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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.
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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
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THE
Protection of Woodlands
Authorized translation from the German of
Kauschinger-Furst's '""Waldschutz." By John Nisbet,
D'CEc, of the Indian Forest Service, author of
"British Forest Trees, and their Sylvicultural Char-
acteristics and Treatment."
1 VOL., 8vo. with colored plates, - $3.50
The various portions are dealt with tersely, and
from a thoroughly practical standpoint. As there is
no special work on Sylvicultural Entomology in
English, the chapter on noxious Forest Insects has
been somewhat amplified.
Edmund B. Southwick, Ph.D., Entomologist of
the Parks of New York City, and Secretary of the
New York State Forestry Association, says:—
"To the forester, ' The Protection of Woodlands' is
invaluable in that it cares for his possessions in hot and
cold, wet and dry conditions; protection against plants
and animals, forest offences and forest fires, and, what
is of great economic importance, protection against
forest insects. Over one-half of this valuable treatise is
devoted to insects alone, and no entomologist should be
without it. The illustrations are exceedingly valuable,
and I cannot too highly recommend it to all naturalists,
for the subjects have been handled in a masterly
manner"
Lessons
IN
Botany
ARRANGED BY
Caroline E. Hilliard,
of the Brearley School, New York.
im 271896' j N/-/7T
-?
i/
New York :
WILLIAM R. JENKINS,
851-853 Sixth Avenue.
Copyright, 1896, by William R. Jenkins.
All Eights Reserved.
Printed by the Press of William R. Jenkins,
New York.
INTRODUCTION
THE following exercises have been arranged for use in connection
with Gray's "How Plants Grow." So far as is possible the lessons
are based upon careful study of specimens. Blank pages are
inserted for drawings and records of observations.
The work is designed for children twelve and thirteen years of age,
but it can easily be adapted to older pupils.
The first four lessons are spent in the study of typical forms of seeds
and seedlings. In Lesson III space is left for further work if desired.
If the lessons are begun in the spring, leaves and their modifications are
reached in May and form good subjects for summer work. Lesson XIII
suggests several topics for reading and simple experiments.
In the autumn and winter months, material is easily obtained for the
study of buds and branches, flowers and fruits. Simple descriptions of
plants are begun with the early bulbous plants. Lesson XXV is intended
for a summary of terms made by the pupil, to which may be added any
technical terms needed for identification of our common flowers.
Ne well's " Botany Readers" furnish valuable supplementary reading
throughout the course. The "Outlines of Lessons in Botany," by the
same author, are very helpful to the teacher.
In the arrangement of topics and choice of subject matter an earnest
attempt has been made to work out a practical course in Botany under
the ordinary limitations of science work in a city private school whose
sessions are held chiefly during the winter months.
Thanks are due to Miss Howell of Barnard College for her criticisms
and suggestions, and also to Mrs. Jane Newell Moore for the careful
directions for experimental work contained in her books.
The Breaeley School.
February, 1896.
INDEX OF LESSONS.
I. Seeds and Seedlings.—
Squash 6
II. Bean 8
III. Pea 10
IV. Corn 12
V. Arrangement of Food in the Seed 14
VI. Roots 16
VII. Leaves.—
Simple leaves — pinnately-veined 18
VIII. Simple leaves — palmately-veinecl 20
IX. Pinnately — compound leaves 22
X. Palmately — compound leaves 24
XI. Parallel — veined leaves 26
XII. Parallel — veined leaves 28
XIII. Peculiar Forms and Movements of Leaves 30
XIV. Buds and Branches. —
Horse — Chestnut 32
XV. Beech 34
XVI. Lilac 36
XVII. Norway Spruce 38
XVIII. Structure of Stems 40
XIX. Modifications of Stems for Storehouses of Food 42
XX. The Flower 44
XXI. The Fruit 46
XXII. Classification of Fruits 48
XXIII. Study of Fruits 50
XXIV. Inflorescence 52
XXV. Common Terms Used in Plant Description 54
Twenty-five forms for Plant Description.
LESSON I.— Study of the Seed and Seedlings of the Squash.
Describe the shape, surface and color of the seed. Open a seed that has been
soaked in water over night and find the seed-coats. Separate the seed into halves
and sketch, showing the tiny connecting stem and the little leaf-bud. Compare
these parts with a squash seed which has just begun to grow and with another
which has been growing some time. What changes do you notice in the halves of
the seed? Mark these the seed-leaves or cotyledons. The little bud is called the
plumule and the connecting stem the caulicle. What happens to the cotyledons as
the plant goes on growing? Can you give a reason for this?
LESSON II.— The Bean.
Describe the shape, color and surface of the bean. Sketch, showing the little
scar where the bean was attached to the pod. Open the seed which you have
soaked and sketch the little plant. How many seed-coats has the bean? Study
the plant in different stages of growth and make drawings, marking the cotyledons,
plumule and caulicle. What happens to the cotyledons as the plant grows? How
do the leaves following the cotyledons differ from them and from one another in
form and arrangement on the stem?
10
LESSON III.— The Pea.
Describe the seed. Name its parts. In what ways is it like the bean ? Sketch
at different stages of growth and mark the parts of the plant. In what ways is it
unlike the bean and squash in its growth ?
12
LESSON IV.— The Corn.
Describe the seed. Make sketches of both sides of the kernel. Compare with
a seed that has sprouted and mark the parts of the embryo. How many cotyledons
has the corn ? How is the food arranged in the seed ? What is the shape of the
leaves? What is their veining? How do they differ from those of the bean, the
pea and the squash ? Which part grows first in all these seeds ? From which part
do the roots grow ?
14
LESSON V.— Arrangement of Food in the Seed.
Wliere is the food stored for the first growth of the seedlings you have studied ?
Examine a seed of the four-o'clock. How many seed-coats do you find ? "Where
is the albumen placed? Separate the embryo and sketch, marking the parts.
Where is the albumen stored in the almond, walnut, flax, acorn, apple and castor-oil
bean? Make a list of the seeds we use for food and try to find out whether the
albumen is stored within or around the embryo. How does the arrangement of the
albumen influence the growth of the cotyledons ?
16
LESSON VI.— Roots.
Draw and describe the roots of the onion, turnip, carrot, radish and beet.
"Why do plants which live only one year have fibrous roots ? Why do plants which
live two years have fleshy roots ? "What changes take place in these roots during
the second year? What differences have you found between the stem and the
roots ? Examine a potato which has sprouted. Is it a root or a stem ? Give a
reason for your answer. Can you name any plants which bear roots on their stems
in the open air?
18
LESSON VII.— Leaves.
Description of Simple Netted-veined Leaves. Pinnately- Veined.
Name of leaf.
Arrangement on the stem.
Shape.
Apex.
Blade. -< Base.
Margin.
Surface.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Remarks :
20
LESSON VIII.
Simple Netted-veined Leaves. Palmately-Yeined.
Name of leaf.
Arrangement on the stem.
Shape.
Apex.
Blade. - Base.
Margin.
Surface.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Bemarks :
22
LESSON IX.
Pinnately-Cornpound Leaves.
Name of leaf.
Arrangement on the stem.
Shape of leaflets.
Apex.
Blade. « Base.
Margin.
Surface.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Eemarks :
24
LESSON X.
Palmately-Compound Leaves.
Name of leaf.
Arrangement on the stem.
Shape of leaflets.
Apex.
Base.
Margin.
Surface.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Eemarks :
26
LESSON XI.
Parallel-veined Leaves.
Name of leaf.
Arrangement on the stem.
Shape.
Base.
Blade. Apex.
Margin.
Surface.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Kemakks :
Name of leaf.
Arrangement on the stem.
Shape.
Apex.
Blade. ■< Base.
Margin.
Surface.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Kemakks :
28
LESSON XII.
Parallel-veined Leaves.
30
LESSON XIII.— Leaves.
Peculiar forms of leaves.
"Without distinction of blade and petiole.
Needle-shaped, as in the pines and spruces.
Thread-shaped, as in the onion.
Equitant, as in the iris.
With shape or surface adapted to catching insects, as in the pitcher-plant
and sundew.
Movements of leaves in
Climbing, as the nasturtium.
Turning toward the light.
Change of position at night.
32
LESSON XIV.— Buds and Branches.
The Horse-Chestnut.
Describe the color, shape and surface of the buds. Open a bud, noticing the
form and arrangement of the scales. Are the scales alike in color and thickness ?
Can you explain any difference ? What do you find within the scales ? Examine
the largest buds for flower-clusters. Where are they placed? In how many ways
are the leaves and flower-clusters protected ? How are the buds arranged on the
stem ? Where were the terminal buds of last year ? What scars did they leave ?
How many inches has your branch grown this summer ? Find the age of the whole
branch and of each twig. What scars were made by the leaves? Is there any
correspondence between the dots on the leaf-scars and the number of leaflets?
What causes this ? What do the leaf-scars show about the leaf-arrangement ?
Look for the round, flower-cluster scar at the forking of two branches. Why did
blossoming affect the growth of the branch ?
34
LESSON XV.— The Beech.
How do the leaf-buds differ from those of the horse-chestnut in shape, color
and surface ? How are the leaves arranged in the buds ? "What protection have
they? "What scars are made by the leaves ? How were the leaves arranged on the
stem ? How old is your branch ? Which were the best years for growth ? How
does the spray of the beech differ from that of the horse chestnnt? What causes
this difference ? Try to find out where the flower-clusters grew. What kind of a
flower has the beech ? What fruit ?
36
LESSON XVI.— The Lilac.
Describe the leaf-buds as to shape, color and position. Draw and describe a
leaf. What scars are left by the leaves? How does the branching of the lilac
differ from that of the beech and horse-chestnut ? What causes this difference ?
How old is your branch ?
38
LESSON XVII.— The. Norway Spruce.
What causes the roughness of the stem? How are the leaves arranged?
What is their shape ? Why are there so many leaves ? How old is your branch ?
What fruit has the Norway Spruce ?
40
LESSON XVIII.— The Structure of Stems.
•
Sketch a cross-section of a horse chestnut branch showing the pith, the sur-
rounding rings of wood, the sap-wood and the layers of bark. How do the rings
show the age of the branch ? Examine a cross-section of a large branch and count
the rings. Are they of the same width in all parts ? Can you account for any
difference ? Why is the outer bark of an old tree full of ridges and cracks ? Why
does the birch bark peel off? Name two plants of which we use the woody fibres
of the inner bark. How is cork obtained ?
Sketch a cross-section of a cornstalk, marking the hard rind, the pith and the
bundles of woody fibres. How does the arrangement of the pith and wood differ
from that of the horse chestnut? How do these plants differ in the veining of the
leaves and in their manner of branching?
42
LESSON XIX.- Modifications of Stems for Storehouses of Food.
Examine a hyacinth bulb and sketch. Cut the bulb in halves vertically, and
make a drawing of the inside, naming the parts. In what ways is the bulb like the
horse chestnut leaf-buds ?
Sketch the root-stock of Solomon's-Seal. What evidences are there that it is a
thickened stem ?
Make a drawing of the potato, marking the leaf-buds. In what ways are the
hyacinth bulb, the Solomon's-Seal and the potato alike ? What important differ-
ences do you see ?
44
LESSON XX.- -The Flower.
Name the parts of the flower. Name the parts of each part. Define the recep-
tacle. What is the purpose of the flower ? Which parts are necessary ? What is
meant by Fertilization? By Cross-Fertilization? Name some ways by which this
is accomplished. Why is Cross-Fertilization best for the plant? What is the
important part of the seed? Name some dangers which threaten the embryo.
How is the embryo protected in the bean, chestnut, apple, squash, cherry and
cocoanut.
46
LESSON XXI.— The Fruit.
What parts of the flower usually disappear as the fruit is formed ? What part
remains on the apple? On the pear? In the raspberry? In the strawberry?
Name some fruits which are colored to attract animals and thus scatter the seeds-
Name some fruits which are protected from animals by their hard cohering, by their
color, prickles or by their disagreeable taste. Can you explain by differences in the
seeds why some fruits are planned to attract animals and others are guarded
against the attacks of animals ?
48
LESSON" XXII.— Classification of Fruits.
I.
Dry
Fruits.
II.
Fleshy
Fruits.
Dehiscent Fruits,
called pods.
Indehiscent Fruits
remain closed.
1. Simple Fruits
formed by the ripen-
ing of one pistil.
These open to discharge their seeds, and are
1. Akene — a small fruit with a single seed,
which is formed by the ripening of the pistil.
Examples — dandelion, maple.
2. Nut — a fruit usually with a single seed
protected by a hard shell.
1. Berry — the wall of the ovary is fleshy
throughout. Orange, grape, tomato.
2. Stone-fruit — the outer wall of the ovary is
i fleshy, the inner wall hardened. Peach, plum.
2. Aggregate Fruits are clusters of simple fruits all of the same
flower. Easpberry, blackberry.
3. Accessory Fruits — the fleshy portion belongs to some added or
altered part, outside of the ovary. In the pome, or apple-fruit, the
fleshy part is the thickened calyx with the receptacle developed
around the core in some cases.
4 Multiple Fruits are formed by the ripening of two or more flowers
into a single fruit. The Partridge-Berry is formed by the ovaries of
two flowers growing together into one berry. Pineapples and Mul-
berries are formed from clusters of flowers. Figs are hollow receptacles
grown pulpy and lined with many small flowers.
50
LESSON XXIII.— Study of Fruits.
Sketch the pods of the pea, the lily and the pansy, showing the differences in
their manner of opening.
Sketch a cranberry in cross-section. How many carpels has it? Are there
any traces of parts of the flower ?
Make drawings of the apple and quince in vertical and cross-sections, showing
why these are Accessory Fruits.
Make careful drawings of the outside of the Eose-hip and of a vertical section.
Mark the parts of the fruit.
Classify the following fruits : 1. Pea. 2. Cucumber. 3. Orange. 4. Grape,
5. Tomato. 6. Currant. 7. Cranberry. 8. Banana. 9. Apple. 10. Pear. 11.
Plum. 12. Cherry. 13. Wheat. 14. Walnut. 15. Lily. 16. Pansy. 17. Straw-
berry, 18. Easpberry. 19. Blackberry. 20. Cone. 21. Squash. 22. Lemon.
23. Melon. 24. Date. 25. Quince.
52
LESSON XXIV.— Inflorescence.
The simplest form of inflorescence, or manner of blossoming, is that in which
the flowers occur singly in the axils of the leaves or at the ends of the stem. These
are called solitary flowers.
If the blossoms are more numerous and are brought more closely together a
flower-cluster is formed. In this arrangement each flower grows from the axil of a
leaf, but the leaves are usually very small and inconspicuous. The leaves of a
flower-cluster are called Bracts. The stalk of the cluster is called the Peduncle,
and the stems of the individual flowers are Pedicels.
The most common forms of flower-clusters are the Raceme, the Spike, the Head,
the Umbel and the Corymb. The Raceme is a cluster with the flowers arranged
on the sides of the stem, as in the Lily-of-the-Valley. If the flowers grow on the
stem without pedicels the cluster is called a Spike, which we see in the Mullein.
The Head is a rounded flower-cluster with a very short body, as the Red Clover
and Dandelion. An Umbel is a flat-topped cluster in which all the pedicels start
from the same point, like the sticks of an umbrella. The Meadow-Parsnip and the
Carrot blossom in Umbels.
The Corymb is a flat-topped cluster which is like the Raceme with the lower,
pedicels lengthened so that all the flowers are brought on a level, as in the
Hawthorn. In what ways do flower-clusters assist cross-fertilization ?
54
LESSON XXV.— Common Terms used in Plant Description.
Plant—
Eoot —
Stem —
Leaves —
Blade-
Petiole —
Stipules —
Inflorescence—
Perianth —
Corolla —
Calyx —
Stamens —
Pistil-
Ovary —
Fruit-
Seeds —
Remakes : — Any interesting peculiarities of the plant or adaptations to cross-
fertilization.
Drawings — The plant as a whole, if possible. Vertical and cross- sections of
the flower showing the connection of the parts. Enlarged stamen and pistil.
Cross-section of the ovary.
FORM FOR PLANT DESCRIPTION.
Number of Plant Date
Family ol- Order.
( Common.
Name. -J
( Scientific.
Locality.
Plant.
Root.
Stem.
Leaves.
Blade.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Infl )resceuce.
Perianth.
Flower.
Corolla.
Calyx.
Stamens.
Pistil.
Ovary.
Fruit.
Seeds.
Remarks :
FORM FOR PLANT DESCRIPTION.
Number of Plant Date
Family or Order.
( Common.
Name. •<
( Scientific.
Locality.
Plant.
Root.
Stem.
Leaves.
Blade.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Inflorescence.
Perianth.
Flower.
Corolla.
Calyx.
Stamens.
Pistil.
Ovary.
Fruit.
Seeds.
Remarks :
FORM FOR PLANT DESCRIPTION.
Number of Plant Date
Family or Order.
i Common.
Name. ■<
( Scientific.
Locality.
Plant.
Root.
Stem.
Leaves.
Blade.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Inflorescence.
Perianth.
Flower.
Corolla.
Calyx.
Stamens.
Pistil.
Ovary.
Fruit.
Seeds.
Be marks :
FORM FOR PLAHT DESCRIPTION.
Numher of Plant Bate
Family or Order.
( Common.
Name. •<
( Scientific.
Locality.
Plant.
Boot.
Stem.
Leaves.
Blade.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Inflorescence.
Perianth.
Flower.
Corolla.
Calyx.
Stamens.
Pistil.
Ovary.
Fruit.
Seeds.
Remarks :
FORM FOR PLANT DESCRIPTION.
Number of Plant Date
Family or Order.
( Common.
Name. -<
( Scientific.
Locality.
Plant.
Root.
Stem.
Leaves.
Blade.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Inflorescence.
Perianth.
Flower.
Corolla.
Calyx.
Stamens.
Pistil.
Ovary.
Fruit.
Seeds.
Remarks :
FORM FOR PLANT DESCRIPTION.
Number of Plant Bate
Family or Order.
( Common.
Name. <
( Scientific.
Locality.
Plant.
Boot.
Stem.
Leaves.
Blade.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Inflorescence.
Perianth.
Flower.
Corolla.
Calyx.
Stamens.
Pistil.
Ovary.
Fruit.
Seeds.
Eemarks :
FORM FOR PLANT DESCRIPTION.
Number of Plant Date
Family or Order.
( Common.
Name. ■<
( Scientific.
Locality.
Plant.
Boot.
Stem.
Leaves.
Blade.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Inflorescence.
Perianth.
Flower.
Corolla.
Calyx.
Stamens.
Pistil.
Ovary.
Fruit.
Seeds.
Kemarks :
FORM FOR PLANT DESCRIPTION.
Number of Plant Date
Family or Order.
( Common.
Name. -<
( Scientific.
Locality.
Plant.
Root.
Stem.
Leaves.
Blade.
Petiole.
Stipules.
Inflorescence.
Perianth.
Flower.
Corolla.
Calyx.
Stamens.
Pistil.
Ovary.
Fruit
Seeds.
Remarks :
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