by degrees prepared,
But all at once (13) ; at once the winds arise,
The thunders roll (16), the forky lightning

flies (lo).
In vain (207) the master issues out commands,
(90) In vain (207) the trembling sailors ply their

hands (13); K^")-

Thetempestunforeseen prevents their care(i3),
And firom the first they labour in despair.
The giddy ship betwixt the winds and tides,
(89) Forced bacl^ and forwards, in a circle rides
Stunned with the difierent blows (16); then
shoots amain (8) ;
(123) Till counterbuffed, she stops, and sleeps again J

Dryden, Cypwn aHd Iphtgenia.

♦vni. (Especially on pauses.)

So saying (8), light-foot Iris passed away.

Then rose Achilles dear to Zeus ; and round

The warrior's puissant shoulders Pallas flimg

Her fringed aegis (16), and around his head

The ^orious goddess wreath'd a golden cloud (185),

And firom it lighted an all-shining flame.

As when a smoke (7) firom a city goes to heaven

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a5« LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Far off from out an islimd girt by foes,

All day the men contend in grievous war

From their own city (13X but with set of sun

Their fires flame thickly (13), and aloft the glare

Flies streaming (lo), if perchance the neighboiurs round

May see, and sail to help them in the war ;

So from his head the splendour went to heaven.

From wall to dyke he stept, he stood (18), nor join'd

The Achaeans (10) — honouring his wise mother's word —

There standing, shouted (16), and Pallas (7) far away

Caird; and a boundless panic (185) shook the foe.

Tennyson ijrom Homer),

*ix.

O mother, hear me yet before I die.

They came, they cut away my tallest pines.

My dark (187) tall pines (12), that plumed (11) the

craggy ledge
High oyer the blue gorge, and all between
The snowy peak and snow-white cataract \decursus

aquae (\%i)\
Foster'd the callow eaglet (21) — ^from beneath
Whose thick mysterious boughs in the dark mom
The panther's roar came muffled, while I sat
Low in the valley (10). Never, never more
(200) Shall lone Oenone see the morning mist
Sweep thro* them ; never see them overlaid
With narrow moon-lit slips of silver doud,
(200) Between the loud stream and the trembling stars (117).

Tennyson, Oenone,

*x. (As to general character of the verse see §§ 2 j 1-2 13.)

* But now farewell (10). I am jgoing a long (190) way
With these thou seest (if indeed. I go—- (

For all my mind is clouded with a doubt-r-)

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EXERCISES »J3

(195) To the island valley of Avilioii

Where falls not hail nor (207) rain nor any snow,
Nor ever wind blows loudly (16); but it lies
Deep-meadowed, happy, fair with orchard lawns.
And bowery hollows crowned with summer sea (120) ;
Where (81) I will heal me of my grievous wound.'
So said he (8), and the barge with oar and sail
Moved from the brink (16), like some full-breasted

swan,
That, fluting a wild carol' ere her death.
Ruffles her pure cold plumes, and takes the flood
With swarthy webs (23). Long stood Sir Bedivere
Revolving many memories (7), till the hull
Looked one black spot against the verge of dawn,

(84, SSDD) And on the mere the wailing died away.

Tennyson.

B. Exercises without References

XI. Keatsi* Hyperion^ bk. ii.
(a) So far her voice . . .

{b) Speak, roar, shout

{c) O let him feel . .

(d) But splendider in Saturn's

. . dethronement horrible.
. . . essence in its tent.
. . . saw a gleam of light.

. . . and made it terrU)le.

XII. Matthew Arnold's Mycerinus,

(a) Yet surely, O my people, . . .

... in frozen apathy.
(^) Or is it that some Force . . .

. . . gods careless of our: doom.

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3154 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

. . . and the shadows fall.

XIII. Coleridge, The Picture (or The Laver^s Resolution).

{a) Through weeds and thorns . . .

. , . like a distant sea.

{b) Here Wisdom might resort . . .

... ye dusky Dryades !

{c) And you, ye Earth-winds ! . . .

... on yon hedgehog's back.

{d) This is my hour of triumph . . .

. . . like a dissolving thing.

XIV. Pope's Windsor Forest

(a) Nor yet when moist Arcturus . . .

. . . their little lives in air.
{b) In genial, springs . . .

. . . tyrants of the wat'ry plains.

{c) Now Cancer glows . . .

. * . and Empress of the main.

♦xv. The Line of Datfid.

And his next son, for wealth and wisdom famed,
The clouded ark of God, till then in tents
Wandering, shall in a glorious temple enshrine.
Such follow him as shall be registered.
Part good, part bad, of bad the longer scroll.
Whose foul idolatries, and other faults
Heaped to the popular sum, will so incense
God, as to leave them, and expose their land,

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BXBRCISBS t55

Their city, his temple, and his holy ark,
With all bis sacred things, a scorn and prey
To that proud city, whose high walls thou saw'st
Left in confusion, Babylon thence called.
There in captivity he lets them dwell
The space of seventy years, then brings them back,
Remembering mercy, and his covenant sworn
To David, 'stablished as the days of Heaven.
Returned from Babylon by leave of kings,
Their lords, whom God disposed, the house of God
They first re-edify, and for a while
In mean estate live moderate ; till, grown
In wealth and multitude, factious they grow ;
But first among the priests dissension springs ;
Men who attend the altar, and should most
Endeavour peace : their strife pollution brings
Upon the temple itself : at last they seize
The sceptre, and regard not David's sons,
Then lose it to a stranger, that the true
Anointed King, Messiah, might be bom
Barred of his right ; yet at his birth a star.
Unseen before in Heaven, proclaims Him come.
And guides the eastern sages, who inquire
His place, to ofifer incense, m3nTh and gold :
His place of birth a solemn angel tells
To simple shepherds, keeping watch by night ;
They gladly tWther haste, and by a quire
Of squadroned angels hear his carol sting.
A virgin is his mother, but his sire
The power of the Most High : he shall ascend
The throne hereditary, and bound his reign
With eardi's wide bounds, his glory with the Heavens.

Milton.

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^^ LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

♦xvi.

Each rival speeds her task with robe girt high ;

By toil beguiled the cunning fingers fly.

Here scarlet threads their Tyrian dye displayed,

And subtly faded to a darker shade.

So when the sunbeams pierce the falling rain,

And with a mighty arc the heavens stain,

There in the bow a thousand colours vie,

Whose nice gradations cheat the observant eye ; —

So close the likeness of each neighboring hue.

The distant tints so various to the view.

Here in the web is twined the pliant gold.

And on the loom is spun the tale of old.

The Attick hill of Mars Minerva wove.

And how of yore to name that land she strove;

In conclave high twelve presences divine,

Jove in their midst, on lofty thrones recline.

His own peculiar form each God expressed.

By r^al majesty Jove stood confessed.

Here rose the ocean god, and, in his hand

Wielding his trident, smote the rocky strand.

From the cleft rock forth leapt the startled steed :

' Behold my pledge,' he cried, and claimed his meed.

♦ XVII.

So all night long upon the sandy shores
I heard the hollow murmur of rtie wave,
And all night long the hidden sea-caves made
A ghostly echo ; and the sea-birds mewed
Around me : 6nce I heard a mocking laugh
As of some scomfol Nereid : once the waters
Broke louder on the scarped reefs, and ebbed
M if the monster coming : but again
He came not, and the dead moon sank, and still
Only upon the cli£fs the wails, the chants,

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EXERCISES «S7

And I forsaken on my sea-wom rock,
And lo, the monster-haunted depths of sea.

Till at the dead dark hour before the dawn,
When sick men die, and scarcely fear itself
Bore up my weary eyelids, a great surge
Burst on the rock, and slowly, as it seemed.
The sea sucked downwards to its depths, laid bare
The hidden reefs, and then before my eyes —
Oh terrible ! a huge and loathsome snake
Lifted his dreadful crest and scaly side
Above the waves.

♦ XVIII.

But in the hills a strong East-wind arose,
And came down moaning to the sea : first squalls
Ran black o'er the sea's face, then steady rush'd
The breeze, and filled the sails, and blew the fire.
And, wreath'd in smoke, the ship stood out to sea.
Soon with a roaring rose the mighty fire.
And the pile crackled : and between the logs
Sharp quivering tongues of flame shot out, and leapt.
Curling and daxting higher, until they lick'd
The summit of the pile, the dead, the mast.
And ate the shrivelling sails : but still the ship
Drove on, ablaze, above her hull, with fire.
And the gods stood upon the beach, and gaz'd :
And, while they gaz'd, the sun went lurid down
Into the smoke-wrapt sea, and Night came on.
Then the wind fell, with night, and there was calm.

Balder's Funeral Ship.

XIX.

Thou that seest Universal

Nature moved by Universal Mind ;
Thou majestic in thy sadness

at the doubtful doom of human kind ;

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2S8 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

Light among the vanished ages ;

star that gildest yet this phantom shore ;
Golden branch amid the shadows,

kings and realms that pass to rise no more ;
Now thy Forum roars no longer,

fallen every purple Caesar's dome —
Tho' thine ocean-roll of rhythm

sound for ever of Imperial Rome —
Now the Rome of slaves hath perish'd,

and the Rome of freemen holds her place,
I, from out the Northern Island

sundered once from all the human race,
I salute thee, Mantovano,

I that loved thee since my day b^an,
Wielder of the stateliest measure

ever moulded by the lips of man.

Tennyson.

*xx.

So saying, with delight he snuflfed the smell

Of mortal change on earth. As when a flock

Of ravenous fowl, though many a league remote,

Against the day of battle, to a field.

Where armies lie encamped, come flying, lured

With scent of living carcasses designed

For death, the following day, in bloody fight ;

So scented the grim feature and upturned

His nostril wide into the murky air ;

Sagacious of his quarry from so far.

Then both from out hell-gates, into the waste

Wide anarchy of chaos, damp and dark.

Flew diverse ; and with power, their power was great.

Hovering upon the waters, what they met

Solid or slimy, as in raging sea

Tossed up and down, together crowded drove, ^

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EXERCISES 259

From each side shoaling towards the mouth of hell :
As when two polar winds, blowing adverse
Upon the Cronian sea, together drive
Mountains of ice, that stop the imagined way
Beyond Petsora eastward to the rich
Cathaian coast. Paradise Lost^ x. 273-293.

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APPENDIX

THEME AND VARIATION IN VIRGIL

(Digested from notes in Dr. James Henr/s Aeneidea),

In Aeneid i. 19-22 is the following passage —

Prc^eniem sed enim Trojano a sanguine duci
Audierat, Tyrias olim quae verteret arces ;
Hinc populum late regem belloque superbum
Venturum excidio libyae.

Virgil wishes thoroughly to explain the nature of the
progenies. To develop the thought he employs not a long
and complicated structure and sentence, but a repetition
of his phrases in a slightly diflferent form. He thus not only
secures the desired explanation, but adds to the impressive-
ness of his picture, because he repeats and redoubles the
impressions produced by the previous sentences or phrases.
In this passage we have —

Theme. Variation.

Trojano a sanguine. Hinc.

Verteret. Ventimim excidio.

Tyrias arces. Libyae.

This may be called writing by theme and variation. Of
all the arts of the poet, and hardly less of the prose-writer,

261

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262 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

this little manoeuvre is perhaps the simplest, most natural,
and most effectual : and it forms one of the most pleasing
peculiarities of the style of Virgil. It helps to produce that
leisurely *ampleur* which must mark any truly Virgilian
translation from the English, however crabbed and concise
the original. Without being tautological, the poet gains in
perspicuity, richness, variety, impressiveness.
To take another ^cample. A. i 546, 547 —

Quem si fata virum servant, si vescitur aura
Aetheria, neque adhuc crudelibus occubat umbris,
Non metus.

Here the theme is Quem . . . servant; the variations
on this are (i.) si . . . aetheria, (ii.) neque . . . umbris.

As an English equivalent take the couplet of Pope, a
great master in this point of technique —

Hope springs eternal in the human breast,
Man never is, but always to be blest

(Essay on Man.)

Here the second line is the variation on the theme in the
first.

In prose Macaulay is a model of this kind of writing.
Avoiding absolute sameness, which cannot fail to try the
patience, he harps upon a thought, makes sure of leaving an
impression, and then effects a transition to the next thought
without hurry or abruptness. Except under extraordinary
circumstances, e,g, in passages of unusual excitement where
this style of writing would obviously be out of place, the
mind does not like to be hurried. We prefer the dalliance
of Horace to the shocks of Persius. Quae sint inculcanda^
infigenda^ repetenda^ plerisque longiore traciu vis quaedam et
pondus accedit (Pliny, Ep, i. 20).

Virgil employs this device in varying degrees. In A, xii

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APPENDIX 263

318, Has inter voces, media inter talia verba, the second
phrase is scarcely a variation at all, and yet it compels the
reader to listen without resentment to the double descrip-
tion. In E, i. 4, Nos patriae fines et dulcia linquimus arva,
Nos patriam fugimus, we have almost a mere repetition,
except that fugimus is a slightly more concentrated ex-
pression.

And so we advance to examples like A. i. 546, 547 quoted
above, where there is a double variation. Sometimes the
variation is threefold. In more complicated instances even
theme and variation themselves each subdivide into theme
and variation, e,g. A, ix. 98 —

Immo ubi defunctae finem portusque tenebunt
Ausonios olim, quaecunque evaserit undis
Dardaniumque ducem Laurentia vexerit arva.

Subordinate Theme. Subordinate Variation,

^^ i Defunctae. l^'m&m portusque tenebunt

Theme J * Ausonios.

Main ) Quaecunque eva- Dardanium ducem Laurentia

Variation / serit undis. vexerit arva.

Young composers should guard against over-compression.
The following exercises may serve for preliminary practice.
In set A the variation is given, in set B it is left to the
invention of the composer.

EXERCISES ON THEME AND VARIATION

A. Variation Given

I. But in their going Venus guided them
With a dull mist, and shed a deep divine
Clothing of cloud around them.

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264 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

II. All have I guessed and in my thoughts before
Enacted.

III. Now he descries the son of Aeolus :
None could excel him in the art to stir
With brass the hearts of heroes, or to kindle
War with his trumpet 'note.

IV. Wherefore this quarrel 'gainst my strict behest ?
What terror hath seduced or one or other

To run to arms and seek the sword?

V. The floating town her triple-tiered crew
Dardanian now urge on, with oars which rise
In threefold rank.

VI. He (the river Timavus) pours through his nine

mouths the bursting tide
Amid the mountain's dreary moans, the fields
With sounding waters covering.

VII. Aeneas in reply : " Troy's victory
Turns not on this, nor will a single life
Make so great difference.

VIII. These thousand men on one day down to hell
My conquering hand did send, shut as I was
Within their walls, and in the ramparts closed
Of th' enemy.

IX. (An instance of double correspondence) —

Thunder Aetnaean caverns and strong strokes
On th' anvils groan and echo, in the vaults
Hisses the ore of steel, in furnaces
The fire is panting.

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APPENDIX 26s

Then thus the king addressing, furiously

He so begins : " Not Tumus stops the way.

Excuse is none that these Aeneadae,

These cowards, should take back the spoken word,

Or should renounce their compact."

B. Variation to be Supplied

I. Meantime the sun the year's great circle rounds

II. Nay e'en 'neath winter skies thou labourest
To build thy fleet, ah cruel ! . . .

III. But we may yet delay . . .

IV. Aeneas looking back marks in the door
What sentry sits . . .

V. His brother fallen, Pandarus now sees
How fortune stands . . .

VI. Seizing the cake, he sinks to earth outstretched
In all his monstrous body's length . . .

VII. But strike thou onward and unsheath thy blade :
Now dost thou need, Aeneas, all thy nerve,

VIII. They reached his dwelling, when he cried: "This

threshold
The conquering Alcides stooped to cross.

IX. Cretheus is of the Muses' company :

Ever in songs and harps was his delight,

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266 LATIN HEXAMETER VERSE

X. Even as oft upon th' Euboic shore

Of Baiae falls a mass of stone, built up

Of great blocks which they cast into the sea :

Thus does it (the mass) tumble prone . . .

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A LIST OF EDUCATIONAL

WORKS PUBLISHED BY

METHUEN AND COMPANY

PUBLISHERS : LONDON

36 ESSEX STREET

, W.C.

I -I

CONTENTS

1 ■ .

PAGE

CLASSICAL 3

8CRIPTORUM CLASSICORUM BIBLIOTHBCA OXONIBNSIS 4

] CLASSICAL TBANSLATIOKB , . ^ . . 5

WORKS BY A. M. M. STBDMAN, M.A.

SCHOOL 'SXAlfltfATlON SBRIBS '

JUNIpl^ EXAMINATION SKRIBS .
mbthubn's COMKBRCIAL SBRIBS
TBCHNOLOdY .

9
9
10

TBXT-BOOKS OF TBCHMOLQGY

MBTHUBN^S SCIBNCB PRIMERS

•CIBNCB AND MATHEMATICS .

HANDBOOKS OP SUBNCB

ENGLISH . ' . ' ,

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FRENCH AND GERMAN '• '.
HISTORY . . . ,

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Messrs. Methuen will be glad to send their
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on application

1903

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IVyf ESSRS. METHUifN will be happy to receive
^^^ applications for Specimen Copies of any of their
School Books from bond-fide Teachers. Specimen Copies
of many of their School Books are supplied gratis, but
a charge must be mide ih alt cases for books marked
with an asterisk in this List Specimen Copies of Keys
are not given.

A copy of any book in this List can be seen at Messrs.
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most of them may be consulted at the Xibmry of The
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Library of the College of Precejitors, Bloomsbury
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Classical

*The IQooxmudiean Btiiios of Aristotle. Edited, with an
introdtictioo and Notes, by John Bujlnbt, M. A., Profesor of Greek
«t St» Andrewst Demy 8vo, 15s. net
Thb wndoBCOBtaiatpanUel pMngw from th« Bodamiaii Bthiet, prialed wider the

ttzt^ mod then b a foil eoamentanr, the main okiject of wliich b to ioterpret difficoldos

ia thali^ ef Aviitotkrt own rales*

^The Oaptiyi of Plautua Edited, with an Introduction,
Teztnal Notes, and a Commentary, by W. M. Lindsay. Fellow of
Jesus College, Oxford. Demy 8vo, los. 6d. net

^Fjor.thif adU^ al the important MSS. have beta rt-co^at^d. An Appendix deab
wiiHtbe accentual element in eatly Latin verse. The Commentary b very fvB.

* Plauti Bacohides. Edited) ^th Introduction, Commentary,
and Critical Notes, by J, M'CosH, M, A. Fcap. 4tQ« 12s. 6d.

Tacilfi Areola. With Introduction, Notes, Map, etc. By
R. t. Davis, M.A., Ii^te Assistant Master at Weymouth College.
Crown 8vo, 2s.

Tadti Gtermaxua. By the same Editor. Crown Svo, 2s.

Horodotosi EaayiSelwttoim, With Vocabulary. By A. C.
LiDDBLL, M.A., of Westminster Sol]^l Fcap. 8vo, is. 6d.

DmaaosthemBB against Conon and OaUioles. Edited^ with
Notes and Vocabdary, by F. D. Swirr, M. A. Fcap. 3vo, as.

BeleotionB fk^m the OdysBey. By K D. Stonb, M.A., Ikte
Assistant Master at Eton. Fcap. 8vo, is. 6d. ^ .

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Plautus: The Oaptivi. Adapted for Lower Forms by J. H.
Frbbsb, M.A., late Fellow of St. John's, Cambridge, is. 6d.

* A Greek Anthology. Selected by E. C. Marchant, M.A,

Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. Crown Svo, 38. 6d.

* New Testament Greek. A Course for Beginners. By G

RODWBLL, B.A. With a Fiehce by Walter Lock, D.D., Warden
of Keble College. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Ainu at Mping tboi^ vmny grfwn<up pAopSe, who no| ha^iiiE Ieaim'i6r«el aisdkool,
des&« to leafu Ae Iangiug« of the Gospels. ^

Exercises in Latin Aocidenoe. By S. £. Winbolt,
Assistant Master in Christ'i Hospital* Crown Svo^ ii 6d.
An ekmentary book for Lower Forms to accompany the shorter Latin Primer.

* Notes on Greek and Latin Syntax. By G. Buckland

Green, M.A., Assistant Master at Edinburgh Academy, late Fellow
of St. John's College, Oxon. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Notes and explanations on the c)iie{ difficvldes W Greek and Latin syntax, with
numerous passages for exercise, for the higher forms of schools and the universities.

Passages for Unseen Trainslation* IBy E: d Marchant,

M.A;, Fellow of Peterhonse, Cambridge ; and A, M. COOK, lil[.A.,

Assistant Master at St. Paul's School^ Second Edition. Cr.' Svo, 38. 6d.

Twohundrid Latin and two hundred Greek passages, anc^ngid in oider of ihctftar

ing diflieulty. Has been caxiBltdltsccompikd to «eet the wants of V. and VL'fbrm boyi

at the public schools, and is also well adapted for the use of hoBOOcmea at the tmhrmm

nties. Frost and verse alternate throughout.

** We know iko li6ok of this dass better fitted for use in the higher forais of khbdls.^

Scriptorutti Classicorum Biblibtheck,
Oxoniensis i :. i

oxford' CLASSICAL rkXTS,' 1900 ' ' * "

* Thucydidis Bfistoriae. Libri L-IV. By Hf. S'i'tJART 'jONEi

Crown 8vo, paper covers, 3s. ; limp cloth, 3s. 6d.

* Platonis Opera. Tom. L(TetralogiaeI.-II,). ByJ.ByRNEj.
Crown 8vb, paper covers, Js. ; Kmp doth, 6s. ,)..-'».

«Lvcreti Oari de Bervm Natvra. ^^^d^jatxifr 43mmh
8vo, paper covers, 2s. 6d. ; limp doth^ 31. ^^ • -- 1

^GomeliiTaoiti Opera Minora. JByH. FujRaoAUXi Coonrti
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* Aeschyli Tragoediae cum Fragmentis. By A. Sipp^qt^

Crown 8vo, paper coven, 3s. ; limpxloth, 38.. $4. .;.

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^ApolloniiBhodiiArgonatitioa. By R. C. Sbaton. Crown
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^Aristophanis Ck>moediae. Tom. I. By'F. W. Hall and
W. M. Gbldart. Crown 8vo, paper coren, 3s. ; limp doth, 3s. 6d.

*Xenophontis Opera. Tom. I. (Historia Graeca). By E. C.
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* Oaesaris Ck>mmentarii de BeUo Gallico. By R. L. A. Du

PONTIT. Crown Svo, paper covers, 2s. ; limp cloth, 2s. 6d.

* Vergm Opera;. By F. A. Hirtzel. Crown Svo, paper covers,

31. /limp doth, 38. 6d.

Classical Translations

Edited by H. F. FOX, M.A.,

FBLLOW AND TUTOS OW BRASBNOSV COLLBGB, OXFORD

Messrs. Mbthubn are isstiing a New Series of Translations from
the Greek and Latin Classics. They have enlisted the services of some of
the best Oxford and Cambridge Scholars, and it is thdr intention that the
Series shall be distinguished by literary excellence, as well as by scholarly
aoenracy*'

< 1 Crown 8vo». Jinely printed.

* Oicero. De Oratore I. Translated by E. N. P. Moor, M. A.,
: - k^ A99istent MuteK at CHfton* 38. 6d. , , ^

* Aesohylus ~ Agamemnon, Oh5ephoroe, Bumenkles.

/t: Translated by I^wis C^AMPpsM^y LL.p, 5s. t ; , r ,

^Luoian — Six Dialogues (Nigrinns, Icaro-Menippus, The
Cai^ T^e Ship, The Parasite, The Lover of Falsehood). Translated
' by S. T* Il^wiN, M.A., Assistant Master at Clifton^ 3s. 6d.

* Sophocles— Meotra and Ajc^« Translated by E. B. A.

MoRSHBAD, M.A., Assistant Master at Winchestof. as. 6d.

* Taeitos— Agricola and Gtormania. Translated by R;. B.

TowNSHEND, late Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. 2s. 6d.

'V'OicerO'-'^Seleot Orations (Pro Milone, Pro Murena, Philippic
II., In Catillnam). Translated by H. E. D. Blakiston, M.A.,
Fdlow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford. 5s.

^Oicero— De Natura DeoraoL Translated by F. Brooks,
M.A., late Sdbolar of BaUiol College, Oxford. 3s. 6d.

t Horace : The Od^ and Epodes. Translated by A. Godlby,
M. A., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, as.

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*€S€oro da Offloiis. Traitshtted hj G. B. GAADtNBM, NLA.
Crown Svo, 2s. 6d.

Unifonii with tbc aboTC.
*ThB FrogB of Aristophanea Translated by £. W. Hunt-
INGFORD, M.A., Professor of Classics in Trinity CoU^^ Toroiito.
Crown 8yO| 2s. 0cU

* DemoBtheneB : The Olynthiacs and Philippics. Translate 90
a new principle by Otho Holland. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

WORKS BT A. H. K. BlXDlUN, hJl

Initia Latina; Easy Lessons on Elementary Accidence.
Sixth Editioo. ' Fcap. 8vo, is.

First Latin LeesonB. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s.

First Latin Reader. With Notes adapted to the Shorter
Latin Primer, and Vocabulary. Sixth Edition. i8mo, is. 6d«

Basy Selections from, Oaesar. Part L The Helvetia^
War. With Notes and Vocabulary. Illustrated. Second Edition,
i8mo, IS.

Basy Selections from Livy. Part I. The Kings of Rome.
With Notes and Vocabulaiy. lUustraited. Second Edition. i8mob
IS, 6d. • ' .^-'. , '

Basy Latin Passages for Unseen Translation. Eighth
Gditm, Fcap. 8vO) IS. M - /

Bzempla Latina : First Exercises in Latin Aecidettce With
VoeabnUuy. Crown 8vc^ is.

!Basy Latin Bzercises on the Syntas: of tifcie ffliorter
and Revised Latin Primer, yfhh Vocabulary. iflinth
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Kbnnxdy. Key, 3a. net. Orighial Editidii. 2s. 6d.

The Latin Compoimd Sentence: Rules and Exercises.
Second Edition. Crown 8vo, is. 6d. ; with Vocabulary^ as.

Nptanda Quaedam: Miscellaaeous Latin Bx^drcioes
on Common Rules and Idicnns. Fourth Edition. Fcap.
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Latin VocabuLaries fbr Repetition: Attanged acnoording
to Subjects. Eleventh Edition. Fcap. 8to, is. 6d. i

A Vocabulary of Latin IdiomSfrand Fhvasea Sectabd

Edition. i8mo, is.

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Steps to Oraek. Second Edition, Revised. i8mo, is.
A Bhorter (sfreek Primer. Ctown 8vo, is. 6d.
Easy Greek Passages for Unseen Translation. Third
ij iWWppu Fiwp-Svp, II. 6d.
Baqr Ore^ Bsoaroises on BUementary Syntax By C.

G. BOTTINO, B.A«, Assbtant Matter at St Paal's School. Crown

Svo, 2S.

Ghreek Vbcabularies foi^ Bepetition : Arranged according

to Snl)1ed»;' Third Bdition. ' Fcap. Svo, is. 6d.
Ghreek Testament Selections. ¥*6r the Use of Schools.

Third Edition. With Introduction, Notes, and Vocabulary. Fcap.

8yo, 2s..6d.
Steps to Fren<5h. Sixth Edition. i8mo, 8d.
First French Lessons. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo, is.
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Edition. Fcap. 8vo, is. 6d. ,

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French Voeabulcffies fat Bepetition : Arranged according
to Subjects. Tenth Edidon. Fcap. 8yo, is.

Q-erman Vocabularies for Bepetition : Arranged according
td Subject^ By S^HtB WftiORT, late Sefaolar c^ Bedford College,
LMidon. Fcap. 8voi IS. 6di -

School Examination Series

' j , Edited by A. ^, M. STEpMA:N, M.A,
, . 1 . t , . Crgwnflvo,.2s. ^, eaeh

This Series is intended for the use of (eechtfs and students, to supply material
for the former and practice for the latter. The papers are carefully ^^duated,
cover the whole of the subject usually taught, and are intended to form part of
the ordinary class work, • They, may be used vivA voce, or as a written exam-
ination. This Series is, now in use in a large number of public and private
schools, including Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Repton, Cheltenham, Sherborne,
Haileybury, Manchester Grammar School, Merchant Taylors, etc.

* French Bxamination Papers in liiscellaneous Gram-
mar and Idioms. By A< M. M. Stedman, M.A.
Eleventh Edidon.
A Key, issued to Tutors and Private Students only, to be had on
' api^lication to (he Pnbfishers. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s.
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^Latin Examination Papers in Mtacellaneoas Qnm^
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* Greek Bzamination Papers in Miso^Ianeous Ghramtiai

and Idioms. By A. M. M. Stedm ak, M.A» 8izdr EdftloB.
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* German EzaminaUcm Papers u^ MieceUaneou^ (krem^

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6s. net . , ,

* History and Geography Examination Papers. By C.

H. Spbncb, M.A., Clifton College. Second Edition.

* Physics Examination Papers. By R. £. Steel, M.A.,

F.C.S., Principal, Technical College, Northampton. Papers on
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* General Knowledge Examination Papers. By A. "hit. M.

Stedman, M. a. Fourth Edition. Key (Second B^UtionX issued as
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* Examination "Pa^pwB in Book-^keepiog. With Prelim-

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* ■ ' . ^ i

* English Literature Examination Papenf. Chiefly

Collected from College Papers set at Cambridge! With' an Introduc-
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* Arithmetic Examination Papers. By C PKNi>LKfitmr;

M.A., Senior Mathematical Master, St . Paul's School. Flfthf

Edition. With answers. Key, 5'jj* net

* Trigonometry Examination Pap^s. By. G. H. WARt>;

.M.A., late Assistant Master at St Paul's School. Fourth E^on.
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* Examination Papers on tb^ O(mstttutional aild

General History of England. By J. Tait Plowden-
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Fcap. 8vo, IS. each

This Series is intended to lead up to the School Examinsition Series and
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di^fided into p^i^ers of ten questions each. The p^Mxs are s^rananged |h^
each may be marked with the same maximum number pf marks. By this
means the progress of the pupil can be easily ascertamed. r

* Junior Fi^enoh Eksammation Papers in Midoellianebus

Qramniai^ and Idiotns. By F. Jacob, M.A., Mb^em
Language Mister' at Cheltenham CoUeg^e. >..u -

t Jimior I^tin Ex^jni^l^on Papers i|i |i/[isc^|l^^^ui|
Grammar and Idioms. By C. G. Bottinc^ B.X, A^sist-
, ant Master at St Pill's School, » , ,„

* Junior English Examination Papers. By^ W. William-

son, B.A.^ Headnnyter, We<t Kent Grammar Sbfaobli Brock^' ' *

* Junior Arithmetic Examination Papersi ; By W. S,

Beard, Headmaster, The Modem School, Far^l^am* ' With answers.
Contains .990 questions arranged in papp^rs to ten each.

^Jupjipr, Algebra Bxam^xation Papei^i^ ^y ^.y^^Sim^

M. A., Headmaster, Sandbach School. With answers, . - ,

Methuen's Commercial Serie^

Edited by H. de B. GIBBINS, Lnr.D., M.A. ; I ;
Crown Sto.
This Series is intended to ^assjst ^stu^lfnts ^nd |roimg men preparing for a
commercial career, by supplying useful handbooks of a practical character,
dealing: with those subjects which are absohitely essential in budnesa lifo.

BritiiBli Commerce and Colonics fi'om Elizabeth to
Victoria. By H. de B. Gibbins, Iitt.D., M;A., Aiithbr of
"The Im^kisttial Hbtory of England," «tc Thi?rd Edition. 2s<

A Manual „ of French Commercial Corresponi^enqe,
By S. E. Bally, Modem Language Master at jthe Manchester
Grammar School. With Vocabulary. Third Edition. 2s.

A Manual of German Commercial Correspondence.
By S. E. Bally. With Vocabulaiy. 2s. 6d.

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A G^rmaOi Oonune^rcial Reader* By S. £. Bally. With
Vocabtdary. ' 2s.

A French Oommerolal Reader. By S. E. BaLly. With

Vocabalary. Second Edition. 2s.

A Oonuneroial Geography of the British Empire. With
roedal reference to Trade Routes, Manufacturing IMstrictSi etc.
B^ L. W. Ltdb, M.A., Grammar School, Bdlton. Third
; Edijtioa. as.

A Opmmeroial Orography of Foreign Nations. By F.
' CL Boon, B. A. Crown 8vo, 2s.

* Ck>nuneroial Exeunination Papers. By H. de B. Gibbins^

IMtilX Papers on Gonraefcial Qo^g/OLpbj and History, Fiendi and
J^^qcmaA Cprrefpondenoei Book-keepings and Qffice Work. is. ^

The Ecionomics of Comnieroe. By; H. de B. Gibbins,

Littp., M.A. IS. 6d.

A 'Ttioief of Business. By S. Jackso!n^ M.A. Third
Editton. ' laL 6d.

Ck>nunercial Arithmetic. By F. G. Taylor, M.A Third
Editjiop. |s.Jid. ,,

Pr6ois Writing and Qffloe Oorrefl^KMiddnoe. < By E.

B. WmTFIBLD, M.A. 2S.

'the Principles of Book-keeping by Double Entry.
ByJ.E.B. M'Allen, M.A. 2s. ^^ ^

Ck>mmercial Law. By W. Douglas Edwards, LL.B. 2s.

* A Chiidd to Profbfisions cuod Business. iBy IftNRY

JONBS. IS. 6d.

« Oommeroial Education in Theory and Practice. By E.
E. Whitfibld, M.A. js.
Treats dffbe trlvoleiqiMMloa of Comimrdd Sdoeation. tCdiaU<i Uiforti«6on as to
the work done by younc clerks in modem busmess establishments is given, also hints
as to the bearing of school woprk op snp^ duties. A ntfi^ber of oaaminatlon papers
and lisU of books are tncladed.

Technology,

^ Ornamental Deeogn for Woven Fabrics* By C. Stephen*

SON, of the Technical College, Bradford ; and F. Suddards, of llie
Yorkshire College, Leeds. With 6$ full-page Plates. Second
Editbn. Demy 8vo» 7s. 6d.

* An Introduction to the Study of Textile Design. By
A. F. Barker, Illustrated. Demy 8vo.

t Ite Construction of Large Induction Ck>il& By 4. T.
Hare, M.A. Withnmiaerous Di^igrams, DemySvo, 6s.

t Lace-Making in the Midlands, Past and Present! By
C iC. CHAinrBR «nd M. E.^ Robsrts. Illustrated Ck 8?0| as. 6d.
t SptdfHtm ix^m mot gionu

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,, T^B69feg;Af!'^echnolbgJ:., . ,^,.

EmrvD tY W. GARNETT/ D.CiL.i SxcurfARV of tub Technical

' EdUCATKJN BOAKD = OF- THE (LONDON CdONTY COUNCIL ^ . AND

Professor* J^ WBRTHEIMERi B.Bc»^ F.I.a, PRiKditM of

THE, M^PHANT.y^fNTURERS' TECHNICAL COLLEOB, BRISTOI^. -

Messrs. Mbthubn are issuing a^ri^'of dqnentary books uiukf the

abovft title. They arc specially . adapted to the needs of. Technical

Schck}!^ and- K^lleges, knd fulfil the re<piitt»tt^ts of student^ fi^^patinig;

for the examinations o^ ifie City and Guilds df London Ins^tttte. ' '

Oaipentry aiwj Joinery.. By F. C^ Webber. \Wi^ 176,
: rilu^trafiWis.' Second E<»pbn. CtoWn 8vo, 3s. 6d.' J f^ -> 1

' The draMriAg&«re intend^ 10 MnNi not obly as HSmtnikuki, but •!•• at esttbplM
fo^retnraductioQbythesftadcat. * : n' ,<

" An aamirable elementary text-book on the subject."— ^«t7t/«r.

Pradtibkl Mechanics. By Sidney H. Wells. ' "^kh 7i
' IHustiitions and Diagrams. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d,
Contains all that is necessary for the London Matrictitation Examination and the
Stenebtary.coiiM^ in ^plied MecHnicsi of tix Science and Art Depiurtment.

Practical Physics. By H; Stroudi, D.Sc., M.A., Profoswr of
I . , t . Pl^aicsi in tiif Durham Colleee M Science, , Ne^ca^c*^Tyn^
, ,With:ii5DiagrMnsN Crq^n Svo^ 3s. 6d- ^. .;: r

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AxithMiMAo ctiad . MensuiraliDXL fcf the Worbflhop and

Technical School. By C. T; MihLSi M.lM.E.i >pKmtipfeil of

V J^eiBo«9pgh,^lyjbechniC;Co}i^e. With Djkagiaip^,. ^59^ ^f ,r j

Pl:a<>ttoal CBiemistry. By; W. French, M.A^ Principal of the
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How to make a Dress. By T. A. E. Wood. Illustrated.

Second Edition. Qrowm 8^«,is. W^ .M ( t • ' I
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Specially intended for London Matriculation General Elementary SoieaoeExaiaimdoii.

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The World of Science. Including Chemistry, Heat, Light,
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book IS ejGoenendy pbini^ed and eMCoteo. mokw up info Short pajragraphs, wi^
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The Students* Prayer Book. ' Part, i^.MoRNiNa and

!|:V9NXNG Prax^. Aiw. Litany. JSdited bv^W^ ,H, F^LptcKiB,

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Air and Water. 3y Prof. V. B. Lewbs, M.A Illustrated. :

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English Trfule and Finance ift th^ Seventeen^];! Oent^ry .
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Blnfi^ish Poetty firom Blak<^ to Broytiihg;' By Mf Mil^

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A Olass-Book of Dict^'tiioh Passa,ges^ By W. Wili^iamson,
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In iiil»%t <yv«r liliM 'trandrad -Sdio^, bdhidiiisr Bkth eollfege, Blackh^th Sdioof,
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