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This book is DUE on the last date stamped below

' J.

MAY 1 3 1929

AR ^ 7 1930

2, '23

LESSONS^

IN THE

New Geography

FOR STUDENT AND TEACHER

SPENCER TROTTER, M.D.

Professor of Biology in Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania

BOSTON. U.S.A.
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS

1895 .
NOV 1906

Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co.
Presswork by S. J. Parkhill & Co.

GfF33

PREFACE.

We live in a world of ideas. The real things of life impress
themselves upon our brains, through our senses, and are grouped
as so many mental pictures in the various complex relations which
they hold to one another. In studying Geography the child very
early gains ideas or mental pictures of different scenes and places,
and it is of the utmost importance that these pictures be not only
true, but /iving- ideas of the things themselves. It should be
impressed upon every child thal[Geography is a part of his every-
day life, not a mere learning of the names of places, but a living
reality .J The imagination — that quality of the brain which enters
so largely into child life, peopling its wonderland with fairies and
creations of fancy — is the one element needful in gaining the
ideas of real things. In proportion as a study stimulates the
imaginative faculty does it near the end in view of all study —
that of creating a fulness of interest in life and in the lives of
every man and woman.

The purpose of this book is to- bring this conception of Geog-
raphy to the teacher's mind. LThe map is a means of gaining
clear ideas of the positions of places on the earth's surface in
relation to one another. \ We all carry mental maps in our brains.
Our sense of right direction is often determined by the early use
or misuse of maps. Use the map to call out the perception of

iii

iv ' PREFACE.

the relations of a place to other places. Try to make every part
of the map a picture alive with the men, the animals, the vegeta-
tion, rivers, mountains, cities, and all that goes to make up the
real scenes, on any part of the earth's surface. Good illustrations
are as useful as maps, and lantern slides are very helpful in the
study of Geography, Modeling surface features in sand and clay,
as outlined by Redway in his litde book on " Geographical
Forms," is both interesting and instructive, but outdoor lessons
are more important than schoolroom exercises.

Geography is a universal study, a band that binds many other
studies into a living whole.' It is the central study to which the
other studies must necessarily gravitate, because it is the study of
the earth, and the earth is the theater of all human thought and
action. For example, the expression of the mind of a people as
embodied in its literature is largely the result of geographical
influences. Who can doubt that the poetry and the art of Greece
were the expression of that inspiration which is peculiarly the
effect of bright blue skies and sparkling seas; of genial, buoyant
air, and softly blended landscapes, or that the brave Sagas of the
Norse were born out of the gray mists and tempestuous waves of
the northern ocean ? On every literature Geography has left its
stamp. So with all study, the purely scientific and economical,
as well as the more essentially human studies of history and art,
all find a basis, a common groundwork in Geography.

In writing this book I have been reminded of those early voy-
agers who made the study of Geography possible only by sailing
around the earth. We all sail around the earth in the sea of our
imagination. There are many who can never do it in reality,
and if this little book will help them to sail and to see in fancy

1 See article by Dr. Charles De Garnio in " Educational Review " for May, 1893.

PREFACE. V

the real scenes, the moving and feeling life of the earth, the
object for which it was written will be accomplished.

In connection with the chapters and lessons I have given Usts
of books that both the student and teacher will take pleasure in
reading, and lind useful in helping them to gain clear conceptions
of the various scenes in different parts of the world. I have
freely drawn material from several valuable works. I am espe-
cially indebted to Dr. D. G. Brinton's "Races and Peoples,"
Alphonse De Candolle's " Origin of Cultivated Plants," and articles

on various subjects in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

S. T.

SWARTHMORE COLLEGE,

1894.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

Geography in its Relations to Life

PAGE
I

CHAPTER I.

Some Past and Present Aspects of the Earth :

Lesson L Land and Water .....

IL Life and the Earth .....
IIL Conditions affecting the Development of Man

21
29

CHAPTER H.
Climate :

Lesson I. The Elements of Climate

IL Climatic Zones .....

in. Winds, Ocean Currents, and Rainfall .

IV. Influence of Climate on Man

CHAPTER III.

Plants which have Affected Man :
Lesson I. Tea and Coffee .
II. Sugar and Spice .

III. The Grains, or Cereals

IV. Some Vegetables and Fruits
V. Cotton and Flax . .

vii

60
64
66
69

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

Animals which have Affected Man :
Lesson I. Animals of the Chase .

II. The Domestication of Animals
III. Some Special Animal Products

75
78

Man

CHAPTER V.

Lesson I. Types or Races of Man ....

II. Geographical Distribution of the White Race

III. Geographical Distribution of the Black Race

IV. Geographical Distribution of the Yellow Race
V. Man in America .....

VI. Islanders and Coast Peoples

100

106

125

CHAPTER VI.

Commerce :

Lesson I. The Beginnings of Commerce

II. The Era of Discovery

III. Present Features of Commerce and Civilization

129
134
137

APPENDIX.

I. The Principal States and Cities of the World

II. Population of the Earth

III. Forms of Government ....■••■

IV. E.xtract from the First Report of the United States Board on Geo-

graphic Names . . . . • •
V. Geographical Distribution of Animals ; a Synopsis of Study .
VI. How to read a Weather Map .......

147
157
158

158
160
169

LESSONS IN THE NEW GEOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIFE.^

The varied features of the earth's surface in any piece of land-
scape is a thing that rarely fails to strike the eye even of the most
casual observer. He may take no mental note of this element of
variety in itself, seeing only the stretches of field, the masses of
woodland, the broken lines of hills, the winding course of streams
that lie within his horizon. These are the broad features of
almost every familiar landscape. From any given standpoint
commanding such a view of the surrounding country the ground
is seen to slope gently down to the lowlands, or fall more or less
abruptly into a valley. Water from the rills of hillside springs
gathers in the hollows, and wet, marshy land often forms a con-
spicuous feature in the near view. This diversified surface —
river, marsh, field, forest, hill, and valley — is the home of an
infinite variety of living beings.

Little observation is needed to note that this diversity of life
corresponds, in a broad way, with the diversity of surroundings.
Aquatic animals, like fishes, crayfish, and many insects, inhabit
the waters of ponds, lakes, and streams. Frogs and other am-
phibious creatures are denizens of bogs and shallow pools. Some
snakes and turtles are aquatic, while others are wholly lovers of
the dry land. Birds are found in every situation, — ducks and
divers on the lakes and rivers ; herons and bitterns in marshy
fens ; gulls and petrels on the open sea ; sandpipers along
the shores ; eagles on lofty mountain peaks ; while a host of

1 An address read before The College Association of the Middle States and
Maryland at the meeting held at Swarthmore College, Pa., November, 1892.
B I

2 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

species enliven the woods and fields. The haunts of mammals
are no less diversified. The tree-loving squirrels, the burrowing
ground hog, the mole digging out its long, subterranean galleries,
the water-loving beaver and otter, are each and all associated in
the mind with their favorite surroundings.

This idea of the animal and its particular home is by no means
new. In that wonderful poem, the one hundred and fourth
Psalm, the story is told in a language peculiarly its own : " The
cedars of Lebanon, which he hath planted ; where the birds make
their nests : as for the stork, the fir trees are her house. The
high hills are a refuge for the wild goats ; and the rocks for the
conies."

If this diversity of life is so apparent in a limited area, it is far
more so when we come to journey over an extended portion of
the earth's surface. As the horizon widens, newer and more sig-
nificant features rise into view. Lofty mountain ranges, broad
seas, trackless deserts, treeless plains, and vast forests successively
present themselves as the traveler girdles the earth, north and
south, east and west. Climate and vegetation change from one
region to another, and it is not a matter of surprise to find corre-
sponding changes in animal life.

Many kinds of animals are limited to particular regions, while
others range through wide areas of country under a variety of
physical changes. A traveler starting on the Atlantic seaboard of
the United States and journeying westward along the fortieth
parallel will pass successively through a number of distinct
regions, each characterized by certain conditions of climate, vege-
tation, and peculiar animals. Quite a number of familiar forms
will, however, be found throughout the entire extent of his
journey across the continent.

In bird life alone, the absence of some species, the appearance
of others in new regions, and the presence of some throughout
a wide area of country, is a marked feature in such a journey.
Many familiar eastern species, wrens, thrushes, titmice, wood-
warblers, larks, jays, finches, and the like, give place to new,

GEOGRAPllV IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIFE. 3

though, in some instances, closely related, forms on the prairies
and Great Plains. In the Rocky Mountain region the change
becomes still more marked. So in the Great Basin and on the
Pacific slope new and strange forms appear, characterizing the
several regions over which the traveler passes.

He will find, however, that some old friends have accompanied
him all the way to the shores of the Pacific. The robin greets
him in California with the same loud, cheerful call that he heard
in the woods of Pennsylvania. The familiar twitter of the barn
swallow is heard about the habitations of men from shore to shore
of the continent. Other well-known birds appear in every region
throughout the land.

If our traveler cross the Pacific .to Japan, he will find larks,
wrens, finches, wagtails, titmice, thrushes, and a host of familiar
forms, which he recognizes broadly as belonging to such types,
though the species are all entirely different from those he knew in
America. Should he sail westward by the shortest route to Eng-
land, he would pass the shores of countries widely different from
those he left and from one another. The bare hills of China, the
wooded mountains of Formosa, the volcanic peaks of the Phil-
ippines, the hot, tropical jungles of the Malay Islands, the spice
groves of Ceylon, the burning, barren deserts of the Red Sea, pass
successively before him. Each is tenanted by strange forms of
life — beasts, birds, reptiles, insects, and vegetation totally differ-
ent from any he has ever beheld in his journey over half the earth.
On reaching England he will again find himself surrounded by
many familiar features. He will be surprised to see many species
of birds almost, if not quite, identical with those he saw in Japan,
separated as they are by the immense land mass of Eurasia, with
its vast plains, deserts, and 'mountain-rimmed plateaus. None of
the familiar, species of North American birds, however, will greet
him in his rambles about Britain.

We have seen that in an area covered by almost any farm of a
few acres there exists a variety of physical conditions each of
which is the home of living beings peculiar to it and different from

4 ■ INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

those in other stations. We have followed in imagination the
traveler journeying westward over the earth, and have seen with
him the varied features of the lands he visited. In the one case
the conditions are local, in the other geographical, yet no line of
distinction can be drawn between them, for geographical condi-
tions are only the more exaggerated and broader features of what
we see in any local area.

We learn from a survey of these conditions how intimately
related an animal is to the earth, and how each species is fitted
to the special conditions of the region it inhabits. Physical
Geography, therefore, forms the basis of a study of distribution.
The position of mountain ranges and valleys in relation to each
other and to the surrounding country ; the presence of rivers,
lakes, prairies, steppes, deserts, and forests ; the relative height of
land above the sea level ; the position of an ocean and the direc-
tion of its currents ; climate in its broadest sense, including rain-
fall, humidity, the prevalence and direction of winds, — all these
must be considered in relation to the distribution of life.

Humboldt laid the present basis of Physical Geography. Carl
Ritter enlarged the thought of Geography as the all-important
factor in life and human affairs. The multitude of facts collected
by Darwin on the cruise of the Beagle, and Wallace in the Malay
Archipelago, opened out a broad and suggestive field of thought.
Obscure problems became clear in the new light shed upon them.
The work of Lyell and other geologists bridged the gulf between
the great Present and the infinitely greater Past, showing that the
life of to-day in all its varied and obscure forms is the effect of
physiographic causes working throughout the earth's history. Time
and Place became the fulcra on which thought was levered in turn-
ing the great questions of life. Evolution was the word and the
light of science. Distribution was the key that unlocked many
of the mysteries.

A new conception of the importance of Geography was at hand.
Geography acted upon Biology and History, and they in turn
reacted upon Geography. The Geography of our childhood is

GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIFE. 5

remembered by most of us for its dry-as-dust detail and its enter-
taining pictures. Among these pictures none were more attrac-
tive than the zones of animal life. Seals, polar bears, and Eskimo
struggled with one another in the frigid zone, with a precarious
footing on cakes of ice under the conventional arch of an aurora
borealis. Horses, cattle, herds of bison, wolves, deer, and bears
were seen in all conditions of activity in the landscape of the
temperate zone. The real menagerie feeling came out in the
picture of the torrid zone. In one corner a dense jungle screens
a tiger ever ready to spring upon the approaching antelope. Near
by a herd of elephants are browsing. Hippopotami, rhinoceroses,
and other creatures appear in the scene, while a herd of zebra
or giraffe are invariably scampering off toward the other corner,
where a secretary bird is finishing its serpent.

We learned, too, that the land was divided into continents —
Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, North and South America —
islands, peninsulas, seaports, capes, and so forth ; that Canton
was noted for tea and china, Yokohama for Japanese, Philadelphia
for Independence Hall, Rome and Greece for antiquity, and Buenos
Ayres for hides and tallow. But we never knew why they were
noted for these things, or what part their geographical position
played in their history and exports.

In 1857 P. L. Sclater of the London Zoological Society first gave
a definite outline of Zoological Geography. There are powers
of dispersal and barriers to dispersal. Animals increase rapidly
in any given area unless checked by the presence of enemies or
the scarcity of food. In a restricted area the food supply is sure
to diminish from the increasing number of individuals. The
animal must needs wander in search of new pastures and wider
hunting grounds, and in so doing meets with barriers of a various
nature which tend to check its advance. Of these barriers high
mountain ranges, seas and wide rivers, deserts, deep forests,
climate, the ocean, the presence of certain enemies and competi-
tors for the same kind of food, are conspicuous. Certain species
have greater facilities for overcoming barriers than others, some

6 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

by their ready adaptation to changed conditions, their more varied
diet and powers of resistance, others by superior means of loco-
motion, as with birds and many mammals. In the lapse of time
these two factors, dispersive power and barrier, tend to map out
a definite territory or habitat for the animal to the physical con-
ditions of which it is more or less adapted.

Changes of a geological nature now enter into our consideration
as factors of the greatest importance in determining the ranges of
various animals. Slight changes of level have, at no very remote
geological period, caused sea and land to change places with each
other, thus raising a barrier in a once continuous area. Climate
and vegetation undergo change. The animal, cut off from the old ,
land mass, diverges more and more from the parent stock, and in
time appears as a distinct species.

The camels of the Old World and the llamas of South America
illustrate this fact. Naturalists find abundant fossil remains of a
cameloid animal in the Tertiary strata of Western North America.
It was long a standing puzzle how two such closely aUied forms as
the camels and llamas should exist in so widely separated areas.
Here was the solution : The common ancestor of the two species
arose in the area of country now forming the western portion
of our continent. In the ages that followed, the descendants of
this animal wandered in search of food, reaching the south and
northwest. What is now the shallow Aleutian bank of the North
Pacific was in the middle and later Tertiary a land area continuous
with the northwestern and northeastern shores of America and
Asia. The climate, too, was decidedly mild and supported a
luxuriant vegetation as compared with these latitudes to-day.
Sinking of the sea floor is still going on over a wide area in the
Pacific, and it was this same subsidence which carried a contin-
uous shore line beneath the sea, leaving only the highest points
of land, as the Aleutian, Fox, and Kurile chain of islands. Extraor-
dinary changes of climate followed, and extinction of animal life
occurred over wide areas. The descendants of the camel-like
beast that penetrated farthest into the Asiatic continent became,

GEOGKAPIIY IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIFE. 7

in the long course of time, adapted to a desert life, appearing in
the present age as the camels of Bactria, Arabia, and North Africa.
Those that wandered south became isolated on the high Andes
and, conforming to a mountain life, are to-day the llamas of South
America. This is only one of many such suggestive problems that
Geography has solved.

In accordance with the facts of distribution and the presence of
certain barriers Sclater mapped out the earth into six great zoolog-
ical regions. The great land mass of Europe and Asia north of
the Sahara Desert and Himalaya Mountain range is regarded as
constituting one natural primary region, Palaearctic or Eurasiatic.
Africa south of the desert with Madagascar constitutes a second
well-defined region containing numerous highly characteristic
species of animals. Tropical Asia south of the great mountain
barrier with the Malay Islands as far east as Borneo and Bali
forms a third great region. The Australian, a highly peculiar
and isolated region, includes the land mass of that name, Poly-
nesia, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago to the narrow
strip of water separating Lombok from Bali and to the Macassar
Straits between Celebes and Borneo. North America to the
Mexican highlands is the fifth or Nearctic ; while Central and
South America together comprise the Neotropical. The broad
features of plant distribution conform quite closely to the faunal
regions.

Here, then, is a natural geography based on the distribution of
life. As the animal world has been so largely influenced by Geog-
raphy, so man has been shaped, and his destiny hewn out mainly
through geographical influences.

Biology has pointed the way toward a new conception of Geog-
raphy and its importance as a point of view for all study — -history,
political science, linguistics, archaeology, ethnography, even mathe-
matics, and last but not least, commerce. What is more essen-
tially geographical than "reciprocity"?

The New Geography is before us with a new significance, clothed
with a perennial interest, for by it we are to see things in their

8 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

proper relations. The Old Geography is dead, a fossil buried in
the drift of a past educational epoch.

We shall always speak of Europe as distinct from Asia, for it has
long borne, in the light of history, a different geographical stamp.
In the light of present knowledge, however, Flurope can no longer
remain a thing apart from the " land of the rising sun," for the Ural
system forms no barrier between them. Even political boundaries
are breaking down. Our children will learn about Eurasia, its
climate and rainfall, its mountains, tablelands, and deserts, its
great plains and river valleys, its widespread animal and plant life,
and the influence of all these factors on the destiny of man.

As we linger over the teacups, let us be reminded that the plant
which gives us so many pleasant hours is part of a long and won-
derful story. When it grew wild, which was so long ago no one
can remember, it must have looked very different from what it
does now. Ages' before this plant ever left its native shores it was
cultivated by a curious people in the fertile valleys of the Yang-
tse-kiang and Hoang-Ho, doubtless making them happier by its
genial influence. The climate of these valleys and their ranges of
hills must have been peculiarly favorable to the growth of the tea
plant, for it will not grow everywhere. The life of this curious
race of people is full of interest ; their civilization extends back
for centuries and is lost in the dawn of history. What shut them
out from the world so long? Great mountain ranges have always
barred them off from the desert plateau of Asia. The warm,
vapor-laden currents of the Pacific have ever borne in clouds that
dropped their rains on the eastern mountain slopes, coursing back
to the sea through fertile jiver valleys. Populous cities have stood
for centuries on these river banks. Strange fish inhabit the waters ;
many birds and be-asts roam through its forests. The land was
sufficient in itself — its people stayed at home. At last the outer
world, with its fleet of restless navigators, penetrated the shores of
this strange country, and China, the Chinese, and the tea trade
became factors in the world at large.

So Geography has linked Biology with History and Commerce,

GEOGRAPHY IN ITS RELATIONS TO LIEE. 9

since Biology first pointed out the New Geography, and Biology
conies to mean more than merely what the microscope has to
show.

Geographies and text books on biological subjects are useful as
repositories of facts and for reference, but not as a means of reci-
tation in the usual acceptance of the term. Too often they lack
the spirit essential to the development of broad thinking and the
clear conception of things. Nothing can take the place of direct
contact with the real object and of the personality of teacher and
student. The true spirit of culture and education is not in the
amount of knowledge acquired, but in the attitude of thought
toward a subject. Cultivate this attitude of thought. Learn to
look for the significance of facts. Never lose sight of the cause
and the effect. Facts are the raw material of thought, to be trans-
formed within the man and reappear glowing with his personality.

When you read, read widely. History, travel, poetry, romance,
biography, as well as Biology and Geography. Each in some way
will light up the mind and help to clear the mists of ignorance.
Lastly, as far as lies in your power, come in contact with the liv-
ing life of the world. Touch it on every side. Books and study
will soon wither the intellect unless the man or woman be alive to
all the impressions that come to them from the great world of
humanity and nature.

I have laid down no hard and fast methods of teaching. Indi-
vidual experience is the best indicator of method. Let me say
one thing, however. The value of Geography as a study lies in its
relations with other studies. Political Geography, so called, hinges
directly on Physical Geography, and the two should be brought
before the youthful mind as essential elements of one great study.
This aspect of the subject is History in its widest sense. It is also
Natural History. Every shower of rain, every breath of air, every
flower, every living thing, holds a lesson for us — in Geography.

The education of every child is the history of the entire race.
The same world, stirring with life, still surrounds us ; we are to
feel it, to know it, to grasp its meaning if possible with a living
sense of the eternal fitness of things.

CHAPTER I.
SOME PAST AXD PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

Readinc in Connection with the Lessons of this Chapter.

Works »iarked * are especially icseful.

*Physiography. — Huxley.

Elements of Geology. — Le Conte.
*Comparative Geography. — Ritter.
*Dar\vinism (Chap. XII.). — Wallace.
* Humboldt's Cosmos.

LESSON L — LAND AND WATER.

Coast Lines. — The coast or shore Une — that Hne which marks
the boundary between the great bodies of land or continents
and the great bodies of water or oceans — is, and ahvays has
been, a scene of wonderful activity in the play of those forces
which are so potent in the long process of building up and tearing
down the surface features of the earth. We stand u])on sandy
beaches beholding the labor of ages, the long and slow piling
up of grains of quartz into beds of immense thickness. On bold
and rocky coasts we see the results of a grinding and wearing
action in cleft and cove and overhanging cliff. The granite rock
is mainly a mass of quartz, and the obvious conclusion as to
the relations between the rocky headland and the low, sandy
beach is that of cause and effect. Ever since the first land
appeared the waves of the ocean have ceaselessly battered against

LAND AND WATER. 11

its rocky shores, some portions of which, more readily yielding
to the disintegrating effect, have gradually worn away. The vast
quantity of sand thus formed has been slowly shifted along the
coast and spread over the marginal sea bottom. The further
action of the waves heaps up this sediment into beaches.

Wave action is not the only source of sedimentation along
the coast line. Rivers draining the land wash immense quantities
of mud and sand out into the ocean, which form vast deposits
at their mouths. In this way great deltas are formed when the
river empties into a bay or gulf but little affected by the tides,
such as the Mississippi, the Nile, and the Po.

This enormous deposit of earthy matter — sand and mud —
occurring along the shore line has largely aided in producing
the most important relief forms of the continents ; namely,
mountain ranges.

Height and Depth ; Mountains and Sea Bottoms. — From the
coast line, as the boundary between land and sea, the surface
of the earth gradually rises on the one hand above the sea level,
and on the other hand passes below the surface of the water to
form the sea bottom. The land may rise more or less abruptly
into a succession of hills, finally culminating in lofty mountain
ranges, or broad and low plains may extend inland for many
miles, gradually rising into some ' height of land.' The sea
bottom may slope gently, extending many miles from shore as
shoals and shallows. Sooner or later, however, it falls off more
or less steeply into great depths, forming in this way a sub-
marine bank.

The bottom of the ocean, like the surface of the land, is
traversed by mountain-like ridges, the highest tops of which
appear above the surface of the sea as islands. Many islands
occur in groups lying off the shores of the continents, like the
British Isles, Japan, the Philippines, etc., and have once formed
a part of the mainland.

Mountain ranges stand in a certain relation to the oceans.
The great ranges of the earth, as the Himalayas, Rocky Mountain

12 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

system, Andes, and the mountains of East Africa, rise from the
lands bordering on the largest body of water, the Pacific and
Indian considered as one ocean. The Atlantic appears as a
narrow trough toward which the lands on either side slope gently
as long plains, broken, in some instances, by smaller, secondary
mountain ranges. This is seen in the Appalachian system of
North America, the mountains of Brazil, the Ural range of Eurasia,
the Kameroons and low elevations of Western Africa.

The North Polar Area is a basin-like depression toward which
the land gently slopes as long plains. The great plains of Russia
and Siberia and the Barren Grounds of British America, stretching
to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, are instances of this.

The great rivers of the world taking their rise in the higher
mountain ranges traverse these plains and empty into the Atlantic
and Arctic oceans. Note the Missouri and Mississippi in North
America, the Amazon, La Plata, and Orinoco in South America,
some of the larger rivers of Europe, and the Nile, Niger, and
Congo in Africa. The Mackenzie, Yukon, and Nelson rivers in
British America, and the Dwina, Obi, Yenisei, and Lena in
Eurasia, are some of the great rivers emptying into the Arctic
Ocean. Comparatively few large streams find their way to the
Pacific, because that ocean is nowhere surrounded by extensive
plains.

Permanence of Main Geographical Features. — The large features
of the earth's surface — the sites of the present continents and
oceans — have always been much the same. Land and sea on a
large scale have nowhere and at no time in the history of the
earth exchanged places. The great depressions in the crust have
from the very beginning been occupied by the oceans as the result
of physical laws. Land first appeared above the surface of an
ancient ocean, world wide in its extent, by an uplifting process
which resulted from the very nature of the earth's genesis and
history as a part of the solar system.

The earth was at one time much hotter than it is now, and its
substance much softer and more yielding. Indeed, it is highly

LAND AND WATER. 13

probable that it started as a cloud of glowing vapors which gradu-
ally lost their intense heat and became liquid or molten in char-
acter. In this state it must have presented the appearance of a
great ball of fused matter like the flux from an iron furnace.
Still losing heat, its outer portion slowly hardened until a solid
crust was formed of some thirty miles thickness. This crust
cooled very unevenly, especially in its under layers, and as a result
it shrank more in some places than in others, producing an
uneven or wrinkled surface. As cooling went on, the dense atmos-
phere of vapor surrounding the earth was condensed into liquid
or water, and this water filled up the hollows of the uneven sur-
face. In this way the ocean was formed. It is altogether prob-
able that this primitive sea spread around the entire earth, not
only filling the great depressions of the crust, but even covering
the tops of the highest ridges or wrinkles. The surface of the
crust was now a sea bottom, and the cooling and shrinking pro-
cess still going on in its deep layers, the great wrinkles were
finally pushed or lifted above the surface of the ocean and
appeared as the first laud. In this way the present broad feat-
ures of the earth were, at a very early period, roughly mapped
out. This shrinking process took place at a very slow rate, and
is still going on in many places, unnodced, however, on account
of the extreme slowness of its movement. In some parts the
crust is sinking, in others risitig, the one often complementary to
the other. This change of level was without doubt true of the
Mediterranean region in a past period of the earth's history. It
was anciently a land area which slowly sank, letting in the waters
of the Adantic Ocean, at the same time leaving scattered rem-
nants of the old land mass above the surface in the form of
numerous islands and peninsulas. These islands and peninsulas
were the highest parts of ancient mountain ranges which were
not entirely carried under by the sinking process. To this fact
is due the present peculiar features of this remarkable inland sea
and their effect on the development and destiny of various
nations. As this portion of the crust sank, the present area of

14 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

the Sahara desert, then a sea bottom, probably arose, and its
vast deposits of salt help to confirm this fact. So in the Pacific
Ocean the entire sea floor has been sinking for thousands of years,
while the western part of North America has slowly risen to form
the plateau region. Off-shore islands separated from the main-
land by shallow straits and seas offer evidence of a submerged
shore hne. The coast of Norway is said to be rising, that of
Greenland sinking, and this last fact is so well recognized by the
natives that they never build their dwellings near the shore.
Huts previously built on the edge of the sea now stand partially
submerged.

The Thousand-fathom Line and what it teaches. — Though the
continents and oceans have undoubtedly occupied their present
positions from the beginning, yet changes in the relations of land
and sea have frequently occurred. These changes have been
alons the shore line. In his work on " Darwinism " Alfred Russel
Wallace devotes some space to the subject of the thousand-
fathom line about the continents and its probable significance.
In his map he shows by a contrast of color the former much
wider extent of the shore lines of the continents as marked by
the depth of a thousand fathoms off shore. All within this line
to the existing shores of the continents represents, in all proba-
bility, iosf land — land that has sunk beneath the waves. The
significance of this becomes apparent when we study the Mediter-
ranean region in all its past and present relations ; the northern
regions of Eurasia and America in relation to the North Atlantic
and Pacific areas ; the groups of islands lying off the shores of
the continents ; the shores of the Indian Ocean, Australia, and
the islands of the Malay Archipelago in connection with their
past and present life features.

It is not within the scope of this book to enter at length into
these inviting problems. Bear in mind, however, that it is along
the coast lines of the continents that the changes of level have
occurred, which, in the course of time, have so greatly modified
the surface features of the earth.

LAND AXD WATER. 15

"I drive my wedges home,
And carve the coastwise mountain into caves.

I with my hammer pounding evermore

The rocky coast, smite Andes into dust,

Strewing my bed, and, in anotlier age,

Relsuild a continent of better men.

Then I unbar the doors : my paths lead out

The exodus of nations : I disperse

Men to all shores that front the hoary main."

Origin of Mountain Ranges. — The situation of mountain ranges
in relation to the oceans is explained in the following way. The
shore line, as already stated, is the seat of a vast accumulation of
sediment, often many thousand feet in thickness. In past time
these enormous beds of sand and clay become hardened or con-
solidated throughout their underlying portions from the pressure
exerted by the increasing weight of the top layers, and strata of
sandstone, shales, and slates were thus formed. The immense
weight and pressure of these rock beds induced a greater degree
of heat in that portion of the crust included in the area of mar-
ginal sea bottoms, and this heat tended to soften the rock mass.
As a result of unequal shrinkage a certain amount of lateral pres-
sure took place from time to time, causing the crust to bulge at
its most pliable point, namely, the marginal sea bottoms, and this
bulge finally appeared above the surface of the ocean as new
land added along the beaches of the old. Increased pressure
upon the edges of these great beds of softened rock, from move-
ments in the surrounding portions of the crust, would continue
to push the new land higher and higher until it appeared as a
mountain range flanking the shores of the ocean. The experi-
ment of taking layers of clay in a suitable vessel of water and
pressing on the sides of the clay with the. hands gives a similar
result. Indeed, 'it is highly probable that mountains originated in
this way, as is shown by the following proofs, i. The flanks or
sides of mountain ranges consist of immense beds of stratified
rocks, and stratified rocks are the consolidated sediments formed

16 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

by water. 2. These stratified rocks contain the fossil remains of
marine animals in abundance, showing that at one time they must
have formed a part of the sea bottom. 3. The interior or cen-
tral core of a mountain range consists of granite-like rocks, mas-
sive and dome-shaped, over which the stratified rocks lie like a
saddle. Granite, gneiss, and various other crystalline and glassy
rocks form the great bulk of the crust underlying the sedimentary
or stratified rocks, outcropping here and there upon the surface.
They are igneous or fire rocks, having cooled and crystallized
from an original highly heated, molten mass. Mountain ranges
thus appear as upheaved marginal sea bottoms.

The Heat of the Earth ; its Cause and Effects. — Geologists
now incline to the theory that the earth consists of a densely solid
nucleus or central portion between which and the outer crust is
a layer of semi-fluid material in a state known as hydmthennal
fusion, or fusion in the combined presence of heat and water.
This heated, semi-fluid layer is manifested on the surface in
various places as the outpouring of lava or melted rock from
volcanoes, and the presence of geysers and hot springs. The
cause of the internal heat and fusion is not thoroughly known,
but is thought to be due largely to the crushing and grinding
action of immense masses of rock and in part to a chemical
action.

The effect of the earth's internal heat over large areas is con-
spicuous. In Western North America vast fields of lava occur
from the overflows of ancient volcanoes. The Pacific Ocean is
surrounded by volcanoes both active and extinct, and this in con-
nection with the sinking of the sea bottom and the near presence
of high mountain ranges, among which many of the volcanoes
are situated, throws considerable light on the fact that interior
heat is probably the. primary cause of many surface features.
Outside of this region the Mediterranean volcanoes, in an area of
subsidence, are also remarkable.

This earth energy finds its primary cause in the attractive
power of the sun. The earth has passed, in its long history, from

LAND AND WATER. 17

a sphere of cloudy vapor through a Ucjuid, into an increasingly
contracting solid state. Through all this it has steadily lost heat,
and its present activities are only the ghosts of its past giant
forces. Like its satellite the moon, it is destined to pass from
old age into a cold, dead planet destitute alike of air, water, and
life.

The Action of Water. — The elevating force, converting portions
of the primitive sea bottom into a land surface by lifting it above
the surface of the ocean, has always had a counteracting agent in
the destructive force of water. No sooner was any considerable
land surface presented above the sea level than the vapor of the
ocean, condensing into clouds, poured as torrents of rain upon the
face of the dry earth. Rain soaks through soil, finding under-
ground channels which bring the water to the surface again as
springs, or, when in excess, runs off the surface in muddy rills.
All this water is ultimately gathered into streams flowing from
higher to lower levels, and through the large rivers it finally
reaches the ocean whence it started. This circulation of meteoric
water is attended by a slow but impressive wearing down of land
surface. The action of the atmosphere in disintegrating rock
into soil still furthei- prepares the way for the destructive action of
water. Water itself is not the eroding agent ; the sediment or
grains of sand which it carries in suspension is the graving tool
sculpturing the face of the earth throughout all ages of time. At
a distance we behold the mountains in mass and outline standing
against the sky, seeing, as a geologist somewhere expresses it, only
the evidence of the uplifting forces of nature. Once among the
mountains, we lose -sight of this, seeing only the mighty effects of
water, — gorges, chasms and ravines ; bare, jagged cliffs ; torrents
and cascades cutting their way still more deeply into the solid
rock. Everywhere, dn lowland and highland, by the seacoast and
on the tops of mountains, we see the marvelous results of the
action of water.

The varied features of scenery are largely the result of the cut-
ting and carrying power of water. Narrow valleys, flumes, caiions,
c

18 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

and cataracts are prominent features of the cutting or erosive
action of water in all parts of the earth. In the lower reaches of
rivers, broad flood plains are formed by the checking of a sedi-
ment-laden current as it meets the incoming tide of the ocean.
The river spreading out in times of flood, drops its burden of mud
over a wide area, leaving broad, marshy flats when it recedes into
its main channel. Plains thus grow by the accumulations of mud
carried down by rivers as a result of erosion in their upper or tor-
rential courses. Deltas are similarly formed by the velocity of
the rivers' flow, carrying mud out into a comparatively tideless
body of water. These low, marshy regions are peculiarly liable
to overflow, as in the case of the Nile, the Mississippi, the Ganges,
the Po, the rivers of China, etc.

In the form of ice, as glaciers, water has sculptured the surface,
making a characteristic landscape in many countries. In a past
age of the earth, glaciers spread widely over many northern lands,
leaving a ' drift ' of bowlders and moraines, billowy hills, river
terraces, antl wide mountain valleys as characteristic features of
scenery. The effect of the glacial period upon climate and the
distribution of life and its probable relations to early man are
subjects of extreme interest.

Action of the Atmosphere. — The chemical action of rain water
gradually dissolves the cementing material of rocks, allowing them
to fall away as loose masses of sand and earthy matter. In this
way soil is formed by the so-called 'weathering' of rock. The
effects of frost in breaking up masses of rock are conspicuous in
temperate and cool countries. Water penetrating into rock fis-
sures expands in freezing, and in this way plays an important part
as a disintegrating agent.

On low, sandy beaches the wind piles up the sand into immense
dunes which flank the shore for miles and gradually work inland,
frequently encroaching upon, and in some places entirelv obliter-
ating forests and fertile lands. The same is true of tlie desert
sands, the winds blowing them from deserts over neighboring
countries. In this way they gradually encroach upon fertile lands

LAND AND WATER. 19

and in time completely overwhelm them. This is seen in some
parts of Egypt and along the borders of the Sahara, where the
desert sands are piled about the bases of the Pyramids and over
the vegetation of the Nile Valley.

Living Matter and its Effects. — The soil of a forest is the accu-
mulation of the fallen leaves and rotting tree trunks of centuries.
It is known as vegetable mould, and in most places, wherever plant
life abounds, forms an important element of the soil. In the
presence of water, as on the shores of a lake or in a marsh, and
where the climate is sufficiently cool and moist, this vegetable
matter is slowly converted into thick beds of a black, mud-like
material known as peat. Still further compression and solidifica-
tion by overflows of silt and clay bring about a hardening, and
this fact throws light on the probable origin of the coal measures
in various parts of the world. Peat bogs often form in a com-
paratively short period, in some instances entirely hiding impor-
tant landmarks. Thus in Europe, old Roman roads have been
lost under peat formations. Bog iron ore, the workable form of
the metal, results from the presence of organic matter which takes
an excess of oxygen, and thus reduces the iron from its higher
state of oxidation. It is in this higher, but unworkable state, that
iron exists widely diffused through the crust, imparting a charac-
teristic red color tp many soils.

Limestone and accumulations of lime result from the immense
deposits of the shells of various marine animals, notably the Foram-
inifera and coral polyps. The chalk of France and England is
a hardened material almost identical with the lime ooze of the
Atlantic sea bottom, and undoubtedly represents an upheaval of
this deposit in past ages. The growth of coral polyps has re-
claimed lost land over a considerable area in the Pacific, growth
taking place at a slightly faster rate than the subsidence of the
sea floor. In this way numerous reefs have been formed, on the
tops of which islands are gradually built up by wave action. Birds,
winds, and ocean currents carry the seeds of plants and disperse
them over wide areas. By this means vegetation has sprung up

20 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

and covered many of these islands.' Extensive caves often occur
in limestone districts from the dissolving action of underground
waters containing carbonic acid. In many places these caves
have played an important part as slielters in the early history of
mankind.

Soil and Forests. — The character of the soil often influences
the vegetation over wide areas. This results largely from the
nature of the combined elements of soil, giving rise to certain
mechanical conditions. Thus a soil made up largely of sand is
loose, allowing water to percolate freely through its beds, while a
clay soil is stiff and lumpy and more or less completely impervious
to water. A mixing of these two elements, sand and clay, is un-
doubtedly the best soil for plant growth. The stiff loam of our
middle prairie lands may possibly have been a factor operating
against the growth of a forest. The roots of plants penetrate the
soil, thus forming channels along which water finds its way. Earth-
worms Hkevvise perform an important part in plowing the soil by
bringing the deeper layers to the surface and thus exposing them
to the influence of air and sunlight. The roots of plants tend to
hold soil together and prevent its too rapid washing by rain and
rivers. Marshes are formed in this way, the sod of mud and
grass roots being often two and three feet in thickness.^ The veg-
etable mould or humus from the decay of plants forms an impor-
tant element of soil, and a source of food supply to the seedlings
and young undergrowth.

1 In tropical seas the completion of an island is often due to the growth of the
mangrove and cocoanut. The mangrove is a tree of low, marshy seacoasts, and
grows out of the water, spreading itself by the formation of adventitious roots, or
long branches that strike downward from its limbs and take root in the mud to
form new tiees. The conditions of shallow water on the top of a coral reef or
a submarine bank are entirely favorable to the growth of this tree, and its form of
reproduction is curiously fashioned for dispersal over shallow seas. Mud accumu-
lates rapidly about the mangrove roots, and forms a resting place for the cocoanuts
that drift about in their tough, buoyant husks. Dry land gradually appears from
the growth of mud, and this is soon covered with the tall palms and low mangrove
swamps which are so characteristic a feature of tropical shores and islands.

- See article by J. Gifford on "Salt Tide Marshes of South Jersey;" Science,
Vol. xxii. 556,

/,//'■/'; AA'D THE EARTH. , 21

Forests have an imijortant inlluence on the cHmate and rain-
fall of a country. Their canopy of foliage acts as a shelter from
the heat of the sun and the washing effects of rain. The immense
area of leafage exposed acts as a vast evaporating surface and also
radiates heat into the surrounding air, thus equahzing the con-
ditions of moisture and temperature. Wy this means prolonged
periods of drought followed by heavy downfalls of rain are averted
and the perennial flow of springs is maintained. The forest has
exerted an important influence on mankind throughout history.
It has formed a natural hiding place and shelter, a harbor for the
wild animals of the chase, a source of timber supply and of many
varieties of food. By no means the least has been its widespread
influence upon climate. In the advance of civilization the cutting
off of the forests is a menace to the welfare of a country.

LESSON II. — LIFE AND THE EARTH.

Life a Part of the Earth's Surface. — The greatest feature of
the earth's surface is the life that dwells upon it, and of which
man himself forms a part. The multitude of living beings that
find a home in the waters of ocean, lake, and river, or on the
surface of the land, are, each and all, a part of this wonderful
sphere, in every way dependent upon it for their existence. The
simplest speck of jelly endowed with this living or vital prin-
ciple ; the highest creature, man ; the grass and flowers that make
beautiful the face of the land ; the rock masses and minerals of
the crust, were all breathed into existence as a part of the earth.
The infinite variety of the living beings that people the earth is
the result of life having slowly unfolded from the simplest be-
ginnings, like a plant from its seed. Life is the earth itself.
Without hfe the earth would be a dead sphere ; a world without a
history.

Animal Life. — Two kinds of living beings inhabit the earth, —
animals and plants. Some kind of animal is found in evefy part
of the earth, from pole to pole, and from the highest mountain

22 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

summits to the deepest depths of the ocean. The wonderful
variety of forms is a striking feature of animal life. The animal is
fitted to all conditions of existence — the fishes and creatures of
the sea to a life in the water ; the land-living or air-breathing
forms to the varied states which such a life offers.

The higher animals, like the backboned creatures, — beasts,
birds, etc., — are distributed over the earth in relation to climate
and other causes which led in past time to their present geo-
graphical distribution. First among these causes was the search
for food, brought about by the cutting down of the food supply in
the places where they lived, on account of the increasing number
of individuals. Wandering over the earth, they met with various
checks or barriers in the shape of mountains, deserts, oceans,
cUmate, etc., which tended to stop their wanderings .in certain
directions, producing in time the present features of animal dis-
tribution.

Vegetation. — Plant life is widely spread over the face of the
earth, giving rise to prominent features of various regions. Some
regions are covered with vast forests ; others are treeless pasture
lands ; others, again, are barren deserts, with little, if any, vegeta-
tion. All this is largely the result of climatic conditions, rainfall,
etc., as well as topographical features, lay of the land, mountain
tops, lowlands, etc. The character of the vegetation differs in
various regions. The virgin forests of the tropical zone abound
with the most wonderful forms and varieties of plant life. The
vegetation of the temperate zone is a strong contrast to this,
forests of entirely different trees characterizing the landscape.
The Arctic regions are, for the most part, barren wastes, covered
here and there with a few stunted alpine shrubs and wild flowers.

The Air or Atmosphere. — The atmosphere is the gaseous
envelope surrounding the solid earth, and extending to the height
of many miles. It is literally an ocean of air in which we and
all other land animals live, containing a principle without which
life could not exist. This principle is a gaseous element called
oxygen.

LIFE AND THE EARTH. 23

Its Relation to the Surface. — The air is the great reservoir
into which a large portion of the surface water of the earth passes
as vapor to be circulated over the land in the form of clouds.
These clouds are carried by currents of air or winds, their vapor
falling as rain, to be again returned to the ocean through the
rivers. It is also the great distributer and equalizer of the sun's
heat, receiving the heat radiated from the earth's surface and
modifying the direct rays of the sun passing through its cloudy
vapors. The water of the ocean is salt, from the various min-
eral matters that are leached out of the rocks by rain water, and
carried into it through the rivers ; but by evaporation into the air
it becomes fresh, the salt being left behind. Hence rain water
and the water of springs, rivers, and many lakes is fresh.

Its Relations to Life. — Without this atmosphere or air life were
not possible. It is the great medium from which animals and
plants draw the materials for their existence, and through which
the interchange of material between the plant and the animal
takes place. The animal breathes in the oxygen of the air to
carry on its vital activities. This act of living in the animal pro-
duces a waste material called carbonic acid, which the animal
throws out in its breath as a gas. This goes into the atmosphere,
and is the substance upon which the plant feeds. Its leaves
absorb carbonic acid gas, and this is converted into starch, which
forms a large part of the plant's substance. The animal, in turn,
feeds on the plant, thus getting back material to make good the
loss to its body caused by the wasting action of oxygen. The
plant also at times gives out oxygen from its leaves into the air.
Both plants and animals absorb a great deal of moisture from the
atmosphere and throw it off again from their bodies. Animals
living in the water get their oxygen from the air, though indirectly,
as water always absorbs a certain amount of air, especially when
it foams and breaks on the surface.

We thus see how animals and plants are dependent for their
very existence, upon one another and upon the atmosphere.

Distribution ; Primary Life Areas of the Earth. — The ques-

24 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

tion of the distribution of animals and plants over the earth's
surface under the conditions of climate, topography, etc., resolves
itself into the consideration of seven primary areas characterized
by the number of peculiar forms, of both animals and plants, in
each.

Dr. J. A. Allen has recently summed up his views upon this
subject in an exceedingly interesting and valuable paper.^ In our
Introductory Chapter the divisions as outlined by Sclater in 1857
were briefly alluded to. In the lapse of more than thirty years
many facts have been ascertained in both Biology and Geography
which shed new hght upon the subject. These are embodied in
Dr. Allen's classification of the Ufe areas as follows : —

" (i) An Arctic Realm, occupying the region northward from
about the limit of forest vegetation, or from about the isotherm of
32° F. It is characterized by its paucity of life and its homo-
geneousness, nearly all its forms of both animal and vegetable life
ranging throughout its whole extent.

" (2) A North Temperate Realm, extending from the northern
limit of forest vegetation to the northern border of the palm belt,
or between the annual isotherms of 32° and 70° F.

" (3) An American Tropical Realm, consisting, as the name
implies, of tropical America.

" (4) An Judo- Africa 11 Realm, consisting of Africa (except
the northern border), and tropical Asia and its outlying islands.

"(5) A South American Temperate Realm, embracing extra-
tropical South America.

" (6) An Australian Realm, including not only Australia, but
New Guinea, New Zealand, and the various groups of islands to
the northward and eastward.

" (7) A Lemurian Realm, consisting of Madagascar."

From this it will be seen how closely the life areas conform to
climate as well as to the general distribution of the land masses.

1 "Tlie Geograpliical Origin and Distribution of North American Birds, consid-
ered in Relation to Faunal Areas of North America," The Auk, April, 1893.

LIFE AND THE EARTH. 25

The North Temperate Reahii embraces two regions: (i) the
North American Region, consisting of temperate North America;
and (2) tlie Eurasia tic Region, consisting of temperate Eurasia.
The Hfe forms of these two regions are very similar in many
instances. Thus a species of bear, lynx, and wolf are essentially
the same in both. The red deer of Europe has its counterpart
in the so-called ' elk,' or wapiti, of North America. So with the
bison and auroch and several other closely allied forms of animal
life. A general similaritv characterizes the broad features of
vegetation in the two regions. A zone of deciduous trees, oaks,
willows, beeches, birches, etc., with a belt of pines, larches, and
other conifers to the north, and a vast assemblage of herbaceous
forms, give character to both the North American and Europaeo-
Siberian forests.

The American tropical and Indo-African realms, though under
very similar conditions of climate, are strongly contrasted in their
life forms on account of their wide separation by the ocean. The
South American tropical forest, with its gigantic cinchonas, green
hearts, cow trees, and other remarkable forms \ its curious sloths
and anteaters ; its hosts of peculiar birds (among them the hum-
ming birds), and its general scarcity of large mammals, is strik-
ingly opposed to the tropical life of the Old World with its
peculiar baobabs, banyans, giant grasses like the bamboo, and
other no less remarkable forms of vegetation, and the wonderful
development of large mammalia, — elephants, rhinoceroses, buffa-
loes, antelopes, zebras, the giraffe, hippopotamus, the man-like
apes, leopards, lions, tigers, hyenas, etc.

Australia and its adjacent islands are especially remarkable for
the development of marsupials or pouch-bearing mammals, like
the kangaroo, wombat, etc., numerous peculiar birds, and charac-
teristic forms of vegetation. Madagascar is the home of most
of the existing species of lemur, a group of monkey-like mammals
which was once widely spread over the earth. The South Ameri-
can Temperate Realm has a life largely derived from the tropical
region to the north modified by temperate conditions. These

26 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

last three realms, the Australian, Lemurian, and Temperate South
American, have derived their special life features from their pecu-
liarly isolated position in relation to the rest of the great land
mass reaching back to a very remote period of time. Madagascar,
Australia, and the adjacent islands are the result of subsidence
which surrounded them by an ocean barrier, while temperate
South America is isolated by climate, being cut off from the North
Temperate Realm (save along the higher ranges of the Andes) by
the tropical zone.

In a general view of the distribution of vegetation over the
earth, we see the effect of climate as a primary cause, giving rise
to a series of vegetable zones or belts characterized by the pre-
dominance of certain forms. These correspond to the annual
isotherms, the great forest regions being the result of the special
conditions producing an abundant rainfall. Mountain ranges
trending north and south carry temperate conditions far into the
tropics, thus aiding the wide dispersal of temperate forms of both
animals and plants. We thus recognize an Arctic belt of stunted
vegetation extending to 32° F., a temperate forest belt from 32°
to 70° F., and beyond this a palm belt of tropical vegetation in
general. (See Climate, Isotherms.)

The North American Region is divided into two Subregions :
(i) a Cold Temperate Sub region, and (2) a Warm Temperate
Subregion. The Cold Temperate Subregion extends across the
continent, reaching from the northern limit of forests southward
to about the mean latitude of 43° N. Its southern border is
extremely irregular, owing to topographical conditions. The
Appalachian Mountain range carries cold temperate features
southward along its crest, appearing as a narrow belt penetrating
the Warm Temperate Subregion. The influence of the great
plains of the Saskatchewan, on the other hand, pushes its south-
ern boundary line far to the north. The Warm Temperate Sub-
region extends southward from this line to the palm belt or the
northern limit of the American tropical realm. It is subdivided
east and west as a result of physical conditions into two provinces :

LIFE AND THE EAR 77/. -27

(i) an eastern or Humid Province, and (2) a western or Arid
Province. These subregions and provinces are remarkably well
defined by their life forms, both animal and vegetable. Their
boundaries are nowhere abrupt, but overlap or pass gradually into
one another.

Certain broad features of flora characterize the subregions of
North America. The Arctic Realm to the north is a region of
saxifrages. The Cold Temperate Subregion is especially charac-
terized by the abundance and variety of asters and goldenrods
besides numerous heath-like forms, as the various species of
huckleberries. Among forest trees the great variety of oaks and
spruces is characteristic. A striking feature of the Warm Temper-
ate Subregion is the abundance of magnolias, while tulip pop-
lars, horsechestnuts, and locusts are conspicuous trees in the
woodland landscape. These forms are all noted for their magnifi-
cent blossoms. This subregion is also the center of rice, cotton,
and sugar cane growth in the United States. Wheat and maize
are grown over both subregions, though the latter attains its best
development and highest degree of cultivation in the Warm Tem-
perate. The Humid Province is throughout a fertile region, the
greater part of its area being under cultivation. West of the looth
meridian the eastern edge of the Great Plains forming the North
American Plateau, marks the beginning of the Arid Province,
characterized by the agave, yucca, and cactus forms of vegetation.

Sequence of Life. — Living beings present a gradually unfolding
series in the history of the earth, from simple beginnings to later
complex forms. The oldest stratified rocks contain the remains
of single-celled organisms in all respects like the lower forms
existing to-day, and throughout the immense lapse of time, since
life first began, the strata of the crust bear testimony to this unfold-
ing plan of development. The older forms of life were aquatic,
like the lower forms of to-day, water being the primitive element
of existence. It was not until the atmosphere had parted with its
excess of carbonic acid, through the action of the wide-spread
vegetation of tlie Carboniferous period, that air-breathing animals
appeared.

28 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

In a universal ' struggle for existence,' which is a law of life,
living beings strive to fill unoccupied places in the economy of
nature, and in time become adapted to new conditions through
a change in function and structure. This gives rise to diversity
and subsequent ' origin of species.'

Conditions of Life; Environment. —The earth's surface is the
home of life — hence, the conditions of the surface are the con-
ditions of life — or its environment. Land, air, water, heat, and
sunlight are essential conditions of life. The distinctive feature
of living matter is energy in the form of motion, growth, and
reproduction. This results from the activity of oxygen, or com-
bustion— the never-ceasing attack of that element upon living
matter in an effort to form combinations with its elements. Waste
of the living organism ensues, necessitating a constant renewal by
food. This food is obtained from the surrounding elements, and
is an important condition of life. ,

The Unity of Life. — Life, then, is a part of the earth's surface
dependent upon its conditions for existence. From the lowest and
simplest organism — a mere speck of jelly — up to the highest
and most complex, as in man and the higher animals and plants,
this unity of life, this dependence upon the same primary condi-
tions, forms an essential and conspicuous feature. Furthermore,
the most complex animal exhibits in its individual development
the same steps as are seen in the long history of life as a whole.
Whether we view the individual or the race, each alike begins as
a simple germ potent with unseen but marvelous possibilities.

Intelligence. — Man, as the crowning work of this wonderful
thing called ' life,' reflects that intelligence which seems to per-
vade all nature. He only, of the countless living beings, has
recognized that ' something,' higher and greater than all life and
nature, that —

" divinity that shapes our ends,
Rough-hew them how we will."

The forces of nature have slowly wrought out through the long
centuries of time the present aspects of the earth. Not for

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN. 29

themselves alone have these forces operated. The intelligence
that manifested itself with the development of man as a part
of nature grasps the inheritance of time, the opportunities of
environment, rising above the mere blind instincts of tlie animal.
Climate and physical forces no longer coerce man into complete
subjection. A noted geographer once wrote a work entitled,
" The Earth and Man." ^ In view of the intelligence that has so
far fitted its home to suit its own purpose, might we not as truly
say, Man and the Earth ?

LESSON III. — CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF MAN.

Mountain Walls. — The relative position of mountain ranges,
table-lands, plains, and valleys, and the resulting determination of
water courses have exerted an important influence in the history
and development of man. The preservation of early civilizations,
as those of China and India, and in later times that of Rome,
though subject to barbarian invasion, was largely due to their
position in lowlands flanked by lofty mountain barriers. The
Swiss owe their long independence among the nations of Europe
mainly to their impregnable position among the ranges of the
Alps. So with Greece on her islands and mountainous peninsula.
France and Spain have been greatly protected by a mountainous
border ; while Austria, lying open to the Black Sea and the plains
of Central Europe, has been from time to time the scene of
inroads by Asian peoples, as attested by her present relations
with Hungary and the Danube countries. The early settlements
of North America, as Professor Shaler has shown, owe their pres-
ervation in great part to the nearness of the Appalachian ranges,
which shielded them from the greater body of savages occupying
the region west of these mountains. The Peruvian civilization
was developed on the western slopes of tlie Andes under almost
temperate conditions of climate, and protected by the snowy

1 Guyot.

30 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

crests of the range from the savages of the tropical forests to the
east. Hardly anywhere do we find a better example than this of
a mountain's influence in developing man ; for even the extreme
dryness of the region was overcome under the stimulating effects
of altitude.

Mountain walls have had other influences than merely pro-
tecting man from man. They are one of the most important
regulators of rainfall, and hence determine the fertility of a region.
China and India, the northern shores of the Mediterranean, the
Pacific slope of Western North America, are examples of this
influence.

The character of mountain ranges themselves has played an
important part in more or less completely separating neighboring
countries. The Alpine passes have been important factors in his-
tory, permitting intercourse among various European peoples.
The Himalayas, on the other hand, affected by only a few passes,
and those at a great height, have effectually isolated the surround-
ing countries from any extended intercourse with one another.

" Mountains interposed
Make enemies of nations, who had else
Like kindred drops been mingled into one."

Continental Irregularity. — The outline or contour features of
a continent have played a very important part in the development
of nations. The deeply dissected coast line of Europe has greatly
affected the history of the various peoples inhabiting the con-
tinent. A glance at the map of Europe is sufficient to show how
vast an extent of seacoast is presented by its irregular shore line
in relation to the entire territory. With the exception of Switzer-
land there is not an important country in Europe that does not
possess a more or less extended seacoast, and that within tem-
perate latitudes. Nearly all the important points of Western
Europe are thus within easy reach of the sea. This has had an
important influence in the destiny of European nations. The
fostering influence of a sheltered body of water like the Mediter-

CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAN. 31

ranean was an important factor in the development of the early
seagoing nations. Phoenicia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, Venice,
were all nurtured under the protecting headlands and sheltered
bays of an irregular shore line. Holland has been reclaimed
from the sea. Spain has sent fleets from both Mediterranean and
Atlantic shores. The Baltic nations have been seafarers from the
days of the Vikings to the present time. The British Isles owe
their great human interest in history to the sinking process that
gave to the shores of Western Europe their present jagged out-
line.

In like manner Eastern North America was open to the early
discoverers through its far- inland-reaching estuaries and navigable
rivers. We may thus, for example, trace the history of coloniza-
tion along the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley.

South America and Africa have a comparatively even coast line,
no great bays reaching far inland. Many of the rivers of Africa
present a series of dangerous rapids for many miles before enter-
ing the low coast regions. This is especially the case with the
Congo and the Nile. The effect of this upon the inhabitants and
the difficulty which civilized man finds in penetrating to the inte-
rior is in a large measure the reason why Africa is still a " Dark
Continent."

River Valleys and Garden Spots. — All the great civilizations of
history began in fertile river valleys, — Egypt in the fertile valley
of the Nile, surrounded on all sides by the desert ; Babylon and
the Assyrian civilization in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates.
The Hindus on the Ganges and the Indus, the Chinese on the
Yang-tse-kiang and Hoang-Ho, are examples of the river's influ-
ence in the development of civilizations. In later times the Tiber
and the Po nurtured the germs of great civilizing centers. In our
own country the river valleys were the garden spots which invited
the first settlers. Even in savage countries the densest popula-
tion is along the great rivers. The navigability of rivers, as
already alluded to, has been of the utmost importance to the
peoples of history.

32 PAST AND PRESENT ASPECTS OF THE EARTH.

The distribution of minerals, plants, and animals, and the con-
ditions of climate have been throughout all time among the most
important factors in the development of man. These will be
further alluded to in later chapters. The great end in view
through the operation of these various physical conditions is the
evolution of the social state of man. Man and Man as well as
Man and the Earth.

CHAPTER II.

CLIMATE.

Reading in Connection with the Lessons of this Chapter.

Works iiiarked * are especially useful.

♦Humboldt's Cosmos.

♦IsLind Life (especially chapters on Climate). — Wallace.

Tropical Nature. — Wallace.

Climate and Time. — Croll.
♦Articles on "Meteorology" and " Climate." — Encyclopaedia Britannica.
♦Eclectic Physical Geography. — Hinman.

The Ocean, Atmosphere, and Life. — Elisee Reclus.

LESSON L — THE ELEMENTS OF CLLMATE.

Definition. — Climate is the character of the atmosphere
dependent upon the condition of two primary factors, tempera-
ture and moisture. The condition of these two main elements is
influenced by : i, latitude or distance from the equator; 2, alti-
tude or height above the sea level ; 3, distance from the sea ;
and 4, prevailing winds and ocean currents. From all of these
causes arises that diversity of climate which is so marked a feature
of the earth's surface. We speak accordingly of a hot or a cold,
or of a dry or a moist climate. The word ' climate ' is of ancient
origin. It comes from a Greek verb meaning to incline, and was
used by the ancients to signify the difference in the length of day
and night, resulting from the slanting or inclination of the earth's
axis in relation to the plane of its orbit. This fact was recognized

CUM A TE.

by the ancient geographer Ptolemy (127-15 1 a.d.), who divided
the earth's surface, from the equator to the arctic circle, " into
chmates or parallel zones, corresponding to the successive increase
of a quarter of an hour in the length of midsummer day."

Latitude or Distance from the Equator. — On those parts of
the earth where the sun's rays fall more or less directly downward,

Fui. I. — Diagram illustrating the result of vertical and slanting rays of sunlight
on th'e earth's surface. Parallel rays (i) falling vertically are concentrated on a
smaller space of surface, A, B, and consequently exert greater power than the same
number of rays falling obliquely (2, 3), which being spread over a larger space,
C, B, are diffused and exert less power.

the temperature of the air is raised. This is the case, as we know,
in tropical countries and lands under the equator where the sun's

ELEMENTS OE CUM ATE. 35

rays are always more or less vertical. Hence the term torrid or
hot zone. As we go north or south from the equator, we pass
through regions having a temperate climate, because the sun's
rays fall slantingly, and consequently with less power. Here the
" change of seasons " occurs as a result of the successive changes
of position of the earth in its path around the sun. As the earth
in its revolution thus brings the places on its surface under differ-
ent degrees of slanting rays, it follows that a certain cycle of heat
and moisture must result from this changing of the relative posi-
tions of the sun and earth. In the tropics, as the sun appears to
move northward or southward from the equator, the cloud belt
follows, and the "rainy season" is ushered in. This occurs in
lands just north of the equator in F'ebruary, and reaches the
tropic of Cancer about September. As the sun and its cloud belt
pass south again, a second "rainy season" will occur at certain
places north of the equator later in the autumn. The rainy season
of tropical lands north of the equator corresponds, therefore, with
spring and summer in the north temperate regions and the mid-
night sun of the long arctic day. The rainy season lasts, in a
general sense, from April until October. In countries south of
the equator, it is then the " dry season " of the tropics and winter
in the southern realm. The rainy and the summer season south
of the equator corresponds to the dry season and the winter of
the north, from October to April.

On account of the inclination of the axis, the curvature of the
earth cuts off the rays of light from the polar regions for many
weeks at one time of the year, while at another, the same cause
gives these lands continuous daylight, as the sun is vertical north
or south of the equator. The failure of light and heat in the polar
regions throughout a greater part of the year makes them ice-
locked lands of desolation.^

1 The seasonal changes of temperature in the temperate zones are in great part
due to the different relative lengths between the day and night, as a result of the
relative change of the sun's position. Thus, the more continuous sunlight in the
long day of the Northern summer is a factor quite as important as the highly-
inclined rays. The cold of winter is likewise the result of a lessened amount of
sunlight, due to the short day and long night.

36 CUM A TE.

Altitude, or Height above the Sea Level. — The air of high
mountain regions is much colder ihan that of lower levels and sea-
board countries. Even at the equator eternal snow lies upon the
crests of the higher ranges. A traveler climbing one of the lofty
mountains in the tropics passes through the same zones of vegeta-
tion that he would meet in going north from the equator to the
pole. In the hot, moist lowlands, at the mountain's base, he is
surrounded by a dense forest of luxuriant, tropical growth, palms,
creepers, and great climbing vines, orchids, rubber plants, gigantic
fern-like forms, brilliant-colored flowers, and all the wonderful pro-
fusion of plant life that is so characteristic of tropical scenery.

Ascending the mountain slope the traveler gradually passes out
of the tropical forest into the belt of hard-wood trees, first the
evergreen hard woods, as the live oaks and magnolias, and finally
the upper deciduous trees of the temperate zone. Still climbing,
he reaches the pine belt, — the birches, larches, and pines of the
north temperate zone. The cold increases as he goes upward,
the trees become stunted, and finally disappear (timber line). He
finds himself, at last, in an open, alpine region, like that above the
northern limit of trees, the ground covered with mosses, lichens,
and short grasses. Above him towers the snowy range, a region
of perpetual winter, with only a few arctic wild flowers blossoming
along the snow line, 15,000 feet or more above the sea. Altitude,
therefore, corresponds with latitude, climate and vegetation pass-
ing through the same changes.

Though the sun's rays pour straight down upon these high moun-
tain redons, the climate is cold because there is so little surface
off"ered to retain the heat. In the lower regions, near the sea
level, the broad surface of land and sea absorbs an immense quan-
tity of the sun's heat, which warms the surrounding air by radia-
tion, just as a stove warms the air of a room by radiating the heat
from its whole surface. The steep and comparatively narrow
mountain ranges reaching far up into the sky allow what litde heat
is absorbed by their surface to pass rapidly into the surrounding
air, which soon dissipates it in space, and becomes increasingly

ELEMENTS OE C/JMA7E..

colder as the mountain mass narrows upward. For this reason,
the moisture of the air falls upon the mountain summit as snow,
which never melts above a certain limit (the snow line), because
the conditions of temperature never change. These snow fields

Fig. 2. — Diagram of vegetation zones of latitude and altitude. W, E, equator
(also sea level), i, Zone of Palms (tropical) ; 2, Zone of Hardwood Trees, ever-
green and deciduous (sub-tropical) ; 3, Zone of Deciduous Trees and Pines (tem-
perate) ; 4, Alpine Zone (arctic and antarctic).

feed a multitude of torrents that spring from the mountain sides,
and go roaring and foaming down to make the great tropical
rivers of Asia, Africa, and South America. '

Slope Exposure. — The effects of increased temperature con-
ditions on the southern slopes of hills and mountain ranges in the
northern hemisphere is conspicuous on the development and dis-
tribution of vegetation. This is often marked by an early appear-
ance of certain species of plants in the spring, and by the higher

CUM A TE.

elevation reached by certain trees on the southern exposures.
Thus on the San Francisco Mountain, Arizona, a peak nearly
13,000 feet high, a series of timber zones succeed one another,
extending much higher on the southwestern than on the north-
eastern slope. Rising from the desert of the Little Colorado,
there is first the piiion or nut-pine belt followed by the pine, fir,

Cv\^\

s. w.

Tt.

If.B.

Fig. 3. — Diagram of a mountain, illustrating Slope Exposure (after Merriam).
I, Desert; 2, Piiion Zone; 3, Pine Zone; 4, Fir Zone; 5, Spruce Zone; 6, Timber-
line Zone; 7, Alpine Zone. R, relative position of sun's rays.

spruce, and timber-line belts, and culminating in an alpine zone
at the summit.^

In the southern hemisphere, from the different relative position
of the sun, the northern slopes are exposed to greater warmth.

Distance from the Sea. — In the temperate zone the climate
of lands bordering on the sea is less severe and more uniform in
character than in the interior of the continents. This results from
the f:ict that a great body of water like the ocean retains the sun's

1 On " Slope Exposure " Dr. C. Hart Merriam, in Bulletin No. 3, United States
Department of Agriculture (North American Fauna).

ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE. 39

heat much longer than does the land. The surrounding air slowly
receives this heat and is more continuously warm than the air
over inland regions, so that in winter the climate of a seacoast is
comparatively mild. In summer, for the same reason, the air
over the ocean is not heated so fest as over the land, remaining
cooler for a longer period, so that the climatic contrast between
summer and winter is not nearly so marked in lands bordering
on the sea as in those farther inland.

The interior regions of North America, Europe, and Asia suffer
extreme changes of climate, the mean summer and winter differ-
ences of temperature amounting often to ninety degrees or more.

Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents. — The direction of
winds blowing over regions is an important element in determin-
ing climate. A wind blowing off the sea usually brings with it
large quantities of vapor, which falls upon the land as rain, and
also modifies the temperature. Winds blowing over the land are
mostly dry, having been deprived of their moisture in crossing
highlands and mountain ranges. This is the case with the west-
erly winds of the Atlantic seaboard states, blowing, as they do,
over an immense area of land and high mountain ranges.

Ocean currents are even more powerful influencers of climate.
The Japan current reaches far into the North Pacific, tempering
the climate of the coast of Alaska and British America. Back
of the mountain ranges of Alaska, a rigorous northern climate
prevails, while its seaward slopes are evergreen, and its harbors
always open.

The Gulf Stream of the Atlandc produces similar effects.
Sweeping along the shores of the United States, it spreads north-
eastwardly, warming the air over the British Isles, and far up the
coast of Norway, quite to the arctic circle. On the western side
of the Adantic, the icy arctic current flowing out of Baffin's Bay
and the Polar Sea makes Labrador, in the same latitude with
Ireland, a land of desolation. Two types of cHmate are found,
therefore, according to the situation of a place in reference to the
above relations of land and sea, — Oceanic and Continental.

40 CLIMATE.

From these general considerations of climate we may proceed
to examine into the nature of the elements themselves, and, by
so doing, gain a clearer view of the question of climate in its
relations to man.

LESSON II. — CLIMATIC ZONES.

Cause of Climatic Zones. — The unequal distribution of heat
and light upon the surface of the earth, as a result of the earth's
form, motion, and the inclination of its axis, determines the
so-called astronomical zones. The tropical, or torrid zone, 232°
north and south from the equator, is the region over some part of
which the sun is always shining vertically. The temperate zones
lie north and south of this central torrid girdle, while 23!^° from
either pole mark the arctic and antarctic circles, enclosing the
north and south frigid zones.

Isothermal Lines. — The astronomical zones, though of theo-
retical value to the geographer, are of little practical use to
mankind in general, when compared with the isothermal zones.
The isotherm is a line drawn through all places having the same
mean annual temperature, north or south of the equator. The
irregularity of the isothermal line results from the configuration
of the land, its altitude, relations to the sea and to ocean currents,
to prevailing winds, moisture, rainfall, etc., in fact, to all the
conditions that go to make up climate. Follow, for example,
the isotherm of 50° F., north, around the earth. Starting in the
Pacific Ocean, west of North America, it touches the shores of
the continent at Puget Sound, about 50° north latitude, but soon
deflects sharply to the south, bending around the high ranges
of the Rocky Mountains, and thence across the United States,
passing out on the Atlantic Ocean in the neighborhood of New
York. Here it meets with the Gulf Stream, and bends north-
ward to the British Isles, slowly dropping southward through the
continent of Eurasia, cutting the northern shores of the Black,
Caspian, and Aral seas. Bending still further south, on the

CLIMATIC ZONES. 41

Mongolian Plateau, it passes through Korea and into the Pacific,
between the northern and southern islands of Japan. It is not
to be imagined that these places, traversed by the isotherm, have
identically the same character of climate. Their extremes may be
widely different, and yet the mean annual temperature be the same.
The Isothermal Zones and their Oscillation. — Temperature
zones bounded by isotherms, though approximating to the astro-
nomical zones, have a far greater influence upon the destiny of
races. The tropical zone lies between the isotherms of 70° F.,
north, and 70° F., south latitude. The isotherm of 70° north fol-
lows an irregular line parallel to and somewhat north of the tropic
of Cancer. It bends sharply north around the head of the (iulf
of California ; skirts the Gulf Coast of the United States ; bends
northward with the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic ; passes through
the Canary Islands ; crosses Africa along the northern edge of the
Sahara ; continues through Persia, and sweeping southward along
the Himalayas touches the tropic of Cancer at the island of
Formosa. The isotherm of 70° south crosses the tropic of Capricorn
under the influences of the cold Humboldt current off the western
coast of South America ; slopes southward across that continent
into the Atlantic, where it cuts the tropic twice by a northward
curve ; crosses Africa north of the Cape Colony, and bending
northward again touches Capricorn in Central Australia. The
thermal equator, in the Pacific, lies south of the true or astronom-
ical equator, but sweeps northward along the northern shore of
South America ; dips southward in the Atlantic, touching the
equator, and bending north enters Africa near the mouth of
the Niger, and passes into the Indian Ocean at Cape Guardafui.
Sweeping south, it cuts the southern end of Hindustan and crosses
the Malay Peninsula and Borneo. On either side of the tropical
zone are the temperate zones, bounded north and south by the
isotherms of 30° F. The northern isotherm of 30° F. bends
northward in the Atlantic considerably beyond the arctic circle,
owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, but is otherwise far to
the south in the great continental areas.

42 CUM A TE.

By far the most interesting and important factor in these isother-
mal lines and zones is their annual oscillation with the sun. Thus
in July, when the sun has moved over Cancer, the isotherm of 70°
north moves northward into British America, the North Atlantic,
Central Europe, and Siberia, pushing the conditions of the temper-
ate zone into the polar realm, and causing the brief arctic summer
with its burst of alpine blossoms, its swarms of insect life, and
flights of breeding birds. Tropical conditions are, at the same
time, carried north into the temperate lands. The warm sunshine
of spring quickens the life in seed and bud, calls " the squirrel
and the bee from out their winter home," and urges the migrating
bird to seek its nesting place in the northern wildwood. The heat
of summer whitens the harvest fields and ripens the kindly fruits
of autumn. With the waning sunlight of November the leaves
loosen and fall from the trees, the birds move south, and the Frost
Giant steals noiselessly into the woods and fields of the temperate
zone.

As the isotherms thus oscillate north and south with the sun,
we see the cause of the increase and decrease of temperature over
the earth, bringing with it the varying seasonal changes. Though
the greater or less obliquity of the sun's rays is the essential fac-
tor, the irregular curves of the isothermal lines show how vastly
important are the physical features of land and sea in deter-
mining climate.^

1 An isothermal line is to be regarded, not as ■&. fixed line of mean annual tem-
perature, but as one that moves north and south in relation to the increase and
decrease of heat over the earth's surface from the greater or less slant of the sun's
rays. Thus the coast of Alaska, the Central United States, and Lower Lake Region,
Newfoundland, the Scandinavian Peninsula, Central Russia, Mongolia, Korea, and
Northern Japan have the mean January temperature of 20-' F., while in July the
temperature of these places does not correspond in any way. For instance, in
July, the coast of Alaska has the same mean temperature as Northern Siberia, and
the July isotherm of the Central United States passes through Northern Africa.
The annual isotherm is a line drawn to represent the average sum of the mean
monthly temperatures taken from observations covering a period of several years.

WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAEXEALL.

LESSON III. — WINDS,

OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAIN-
FALL.

Primary Cause of Winds. — The atmosphere is in a state of
unstable equiHbrium, heat and moisture being unequally' distrib-
uted. It is losing or gaining heat in different regions, since the
surface of the earth is heated unequally by the rays of the sun.
A portion of land or sea heated above the temperature of the
surrounding territory warms, by radiation, the overlying air, caus-
ing it to expand. This warm, expanded air has a greater capacity
for holding vapor than when cooler and more dense. In conse-
quence, it eagerly takes up vapor by the process of evaporation
from the surface of the ocean or from the waters of the land. It
thus becomes lighter than the surrounding cooler air, since water
vapor is lighter than air itself, and takes the place of a certain
proportion of air in any given volume.

In the process of expansion, this warm, vapor-laden air pushes
the cooler air immediately above it against the whole mass of the

^ ^;^55j5j:j5

55^^^5^^5v^^^??S^^^^^^^^^^5S^p5^5^;;^

Fig. 4. — Diagram of Winds. A, B, surface of tlie earth ; C, heated portion of
air, expanding upward along line a, b ; D, /?i, level of cooler air, compressed by
being squeezed between a, b, and E, E^, the upper atmosphere ; C, Ci, C^, calm
areas. Arrows indicate direction of winds.

overlying atmosphere, causing an increase of pressure in the air
thus squeezed which becomes denser and heavier in consequence.
If we can imagine this expanded volume of air pushing up in the
shape of a mound, then we can see how the dense and heavy air

44 CLIMA TE.

above will slide down the slopes of the mound on all sides toward
surrounding areas of less pressure, simply because it is heavier air
and is under the influence of gravity. This movement of the air
is a wind blowing some distance above the surface of the earth.
Immediately over the surface, however, where the heated and
expanded air is much lighter than the cooler and denser surface
air surrounding it, a movement of air takes place on all sides from
these surrounding denser areas toward the central heated portion.
This movement is felt as a sensible 7i'ind or breeze blowing over
the surface of the land or sea. Its direction is opposite to that
of the upper currents of air. There is no appreciable movement
in the warm, expanded area, as the wind, rushing in on all sides,
rises as an up-draught just as in the case of a fireplace and its
chimney. It is therefore an area of calm. In the surrounding
areas of high pressure there is, likewise, no horizontal movement,
as the upper, heavier air is always sinking down and taking the
place of the surface wind that flows out toward the center.

As the barometer indicates the pressure of the atmosphere
under its various conditions, we know that the warm, moist, and
expanding air is an a?'ea of low pressure- or low barometer, while
the surrounding heavier, drier, and cooler air constitutes an area
of high pressure or high baro/ncfer. A law governing the move-
ment of the atmosphere can thus be formulated : Wi?ids always
blow from high-pressure areas into lozv-pressure areas.

Effect of the Earth's Rotation on the Direction of "Winds. — In
the northern hemisphere a wind, blowing from latitudes near the
equator toward the polar regions, is successively deflected from its
original due north direction by the inertia of the earth's rotation,
carrying the wind, as it blows, more and more to the east. This
imparts a whirling motion to the wind as it sweeps around to
enter the polar area. A wind blowing due south on a meridian
in high latitudes appears to turn westward as it approaches the
equator by being carried eastward on the same meridian. So a
wind blowing due west or due east on a given parallel appears to
turn toward the north or south, respectively, under the influence

WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAINFALL.

of rotation. (See Diagram.) Winds in the northern hemisphere
are thus deflected from their true course by being carried continu-
ally eastward on the meridian at which they started. Thus, from
the polar area, as a point of observation, winds are turned or
deflected toward the right. An originally south wind thus becomes
southwest; a north wind, northeast; a west wind, northwest; and

^^.__

SOUTH

^^••ection Of Tioia\'^on

Fig. 5. — Diagram of a section of Northern Hemisphere, ilhistrating the effect
of the earth's rotation in deflecting winds. (Observer at north pole.) P^ wind
from the south blowing due north on meridian 3, is carried successively eastward
by the earth's rotation, and is apparently deflected or turned to the right, as it
advances, appearing as a southwest wind on reaching the position of meridian 4
(above parallel C). So a wind blowing due south on meridian 2 is carried east-
ward and apparently turned toward the right, thus becoming a northeast wind. A
west wind on parallel B, at meridian i, is apparently turned to the right, as the
meridian advances eastward along the parallel, owing to the curvature of the earth,
and becomes a northwest wind on reaching the position of meridian 2. In like
manner an east wind on parallel B, between meridians 3 and 4, is apparently turned
to the right, and becomes a southeast wind.

an east wind, southeast, in the direction from which each blows.
In their effort to reach the low-pressure area, they struggle, as it
were, against this deflective movement, and keep curving around
in an opposite direction, or toward the left. This produces a

46 CLIMA TR.

whirl about the center of low pressure. Any loAv-pressure area
in the northern hemisphere will thus have the winds describing
arcs about it from right to left, or against the hand movement of
a watch. The reverse of this is true in the southern hemisphere,
taking the south pole as the center of observation. Thus, the
winds will be deflected to the left, and will describe arcs from
left to right, or with the hands of a watch, as they advance into
the area of low pressure. As a result of this law, first pointed
out by Professor Buys Ballot of Utrecht, if an observer in the
northern hemisphere stands with his back to the wind, the center
of low pressure will always be to his left, while in the southern
hemisphere it will be to his right.

Constant and Periodic Winds. — The same movement of air
that takes place in any local area occurs on a grand scale between
the heated equatorial region as an area of low pressure and regions
of high pressure on either side. A constant movement of cold
and heavy air blows as surface winds from about latitude 30° north
and south toward the equatorial belt of low pressure. These are
known as the trade winds} Being deflected from their due north
and south course by the rotation of the earth, they appear as
northeast and southeast winds. The warm, vapor-laden air of the
equatorial region, rising as an upward-flowing current, constitutes
a belt of calms? In the higher, denser levels, this air becomes
cooled, and flows out on each side toward the northeast and
southeast as upper, countercurrents of wind, known as the counter-
trades. In the tropical belts of high pressure on either side
(about 30° north and south) these cooled " counter-trades "

1 It was the steady blowing of these winds that so alarmed the shipmates of
Columbus on his first voyage, they believing that the wind would carry them
farther and farther away from the shores of Spain, and never allow them to return.

2 The region of the equatorial calms is known to seamen as the doldrums,
characterized by cloudy skies, and light, baffling winds. The calms of Cancer,
in the North Atlantic, in the neighborhood of the Sargasso Sea, are known as the
horse-latitudes, from the fact that vessels carrying deck-loads of horses between
New England and the West Indies were sometimes becalmed in this region, and
forced to throw some of the horses overboard, as the water supply gave out. (See
Maury, " The Physical Geography of the Sea " (8th cd,) , p. 276.)

WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AXP RAINFALL. 47

descend to the surface, and take the place of the outflowing
"trades" moving toward the equator. Cahn belts are thus formed
near the northern and southern limits of the tropics. From these
high-pressure calm belts the air likewise flows out in the opposite
direction as a surflice wind blowing toward the low-pressure polar
area in each hemisphere. The low pressure of the air in the
polar regions results from the depressing effects of the whirling
motion of the winds, for winds approaching the poles move in
ever-narrowing circles, from being turned aside by the rotation of
the earth. A countercurrent blows as an upper wind from each
pole toward the tropical belts of high pressure.

In the northern hemisphere, from the preponderance of the
land masses, these winds become much more variable in character,
and further disturbances are induced by the unequal heating
of land and water. This gives rise to storms, sudden changes of
weather, and to periodic winds blowing on or off shore. Of these
periodic winds are the sea and land breezes of coasts, as a result
of the difference in the day and night temperature of the air over
the land and the water. On a larger scale are the monsoons of the
Indian Ocean and coasts of South America, which blow steadily
for half the year in one direction, and then blow in an opposite
direction for the other half. The monsoons are caused by the
change of the sun's position in the heavens, bringing vertical rays
over part of the great land mass, thus raising the temperature
of the air, and causing a strong wind to set in from the ocean.
Between April an;l October, when the sun is almost directly over
Southern Asia, that region becomes an area of low pressure, and
the moisture-laden monsoon blows steadily and with great force
from the southwest.

Storms. — The rush of the winds around the center of low
pressure produces a whirling column of air, somewhat funnel-
shaped, its center of lowest pressure being surrounded by belts of
increasingly higher pressure toward the circumference from the
development of centrifugal force incident to the whirl. These
belts of pressure are termed isobars, and the difference between

CLIMA TE.

them is iht gradient, or slope, from higher to lower pressure levels.
On reaching the center the wind rises as an up-going current,
which flows out above on all sides. These circling storms of wind
are called cyclones, and are usually accompanied by clouds and

Fig. 6. — Diagram of Cyclonic Movement in Northern Hemisphere, c, area of
low pressure, or storm center. The large arrow, pointing northeast, indicates the
track of the cyclone under the impulse of the strongest winds. The small arrows
fly with the in-blowing winds from right to left, or against the hands of a watch.

rain. The storm center is an area of calm, of low barometer, and
small precipitation, surrounded by an area of heavy cloud sheets
and copious rainfall. The nimbus, or rain cloud, extends about

WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAINFALL. 49

it on all sides, fringed by the lofty streamers of cirrus clouds,
"mare's tails" and "mackerel sky," the threatening sky of.
approaching foul weather. The storm center has a forward move-
ment under the influence of the strongest wind, and travels with
varying velocity. The cyclonic storms of the northern hemisphere
are frequently generated in the ocean area of the tropical zone,
and move at first northwestward within the tropics, but on reach-
ing the temperate zone turn to the northeast, thus describing
a parabolic curve. The typhoons and hurricanes of the East and
West Indies belong to this class of storms. A cyclonic storm may
embrace an area of several hundred to a thousand or more miles
in diameter. As it advances, it grows in dimensions from the in-
crease of low pressure produced by the centrifugal force of the whirl-
ing winds. The storm dies away as the result of friction ; more air
entering the center than can escape at the top causes the whirl to
finally lesseji in velocity, and a higher pressure is thus established.

The high-pressure areas on all sides of a cyclone have the air
flowing out from them as a whirl of winds in the opposite direction ;
i.e. from left to right. These outward-whirling areas are known
as a7iti-cyclones. Their winds, at first cold, grow increasingly
warmer as they approach the low-pressure area, and are conse-
quently dry, and accompanied by clear or fair weather.

It has been observed that the most constant areas of low pressure
in the northern hemisphere are distributed as follows : To the
west-southwest of the Great Lakes in the United States ; the Gulf
of St. Lawrence ; the Mid-Atlantic area ; an area southwest of
Greenland ; one southwest of Iceland, which is the most important
of all ; and one over a portion of Northwestern Europe. In these
areas nearly all of the great northern storms are bred, and the
direction of their path is governed by the surrounding conditions
of pressure. For instance, the high winter pressure over North-
western America drives a storm, developing in the Rocky Mountain
region, eastward across the United States to the Atlantic seaboard.
Easterly winds, bringing increased cloudiness and rain from the
ocean, blow at first toward the advancing center of depression, which

50 CUM A TE.

has no sooner passed over a given locality than the wind veers to
the west, and clearing weather with a " cold wave " from the area of
high-pressure marks the westerly half of the cyclone. The pecul-
iar characteristics of the winter and summer climates in Europe
and the United States are largely the result of the tracks taken by
cyclones under the surrounding conditions of atmospheric pressure.

The term tvcaihcr relates to the local conditions of temperature
and moisture at any given time and place. We speak of hot or
cold, wet or dry, fair or foul weather in any locality at any time.
It is the condition of the atmosphere of a place from day to day.
Places in the path of an advancing storm have increased temper-
ature and humidity as characteristics of weather resulting from the
southerly and easterly winds blowing from warmer into colder areas,
which causes increased condensation of their moisture, and the
consequent liberation of a large amount of latent heat. The
westerly half or " wake " of the storm is characterized by clear and
cold, or cool weather, with dryness or decrease of liuniidity, because
the north and northwest winds blowing from colder into warmer
areas evaporate, or take up moisture, in increasing quantity.

Thunderstorms, tornadoes and waterspouts are the result of
local disturbances of the atmosphere. Tornadoes are supposed to
be due to the formation of a narrow and violent whirl of air gen-
erated within the larger whirl of a gentle cyclonic movement.
Somewhere in this area the air, becoming highly heated, forms a
focus of low pressure, which causes the gentle whirling winds
about it to rush in with terrific and destructive force. The im-
mense amount of vapor formed is condensed into a heavy, black
cloud, which is twisted by the wind into its characteristic funnel-
shaped form. The waterspout is a similar phenomenon, occurring
at sea. In the same way the air over sandy deserts and dusty
roads becomes superheated in places, and rises, while the sur-
rounding air rushes in sweeping the sand and dust along in a
whirling column. These dust whirls sometimes attain enormous
proportions, as in the simooms of the Sahara and Arabian deserts.

Ocean Currents. — From the unecjual distribution of heat in

WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAINFALL. 51

different parts of the earth, a difference in the specific gravity of
the water of the ocean takes place, as a result of which it is thrown
into a series of currents in an effort to establish the proper equi-
librium. At the e(iuat()r, the heated water of the ocean rises to
the surface and flows away north and south, being displaced by
colder, deeper, and heavier currents of water flowing in from each
side. The position of the land masses in relation to the oceans,
and the force and direction of the prevailing winds, modifies the
direction of these currents and gives to each great body of water
its characteristic circulation.

A striking feature in oceanic circulation is the northern and
southern whirls. In the Atlantic the equatorial current flowing
west divides off Cape St. Roque, sending the so-called Gulf Stream
northeastward along the American coast, while the Brazil current
flows south along the eastern coast of South America. Part of the
Gulf Stream flows into the Arctic Ocean, while the other portion
flows south along the shores of Europe and Africa to join its par-
ent equatorial current. This constitutes a ivJiirl in the North
Atlantic, the center of which is comparatively quiet and character-
ized by a vast area of seaweed, which has settled there from drift-
ing, as a natural result. This is the so-called Sargasso Sea.^ In
the South Atlantic there is likewise a whirl with its central Sar-
gasso Sea, and so in the North and South Pacific and in the Indian
Ocean the same essential features prevail.

Rainfall. — The primary cause of a fall of rain is the lowering
of the temperature of the air below the dew point. This is
effecte<l chiefly through the influence of winds. A wind blowing
over any considerable extent of ocean gathers up a large quantity
of moisture, and whether this falls as rain or not depends largely
on the condition of the air of the region into which it flows. If
it move into a warmer and drier region, it will take up more mois-
ture rather than precipitate it. When a moisture-laden wind
blows into a cold region, a f;ill of rain is the result, because the

1 It was the floating seaweed of this Sargasso Sea that led Columbus to believe
that land was not far distant.

52 CUM A TE.

temperatme of the air falls beluw the point of saturation. A bank
of air hangs over the land which is stiller than that over the sea,
because its velocity has been diminished by contact with the land
surface. A wind off the sea blgwing against this bank of air is
forced to rise, in doing which it expands, thereby losing heat, and
precipitating its moisture in showers of rain. For the same reason
a moisture-laden wind blowing over a range of mountains pre-
cipitates its moisture not only by being cooled, but, more copi-
ously still, by expanding in rising to higher levels. This same
wind after passing the crest of the range will blow down its lee-
ward slopes as a dry wind ; dry, not only by loss of vapor, but
because it enters lower, warmer levels of air under increasing
pressure.

A volume of air in rising to higher levels expands because
it enters regions of less atmospheric pressure. This expansion is
marked by a distinct loss of sensible heat which is said to become
latent. The reason for this is, that in expanding a certain amount
of work is done in pushing aside the surrounding heavier atmos-
phere, and the heat originally present is transformed into expansive
energy, and so is apparently lost for the time. But the lowering
of temperature by this change of energy finally chills the mass of
air to its point of saturation, and brings about condensation and
the formation of cloud, which is accompanied by a distinct gain of
sensible heat. For the same reason a volume of air descending
into regions of greater pressure becomes sensibly warmer from the
transmutation of its energy into heat.^

The formation of cloud, fog, and rain is due in great part to the
presence of minute di/sf riiofes," an inconceivable number of which
are always floating in the air. Each vapor particle, in forming,
collects about a dust mote as a nucleus. If. these dust motes be
crowded and in excess of the amount of vapor, the entire body
of vapor is divided up into very small particles about each mote,

1 This liberation of heat in the process of condensation is manifested in the famil-
iar fact that the air always grows distinctly warmer just before a fall of rain or snow.

2 Mr. J. Aitken. See " Dust " by J. G. McPherson, Popular Scie77ce Monthly,
Vol. xl. 251.

IV/XDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAINEAIJ.. 53

and, being comparatively light, the whole mass hangs together as
fog or clflitd. When, however, the dust motes are fewer and more
scattered, a larger amount of vapor collects about each mote, and
the particles thus becoming heavier will fall to the earth as df-ops
of rain. Under the same condition, but if the temperature of the
cloud and the air beneath it be below the freezing point, the watery
globules become frozen into ice crystals, and drift down to the
earth as siunvflakcs. Were it not for this floating dust, the moist-
ure of the air would be precipitated only in the form of dew, and
objects on the surface would be in a continual state of dampness.

Distribution of Rainfall. — From what we have observed it fol-
lows that rain is very unequally distributed over the earth's surface.
The distribution of the land, the position of mountain ranges and
deserts, the prevalence of certain winds, — each exerts an impor-
tant influence on the distribution of rain. The equatorial calm
belt is a belt of constant rains owing to the enormous evaporation
and subsequent precipitation of vapor taking place under the
direct rays of the sun. Hence the cloud ring, or belt, which fol-
lows the oscillations of the isotherms, and brings the periodical
rains of the tropics. North of the tropics is the region of variable
rains as it is of variable winds, and the same is true of southern
latitudes. The great number of storms and characteristic " changes
of weather" in the North Temperate Zone are largely due to the
chilling of the moisture-laden anti-trades in their journey toward
the polar area.

The heaviest rainfall in the world is in the region of .the Bay of
Bengal, when the southwest monsoon, loaded with warm vapors
from the Indian Ocean, strikes the Khasia hills. An annual fall
of 600 inches, or about 50 feet, is not uncommon. The great
tropical forest regions of Africa and South America are largely the
result of the heavy rainfall produced by winds from the Atlantic,
precipitating their moisture under the influence of the high moun-
tain slopes of East Africa and the Andes.

The great desert belts of the world are rainless regions, and
result from the dry winds which blow over them, deprived of

54 CLIMA TE.

moisture by the surrounding highlands. The northeasterly stretch
of desert across Africa and Asia from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
the desert plains of the Great Basin in North America east of
the Sierra Nevada, the Argentine, and Peru and Chile among
the Andes, are examples of rainless regions.

LESSON IV. — INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON MAN.

General Considerations. — In the following chapters of this
book, especially in the chapter on " ]\Lan," we shall see the form-
ative influence which climate has exerted and still exerts in the
destiny of races. We cannot fail to note in the broad features of
human distribution and development how the extremes of tropical
and polar conditions incident to climate have had a retarding
effect, stunting the intellectual and physical vigor of the inhabi-
tants of these regions, holding man down to the primitive state
of savagery. Contrast the life of the indolent native of tropical
forests, steeped in a hot, humid atmosphere and surrounded by
an abundance of food, with the Eskimo, wrapped in furs, with
intellect blunted by Arctic cold and darkness and long weeks of
gnawing hunger. And yet each is the result of climate. Even in
the Temperate Realm, climate has had a varied influence in the
development of nations. Though the great civilizations of the
Mediterranean arose under one of the most favorable climates in
the world, the man of the north, cradled in the land of wind and
frost, — the Teuton, — built up the most enduring civilization,
because the climate compelled him to exertion and sharpened
his intelligence. Egypt, Assyria, Persia, India, China, and Japan
all became great civilizations largely through the influence of
climate, as we shall see in a future chapter. The superiority of
the white man throughout history is undoubtedly due, in a great
measure, to the climatic conditions of his home in the Temperate
Realm. To-day, by virtue of this vigor and intelligence bred
under the influences of climate, he is enabled to spread over the

INFLUENCE OF CUALITE ON MAN. 55

earth, accustoming himself ahke to the deadly atmosphere of the
tropics and the rigors of an Arctic winter.

Physiological Effect of Climate and Food. — Color is a normal
product of the animal organism, its probable source being the
coloring matter of the blood. A surplus of this may be thrown
off as so much waste material in the intricate processes of nutri-
tion which take place throughout the various tissues of the living
body. A large portion of this surplus pigment finds lodgment in
the layers of the skin, imparting to it a characteristic color. The
liver is undoubtedly largely concerned in the elaboration of this
coloring matter from the blood, and we are not surprised to find
important modifications of color as a result of special climatic
conditions.

Two broad classes of mankind may be recognized as to their
shade of coloring, — the li^^ht and the dark. These vary from the
deep chocolate brown or black of the natives of Western Africa
to the fair-haired, white-skinned peoples of Northern Europe.
Between these extremes are all shades of color, the medium
shade being seen best in the yellow, olive, or copper color of the
inhabitants of Central Asia and North America.

This brings us to the question of the geographical distribution
of human color, and an approach to its solution, if such a thing
be possible in the present state of knowledge. Under a hot,
moist climate, the liver is more normally congested, if we can
use such an expression, from the dilation of the blood vessels
and general relaxation induced, through the nervous system, by
the action of the external conditions of heat and moisture. This
increased blood supply to the organ means an increased amount
of coloring matter, and the question of its ultimate disposal.^
This possible cause of the dark coloring of the skin is borne out
by the fact that not only is man darkly colored in the hot, humid
forests of tropical Western Africa and South America, but animal

1 In confirmation of this statement is the fact that abscess of the liver is an
extremely rare disease outside of the tropics. The discoloration of the skin, or
jaundice, from an excess of bile pigment in the blood, also bears out this idea.

56 CUM A TE.

life in general presents a wonderful development of color. Cold,
dry air has a tendency to contract the blood vessels, and thus
diminish the production of color. Exposure to sunlight has also
its pecuUar effect upon the skin, producing what we know as
' sunburn,' or ' tan.'

Taking a broad survey of the distribution of color, we see that
the darkest peoples are those inhabiting tropical forest regions
where heat and moisture are most pronounced. The white race
is disposed in two strongly contrasted groups, — the light and the
dark whites. The former are of northern distribution, as the
old Saxons, the inhabitants of the Scandinavian Peninsula, etc.
The dark whites are essentially southern, natives of the great
Mediterranean region, where moisture and temperature are more
equally distributed, cloudy skies alternating with bright sunlight
and a semi-tropical warmth tempered down by cool mountain
winds and sea breezes.^ The inland or continental climate, domi-
nating the great land masses of Central Asia and North America,
has a peculiar drying effect upon the skin with a medium pro-
duction of color through the action of the liver. The inhabitants
of these great areas are uniformally of an olive or coppery hue.
A radical change of color is not effected, as we very well know,
by a change of residence, even through many generations. The
African negro in the United States illustrates this fact. Man's color
to-day is the result of climatic and other effects extending over
vast ages. This, like all other animal characteristics, only became
a fixed trait through the lapse of time. The color and character
of the eyes and hair, and the modifications of the bones of the
skull, have likewise resulted from operations which began thousands
of generations back, even in the dawn of the prehistoric. The
varying shades of color throughout the peoples of the white race
to-day have resulted from ages of widespread intermarriage.

With such a physical basis to operate on, sexual selection very

1 The blackest peoples in the world are found among the Hindus, members of
the white race who for ages have been subjected to the influence of tropical condi-
tions of a most intense character.

INFLUENCE OF CUM ATE ON MAN. 57

probably stepped in at a remote period, and became a potent
cause in fixing color in the various racial types. In the same way
the other race characteristics must have become fixed, partly
through the intervention of sexual selection, but also largely from
the physical nature of the environment acting directly upon the
organism.

The effect of climatic and geographical conditions upon, tem-
perament and mental characteristics has undoubtedly played no
small part in the development of races and peoples. This fact
must underlie the literature and religion of a nation to a greater
or less extent, imparting to each a certain tone and cast of
expression. The Hindu, impressed by the mighty forms and
forces of surrounding nature, — the awful gloom of the Himalayas,
the vast solitudes of tropical forests, the unmastered floods of the
great rivers, death everywhere and in every shape, — developed
a profound philosophy, a nature worship tinged with the melan-
choly of future oblivion. Out of the harsh, inhuman desert,
where nature seemed to starve man, came the Mohammedan
idea of eternal bliss, an unending dream of sensuous delight
attained by the faithful after the privations of a desert life. The
varied relations of man with man have in like manner wrought
their effects on human thought. Thus, the Hebrew conception
of a God of justice, meting out good and evil, may have arisen
from years of oppression and bondage at a remote period. The
North American Indian, starving with cold and hunger, or reveling
in abundance, is gathered to his ' Great Spirit,' the munificent
bestower of maize, and meat, and the warm sunshine. So, man
in all times and places has worshiped that which made the
strongest impression on his physical and mental life.

Food has operated along the same lines as climate. Vegetable
food stuffs, as starch-filled roots and fruits of various kinds, form
the natural diet of the tropics, requiring less concentrated work
by the liver, and producing less bodily heat than a diet of animal
matter. The British in India, and the white man anywhere in
the tropics, knows by sad experience the dangerous effects of a

58 CLIMA TE.

long-continued meat diet. On the other hand, the Eskimo hunter
and the native of Northern Siberia gorges himself to the full with
fish oil and walrus blubber, to make his body glow like a furnace
with the burning up of the fat. Starchy or vegetable food and
fatty or animal food stand at the two extremes of climate.

In hot climates the bodily activities are lessened because less
internal heat is required to maintain the blood at its normal
standard. Tissue changes, including the processes of nutrition
and oxygenation, go on at a much slower pace than in cold
climates, where a great demand is made upon the heat-producing
powers of the body. Heated air draws the blood to the surface,
and the increased amount of blood in the skin stimulates the
sweat glands to greater activity. The rapid evaporation of the
sweat cools the surface and consequently the blood flowing im-
mediately beneath its outer layers. With the slower activities
of the body there is a diminished excretion or riddance of waste
matter from the tissues, which tends to clog the system and thus
produces that lassitude and torpor which is so characteristic of
a tropical life. The reverse of this is true in cold cUmates, where
increased bodily activity means increased waste and its rapid
removal through the lungs and kidneys. Cold air drives the
blood from the surface and the skin is therefore less active, with
its. pores more tightly closed and the production of sweat greatly
diminished.

Increased moisture of the air lessens the rate of evaporation
from the surface of the body, and thus tends to elevate the tem-
perature of the blood. We are all familiar with the disagreeable
feeling resulting from this in warm, damp weather, especially
before a coming storm.

Mountain Climates. — The climate of high altitudes has a pecul-
iarly bracing effect upon the bodily and mental conditions, for the
following reasons: (i) There is less moisture and less pressure;
consequently the air of mountain regions is dry^ and rare.

1 This, of course, does not apply to the windward slopes of mountain ranges
situated near the sea, where the moisture and rainfall are often excessive.

INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON MAN. 59

(2) Constant and rapid movement of the particles of air in the
blowing of strong luinds increases evaporation. (3) The charac-
ter of the ground, elevated above the general surfvce and often
steeply inclined, produces a cold air from rapid radiation of the
sun's heat, while at the same time there is a broader expanse of
sunlight. There is also less dust and germs floating in the air
of higher altitudes. (4) The presence of ozone in large amount
is an important element in the effect of mountain climates. Ozone
is a more active state of oxygen resulting from certain peculiar
electrical conditions of the atmosphere. Its effect on the system
is to increase the activities of the body by producing more rapid
tissue changes.

On the threshold of inquiry, we are thus brought face to face with
some of the profound problems of human life and development.
We have a glimpse, as it were, through dark doors of some of the
possible causes which have been at work moulding and making
the different types of men. The increased vigor of a mountain
life or a life in the North Temperate Realm is in contrast with
the life of the lowlands, the inhabitants of tropical seacoasts, or
of the forests of the torrid zone. All this hints at vastly more
than merely the broad features of race distribution and develop-
ment. The origin of temperament, diversity, personahty, genius,
lies hidden in the deeper significance of Geography.^

1 See " The Man of Genius," by C. Lombroso, Part II., Contemporary Science
Series. In this interesting work the author traces the relations of men of genius to
meteorological, climatic, and orographic influences, as well as to the effects of race,
heredity, and the opportunities of civilization.

CHAPTER III.

PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

Reading in Connection with this Chapter.

The Tropical World. — Hartwig.
*Origin of Cultivated Plants. — De Candolle (International Science. Series).

LESSON I. — TEA AND COPTEE.

The Tea Plant. — At least one-half of the population of the
earth to-day are tea drinkers. This beverage, which gladdens the
hearts of so many different peoples throughout the world, is made
from the leaves of a low, bushy evergreen shrub, not more than
five feet in height, growing in warm, moist climates. The flower-
buds, which appear in the crotch of a leaf, open later into a cluster
of two or three white, mildly fragrant blossoms. A hght, easily
broken, but deep soil, a warm temperature, and an abundance of
moisture are essential to the healthy, luxuriant growth of the tea
plant.

The cultivation of the plant is limited to regions presenting an
abundant rainfall and a more or less uniform, tropical climate.
These conditions are found united in the countries of Eastern and
Southeastern Asia, — China, Japan, and the lands bordering on the
Indian Ocean.

The Japan Current. — The Pacific Ocean washes the eastern
shores of Asia with a warm stream, the Japan current^ flowing
north from the equatorial regions. The sun's rays, falling more

TEA AND COFFEE. 61

"or less straight down on so vast a body of water as the Pacific
presents under the equator, rapidly heat the surface water, which,
becoming lighter, flows away on each side, north and south, while
deeper currents of colder, heavier water flow in from the Arctic
and Antarctic regions to fill its place. This Japan current, called
Kuro Siwo or Black Stream by the Japanese from the dark blue
color of its water, warms the air of the regions into which it flows,
and produces an abundance of moisture.

Physical Features of the Land and their Effect. — From the
southeastern shores of Asia, the warm, vapor-laden air blows over
the land. This sooner or later strikes the eastern mountain spurs
of the Himalaya, Kuen Luen, and other ranges that everywhere
bar off the low-lying coast countries from the high central plateau
of the continent. Driven up these eastern slopes, the warm air
expands, and, becoming chilled, precipitates its clouds of vapor in
showers of rain. The rain soaks through the loose soil, but comes
to the surface again in various places as springs. Little rills
trickle from these springs down the mountain slopes, joining one
another to form the larger brooks that feed the great rivers of
China, — the Yang-tse-kiang and Hoang-Ho, which flow through
fertile and densely populated valleys, carrying the water back to
the ocean.

Geographical Range of Tea Cultivation. — Tea is cultivated in
Japan as far north as latitude 39°, on the same parallel as Wash-
ington, D.C. Japan is a group of islands lying off the eastern
shores of Asia, washed on all sides by the warm waters of the
great Kuro Siwo. Tropical conditions of climate are carried be-
yond the mere geographical limits of the tropics by this bearer of
heat and moisture. At the present day tea is cultivated in Java,
Ceylon, India, Australia, Natal on the east coast of South Africa,
and in Brazil ; but China, Assam, and Japan are the great tea pro-
ducing countries of the world.

History and Commerce. — Tea has been cultivated in China
from the remotest antiquity. So long has it been under cultiva-
tion that it has never been known to occur in a wild state within

62 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

the period of history. A wild form reaching the size of a tree in
the jungles of Assam is believed to be the original stock from
which the tea plant sprang. Some curious legends give the plant
as coming from the West into China.

Tea was carried into Japan by a priest about the beginning of
the thirteenth century, and sown in the southern island, the culti-
vation spreading north to its present limit. Marco Polo, the great
traveler in eastern lands, makes no mention of tea, and it was not
until the year 15 17, when the Portuguese navigators first opened
trade with China, that tea was brought into Europe. Little was
known about it, however, until the Dutch traders of the seven-
teenth century learned the habit of tea drinking from the Chinese,
a habit which has since spread among all the civilized peoples of
the earth.

The tea gardens of China are generally situated on hill
slopes, where the soil is loose, deep, and not easily washed by the
rains. The leaves are picked four times during the year : early
in April, early in May, in July, and again in August or September.
The leaves are dried and roasted, a different process of handling
giving rise to the two varieties known as ' black ' tea and ' green '
tea. Tea leaves compressed into blocks form ' brick tea,' much
used by the inhabitants of Central Asia, who eat it as a vege-
table. Russia imports vast quantities of this ' brick tea ' through
the Kalgan Gate of the Great Wall of China.

The present consumption of tea throughout the world at large
probably amounts to some 2,500 millions of pounds yearly, 2,000
millions of which, it has been estimated, are consumed in China
alone.

Coffee. — The coffee plant is an evergreen tree growing wild
in Abyssinia, the Soudan, and the coasts of Mozambique and
Guinea. It is found in well watered mountainous regions, from
1000 to 4000 feet above the sea level, and within the tropics.
The white, fragrant flowers grow in clusters from the crotches
of the leaves. The fruit is a berry, round, fleshy, and much
like a cherry in appearance. Each berry contains two hard-coated
seeds, the famihar coffee beans of commerce.

TEA AND COFFEE. 63

Geographical Conditions of Coffee Growth. — The great equa-
torial stream llt)\ving westwardly in the Pacific sphts into two
streams, one of which, the Japan current, we have already noticed.
The other stream flows southward, and part of it enters the Indian
Ocean through Torres Strait, between Australia and the island of
New Guinea. Flowing across the Indian Ocean, it sweeps south
along the African coast as the Mozambique current, bringing like
its twin brother, the Japan current, volumes of warm vapor which
fall in abundant showers of rain on the highlands of East Africa..
This region is the original home of the coffee tree.

History and Commerce. — The berries of the wild coffee were
probably gathered by the inhabitants of Abyssinia ages before the
thought of the cultivation of the plant occurred to any one. It
evidently did not reach neighboring countries for a long time, as
the Crusaders had no knowledge of it. Its use, as a beverage,
appears to have spread from Abyssinia into Arabia early in the
fifteenth century. The coffee plant was probably first cultivated
in Arabia, the coffee-drinking habit slowly spreading from that
country into Egypt, Persia, and Turkey. ^

The use of coffee came into Europe from the East in the
seventeenth century. In 1690 the Dutch governor of the East
Indies obtained a few seeds from Arabian traders and planted
them in Java. This was the beginning of the great Java coffee
cultivation. One of the first Java plants was sent to Holland and
planted in the Botanic Garden at Amsterdam. A few )'oung plants
from the seeds of this one were sent later to the Dutch posses-
sions of Surinam or Guiana in South America. So successful was
the result that the cultivation of coffee rapidly spread into other
South American countries and the islands of the West Indies.

The climate of tropical South America and the West Indies
is very similar to that of the lands bordering on the Indian Ocean.
An equatorial current flows in the Atlantic Ocean from precisely

1 The habit of coffee drinking may have received an important impetus by the
use of the beverage among the worshippers of Islam for its stimulating and wake-
ful effects during their religious devotions.

64 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

the same causes as in the Pacific, and, setting westward, divides
into two large streams off the eastern point of South America or
Cape St. Roque. The northward flowing stream corresponds to
the Japan current of the Pacific, and passing through the Carib-
bean Sea and Gulf of Mexico into the North Atlantic is known
as the Gulf Stream. The one flowing south along the eastern
coast of South America is called the Brazil current, correspond-
ing in position and in its effects on the neighboring lands with the
Mozambique current of the Indian Ocean.

Brazil has become the great coffee-producing country of the
world, and all from the few seedlings of the plant sent to Holland
from [ava. Coffee is now grown wherever civilization has spread
throughout the tropics. The principal coffee-growing countries
to-day are Java, Ceylon, Sumatra, Mauritius, Southern Arabia, and
the west coast of Africa in the eastern hemisphere ; while Brazil,
Bolivia, Peru, Guiana, Venezuela, Guatemala, Cuba, Jamaica, and
the West Indies in general are the principal sources of supply in
the western hemisphere.

LESSON II. — SUGAR AND SPICE.

The Sugar Cane. — The sugar cane is one of the grasses, and,
like the other members of the order, consists of a stalk divided
into joints, from each of which springs a long, sheathing leaf.
The stalks are about twelve feet in height, and the mature plant
flowers in a loose, feathery plume at the top. The outer surface
of the joints, in the ripening cane, becomes smooth and hard from
the sihca or glassy deposit which they contain, while the interior is
filled with a loose, spongy tissue, saturated with a watery juice that
becomes thick and very sweet as the plant ripens.

The canes are cut near the ground and crushed in a mill of close-
set iron rollers. The expressed juice is carried into a trough, then
into vessels where it is purified by a filtering, heating, and chemical
process. After this it is boiled down until it becomes thick, reach-
ing the crystallizing point, and a few days later, in the ' curing

SUGAR AND SPICE. 65

house,' the molasses is drained off from the raw crystalUzed
sugar.

History, Range, and Commerce. — The origin of the sugar cane
is not certainly known. The best authorities believe it to be
a native of the low regions bordering on the Bay of Bengal and
of Cochin China. The name ' sugar ' comes from a root word com-
mon to the several languages of the Aryan peoples, and this fact
points to a knowledge of its use at a very early period. The boil-
ing of sugar was probably carried as a crude art from the Ganges
region of India into China early in the seventh century, but it was
not until the Arabs had invaded the far East that its refining
became an art in the true sense of the word. The Arabs spread
it westward, and the cane was cultivated from Persia to Morocco.
Later, the Spaniards, in their era of discovery, spread the cultiva-
tion of the sugar cane into the islands of the Atlantic and the
tropical regions of the New World.

The cane is essentially a tropical plant, and to-day is exten-
sively cultivated in all hot countries near the sea level. About the
middle of the eighteenth century the beet root was brought for-
ward as a source of sugar, and its cultivation has since grown into
a large and important industry.

The Spices. — The various spices have formed an important ele-
ment of commerce from a very early date. The more important
ones are natives of the forests of tropical Asia, especially along the
coasts, and of the islands of the Indian Ocean. Very early in
history the Molucca group became known as the ' Spice Islands,'
and toward these the seafaring nations of Western Europe directed
their voyages, which led, in part, to the remarkable ' era of dis-
covery ' in the fifteenth century.

Black Pepper is the dried fruit of a climbing shrub growing
originally in the forests of the Malabar coast of India, but later
introduced into the Malay Peninsula and Islands, Siam, the Philip-
pines, and the West Indies. It has long formed an important
article of commerce between India and Western Europe, and at
one time was largely used as a tribute, the term ' pepper-corn

66 PLANTS IVIHCH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

rents ' lingering to the present day as a survival of the ancient
practice. The high price of pepper during the Middle Ages led
to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in the endeavor of
the Portuguese to find a sea route to the East Indies, in order to
obtain control of the spice trade.

CiunaDiou is the bark of a small tree of the laurel tribe grow-
ing wild in the forests of Ceylon. It was not until the latter
part of the eighteenth century that plantations of cinnamon
were established in Ceylon with any success. Since then its
cultivation has spread into the tropical countries of both hemi-
spheres. It easily becomes wild again, as birds devour the fruit,
and spread the seeds in the forests beyond the limits of culti-
vation.

The Nutmeg is the seed of a httle tree growing wild in the
Moluccas and Banda Islands, but also cultivated there, probably
from a very early period. It reached Europe through the eastern
trade, the Dutch at one time monopolizing its cultivation. It has
since spread into the colonies of tropical America, Bencoolen,
the Mauritius, and Madagascar. The nutmeg proper is the kernel
of the seed, the thin husk-like covering surrounding it forming the
' mace ' of commerce.

Cloves are the dried, aromatic flower-buds and their cups of
a plant originally wild in the Moluccas, but now cultivated in other
tropical countries. It formed one of the imp'ortant spices sought
by the early Portuguese voyagers who held control of the trade
until superseded by the Dutch in their East Indian possessions.
Cloves now come into the market from Zanzibar on the east coast
of Africa, Amboyna, the Malay Islands, Guiana, and the West
Indies.

LESSON III.— THE GRAINS, OR CEREALS.

Wheat. — The grains, or cereals, are all cultivated grasses that
originally grew wild in various parts of the earth. Wheat has been
under cultivation from the most remote historic time, so long,
indeed, that there is no record of its ever having been found in

THE GR.irXS, OR CEREALS. 67

a wild state. This makes the fixing of its original home a matter
of great difficulty, for, like many other anciently cultivated plants,
its origin is involved in myth and fable. ' However, from its name
in ancient languages, from ancient writings, and geographical
observations, the best authorities now believe it to have been
a native of the plains of Mesopotamia long before the dawn of
history. From this region its cultivation spread east into China,
and west as far as the Canary Islands, at a very early date. Evi-
dence goes far to prove that wheat was cultivated by the Swiss
Lake Dwellers during the prehistoric bronze period. It was grown
in China 2700 years before the Christian Era, and looked upon
as a gift from heaven. Ancient Egyptian monuments and the
Scriptures allude to the cultivation of this important grain. The
name ' cereal ' comes from the Greek idea that Ceres, the goddess
of harvests, bestowed wheat upon the earth.

Wheat reached the New World in the sixteenth century. Hum-
boldt makes two very interesting statements in regard to the
introduction of wheat into America : one to the effect that it
came into Mexico with some rice brought from Spain by a negro
slave of Cortez ; and another, that while in Quito, he saw the
earthen vase in which a monk had brought the first wheat grains
sown in South America.

Range and Yield. — To-day wheat is grown throughout the
world, except in equatorial regions, from Norway, Siberia, and
British America to the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and the
Argentine Republic. Requiring an ordinarily fertile and fairly
stiff soil with a goodly amount of moisture and sunlight, wheat
readily adapts itself, over this wide geographical area, to various
local conditions, and presents numerous varieties suitable for the
time of year and place of growth. The yearly yield of wheat
throushout the world has been estimated at not less than 2200
million bushels.

Thus wheat has come to be the staple food stuff of the civilized
world. Only a very few countries have a sufficient surplus to
export. In Europe, Russia and Roumania ; in Asia, India ; and

68 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

in America, the United States, the Argentine RepubUc, and Chile
are the great exporting countries of the world.

Rice. — More than one-fourth of the human race depends almost
entirely upon rice for its food. The grass from which the rice grains
are gathered is a swamp lover, needing an abundance of moisture,
and growing in the low, alluvial lands of the tropics, especially
in districts liable to be flooded by great rivers. Its original
home was probably in the river valleys of China and the low-
lying lands about the Bay of Bengal.

It has probably been under cultivation for over 4000 years,
as we read that in 2S00 B.C. it played an important part in the
ceremony instituted by the Chinese Emperor Chin-Nong.

It was probably first cultivated in China, spreading gradually
to India and then slowly westward to the Euphrates. It did not
reach Syria and Egypt for many centuries after its cultivation on
the banks of the Euphrates, and no reference is made to it on old
Egyptian monuments. The Arabs carried it still farther westward,
into Spain and Italy, but it did not reach the New World until
a comparatively late date. Rice is chiefly consumed in the
countries where it grows, and its commercial value is unimportant
compared with that of other cereals.

Other Grains. — Rye, oafs, and barley are largely grown through-
out the temperate regions, especially to the north, where the
climate is better suited to them than to wheat. In some parts
of Europe, one or the other of them forms the staple food
supply.

Maize or Indian corn is a native of the warm parts of America,
but it has spread since the discovery of the country into other
lands. Its cultivation along with that of tobacco, another New-
World plant, has penetrated into the heart of the African continent,
where it forms an important food of many tribes. To-day not
less than 120,000 square miles in the United States are under
corn cultivation. The ' corn belt ' of the States does not extend
much beyond the 42d parallel of north latitude.

SOME VEGETABLES AND FRUITS. 69

LESSON IV. — SOME VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.

The Potato. — The potato is a tuber or enlarged underground
portion of the stem of a perennial plant, serving as a storehouse
of starch. The plant was originally a native of temperate South
America, probably Chile, though cultivated northward along the
high ranges of the Peruvian Andes, where the climate of the
altitude corresponds to the cooler southern latitude. It was
undoubtedly cultivated long before the discovery of the country
by Europeans, and it came into the Old World first through the
Spaniards, and later through the English in the time of Sir Walter
Raleigh.

The potato is especially useful as a food stuff in cool climates,
like the British Isles, where the summer is too short to reap a
large harvest of grain. It forms the staple article of diet for the
poorer classes of Ireland, and the fliilure of the Irish potato crop,
from a peculiar disease caused by a fungus, has several times pro-
duced a disastrous famine in that country.

Sweet Potato. — This plant is in no way related to the common
or white potato, but belongs to an entirely different family, that
of the morning glories. It is a climbing vine, and the edible
part is not a tuber or underground stem, but a true root enlarged
as a storehouse of starch and sugar. It is a native of the warmer
regions of both hemispheres, but it has never been found wild.
Its original home is a matter of uncertainty, as the plant appears
to have been cultivated in both hemispheres from a very early
period.

Yams. — Yams are the tuberous rootstocks or underground
stems of several species of plants cultivated in tropical countries,
and form a staple food supply of many native tribes. The
original home is uncertain, the plant to-day being found wild in
Asia and the adjacent islands, and a few species in Africa and
America. It is cultivated throughout these regions and also in
the Pacific Islands.

Manioc. — The swollen, starch-filled roots of several species

70 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

of spurgewort or euphorbia are used by the natives as food in
tropical America and Africa. Besides the starch, the root contains
a poisonous principle which is separated from the nutritious part
by pounding and heating. In this way the cassava meal or
bread of the native tribes is produced. The starch, carefully
separated from the other matters of the root and heated until its
grains swell up, forms the tapioca of commerce which is shipped
in large quantities from South American and West Indian ports.
The careless preparation of the manioc by the followers of Stanley,
in his journey up the Congo in Central Africa on the Emin Pasha
Relief Expedition, was the cause of great loss of life and disaster
to the Rear Column. The manioc is found wild in Brazil, and is
undoubtedly a native of tropical America, having reached Africa
as a cultivated plant since the discovery of the New World.

The Tomato. — The tomato is the fruit of a plant belonging to
the same natural order as the potato. It is -a native of tropical
America, probably Peru, as a wild form is found growing on the
seashore of that country. It was not known in the Old World until
after the discovery of America. The name ' tomato ' is of Ameri-
can origin, and its cultivation, at least in Peru, appears to be quite
ancient.

The Banana and Plantain. — Bananas and plantains are the
fruits of several closely related plants cultivated throughout the
tropical regions of both hemispheres. They form the principal
food stuff of an immense number of savage peoples. The number
of varieties, both cultivated and wild, found in Asia, points to its
original cultivation in that continent, probably in the Malay Archi-
pelago. From the fact that the names of the plant are entirely
different in the oldest languages, we are led to believe that the
culture of the banana reaches back to a remote antiquity in these
islands and also in India and China. It spread at a very early
date into Africa and the Pacific Islands. It was probably intro-
duced into tropical America by the Spaniards and Portuguese very
soon after the discovery of the country.

As a food the banana is second to no other plant in the world.

COTTON AND FLAX. 71

as it requires little, if any, cultivation. Humboldt estimates that
the yield in nutritive niaterial of a given area planted in bananas
is 133 times that of wheat, and 44 times that of the potato.

The Date. — The fruit of the date palm has been used as a food
from time immemorial by the peoples dwelling along the borders
of the deserts and in the oases of North Africa and Arabia. The
date palm is indigenous to the desert regions stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Valley of the Indus in India. It also occurs
in the Canary Islands, and wherever found appears to be of very
ancient cultivation. The tree is found to-day in much the same
area of country as it was five thousand years ago as indicated by
ancient writings. It is essentially a plant of the warm, dry zone,
and has not been successfully cultivated beyond this region.

The Vine. — The grapevine is of very ancient cultivation in
Eastern countries. It is spoken of in the oldest writings, and in
Egypt its culture and the making of wine date back five or six
thousand years. It grows wild in Western Asia and the Mediter-
ranean region — Southern Europe and Northwestern Africa.
From all that has been gathered on the subject it seems that the
vine grew wild somewhere south of the Caspian Sea and that it
was dispersed, probably before the appearance of man, over a
considerable area largely through the agency of birds carrying the
seeds. Its cultivation reached China a little more than one hun-
dred years before the Christian Era. It is cultivated to-day
around the world in the temperate zones, between about 50° north
and 40° south latitude.

LESSON v.— COTTON AND FLAX.

Clothing. — Next to food, clothing is perhaps the most impor-
tant element in human affairs. From time immemorial the fibers
of plants, and the skins and wool of animals have been woven
by most of the peoples of the earth into g;irments for covering the
body. Even in the tropics the instinct to cover and decorate
some portion of the body seems to be universal, extending through

72 PLANTS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

all savage tribes. Of the plants used for this purpose, cotton and
flax are by far the most important and widespread.

Cotton. — The fine fibrous down of the seeds of plants belong-
ing to the mallow family forms the cotton of commerce. The
plant appears to have originated somewhere in tropical Asia,
probably in India, as its cultivation and use as a clothing material
have existed there for more than 2000 years. It became known
to the Greek and Roman world after the conquests of Alexander
in the East. It reached China only in the ninth or tenth century
of the Christian Era.

Cotton was found in a state of cultivation by the Spanish dis-
coverers of America, but the plant cultivated in America to-day
is the Old-World species, introduced at a comparatively late date.
The principal sources of supply to the world to-day are the
Southern United States and India, though China, Egypt, Africa,
Australia, Italy, Greece and Turkey, Brazil, Peru, and the West
Indies are all cotton-growing countries. The influence of tlie
Civil War in the United States developed the raising of cotton in
other countries for a time, in order to supply the demands of
trade, crippled by the stopping of the United States export.

The part that cotton has played in the history and develop-
ment of mankind is remarkable. An. advance has been made
from the rudest methods of manufacture, over a limited portion
of the earth, to the invention of the most complex machinery and
the employment of many thousands of persons in various parts
of the world. Among the principal materials manufactured from
cotton are thread, muslin, and calico. The term ' muslin ' comes
from the city of Mosul on the Tigris in Mesopotamia, where the
stuff" was first woven. ' Calico ' is from Calicut, a seaport on the
west coast of India.

Flax. — The fibers of the flax plant have been used in the
manufacture of clothing and for various purposes of utility from
the remotest historic times, and even by prehistoric peoples.

Bundles of flax have been found among the remains of the Lake
Dwellers of Switzerland and of a prehistoric people inhabiting

COTTON AND FLAX. 73

the country now known as Lonibanly in I'Vance. The material
called linen, which is made from flax, is referred to in ancient
Scripture. In Egypt and Chaldea the plant was in use apparently
at the beginning of history, the mummy cloth of the catacombs
being of this material.

The annual flax is still found wild in the region of the Persian
Gulf and the Black and Caspian seas. This probably represents
its original home, from which it spread, very early, as a cultivated
plant into Egypt, and later into Europe by the western branch of
the Aryan peoples. The Finns appear to have carried it to the
north of Europe at a very early date, and last of all it reached
India through the eastern branch of the Aryans.

The flax used by the prehistoric peoples of Europe belonged
to a perennial species which has been replaced by the annual.
To-day flax is grown in all temperate regions. The word ////
exists as a root in the Aryan languages of Southern Europe —
the Greek, Latin, Slav, and Keltic. It is from this that we get
our word ' linen,' the material which is made from flax. The word
' flax ' is of German or Teutonic origin, and other names for it
are used in the North of Europe.

This diversity of names indicates a remote antiquity of culti-
vation, for where one people have borrowed the culture of a plant
from another, they have usually borrowed the name also. Evi-
dence of a varied nature thus goes far to prove that flax has been
known to man for a period of time reaching back beyond the
dawn of history, considerably more than 5000 years.

In this short survey of a few of the plants useful to mankind,
we have covered a wide extent of the earth's surface, and gone
over many centuries of history. The common things of daily life
are seen in a new light. Geography appeals to us with a new
interest, — that of the earth as the home of man ; how that home
has influenced him, and what he has done toward making the
home what we see it to-day.

From every quarter of the globe he has gathered plants for

74 PLANTS WHICH HA VE AFFECTED MAN.

food and clothing, in many cases entirely changing the face of a
country. A prairie landscape becomes acres of waving wheat ;
the once thickly wooded mountain slope is now a field of tasseled
corn. Back of all this, however, we have caught a glimpse of the
limitations which the earth has set upon man. Climate is the
master hand under which he still works. Strive as he may, climate
still directs his doings, and maps out just how far he can scatter
the seeds of strange plants, or introduce new animals.

To meet the requirements of climate man has brought com-
merce to his aid ; built seaport cities on every shore throughout
the world ; sent his ships to the ends of the earth ; belted the
globe with cables, and spanned the continents with railways.
To-day we sit at our breakfast tables sipping tea from China
sweetened with sugar from the canebrakes of the West Indies.
Our rolls are made from wheat grown on the prairies of Dakota.
Spices are brought to our table from the Molucca Islands, Ceylon,
or tropical America. Flax fibers, maybe from a crop sown in
far-away New Zealand, or on the plains of Europe, are spun into
white linen for our tablecloths. The things of to-day are our
inheritance from the very beginning, because Geography has so
directed the course of human events.

CHAPTER IV.
ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

Reading in Connection with the Lessons ok this Chapter.

Primitive Man. — Figuier.

Articles on the Various Animals and Animal Products. — Encyclopaedia
Britannica.

LESSON L — ANIMALS OF THE CHASE.

Primitive Conditions ; Food, Raiment, and Defense. — The
various animals with whicli man has been associated in different
parts of the earth have, from the remotest time, played an impor-
tant part in his history and development. The animal as well as
the plant has always been a source of food and clothing, supply-
ing these primary needs of man in a variety of ways. According
to the distribution of life under the various conditions of climate,
different phases of this question of food and raiment present
themselves. Thus in the far North, among the Eskimos and the
tribes of Northern Asia, the food and clothing are almost entirely
of an animal nature, while in the tropics plant life furnishes the
main source of these supplies. In the temperate regions a min-
gling of the animal and plant products is a striking feature of the
food and covering of man. The mingling of these two element
has been of undoubted advantage to the nations of the temperate
realm. The physiological characteristics of man in the different
regions of the earth are largely the result of the difference in kind
and use of these two great factors — food and clothing.

76 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

The animal came into relation with primitive man other than as
a source of food and clothing. The giant mammalia of the Quater-
nary period^ were formidable adversaries in man's struggle for
existence, and abundant proof of this long and desperate encounter
is seen in the rude weapons of the Stone Age. We may even
regard the great carnivora- of the Quaternary as a means in
man's development, bending his intelligence toward the fashioning
of weapons of defense.

Geography of the Chase. — From defending himself against his
brute foes, man gradually became a hunter. The rude palgeo-
liths ^ gave place to the more perfectly fashioned spear and axe
heads of the Polished Stone Age, and later, to the various weapons
of bronze and iron. The chase took on different features in
different parts of the earth. Among the earliest animals of the
chase, sought alike for the purpose of food and clothing, was the
reindeer, vast herds of which wandered over Central Europe and
Asia toward the close of the Glacial Period. So important was
this animal to primitive man, as attested by its abundant remains
in the cave shelters of various localities, that a distinct " Reindeer
Epoch " marks the later Palaeolithic Age. In the temperate and
northern lands, various species of deer have always been objects
of the chase. Passing from a necessity to a pastime, stag hunting
became royal sport in the barbaric civilization of early Europe.
"To drive the deer with hound and horn" was a theme of the
early bards, and the royal buckhounds are, to-day, a survival of
this time-honored sport.

The North American bison and the auroch of Europe, two
closely related species belonging to the ox tribe, have been hunted

'^Quaternary: the period of time immediately preceding the Present Era
characterized by the abundance of large mammalia, and the earliest appearance
of man upon the earth.

2 Carnivora : Flesh-eating mammals — as the dog, cat, bear, lion, etc.

3 Palasolith is an unpolished stone implement, and comes from two Greek words
meaning ancient ■^wii stone. Hence we speak of the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age.

Neolithic: the age of polished stone implements, from two Greek words
meaning neio and stone.

ANIMALS OF THE CHASE. 77

to the verge of extinction. Tlie bear and the wolf have been
hunted in northern lands for the sake of their warm fur, and as
foes of man. The flesh of the bear is used as an article of food
among various savage peoples. Over many parts of Europe the
wild boar has long been an object of the chase, its pursuit, like
that of the deer, being first a necessity for increasing the food
supply, and degenerating in later times to a mere sport. So with
fowling and fishing — the need of food was the first requisite, and
what is now a sport with civilized peoples is a downright question
of existence with the savage of Northern countries and the settler
in new lands.

The trapping of animals is only another form of the chase, and
it is largely practiced by the tribes of Arctic America and Northern
Eurasia. It was most likely developed as a necessity, the habits
of many of the smaller fur-bearing animals like the beaver, marten,
ermine, sable, otter, and others rendering open pursuit impossible.

The Eskimo, and the Siberian hunters, still pursue the reindeer
over the frozen plains of the North ; spear the walrus, seal, and
narwhal amid the ice floes of the Arctic Ocean, and defend them-
selves with rude but effective weapons from the attacks of the
polar bear. In the tropics food and defence, more than cloth-
ing, are the principal incentives to hunting. Peculiar methods
and weapons have been developed
like the deadly blow tube of the
South American natives, the pitfall
and heavy drop-spear of Africa for
killing large animals, such as the
elephant and the hippopotamus.
Open pursuit is an exception in the

tropics, the dense cover of vegeta- Primary Arrow-Release.

tion giving rise to ambuscading and

stalking methods. The bow and arrow appears to have been
largely used among the peoples of the North Temperate re-
gions, and by others widely distributed over the earth. Several
forms of " arrow-release " are characteristic of different regions.

78 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

The most important of these are the primary, — the primitive
method of holding the arrow to the bow string practiced by the
majority of savages, — the Mongohan arrow-release of Asian peo-
ples, and the Mediterranean arrow-release of the white race. The
efficiency of the last two methods gave to these races superiority
in early warfare.^

Mongolian Arrow-Release. Mediterranean Arrow-Release.

LESSON II. — THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS.

Primitive Conditions. — The taming of wild animals probably
arose at a very remote period as a natural result of the observa-
tions of primitive men. In the chase slightly wounded animals
must have frequently been taken alive and, more often, the young
captured after killing the parents. This led to a partial domes-
tication and gradually, through observation, to different uses of
various animals. Man's inventive faculties and his powers of
observation led him, under stress of surrounding conditions, to
the cultivation of wild plants in many parts of the earth. Coupled
with these beginnings of agriculture was the domestication of
animals. It ^s a striking fact, however, that the majority of
domestic animals are natives of the Temperate regions of Eurasia,
where the stress of climate and other geographical conditions have
been most potent as formative influences in the destiny of races.
In this respect the black race is in striking contrast with the
white. Surrounded by large animals of many kinds, such as the

1 Professor E. S. Morse — quoted by Briiiton.

THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS. 79

zebra, various antelopes, and the elephant, the black man never
reached a culture sufificiently high to bring into his service animals
equally as serviceable as those that the white man ages ago
domesticated. The Negroids of the East and South African grass-
lands have herds of cattle, sheep, and goats, but they are the
descendants of the animals domesticated centuries ago by the
white race in Egypt. Pastoral life, though often rude and
barbarous, is a step toward a higher culture. The uncertainty of
securing game and the frequent failure of the food supply in the
Temperate regions must very early have led man to the cultivation
and domestication of those wild stocks of plants and animals, the
descendants of which, to-day, form the basis of his wealth and well-
being.

The Dog. — From what the remains of primitive man tell in
the Neolithic shell heaps and kitchen-middens of various countries,
we are led to believe that the dog was the most anciently domesti-
cated animal. Man being first a hunter must have frequently seen
wolves running down their prey, and nothing could have been
more natural than to train the young of these animals to pursue and
capture game. The wolf is an inhabitant of the cold and temperate
lands, and the dog appears to have arisen in the same regions.
Whether the wolf is the original wdld stock from which the
dog sprang, or whether it was a distinct and primitive species
which has been lost by crossing and breeding in the long ages of
domestication, is a matter of uncertainty. Whatever the case
may be, the dog first became the companion of man under the
conditions of the chase. With the domestication of other animals,
and the abandoning of the hunting for the pastoral life, the dog
became the protector of the flocks and the watcher of the household.

The natives of the tropics did not originally possess the dog,
and it is only sparingly found among them to-day. Throughout
the vast stretches of Eurasia and North America the various
tribes have possessed the dog from a remote antiquity. In the
far North the Greenland hunter has his pack of half-savage, wolf-
like dogs that drag him in rude sledges over the ice fields, or

80 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

vigorously defend him from the bear. Every Indian village has
its troop of dogs. Among the inhabitants of Siberia the dog
shares alike in the excitement of the chase and the drudgery of
the march.

The different breeds of dogs iirst arose from natural causes.
The wolf-dog guarding the flocks was the companion of the lonely
shepherd, and we may look upon our collie of to-day as a survival
of this breed. The various hounds and the hunting breeds have come
from the earliest dogs of the chase. The mastiff and his kind
were watch dogs of the home in half-civilized Europe of early
days.

The Ox, Sheep, and Goat. — The domestication of cattle extends
back to a remote period, the remains of the ox having been found
in connection with Swiss Lake dwellings of the Neolithic Age.
Several wild stocks inhabited Western Europe at the time of man's
appearance, and are undoubtedly the ancestors of several existing
breeds, as the Scotch and Welsh breeds, the Chillingham cattle
and others. In the East the ox appears as a domestic animal
with the dawn of history. It was figured on Egyptian monuments
two thousand years before the Christian Era. The wealth of the
earliest peoples was in their flocks and herds. Pastoral life was
undoubtedly the first step in agriculture, man passing from the
wandering life of the herdsman to settled village communities.
In Japan, India, and Western Africa several breeds of humped
cattle have been under domestication from the remotest antiquity.
In India the white breed of the humped bull or zebu is held
sacred by the Hindus in their worship of Siva. Among the tribes
of South Africa several peculiar breeds occur, notably the backleys
of the Kaffirs, which are trained to guard flocks like dogs. After
the Spanish conquest of America, a number of cattle escaped from
the armies, and now countless thousands roam over the pampas
of the Argentine Republic.

The present breeds of domestic sheep appear to have sprung,
at a very remote period, from several races inhabiting the high-
lands of Central Eurasia. Like the ox, the sheep was a domestic

THE DOMESTICATION OF ANLMAIS. 81

animal in Central Europe and Asia before the opening of history.
Whether any of the existing wild stocks now living in the moun-
tainous regions of that continent are the parents of the domestic
sheep is a matter of conjecture. The sheep is naturally a mountain
lover, and several wild species are to be met with on the lofty
ranges of the world. Some magnificent species occur on the
Pamir, Thian Shan, and Stanovi ranges, while the " big horn " of
the Rocky Mountains in North America, the aoudad of the Atlas
range in North Africa ; the moufflon of Corsica and Sardinia, and
several other forms are conspicuous animals of their respective
regions.

Like the sheep, the common domestic goat appears to have
sprung from some wild ancestor, now lost, which undoubtedly
inhabited the lofty mountains of Central Asia. To-day several
wild breeds are known, as the Persian wild-goat or Paseng, and
the goat-like ibex of the Alps. A number of other domestic
breeds are known besides the common form, as the Syrian,
Angora, Kashmir, Maltese, the Egyptian or Nubian goat, and
the curious Guinea or dwarf goat of Western Africa. Some of
these breeds, as the Angora and Kashmir goats, are valuable on
account of the abundance and fineness of their wool.

The milking of such animals as the cow, sheep, and goat must
have begun at a very remote period in the history of mankind.
Our English word " daughter " comes from an ancient Aryan root
meaning " a milker," probably in allusion to her office in the
household. Throughout history the various uses of these wonder-
fully helpful animals have been one of the mainsprings of advanc-
ing civilization, and to-day they have spread with man into all
lands.

The Horse, Ass, and Mule. — Though the ox was in use as a
draught animal in many countries in the early ages of history, the
horse and the ass gradually took its place in this respect. In
the earliest times of their domestication, while the ass bore with
the ox the burden of work, the horse appeared in battle and
in the chase. In Western Europe there is abundant proof of the

82 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

domestication of the horse during the Pohshed Stone epocli from
the rude drawings which have been found of the animal and the
relations of its remains to those of man. 'J'he horse of to-day is
in all likelihood the descendant of a wild stock domesticated ages
ago in Western Asia. On the steppes and among the mountains
of that country a horse has recently been found running wild in
small herds, which may represent the original stock from which
all the domestic breeds of horses have descended. Among the
roving tribes of the Kirghiz steppes horses not only perform their
ordinary service to man but stand in place of tlie flock as milch
animals. The milk of the mares yields, under fermentation, an
intoxicating drink called " koumys."

The ass appears to have come into use as a domestic animal in
the East, probably in Syria or Egypt. Its close resemblance to
the wild ass of the mountains of Abyssinia makes it appear probable
that this was the original source of the domestic breed. Wild
asses abound in the mountainous parts of Asia Minor, but they do
not bear so close a resemblance to the common form as does
the Abyssinian species. In South Africa the peculiar striped
group of horses occur — the zebra, the dauw, and the quagga,
which have never been domesticated. After the Spanish invasion
of America horses ran wild from the armies of Cortez and Pizarro
and soon multiplied into herds of many thousands in both conti-
nents. Though the horse is not indigenous to America, it is
curious to note that the fossil remains of a horse have been found
in some parts of this country. The animal appears to have become
extinct just before the beginning of the present era.'

The mule, a hybrid between the mare and the male ass, has been
known from very early times. It was in use in ancient Greece
and is supposed to have been originally bred by the inhabitants
of Mysia and Paphlagonia. The mule combines the good quali-
ties of both parents. It is a hardy, sure-footed animal, well
adapted for pack and draught purposes in mountainous countries
and in hot, drv climates. It enjoys a remarkable freedom from
diseases which are often fatal to horses. With these qualities it

yy/A noMF.sriCATioN of animals. 83

has largely superseded the horse as a beast of burden in many
countries, especially the mountainous parts of Southern Europe,
France, Spain, and Italy, and in North and South America. The
mule has become an important transport animal in military opera-
tions, and the " mule battery," the animal bearing the gun, is
resorted to in countries where the use of the gun carriage is
impossible, as in the Punjab district in India.

The Pig. — The domestication of the pig is probably of a very
early date. Frequent reference is made to the animal in ancient
literature, as in the Odyssey, where Circe transforms the companions
of Ulysses into swine.

" Forthwith she smote them with her wand (Hvine,
And drave them out, and shut them close in styes,
Where thev the head, voice, form, and hair of swine
Took, hut the heart stayed sane, as ere the wine
Confused them; they thus to tlieir lairs retreat;
She food, whereon the brutish herd might dine,
Furnished, mast, acorns their famihar meat.
Such as earth-grovehng swine are ever wont to eat."

{ Worsley'), Odyssey x., 203, 243.

The original wild stock of the various domestic breeds is not
known, but it was undoubtedly an inhabitant of some portion of
Central luirasia. The hog has spread with man to all parts of
the earth, and the preparation of its various products — bristles,
flesh, lard, etc., forms a vast industry in several countries, notably
in the United States, where their export ranks with that of wheat
and cotton, and in Servia.

Fowls. — The various breeds of chickens or barn-door fowls
have all undoubtedly descended from a common wild stock — the
red jungle-fowl of India. Its domestication was probably begun
in Burmah and neighboring countries at a very remote period of
andquity, as Chinese tradition says that poultry came from the
West about 1400 b.c. Fowls are not referred to in ancient Greek
or Hebrew literature, but figure on Babylonian cylinders six or
seven centuries before the birth of Christ. Aristophanes refers

84 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

to the fowl as coming from Persia, whicli lielps to confirm the
fact of its earliest domestication in the East. The domestication
of ducks and geese likewise goes back to very remote times. The
wild mallard is probably the original stock of the common duck,
while the goose appears to have sprung from several distinct
species in different parts of the world, one form in China, and
the common form from the wild gray-lag goose of Eurasia.

The farm of to-day thus affords a study in the history of man-
kind, for here are gathered almost all of the animals that he origi-
nally domesticated ages before the dawn of history. This very
ancient action of man's intelligence has not extended to other
animals .within the historic period, but has steadily bent its energy
toward the perfection of the original stocks through long centuries
of careful breeding.

Other Domesticated Animals. — In certain regions several
animals have been domesticated from the earliest times, but have
not spread to any extent from their original centers owing to
climate and other surrounding conditions. The domestication of
the two species of camel in Central and Southern Asia and North
Africa is of extremely ancient origin, so ancient that no wild stock
has ever been known. Its wonderful adaptation to the deserts
and mountainous table-lands rendered it almost indispensable as
a beast of burden in those countries. The two-humped or Bactrian
camel inhabits Central Asia from Lake Baikal to China, where it
endures a rigorous winter cold. The one-humped Arabian species
or dromedary, in use from the Sahara to India, is the 'ship of
the desert,' the only means throughout history by which those
savage wastes have been penetrated.

Several species of llama, a form closely allied to the camel, are
natives of the lofty Andes ranges from Peru to Patagonia, where
one of the species was in use as a beast of burden at the time of
the discovery of the continent.

The use of the elephant in India as a beast of burden and in
warfare extends back into the remote ages before history, and it
figures conspicuously in the battles of the ancient kings of the

SOME SPECIAL ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 85

Indies against invaders. Its unwieldy size and difficult manage-
ment rendered it useless against the charge of a well-disciplined
body of horse, and it gradually passed out of active warfare. The
African elephant has been domesticated but once in the history of
mankind, and that by the ancient Carthaginians. It was undoubt-
edly this species that Hannibal used in carrying the paraphernalia
of war across the Alps against Rome, and which the Romans cap-
tured and used in their royal sports and military pageants.

The curious yak, an ox-like animal, has long been in use by the
inhabitants of the lofty table-land of Thibet, for the sake of its
milk, and long, thick hair, as well as for a beast of burden. In the
far north of Eurasia many tribes have had the reindeer under
domestication from time immemorial. It stands in the place of a
draught animal and beast of burden to these people ; supplies
them with milk and flesh, and its skin forms their raiment and the
covering of their tents.

LESSON III. — SOME SPECIAL ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

Leather. — The climatic extremes of the Temperate and North-
ern realms very early forced man to protect himself with some sort
of covering. The fresh skins stripped from wild animals were un-
doubtedly the first covering of the human species. The more or
less rapid decomposition of these skins gradually developed an
art directed toward their preservation, and we find the iaunino^ of
hides and their conversion into leather among the oldest of human
arts. \Mien and how man became acquainted with the remarkable
property of certain plants for this purpose, can only be conject-
ured. That it arose in the Temperate regions is beyond doubt, for
there the oak and other tannin-producing plants flourished, and
oak bark appears to have been the earliest human agent in tanning.

The production of leather is a vast industry in many countries
to-day, the hides of a great number of animals are used, and there
are various curing processes other than tanning, such as faiving
with mineral salts, and dressing with oil or shamoying. The skins
of nearly all domestic animals are now employed in the manufact-

86 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

lire of leather, besides those of many wild animals, as the walrus,
hippopotamus, kangaroo, zebra, seal, porpoise, deer, buffalo, ante-
lope, etc.

Wool. — The wearing of the hairy side of an animal's skin next
the body to secure greater warmth must have been the first step in
man's intelligence that led to the use of wool as a covering mate-
rial. The shearing of sheep and the spinning of wool are as old
as the oldest history, and stand out as vivid pictures of the early
pastoral and home life of the peoples of Western Asia, Egypt, and
Europe. Wool ranks next to cotton as the most important textile
fabric, and the history of woolen manufactures in later times
abounds with inventions of complicated machines. This, with
the perfection of the material through the various processes of
cleaning and handling raw wool, and the intelligent breeding of
sheep, has been one of the important factors in the advance of
civilization. Into whatever region the white man has spread, ex-
cept the low tropical countries and arid deserts, the sheep, the
spinning wheel, and later the woolen mill have followed. Where
once the housewife spun the wool of her goodman's flocks into
clothing, as may still be seen in some out-of-the-way mountain
homesteads in Scotland and the North, hundreds of thousands of
people now find employment in the woolen mills of the world,
and Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape of Good Hope annually
export their millions of pounds.

It is curious to note how man's mind has worked toward the
same ends in widely different parts of the world. While the rude
inhabitants of Europe and Western Asia Avere spinning the wool of
their sheep, the Peruvian on the high Andes was making his llama
and alpaca wool into wonderful vestments ; the Oriental was
using his camel's hair, and the mohair and fleece of two species of
goats were being wrought into fabrics in Angora of Asia Minor,
and among the mountain vales of Kashmir.

Silk. — The cocoons and webs of many insects are composed
of a fibrous substance which yields a thread in spinning, but the
art of using this material was known to only one people for long

SOME SPECIAL ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 87

ages of history. The cocoon of the silk moth, whose worm or
larva feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree of China, was used
by the Chinese at a period so remote that, like tea-culture, it is
lost in the mists of tradition. The cultivation of the mulberry,
the rearing of worms, and the reeling of silk was an industry in
China more than two thousand years before Christ. A knowledge
of this material spread into Japan through Korea some three hun-
dred years before the Christian Era. Somewhat later it reached
India, a tradition being that the eggs of the insect and the seeds
of the mulberry were brought concealed in the head-dress of a
Chinese princess.

From the valley of the Ganges sericulture slowly spread west-
ward into Persia and Asia Minor. Aristotle first makes mention
of the silk-worm in Grecian literature, and refers to the spinning
of silk in the island of Cos by Pamphile, daughter of Plates. The
word " silk "* is of Grecian origin and refers to China, the land of
its first culture.

Raw silk became an important item of trade at the beginning
of the Christian Era, increasing in costliness until it was said to be
worth its weight in gold. The Emperor Justinian held a monopoly
of the silk trade in Constantinople and endeavored to direct it from
the road through Persia, whence it reached the West. This was
not accomplished, but two Persian monks, who had learned the art
of silk culture after a long residence in China, imparted the mys-
tery to Justinian. Returning to China they brought back a num-
ber of silk-worm eggs concealed in a hollow cane. This was about
550 A.D., and marked the beginning of sericulture in the Western
world, for literally out of this hollow cane came the silk trade that
enriched the civilized world for twelve hundred years.

Under the Saracen conquest the silk trade and culture spread
westward through Europe, ultimately reaching Italy and France.
Silk manufacture came into England under the reign of Henry VI.,
receiving an important impetus in 1585, when the skillful Flemish
weavers came over, having fled from the religious troubles with

* From the Greek Seres, a people of Eastern Asia celebrated for their silks.

88 ANIMALS WHICH HAVE AFFECTED MAN.

Spain. One hvindred years later the edict of Nantes drove the
weavers of France into England, Germany, and Switzerland.

Efforts were made at an early date to introduce silk culture into
the New World, notably by Cortez in Mexico, all traces of which
have been lost, and in the settlements of Virginia. This last
spread through the Colonies, but was checked by the War of Inde-
pendence. In 1838 the culture of the silk-worm reached a mania
in the United States through the supposed capabilities of the South
Sea Islands mulberry, or mi/liicaulis, as a silk-worm food. Thou-
sands of acres were given over to the growth of this plant, but it
'soon proved to be a hollow speculation. To-day efforts are made
in various places to establish silk culture with little apparent suc-
cess. It is not a question of climate but of cheap labor, and
China, Japan, Bengal, and the Eastern Mediterranean are the silk-
producing countries of the world.

CHAPTER V.

MAN.

Reading in Connection with this Chaffer.

* Races and Peoples. — Brinton.

* Anthropology. — Tvlor.
Earth and Man. — Guyot.
Herodotus.

LESSON I. — TYPES OR RACES OF MAN.

Main Types or Races. — The three original types of mankind
are to be met with to-day in our own country, — the Wliite Man,
the Black Man, and the Yellotv Man. The white race is the one to
which we ourselves belong, and no matter how varied the different
peoples of this race may appear, they all present the broad and
striking features of the white type.

The pure-blood black man or negro is known at once by his
characteristic features, hair, and coloring. So with the yellow man,
as seen in the Chinaman, his peculiar traits are distinctive and
unmistakable.

Every child in his daily walks meets with these three ancient
types of man. He knows them all to be men, but very different
in appearance. This difference is the result of their long resi-
dence and geographical separation in widely different parts of the
earth. They are brothers that long ages ago wandered away from
their first home and came to dwell in lands so different in character
and climate that each, throughout the long years that followed,

'J*

90 MAN.

changed under the action of these all-powerful geographical con-
ditions. Their peculiar characteristics became fixed by long resi-
dence in their different countries, so that to-day we behold the
white, the black, and the yellow types of man.

We can recognize the distinctive traits of these three great types
in three well-marked features of each.

Physical Traits of the Races. — The white man, wherever found,
is at once recognized by the following well-marked traits: i. by
his white color, varying between darker and lighter shades, or bru-
nette and blonde types, but always unmistakably white \ 2. by his
wavy hair ; and 3. by his narrow nose.

The black man is at once the opposite of the white man in the
color of his skin and the character of his hair and nose : i. his
color is black or dark ; 2. his \v2ax frizzly or crinkled ; and 3. his
nose is broad.

The yellow man is equally distinct from the other two : i. his
color is yellow or olive; 2. his hair straight; and 3. his nose
medium, neither very broad nor very narrow.

Culture and Civilization. — Man, no matter what his circum-
stances in life, always presents a certain amount of culture. The
term 'culture' is used to indicate the possession, by man, of any
art no matter how primitive or crude it may be. Weapons ortools,
whether they be a bow and arrow or a repeating rifle ; two flat
stones for grinding corn or a steam mill with its comphcated
machinery ; the crudest ideas about God and Nature, or the high-
est ideals of divinity, literature, and science — all these are forms
or expressions of culture. These differences in culture among the
various peoples imply more or less different states of society,
though a people may be highly advanced in one art or conception
and have comparative crude ideas of others. Savage and barba-
rian are terms indicating comparatively low and primitive states
of culture and society, while civilization includes culture in its
highest and widest sense and is, therefore, an advanced state of
society.

Social Status of the Races. — The black man stands lowest in

TYPES OR RACES OF MAX. 91

the social scale and in point of culture. The vast majority of his
people are savage, cultivating the arts of life in their lowest and
simplest forms. \V'ar and the chase form the principal occupa-
tions of these savage tribes, and, though some possess the art of
smelting ores and fashioning weapons, often of wonderful design,
their condition is relatively low. The religion of the negro is
largely material in its nature, being the worship of some animal
as a tribe totem, and a belief in the power of departed spirits.
The only ideal element, if it can be so called, in this material
religion is one of witchcraft and sorcery.

In the yellow man we see a decided advance in culture over
the negro. In a few instances, as in the Chinese and Japanese,
he has reached a comparatively high degree of civiHzation. Still
his arts are, with some striking exceptions, crude, his ideals far
from high, and his religious conceptions of a decidedly material
nature. A large portion of his race are barbarians — wandering
tribes following their herds and flocks over vast stretches of
pasture land without any definite occupation.

The white man, on the other hand, possesses a culture so far
advanced in its development that the term civilization is used to
embrace his entire social state. His arts of life are not only far
above those of other races, but in thought and imagination he
reaches heights unknown to any other race of men, and his
religion is of a purely spiritual and ideal character.

Cause of the Different Social States. — The cause of the differ-
ence in culture among the races of mankind is to be found in
inherent traits fixed at a very early period by various causes.
Among these, conditions of a geographical nature undoubtedly
play, and always have played, a very important part. Just how
these causes have operated in producing the different physical
traits is a very difficult question to determine, but their effect on
the social life is much more apparent. This we can see when
viewing the distribution of the different races on the earth's
surface.

92 MAN.

LESSON II. — GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE

WHITE RACE.

Reading in Connection with this Lesson.

A Short History of the English People. — Green.

* Outlines of Universal History. — Fisher.

* The Aryan Race. — Morris.

Land of the Midnight Sun. — -Du Chaillu.
Hours of Exercise in the Alps. — Tyndall.
Views Afoot. — Bayard Taylor.

Original Home. — The name Caucasian has been appUed to the
white race from the supposition that the purest type of the white
man now inhabits the region of the Caucasus Mountains, and that,
therefore, this was the original home of the race. Recent studies,
however, have thrown more light on the subject, and all the evi-
dence brought forward goes far to prove that the purest type is
not the man of the Caucasus, nor does that region offer, in any
way, the slightest proof that it was the cradle of the white race.
There is evidence, moreover, that the original home of the white
man was somewhere in the Western Mediterranean region — South-
western Europe and Northern Africa. To-day the purest type of
the white race is supposed to survive in the Berber peoples, living
in the valleys of the Atlas Mountains in Northwestern Africa. The
Egyptian peoples belong to the white race, and their civilization,
the oldest in the world, is nearest to this region.

The South Mediterranean Branch of the White Race. — In an-
cient times the Libyan group of Hamitic peoples, to which the Ber-
bers and other tribes belonged, occupied the entire extent of the
northern portion of the Sahara Desert and the present Barbary
States, from the Adantic Ocean to the Nile Valley.^ East of this,
various Semitic peoples, as the Israelites, ancient Chaldeans, Abys-
sinians, Arabs, Bedouins, etc., occupied the country known as Syria

1 The ancient Egyptians and their existing representatives, the Copts and Fella-
heen peoples, also the Somalis, Gallas, Khamirs, and other tribes living in the
vicinity of the Red Sea, belong to the Hamitic slock of the white race.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRTRUTTON OF IVIHTE RACE. 93

Abd-El-Kader ; Semitic stock of
white race. (After Quatrefages.)

and Palestine, Abyssinia, the peninsula of Arabia, and the valley
of the Euphrates. In the fertile plains between the Tigris and
Euphrates, the land of Mesopotamia, were developed those famous
civilizations of history — the Baby-
lonian and Assyrian.

The South Mediterranean peo-
ples of the white race have always
lived surrounded by the savage
landscape of the desert. They
have been largely roving and
warlike tribes, traders threading
with their caravans the wastes of
the Sahara and Arabian deserts.
Their few fertile oases, river val-
leys, and strips of coast line have
offered the barest inducements to
the development of civilization,

and yet from among these peoples has arisen not only the culture
of the civilized world to-day, but also the most sublime religious
ideals — Christianity and Mohammedanism.

The North Mediterranean Branch of the "White Race. — The
Mediterranean Sea long separated the white race into its two
primary branches, the peoples of Northern Africa and those in-
habiting Southern Europe. At the dawn of history the North
Mediterranean branch was far behind the African section in cul-
ture and civilization. They were mere wandering hordes, begin-
ning to take here and there, in some favored spot, the first steps
of a civilization that was destined to spread and to rule the entire
earth. The central and important stock of this North Mediter-
ranean branch were the Aryan peoples, from which we are de-
scended.

In early times they occupied all of Southern and Central Europe,
and Asia to the borders of the high plateau region, probably to the
banks of the Oxus flowing north into the Sea of Aral. Some of the
most eastern of these peoples very early established the great Per-

MAN.

sian civilization on the plateau of Iran, while others, pushing across
the Hindu-Kush Mountains and spreading over the valleys of the

Indus and Ganges, in the penin-
sula of Hindustan, laid the foun-
dation of the ancient civihzation
of India.

The Western Aryans. — The
Aryans had come from the West
as wild, wandering tribes, meet-
ing, battling, and mingling with
the South Mediterranean peo-
ples. While the Persians and
Hindus started their career of
civilization in the regions where

Hindu of Calcutta, Aryan. (After Qua- ^. ^^-j^ ,^1^-^^^ ^,^g ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^f

" " the Aryans began a slow west-

ward movement back again, barred from further progress to the
East by the great mountain wall of Central Asia — the Pamir, or
" roof of the world," as it was known to the Persians.

Spreading into the Balkan Peninsula and the isles of the ^Egean
Sea, some of these wild tribes, after long years of struggle, devel-
oped a culture which in later time became the source and inspira-
tion of the entire civilized world — the Grecian Civilization. In
the mountainous peninsula of Italy the Latin-speaking peoples
developed later into the great Roman Civilization.

Reaching to the western shores of Europe the Aryans became,
in time, broken into numerous distinct peoples, speaking different
lansuages and distributed over a wide area of country. The
Keltic peoples occupied the extreme western portion and are seen
to-day in the Irish, the Welsh, the Scotch Highlanders, and the
inhabitants of Brittany in France. The Teutonic peoples spread
over Central Europe. In Roman history the barbaric Goths and
Vandals belonged to this, people, also the Angles, Saxons, Norse-
men, and Franks, who later became the present nations of the
Scandinavian peninsula, Denmark, Germany, Holland, England,
and America.

96 MAN.

The Latin-speaking peoples, who estabhshed the civilization of
Rome, and several other tribes have become extinct, the living
descendants of the ancient Italian group being seen to-day in the
Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, French and other less prominent
nations.

Another Aryan group pushing north over the plains of Russia
were the Slavonic peoples, seen to-day in the modern Russians,
Poles, and the inhabitants of Servia, Bulgaria, etc.

Language. — The common ancestry of all these Aryan nations
of to-day is traced largely through words used in the different
languages. Many words in Latin, Greek, the Sanscrit of the
ancient Persians and Hindus, German, French, Spanish, Italian,
and Anglo-Saxon have, without doubt, been derived from a com-
mon root or original word, of which they still show unmistakable
traces.^

While the two main branches of the white race show their
relationship by physical traits and the capability of entertaining
high spiritual ideals and of reaching advanced stages of culture,
the different peoples of a stock or subdivision indicate their
relationship largely through language and customs.

Geographical Considerations. — The present distribution of the
nations and peoples of the white race is part of history. Through
all this history geographical conditions have played a very im-
portant part. The fertile valley of the Nile, surrounded on all
sides by the desert, and favoring agricultural pursuits, early invited
some of the wandering tribes of the region permanently to settle
here. Thus were laid the foundations of a civilization the germ
of which was only slumbering in the brains of these higher types
of mankind.

The peculiar geography of Hindustan, a peninsula guarded
from the barbarian hordes of yellow men on the north by the
giant mountain wall of Central Asia, undoubtedly favored the
development and continuance of the Indian civilization.

So with Rome in its infancy. The peninsula of Italy was its

1 See " Chips from a German Workshop," by Max Miiller.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WHITE RACE. 97

guardian, and the lofty ranges of the Alps and Apennines kept
back for centuries the barbarian invaders, allowing the seeds of
one of the greatest civilizations to come to perfection.

The little nation of Switzerland has held its own against heavy
odds in the rugged and almost unreachable fastnesses of its
mountain home.

The vast steppes of Russia, traversed by such great rivers as
the Volga, the Don, the Dnieper, Dniester, and others, bordered
on the southeast by the Black and Caspian seas, and on the north-
west by the Baltic, offered peculiar conditions for the develop-
ment of a great nation in the immense territory of grass-covered
plains, wide water-courses and endless reaches of forest.

The supremacy of England to-day is largely the result of its
being an island separated from the continent by a strait, narrow
indeed, yet broad enough to develop a distinct and characteristic
nation of people. If Ireland had not been a separate island, the
Irish question would probably not be agitating the nation to-day.
From the fact of its being a group of islands Great Britain, in large
part, owes her supremacy as a naval power, and as a conqueror
in distant lands.

These examples are only a few of the many instances in man's
history of the effect of geographical surroundings and their im-
portance in influencing the destiny of nations and peoples.

The inhabitants of the Caucasus to-day represent a few peoples
that have found a refuge in these mountain valleys. The whole
broad region of Europe and Northern Africa has for ages been the
home of the white race. Its cradle was probably somewhere in
the Western Mediterranean region at a time, ages ago, when the
Mediterranean Sea was much smaller than it now is, and when two
strips of land extended between Europe and Africa ; one from the
southern shores of Spain, and the other from the southern shores
of Italy. In these parts the sea bottom now presents high ridges
covered by comparatively shallow water, not more than 1200 feet
in depth, while on either side of the ridges a depth of 13,000 feet
has been reached. Evidently the islands of Sicily and Malta are

98 MAN.

the exposed tops of a sunken chain of mountains that stretched
from Italy into Africa. You must bear in mind that geology,
which is largely the study of the past history of the earth and its
relation to the present, has solved many more wonderful problems
than this one of a lost land connection.^

The climate of this Mediterranean region must have been in
every way favorable to the development of the white man, and it
was largely the cause of at least one of his present physical traits
— the ivhite skin. To-day we find two distinct types in reference
to color — the blonde and the brunette, but there are endless
varieties resulting from the mixture of the two. The pure blondes
occur mostly in the northern peoples; the dark whites or bru-
nettes, in the south, and this we should expect on geographical
grounds.

From all the evidence thus far gathered, a geographical name
has been proposed for the white race, that of Eiirafrican, as best
indicating the land of its early development and the scene of
some of its greatest achievements.

1 At the time of the very earliest appearance of man, probably in the early
Quaternary, the present continent of Africa was separated by a sea from its north-
ern portion, which formed a part of what is now Southwestern Europe. (The
Atlas Mountains belong, genetically, to the same system as the mountains of Eu-
rasia.) The Northern Ocean reached much farther south, covering what is now
the low plains of Northern Europe and Asia. The peninsulas of Arabia and
Hindustan were then islands, which later became a part of the main land through
alluvial deposits. (See map.) It seems highly probable, from the evidence so far
gathered, that the three great races of history — the white, yellow, and black —
have occupied their present "areas of characterization " from an extremely remote
period, and under the influence of peculiar geographical (orographical) condi-
tions. The peoples of the white race, as seen by a study of the map on page 95,
have always occupied a position between the black peoples on the South and the
yellow men of Asia to the Northeast. By reference to the map on the opposite
page (99), illustrating Quaternary geography, it will be seen how these areas of
race characterization were isolated from one another. The present site of the
Sahara Desert was a sea separating the ancient land masses of Eurafrica and Aust-
■ africa. The present Caspian Sea, in an area of depression below the sea level, and
its neighboring salt lakes are the "evaporating lees" of that ancient northern
ocean that once largely cut off a land mass of Asia to the East from the other land
areas.

100 MAN.

LESSON III. — GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE

BLACK RACE.

Reading in Connection with this Lesson.

Through the Dark Continent. — Stanley.
Hunting in South Africa. — Baldwin.
* Tropical Africa. — Drummond.
The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland. — Bent.
Lost in the Jungle. — Du Chaillu.
Country of the Dwarfs, etc. — Du Chaillu.
The various recent works on Africa.

Home of the Black Race. — The Continent of Africa south of
the Sahara Desert is, and ahvays has been, the home of the black
man. In this territory he is divided up into numerous tribes, each
occupying some definite region and, though differing in many ways
from one another, all possessing the unmistakable traits of the
race. These traits have, without doubt, been largely developed
by a long residence in the hot, moist climate of the tropical forests
of Western Africa. The more or less uniform conditions of the
tropics, supplying an a5undanQe_oX food, with little, if any, effort
in cultivation, has been an important element in kg^pi"g the black
man in a state of savagery. His needs are few ; warfare, hunting,
fishing and the rudest kind of agriculture have always been his
main .pursuits, and his culture has developed^ only so_Jar._as these
needs required.

The Physical Geography of Africa. — The western half of Africa,
from the northern borders of the Sahara to beyond the Congo,
is a dense forest region. Eastward the land gradually rises
into the great plateau of the continent — open, grass-covered
steppes and pasture lands, broken with patches of woodland.
From this elevated region rise lofty mountains and the snow-clad
summits of extinct volcanic peaks as Ruwenzori, Kenia and Kili-
manjaro, 20,000 feet above the sea. This highland is continued
northward on the east into the mountains of Abyssinia. To the
southward it becomes lower but spreads out, so that South Africa,

BffABnjiiK \

K^^.

50«/ii-'^

ca"

^3&#

Cori-i^'

A/^e^

i/Z>:5

#Sw4fij/^||

t^ /,.ffp^*

Ethnic Chart of Austafrican Race. (After Brinton.)

lOI

102 MAN.

beyond the Zambesi River, is a mountainous and hilly country
interspread with grass-covered plains, belts of forest, and arid
deserts.

In the high portions of eastern equatorial Africa a group of
remarkable fresh-water lakes or inland seas occurs — Victoria,
Albert, and Albert Edward Nyanza, Tanganyika, Nyassa, Bangweolo,
and many others of less importance. These lakes are the feeders
of gigantic water-courses that traverse the continent north, west,
and east. The Nile flows north from the Nyanza group, empty-
ing into the Mediterranean Sea. The Congo flows westwardly
into the Atlantic, while the Zambesi, rising in the mountains of
the south central part of the continent and receiving the Shire, an
important tributary from Lake N3'assa, empties into the Indian
Ocean. South of the Zambesi the Limpopo River likewise empties
into the Indian Ocean, while still farther south, the Orange or
Gareep River pursues a westerly course to the Atlantic.

The great forest region of the West coast is drained by a re-
markable river, the Niger, emptying into the Gulf of Guinea ;
while still farther north, the Senegal flows into the Atlantic Ocean.

African Zoology. — The African Continent is the home of a
vast number of large and peculiar animals, many of them being
found nowhere else on the earth. Two large, man-like apes, the
gorilla and the chimpanzee, are found in the dense forests of the
western part. Great herds of antelope, of many kinds, roam over
the pasture lands of East, Central, and South Africa. Zebra and
giraffe, the two-horned rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, a species of
elephant, the lion, the leopard, and several species of hyena are
some of the characteristic animals. All these are being driven
farther and farther into the heart of the continent before the
steady advance of the white man. The ' big game ' of Africa is
destined, before many years, to disappear from the face of the
earth.

Bird-life is here remarkably rich in peculiar forms. The ostrich
roams over the open lands and desert tracts of the entire conti-
nent. The curious secretary bird, feeding upon serpents, the

.■•s^^^-

Relief Sketch. Map of Africa (Lambert's projection).

GEOGKAriUCAL DISrRIBUTrOX OF BLACK RACK. 103

guinea hen, bee-eaters, sun-birds, weaver birds, kingfishers, parrots,
and a host of other more or less remarkable forms, besides flocks
of water-fowl, swarming along the great rivers, add to the wonder-
fully rich and peculiar life of this strange land.

Among reptiles, the crocodile of the various African rivers is the
most remarkable. Fishes are found in great abundance, and in-
sect life reaches a wonderful development in variety and numbers.

African Landscapes and Vegetation. — The features of an
African landscape tlepend largely upon the character of the vege-
tation in the different parts of the continent. Throughout the
desert region the date palm forms a characteristic feature. South
of this dry belt the date disappears, and the elTect of the tropical
rains coming in from the Atlantic marks the great forest region
with its rich and varied forms of plant life. Here occur the bao-
bab, the giant cotton trees, the oil and sago palms, the golden-
flowered laburnum, and the papyrus plant of the river shores and
swamps. Among food i^lants the papaw, ground nut, manioc,
pigeon pea,'l^ustard~ai:)ple, plantains, and tamarinds are con-
spicuous.

TiTthe higher, more open regions of the eastern and southern
portions of the continent the heaths are found in great abundance,
also the euphorbias, mimosas, and many singular tribes ; while in
the arid desert tracts occur curious fleshy plants like the aloes and
melons. In every part the vegetation forms a striking feature of
the African landscape.

African Tribes and Peoples. — Over this great region, with its
remarkable animal_and plant life, the black race is distributed,
being broken up into numerous tribes in the different parts of the
continent. Three main branches of the race are recognized : the
true Negroes, the Negroids, and the Negrillos or dtvarfs.

The true negroes inhabit the dense forests of Guinea and Sene-
gambia in the west, extending eastward through the Soudan or
"Land of the Blacks" to the Nile Valley. They consist of nu-
merous tribes scattered throughout this region, which is divided
into various kingdoms. Hunting, fishing^jilling th£_soil and war-

104

Af.LV.

fare are the principal occupations^ cif_theae. . peoples and some of
them, like^tHe Fans of Guinea, are cannibals. The western part
of this region and the Guinea coast were for years the seat of the

slave trade, whence
thousands of negroes
were shipped across
the sea to America.

The Nep-oid peo-
ples are probably the
result of a mixture
between the true ne-
groes and some of
the Semitic members
of the white race in-
habiting North and
East Africa. This
mixing of the two
opposite races along
their line of contact,
the middle Nile Val-
ley and northern bor-
ders of the Soudan,
must have been begun at a remote period and kept up closely for
a long time, as the Negroids are now a well-marked branch, split
up into numerous tribes. The tribes inhabiting Nubia, the high
grass-lands of East-central Africa (the great lake region and upper
Nile basin), the immense territory embraced by the water-sheds
of the Congo and Zambesi ; the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, and
numerous other peoples of the Bantu group in the south all belong
to this Negroid stock. They differ quite markedly from the true
negro, being in many ways more advanced, and when inhabiting
the open grass country they lead a more or less pastoral life.

The Negrillos or dwarfs are a little people. Some tribes dwell
in the dense forests on the northern side of the Congo. They are
expert elephant hunters, and engage also in hunting, constructing

A Negro Type, Ouali Serere. (After Quatrefages.)

GEOGRAPirrCAl. niSTRlBUTION OF BLACK RACE. 105

pitfalls tor game, etc. In South Africa these little folk are again
found as the Bushmen, one of the lowest tribes of mankind, dwell-
ing on the borders of the great Kalahari Desert ; and the Hotten-
tots, somewhat larger in stature and much more intelligent, being
probably the result of a mixture of Bushmen with some of the
Negroid peoples of the region.

The Kalahari region is not a desert in the general sense of the
word, but a waterless waste of country overgrown with thickets
of mimosa and camel's thorn which send their roots deep down
into the soil in search of water. The Bushmen are very expert
in finding the presence of water, often at a considerable distance
below the surface. They feed on siiakes Jizards, insects, and
roots, and build grass huts_for shelter. over night.

Effect of Arab Invasion. — The Arab of the white race has long
held sway over a wide portion of Africa. He carried the creed
of Islam, or Mohammedanism, into many of the native tribes,
and through his influence populous cities arose in several negro
kingdoms. Prominent among these is Timbuctoo, on the banks
of the Niger, built of sun-dried bricks and containing a popula-
tion of 20,000 souls. The influence of the Arab, however, was
not for good. As a trader in slaves and ivory, he has spread
terror over a vast extent of country. Tribe after tribe has fallen
into his hands, and the net-work of well-worn paths leading from
the interior to the shores of the Indian Ocean, on the Zanzibar
coast, are continually traversed by long caravans of wretched
captives loaded down with ivory.

The Future of Africa. — To the European the climate of many
parts of Africa is deadly in the extreme. It is especially so in
the low river valleys and along the coast where dense vapors
abound, loaded with malaria and the fever poison from decaying
vegetation. Until this element is overcome by long residence
and gradual acclimatization the condition of Central Africa must
remain much as it is to-day, and has been for centuries. In the
South, colonization by the white man has advanced rapidly.
The only possible hope of checking the Arab slave-hunting raids

106 MAN.

in the interior is from the gradual extermination of the elephant.
When this is accomplished, the question of ivory from this source
will be at an end and one of the main causes of the slave trade
removed.

Geographical Name of the Race. — The black man is distinctly
a native of the southern half of the African Continent. The term
Austafrican race has, therefore, been proposed, the word ' aust,'
from austral, meaning south, indicating the land of his birth,
characterization, and present distribution.

LESSON IV. — GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE

YELLOW RACE.

Reading in Connection with this Lesson.

Central Asia. — Bayard Taylor.

Japan. — l]ayard Taylor.

Tent Life in Siberia. — Kennan.

Land of the White Elephant. — Vincent.

Roof of the World. — • Gordon.

A Social Departure. — Duncan.

Home of the Yellow Race. — The great land mass of Asia east
of the O-xus or Amu River and the Ural river and mountain range
is the home of the Yellow or Asian race. From time immemorial
the yellow man has occupied this area of the earth, and its pecu-
liar physical conditions must have set their stamp upon him at a
very early period, for we find him at the beginning of history
occupying this same region with the same physical characters of
form and feature that we see to-day. Like the black man, the
yellow man has remained much the same in intellectual develop-
ment and culture as when he first appeared on the historic scene.
The great and often rapid changes toward a higher culture that
mark the career of the white man, are as strikingly absent in the
yellow as in the black race, though the yellow man under pecu-
liarly favorable conditions early reached a form of civilization which
has not advanced beyond a certain step in centuries. The reasons

I07

108 MAX.

for this arrested development are to be fouiul largely in the geo-
graphical surroundings of the yellow race which, though totally
unlike those of the black race, have had a somewhat similar effect
in checking any tendency toward advancement of culture. It is
a striking fact that any elevation in the members of either race has
come from contact with the white man and his broadening influ-
ence. This is especially true in later years of the more civilized
Chinese and Japanese.

Physical Geography of Asia. — The surroundings of the yellow
race, except in a few favored river valleys and tropical coast
regions, are largely of a forbidding character. Two prominent
features mark the geography of Asia : to the south is a series
of mountain-rimmed plateaus of great elevation ; and stretch-
ing north of this highland, to the shores of the Arctic Ocean,
is a vast expanse of level plain, consisting of extensive marshes,
forests, and grass-covered steppes. These two features are
known as the Central Asian Plateau and the Great Siberian
Plain.

The Central Asian Plateau. — East of Persia or Iran the land
mass of Asia rises into that lofty ridge, the Pamir or ' roof of the
world,' 15,000 feet above the sea. Running westward from the
southern corner of this is the great Hindu-Kush range, connected
by numerous ranges with the Elburz Mountains south of the
Caspian Sea, and so on through the Caucasus with the mountain
ranges of Europe. Eastward from the Pamir two great mountain
ranges extend to the Pacific Ocean. The one to the north is the
Thian Shan, continued northeastwardly to the Sea of Okhotsk by
such broken ranges as the Siansk, Altai, Khinghan, Stanovi, and
numerous others.

The great mountain wall to the south, reaching quite to the
J]ay of Bengal, is the far-famed Himalaya range, containing
throughout its length some of the most remarkable mountain
peaks on the earth. Among these is Mount Everest, 29,000 feet
above the sea, and as far as known, the highest peak in the world ;
Kanchinjinga, near the village of Darjeeling, and many others

O 2.

1 S
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5 °

2 W

O (/)

3- cr

H c (1)

3- crp o

ft ~ -•

O n> .

3 ~='

^' a

2. §

GEOGKArillCAI. DISTRIBUTION OF YELLOW RACE. 109

almost as high.^ These two great ranges, the Himalaya and 'I'hian
Shan, inclose a triangular table-land of immense height, its base
reaching far to the northeast. The southern portion of this
tabledand is much higher than the northeastern and is separated
from it by a range of mountains running nearly parallel with the
Himalayas — the Kuen Luen range. This high, southern portion,
lying between the Himalayas and Kuen Luen ranges, is the
Plateau of Thibet. Across its surface, from west to east, runs
another high range of mountains parallel with the others — the
Karakorum.2 The northeastern portion of this table-land, between
the Kuen Luen and Thian Shan, is the great Mongolian Plateau
traversed by numerous mountain ranges and divided into two
portions — the desert region of Eastern Turkestan to the west,
and the Shamo or Gobi desert to the northeast.

Lowlands. — On all sides of this elevated plateau the land falls
away : to the south and east into the tropical peninsulas of Hindu-
stan, Farther India, and the lowlands of Southern China ; to the
west into Turkestan and the depression about the Caspian Sea ;
while to the north it passes into the great Siberian Plain. This
vast expanse consists of stretches of pine forests interspersed with
open country in the south, while to the north the characteristic
tundras or marshy lands, broken here and there by low, straggling
mountain ranges, extend to the shores of the Arctic Ocean.

Drainage. — Numerous large rivers rise in the mountains of the
central plateau region and flow in all directions toward the sea.
To the south, in Hindustan, the Ganges, and its great tributary
the Brahmaputra empty into the Bay of Bengal, while the Indus
flowing southwestwardly empties into the Arabian Sea. From
the eastern spurs of the mountain region flow the two great rivers
of China — the Yang-tse-kiang and Hoang Ho, emptying into the
Pacific. Farther to the north, from the Mongolian Plateau, the
Amur River flows eastward into the Pacific. The Oxus and
Jaxartes, rising in the neighborhood of the Pamir, flow north-

' The highest niountain is now thought to be DeocUiunga, one of the Himalayas, 29,002
feet. - The Karakorum Mmintaiii range does not reacli across I'hibct as an unbroken chain.
The range bearing this name is, in reahty, a gigantic spur of the Himalayas jutting out from
the Pamir, and as such is known as the Karakorum Himalayas.

110 MAN.

westwardly into the Sea of Aral, while northward across the
Siberian Plain from the northern mountain ranges those great
water ways, the Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena, flow into the
Arctic Ocean.

Climate. — The climate of this great region is one of extremes,
burning hot in summer, and in winter cold almost beyond de-
scription. Along the low eastern and southern coast lands and
peninsulas of Asia a tropical climate prevails throughout the year.

Peoples of the Asian Race. — The great Siberian Plain reaches
westward into Europe and extends on the south to the shores of
the Black Sea, and northwestwardly to the Baltic, embracing all of
Russia, and the lowlands of Central Europe. This geographical
feature is of great importance when we consider the distribution
of the Asian race.

The race, as a whole, presents two primary and well-marked
geographical divisions, into one or the other of which all the differ-
ent tribes and peoples fall. These divisions are known as the
Sinitic and Sibiric branches.

The Sinitic Branch. — The Sinitic branch comprises the inhabi-
tants of High Asia, from the Pamir eastward across the Plateau of
Thibet, also those of China and the peninsula of Farther India,
The religion of nearly all these peoples is that of Buddhism, a
material and mystical belief in which the higher faculties of the
mind are developed, but not a spiritual worship in the true sense
of the word.

The inhabitants of the lofty, mountain-rimmed Plateau of Thibet
form an isolated group, partially civilized, leading a pastoral rather
than an agricultural existence, but mainly given over to a religious
life. Buddhism finds its most devoted followers among these peo-
ples, thousands of them leading the life of monks and lamas, or
priests, in the holy city of Lhasa and the monasteries scattered
here and there in the fastnesses of the mountains.

The Chinese have reached a rather advanced state of civiliza-
tion that is largely the result of their geographical surroundings.
The fertile valleys of the Hoang Ho and Yang-tse-kiang — streams

GEOGRAPHICAL DrSTA'/BUTWAr OF YELLOW RACK. Ill

flowing from the hill country and mountainous regions through low
flood plains to the sea ; the temperate and tropical climates of the
northern and southern portions ; and the high mountainous deserts
barring China off from the rest of the continent, have all tended
to foster the conditions of culture
leading to civilization. China was
long excluded from the rest of the
world by its peculiar position. The
people were for a long time averse
to foreign intercourse, but this feel-
ing gradually gave way to the out-
side influence exerted by the white
man. To-day the Chinaman, with
his oblique, almond-shaped eyes, his
yellow skin and straight pig-tail, his
shuffling gait and " Pigeon Eng-
lish " talk, is in lands far away from
the Celestial Empire. His arts
and products are in every country,

and Peking, Nan-King, Canton, and Hong-Kong are marts and
cities of the world. The great wall of China was built, 214 b.c,
in order to protect the country from the once frequent inroads of
the barbarian hordes of Mongolia that several times threatened
the life of the empire.

The inhabitants of the several countries forming the peninsula
of Farther India — Burmah, Siam, Annam, Cochin China, Tonquin,
and Cambodia — belong to the Sinitic branch of the yellow or
Asian race. Some of these people show traces of admixture with
peoples of the other two races, though the Asian traits predominate.
They have reached a certain degree of civilization, and this is es-
pecially true of the Burmese and Annamese.

The Sibiric Branch. — The terms ' Sinitic ' and ' Sibiric ' in-
dicate roughly the geographical relations of the two main branches
of the Asian race. The first is derived from the old Greek name
for China, the Chinese being the typical members of this group.

Young Japanese girl — Asian type.
(After Quatrefages.)

112

JILLV.

Sibiric is derived from the name ' Siberia,' this great territory
being the center of distriliution of the various peoples comprised
under this head. 'I'he Sibiric peoples are spread north of High
Asia from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea and the Baltic. At
one end of this extensive area, on a group of islands lying off the
eastern shores of Asia, are the Japanese peoples, the most highly
civilized of the Asian race. At the southwestern corner, in the
neighborhood of the Black Sea, is the great Ottoman Empire, occu-
pying the country known to-day as Turkey and in ancient times as
Asia Minor. Six distinct groups of this Sibiric branch are more
or less clearly defined as to their geography.

T. The /<T/>a//ese group already mentioned, which, according to
tradition, appear to have come to the islands from the mainland
at a remote period, and to have displaced a ruder race, the Anios,

a remnant of which still in-
habits the northern islands
of Japan. The inhabitants
of the peninsula of Korea
are closely related to the
Japanese, belonging to the
same group of peoples.

2. The Arctic group of
peoples comprise numer-
ous rude, barbarous tribes
living in Kamchatka and
Northeastern Asia, between
the Arctic Ocean and the
Pacific. The Chukchis, the
Kamchatkans, the Koraks,
with their herds of rein-
deer, the Namollos of East Cape, the Ghiliaks of Saghalien Island,
and the Anios of Northern Japan belong to this group.

3. The Finnic peoples, as the present Finns and Lapps of Fin-
land and Lapland in Arctic Europe ; the Samoyeds, and other
tribes inhabiting Northern Siberia, the regions about the great
river vallevs and Lake Baikal.

Chukchis

■Asian type— Arctic group. (.After
Quatrefages.)

GKOGRArinCAl. DlSTRfBUTlOX OF YELLOW RACE. 113

4. The Tiith^uisic grouij inhabiting the country known as Man-
churia, from China north to Kamchatka, and from the Yeni-
sei Valley to the Pacific. This

group consists of two peoples —
the Manchus, a somewhat superior
triiie, who gained possession of the
Chinese throne about two hundred
years ago, and still continue to
govern the great empire, and the
Tungus, a ruder people, living to
the north in the great wilderness
of swamp, mountain, and forest.

5. The Mongolic group, whose

original home was in the desert

Maudchon — Asian type.
Quatrefages.)

(After

wastes of the Mongolian Plateau,
south of the Altai Mountains, and

extending eastward to Manchuria. The group comprises the pres-
ent warlike and roving Kalmucks — the true herdsmen of the
Steppes — extending from Lake Baikal to the Volga River in Rus-
sia, and the present inhabitants of Mongolia. The Mongolian has
played an important part in the history of the past. In barbarian
hordes, under such fomous leaders as Genghis Khan, Tamerlane,
and Baber, he has from time to time swept the continent of Asia,
leaving ruin in his wake. The last-named leader once held India
under the empire of the Great Mogul (Mongol).

6. The Tataric ^ group found their original home in Turkestan,
north of the Pamir. From this point, at an early date, they spread
as barbarians east, west, and south. At the fldl of Rome they
swept westward into Europe under Attila, the "scourge of God."
Of their descentiants to-day we have the Turks, a Mohammedan
people ruling Turkey in Asia and Europe ; the Cossacks and Kir-
ghis of the Steppes ; the inhabitants of Bulgaria and Hungary in

1 Frequently, but incorrectly, spelled Tartar. It is derived from the Chinese
word ta-ta. Tu-kiu, another Chinese name, is tlie origin of our word, " Turk."
(Brinton.)

114 • MAN.

Europe, and other less prominent peoples. Turkish dominion,
embraced under the Ottoman Empire, includes also Syria and
Egypt. It recognizes the Sultan as its head, and as the political
power of the entire Mohammedan world.

Effect of Geographical Features in the History of Asiatic Peo-
ples.— The white race, as we have already seen, occupies only a
small portion of Asia' proper — the peninsulas of Arabia and Hin-
dustan and the plateau of Iran or Persia. Between Persia and
Hindustan lie the two small countries of Afghanistan and Beloo-
chistan, peopled by branches of the Indian stock. The civiliza-
tion reached by these Asiatic members of the white race, though
inferior to European culture, is vastly superior to any civilization
of the Asian race. While Mohammedanism prevails in Persia
from its close geographical relations with Arabia, a nature wor-
ship, called Brahminism, and Buddhism are the religions of India.
Buddhism had its origin in India, spreading then.ce to Farther India,
Thibet, Central Asia, and China, so that the religion of the Asian
peoples had its source in the white race. To-day the votaries of
Buddha far exceed in numbers any other religious sect in the world.

The decision of the question of supremacy in the East between
the powers of England and Russia lies largely in geographical
conditions. England's empire in India and Russian power on the
frontiers of Afghanistan are separated by the Hindu-Kush and out-
lying ranges, and, if war be the issue, the Khyber Pass must
largely decide the result.

The destiny of Asia lies in the hands of the ever-conquering,
all-possessing white race. Russia or England will decide the fate
of the Turkish Empire and its Sultan, and all because the plains
and rivers of Russia reach to the Black Sea, and ships from the
Mediterranean may enter its domain through the Dardanelles and
the Bosphorus. The Russian Government is now laying one of
the greatest railroads of modern times across the wastes of Sibe-
ria from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, and the barbarians
of Asia are destined to disappear before this greatest of civilizing
influences.

MAN IN AMERICA. 115

LESSON v.— MAN IN AMERICA.

ReadiiNg in Connection with this Lesson.

The Ancles and the Amazon. — Orton.

A Thousand Miles' Walk Across South America. — Bishop.

* Concjuest of Peru. — Prescott.

* Conquest of Mexico. — Prescott.

* Nature and Man in America. — Shaler.
Our Arctic Province. — Elliott.

The Red or American Race. — The white, the black, and the
yellow races are the races of history. With the discovery of
America a new race appeared upon the scene. Men of a red or
coppery color, with straight or wavy hair and inediufu nose, leading
for the most part a savage life, though, in some instances, possess-
ing a culture hardly inferior to that of many of the white peoples.
The peoples of this Red or American race became known to the
world as Indians, a name which they still hold, from the fact that
Columbus, when he landed on the now historic island of the
Bahama group, believed that he had reached India by sailing
westward around the earth.

Broken into numerous tribes and peoples throughout the entire
extent of both North and South America, the red man every-
where presents the same physical features which at once dis-
tinguish him from the other races. His origin is obscure. He
has been an inhabitant of the American Continent long enough
to have had his peculiar race traits indelibly fixed by the
geographical conditions of the country and climate. The red
man undoubtedly came from Eurasia at a very remote period,
probably in that first general migration from the original home
which carried man to all parts of the earth, and brought about
the different races as we have already noticed. By what route
he came it is difficult to determine, some authorities believing
that it was from Asia by way of Behring Strait, others from Europe

Relief Sketch. Map of North America (Lambert's projection).

MAN IN AMERICA. 117

at a time when more or less of a land bridge existed between
Europe and Arctic America and Greenland. Some writers, from
some points of resemblance in his features, have claimed for him
a descent from the Asian race. However this may be, the red
man or Indian of to-day is both physically and geographically
a distinct race — the Americaii.

Culture. — The North American Indian leads the life of a
savage hunter. Throughout the continent, when first discovered,
the various tribes practiced a number of rude arts, pottery, the
fashioning of weapons and implements of the chase, and the
cultivation of maize and tobacco about their wigwams. In
Central and South America remarkable civilizations had developed
among some of the tribes, and cyclopean ruins of wonderful
design show that architecture had reached a high degree of
perfection.

Although the largest number are savages, an ideal religion has
always existed among them, the worship of a ' Great Spirit' being
almost universal throughout the various tribes in both North and
South America.

Physical Geography of the American Continents. — The general
outline of the land mass of the Western Hemisphere naturally
divides it into two large continents connected by a third, much
narrower, portion. The first of these, or North America, is
characterized by regions of widely different aspect. By far the
largest area is forest-clad, a vast wooded land in the eastern half
stretching, at the time of the discovery, from the northern limit
of trees in the far northwest to the mouth of the Mississippi
River. West of this is the region of the great plains, rolling,
grass-covered prairies, dry and treeless, except in the lower river
valleys. To the west these plains gradually rise into a great
plateau region, crowned by the lofty ranges of the Rocky Moun-
tain system. Between this and the Sierra Nevada ranges to the
west hes the Great American Desert, a dry, alkaline region
covered with sage-brush and coarse grass. On the Pacific slope
a forest region again prevails.

Relief Sketch. Map of South America (Lamberfs projection).

MAN IN AMERfCA. 119

Arctic America, north of the forest limit, is a barren stretch
covered with a stunted vegetation. To the extreme north the
land is broken into an archipelago of numerous islands separated
from Greenland by Baffin's Bay and the narrow channels leading
toward the North Pole. The Rocky Mountain system stretches
from Alaska in the extreme northwest to the highlands of Mexico.
The coast lands of Mexico are low and tropical in character, and
this condition becomes more and more pronounced as we travel
southward. The mountain ranges become insignificant, and in
the peninsula of Yucatan, in Guatemala, in Nicaragua, and on
the Isthmus of Panama the vegetation, scenery, and climate are
wholly tropical.

In that part of the Atlantic Ocean known as the Caribbean
Sea, between the Gulf of Mexico and the northern shores of
South America, lie a great number of volcanic and coral islands
known as the Greater and Lesser Antilles, or the West Indies,
comprising the islands of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, the Bahamas,
Windward and Leeward Islands, Trinidad, and numerous others.

The Isthmus of Panama joins Central America with the north-
west corner of the South American Continent, and the low moun-
tain ridges almost immediately rise into the lofty chain of the
Andes, stretching along the western or Pacific side to Cape Horn.
In this great Cordilleran or Andes chain is to be found some of
the grandest scenery in the world. A magnificent tropical vegeta-
tion covers the mountain slopes and valleys, while rising thou-
sands of feet into the air tower numerous volcanic peaks, many
of them active and covered with perpetual snow.

The eastern portion of South America, like the western portion
of Africa, is low and covered with a dense tropical forest, a result
of the moisture-laden trade winds of the Atlantic. This forest
region is of vast extent, stretching from the eastern base of the
Andes to the Atlantic, and south to the Rio de la Plata. South
of this great river the open, grass-covered plains or pampas reach
to the narrow, mountainous end of South America, known as Pata-
gonia, ending at the Straits of Magellan. This narrow strip of

120 MAN.

water separates the continent from the Ibland of Tierra del P'uego,
at the southern termination of which is Cape Horn, jutting out
between the icy waters of the South Atlantic and South Pacific
oceans.

Rivers. — In the eastern wooded region of North America the
low ranges of the Appalachian Mountain system run north and
south. These act as a water shed to numerous streams flowing
into the Atlantic Ocean, on the one hand, and into the great
Mississippi system of drainage on the other. In the same way
the Rocky Mountains part the streams flowing east into the
Mississippi from those going west toward the Pacific. The Missis-
sippi is the great central drain of the continent, flowing into the
Gulf of Mexico. East of its source a remarkable chain of fresh-
water lakes occurs, finding an outlet to the Atlantic through the
St. Lawrence River.

North of the source of the Mississippi is a low range of hills
called the ' Height of Land,' separating streams that flow north
into Hudson Bay from southward flowing waters.

A number of large lakes are scattered through the northern
portion of the continent, and several rivers of considerable size
flow into the Arctic Ocean.

In South America three great rivers rise in the Eastern Andes
and flow through the low, tropical forests to the Atlantic. The
one farthest north is the Orinoco. The Amazon, the largest
stream in the world, flows across the continent at about its broad-
est part, while to the south is the great La Plata. These three
rivers are very near one another at their head waters, and the
Amazon and Orinoco are connected by a stream called the Cassi-
quaire. Only a few mountain torrents flow into the Pacific on the
western side of South America, the steepness of the slope leaving
but a narrow fringe of level coast land.

Tribes and Peoples of the American Race. — The peoples of the
American race fall very naturally into seven geographical groups.
I. The Arctic Group, comprising the Eskimo tribes and the in-
habitants of the Aleutian chain of islands, stretching from the

MAN IN AMERICA.

121

southern coast of Alaska almost to Kamchatka. The Eskimo
peoples are spread from Icy Bay in Alaska eastward across Arctic
America into Cireenland. They are for the most part seafaring,
engaged in hunting the walrus, seal, narwhal, polar bear, and other
arctic animals. They depend on their packs of dogs to carry
them in sledges over the land-ice and frozen seas of their desolate
home. Unlike many of the Northern Asiatic tribes, they have not
domesticated the reindeer which, along with the curious musk
sheep, abound in this re-
gion, but they hunt these - --«.-<««>---
animals for their skins and
flesh. Their ' kayaks ' or
sea-canoes, made of seal
skins stretched over frames
of wood or bone, are models
of skillful workmanship, as
are also their various hunt-
ing and fishing implements,
made of wood, bone, and
ivory. They live in snow
houses, and it is interesting
to note that the arch or
dome- shape of these dwell-
ings was an idea of their
own.

2. The North Athtntic
Group comprises all the In-
dian tribes of North Amer-
ica from the Atlantic west
to the Rocky Mountains,

and south of the Arctic peoples. In other words, they oc-
cupy the vast territory drained by the rivers flowing into the
Atlantic Ocean, either directly, or through Hudson Bay. and the
Gulf of Mexico. The eastern stocks, like the i\.lgonkin and Iro-
quois tribes, have long since disappeared. The Northern or

Gray Eagle — Apache — American type.
(After Quatrefages.)

122

MAN IN AMERICA. 123

Athapasca stock, known among its members as Tinneh, " people,"
and by the Algonkins as Chepewyans, or " pointed skins," from
the shape of the skin robe which they wore, was at one time
widely dispersed from Hudson Bay to the Arctic Ocean, and
west ah-nost to the mouth of the Yukon River in Alaska. Some
of their tribes that wandered south are the present Apaches
and Navajos of the southwestern United States. The Dakota
stock, better known to-day as the Sioux tribes, at one time
spread from Lake INIichigan to the Rocky Mountains, and from
the Saskatchewan River on the north to the Arkansas River
on the south. The now civihzed Choctaws, Cherokees, Chick-
asaws, Creeks, and Seminoles formerly occupied the present area
of the Gulf States, from the Mississippi to the Atlantic. The
Creeks are thought to be the descendants of the curious people
called ' Mound Builders,' who have left their strange earth-works
in the Ohio Valley. The ' Plain's Indians ' of to-day, outside
of the Sioux tribes, are mostly descended from two stocks — the
Caddoe and the Shoshonee. Of the former are the Pawnees
and Kioways ; of the latter, the Utes and Comanches. Most of
the Plain's Indians are expert horsemen, having domesticated the
descendants of the horses that ran wild after the Spanish invasion
by Cortez.

3. The North Pacific Group includes various tribes from Mount
St. Elias, on the north, to Mexico and I,ower California. In the
north they have always been mostly hunters and fishers, but, in
the south, such tribes as the Pueblo Indians and the Cliff Dwellers
of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona reached a considerable
degree of culture, the evidence of which is seen in their remark-
able stone dwellings, pottery, and clothing.

4. The Mexican Group includes the famous Aztec civilization,
remains of which are still seen^n the wonderful ruins of architect-
ure, and in the manufactures and implements which they used.

5. The Central American Group of people living between the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Isthmus of Panama are known as
the Mayas. They are to-day degenerate descendants of a once

124

JlAiV.

highly cultured people, who have left striking evidence of their
architectural skill in the numerous ruins of monuments and fortifi-
cations scattered throughout the region.

6. The S0U//1 Atlantic Group comprise the formei; inhabi-
tants of the West Indian Islands, the forests of the Orinoco,
Amazon, and La Plata, known as Caribs, Tupis, Arawaks, etc.,
and the tribes descended from them. Belonging to this same
group are the roving peoples of the pampas, the Indians of Pata-
gonia, and the natives of Tierra del Fuego.

7. The South Pacific Group, or the
ancient dwellers along the Andes
Mountains, had reached a remarkable
civilization at the time of the Spanish
Conquest. These people were the
Incas or Qquichua tribes of Peru.^
They cultivated various plants ; had
a system of canals for carrying water ;
built temples of wonderful design and
structure and domesticated the llama,
a peculiar animal of that mountainous
region. From the wool of this crea-
TeresaCapac- Peruvian. (After jure they wove various cloths, and this

Quatrefages.) , r ^i 1 • r i

same wool forms the basis of the
material known to-day as ' alpaca.' They were skillful workers in
gold and various metals, and in pottery of the finest character ;
understood the embalming or mummifying of the dead, like the
ancient Egyptians, and possessed advanced forms of worship and
government. All this splendor of civilization was cut short by the
bloody conquest of the Spaniards under Pizarro.

South of the great Peruvian civilization, in the mountains of
Chile, lived the Araucanians, a warlike and hunting people, related
to the tribes of the pampas, though of superior intelligence in
consequence of contact with the Incas.

1 The term Inca referred to the rulers. Qquichua was the language spoken.

C
(U

o
• •— ^

-a

•a
c

O.,

.c«

ISLANDERS AND COAST PEOPLES. 125

LESSON VI. — ISLANDERS AND COAST PEOPLES.
Reading in Connechon with this Lesson.

The Malay Archipelago. — Wallace.
Coral Islands. — Dana.
Among Cannibals. — Lumholtz.

Island Geography. — From the southeastern shores of the
Malay Peninsula a chain of islands extends almost to Australia.
Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Java, and its group of smaller islands,
the Moluccas or Spice Islands, Timor, Ceram, New Guinea, and
a host of smaller ones are all more or less mountainous and vol-
canic islands with low, coral-fringed shores and covered with a
luxuriant tropical vegetation. Immediately to the north of these
lie the Philippines and Formosa, of much the same character,
while south of the peninsula of Hindustan is the island of Ceylon.
In the Indian Ocean, east of Hindustan, are two small groups,
the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Off the east coast of Africa
is the large island of Madagascar with its outlying groups, the
Mauritius, Seychelles, and Comoro islands. South and east of
the island continent of Australia lie Tasmania and New Zealand,
while a vast area of the Pacific Ocean north and east of this is
dotted with a multitude of islands and island clusters, or archi-
pelagoes, the entire region being known as Polynesia or Oceania.
Among the more noted of these island groups are the Salomon,
Caroline, Ladrone, Pelew, Marshall, Gilbert, Sandwich or
Hawaiian Islands, Samoa or Navigators, Fiji, Friendly, Society,
and Low Archipelago, besides hundreds of other less noted and
conspicuous islands and clusters. Many of these islands are
coral formations, built on sunken volcanic mountain ridges, and
rising out of a deep sea. They are mostly covered with a luxu-
riant tropical vegetation.

These islands are all inhabited by peoples which, though very

126

MAN.

different in many respects from one another, all possess certain
physical traits, which point to a common origin and a more or less
close relationship, though now separated by wide stretches of
ocean.

Physical Traits of Island Peoples. — These physical traits are
a dark shade of color, wavy or frizzly hair, and medium or narrow
nose. Some of these peoples show a decided likeness to certain
Asiatic types, while others resemble the black peoples of the
African continent. Based on these physical characteristics and
their relationships, we can divide them into three main branches
or stocks, — the Negritic, Malayic, and Australic.

Distribution. — \.'\\\q. Negritic stock includes the inhabitants
of the Andaman and Nicobar islands, the tribes inhabiting
Malacca and the Philippines, the Papuas of New Guinea, and the
natives of the Fiji and Loyalty islands. New Caledonia, New
Hebrides, etc. The physical aspects of many of these peoples
are strikingly like some of the black tribes of Africa. Some, like
the Papuas, are low in the scale of development, unacquainted

with even the bow and arrow.
Others, again, like the Fiji Island-
ers, have reached a considerable
degree of culture.

2. The Malayic stock includes
the Malays of the Malay Penin-
sula, or Malacca, and Sumatra ;
the natives of Java ; the Dayaks
,\ \ '^^ or ' head hunters ' of Borneo ;

the Macassars of Celebes ; the
,^ '^ Tagalas of the Philippines ; the

~ '" ^- Hovas of Madagascar; and the

Javanese — Island type. (After Qua- Polynesians, Micronesians, and
trefages.) Maoris, spread over that vast

expanse of coral sea from the Sandwich Islands, on the north, to
New Zealand, on the south. Though rude and savage by nature,
many being cannibals, some have attained a remarkable degree

ISLANDERS AND COAST PEOPLES. 127

of culture. Arts of various kinds have reached more or less per-
fection ; a belief in many gods, or polytheism, is prevalent, and
evidences of ancient architectural skill are seen to-day on several
of the islands, notably on Easter, Tonga, Pitcairn, and the
Carolines.

3. The Australic stock consists of two widely separated groups,
— the natives of Australia and Tasmania, and the Dravidians or
' hill peoples ' of India. The inhabitants of Tasmania have dis-
appeared entirely before the white race, and the native Australians
of pure blood are fast following them in this respect. The Austra-
lian is of the lowest grade of culture ; a roving, ungoverned,
naked savage, unacquainted with the bow and arrow, using as
weapons the spear and a curious crooked club for throwing at ob-
jects, called the ' boomerang.' He is a cannibal of the most
cruel kind, with a religion full of sorcery, witchcraft, and curious
rites.

The Dravidians, though physically related to the Australians,
are as widely different from them in other respects as they are
widely separated geographically. The present ' hill tribes ' of
India are of Dravidian blood, their ancestors being the original
inhabitants of the peninsula of Hindustan, occupying the soil at
the time of the Aryan invasion, some four thousand years ago.

Means of Dispersal of the Island Peoples. — The question of
how this great island region was peopled is exceedingly interest-
ing. At a very early period, the inhabitants of Southern Asia, a
people in all probability resembling the present Malays of the
Malay Peninsula, spending much of their time at sea fishing and
voyaging in their rude boats, gradually extended their voyages to
distant islands. By this means all the islands came in time to be
peopled, each group holding its own people, which sooner or later
differed more or less from the other islanders, owing to various
conditions of the different islands themselves, and the cutting off
of frequent intercourse by the wide stretches of sea between them.
To-day the Polynesians, and many of the other island peoples, are
largely aquatic, being expert swimmers, spending a great deal of

128 Af.LV.

their time in the water, and often making in their canoes voyages
of many thousand miles. The Malay pirates have long been a
terror to ships sailing in East Indian waters, and the lascars, or
East Indian sailors, that help to make up the crews of ships in
many parts of the world, belong to this Malay stock.

Peoples of the black race from the east shores of Africa have
undoubtedly, at a remote period, reached some of the islands in
the Indian Ocean, and, mixing with the tribes there, have produced
the negro traits which we see in certain islanders to-day.

It was undoubtedly in some such way, by longer and wider
voyages from the shores of the mainland and its adjacent islands,
that man came in time to people the entire island region of the
Pacific, and, coming under new and peculiar geographical condi-
tions, to form a more or less distinct island race.

CHAPTER VI.
COMMERCE.

Reading in Connection with this Chapter.

* History of Civilization. — Buckle.
Applied Geography. — Keltic.

The Discovery of America. — Fiske.

* The American Commonwealth. — Bryce.

* The Influence of Sea Power upon History. — Mahan.

Lesson I. — THE BEGINNINGS OF COMMERCE.

What is Commerce? — Commerce is the exchange of commodi-
ties between different peoples. Trade and traffic are terms mean-
ing the same thing. The essential feature of commerce is the
possession of certain things by a people in a land where these
things are native or manufactured, and the need for these same
things by peoples dwelling in lands where they do not naturally
exist. These last peoples must, however, possess things needed
by the others, in order to effect a trade.

It is plain to be seen, from what we have already learned, that
geography is, after all, the essential element of commerce.

Money as a Medium of Exchange. — A unit of value or medium
of exchange has existed from earliest times among the various
tribes and peoples of the earth. Many of the commodities form-
ing the wealth of peoples were difficult to transfer, and this led in
the course of time to the use of money as representing a fixed
standard of value.

K 129

130 COMMERCE.

Various articles have been used for money throughout history.
The wealth of the early pastoral peoples was in their flocks and
herds. The current value of anything was represented by the ox
or sheep. Our word ' pecuniary,' in use to-day, comes from the
Latin word pecus, meaning a flock. Among many savage tribes
various articles are still in use as money. The Fiji Islanders use
the tooth of the sperm whale ; the natives of India use cowrie
shells. Among some of the Indian tribes of North America, the
skins of wild animals were for a long period a medium of ex-
change, and certain kinds of clay and ochre, used in the manufoct-
ure of pipe bowls and for decorating the body with paint, formed
articles of standard value.

All this gives us a picture of how, in the early history of civil-
ized peoples, money came to be established as a medium of ex-
change. As man's occupation passed from the life of a hunter to
that of a shepherd, the skin of an animal gave place to the animal
itself, and later to a standard of value representing the animal.

Gold and Silver. — A substance durable and lasting, easily trans-
ported, and capable of being divided became in time the needed
requisite for a basis of money. From the rare kinds of stones,
shells, and earths it passed to metals. Iron appears to have been
used at a very early period for this purpose. Tin, copper, lead,
and alloys of metals were in use at different periods of history by
various peoples. Finally, gold and silver came into use, and gradu-
ally spread over the greater part of the earth. Smelting, or the
process of separating the pure metal from its ore, and making it
into a piece, was an art easily practiced by the more advanced
peoples. The value of an ox or sheep was given by weighing the
gold or silver. Every 'piece ' must, therefore, have a given weight.
For a long period the gold and silver were weighed out at the time
of barter, but, as Aristotle, the old Greek philosopher, long ago
writes, the piece was " afterwards determined in value by men
putting a stamp upon it, in order that it may save them from the
trouble of weighing it." In this way our present systems of coin-
age and exchange have arisen.

THE BEGINNINGS OF COMMERCE. 131

Ancient Routes of Commerce. — Water ways and river valleys
formed natural highways of commercial intercourse at an early
period. The ancient centers of civilization were in river valleys,
and undoubtedly a traffic existed in the most ancient times along
the lower Nile, and in the Euphrates and Tigris, to the Persian
Gulf. These early traders without doubt coasted along the shores
of Arabia and Africa in the Red Sea, and may have reached even
the western shores of India at a very early date. These earliest
centers of civilization, the Egyptian and Chaldean, in their fertile
river valleys, were separated by the sandy wastes of the desert.
Any communication between them must lie across this desert and
be carried on by means of slowly moving caravans of camels.
Famines occurred from time to time, and led to the storing up
of large quantities of grain or ' corn ' in the granaries of Egypt
and the cities of Mesopotamia for time of need. In sacred writing
the famine is mentioned that sent the sons of Jacob down into
Egypt from Palestine for corn. The transaction with Joseph was
made in silver coinage.

Arab Traders. — The Arabs, leading a wandering life along the
edges of the deserts, early became the carriers for the more civil-
ized nations about them. With their caravans of camels they
carried merchandise across the wild and desert tracts of country
between one city and another. The civilizations of the Nile and
the Euphrates valleys were thus brought into contact, and the
goods of each exchanged. In the Bible mention is made of one
of these merchant caravans, the Ishmaelites, that carried Joseph
into Egypt from the land of Canaan.

The Phoenicians. — When the Israelites crossed the Jordan into
the land of Canaan after their forty years of wandering in the
wilderness, they conquered and drove out the nations occupying
the land. Among these were a people of the Semitic stock of the
white race, known as the Phoenicians, who, after having been driven
out, established themselves on the narrow strip of coast bordering
on the Mediterranean Sea and shut off from the rest of Palestine
by a series of low mountain ranges. With little chance for devel-

132 COMMERCE.

opment on land in so narrow a territory, these Phoenician people
developed a seafaring life, and became the first sailors known to
history. They built the famous cities of Tyre and Sidon, and
their fleets of vessels became carriers for the civilized world at
that time. Probably at first creeping along the shores in boats
propelled by oars, they later hoisted sail and stood out into the
Mediterranean. When King Solomon built the great temple at
Jerusalem, he contracted with Hiram, king of Tyre, who fitted out
a fleet of ships that sailed to a distant land called Ophir, and
brought back costly woods, rich perfumes, oils, fruits, spices, pre-
cious metals, curious birds, ivory, and apes. This fleet was prob-
ably fitted out on the shores of the Red Sea, and, sailing through
what are now the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, passed into the Indian
Ocean. Whether they sailed to the west coast of India and some
of its islands, or southward along the African coast, we are left to
conjecture. The discovery of ancient ruins of undoubted Semitic
origin, in connection with long-abandoned gold workings, in
Mashonaland, south of the Zambesi, points to this region as the
possible land of Ophir. To whatever place they sailed they must
have kept close to shore, for they would hardly dare lose sight of
land on so adventurous a voyage.

Sailing westwardly along the Mediterranean shores, these Phoe-
nician navigators established a famous colony on the African
coast, near the present Cape Bon, which later grew into the great
city of Carthage.

Carthage. — The Phoenicians disappeared from history after the
conquest of the East by Alexander. That great conqueror sighed,
as his horses stood drinking on the banks of the Indus, to think
" that there was no more world to conquer," little dreaming of
the great Indian civilization, with all its magnificence and splen-
dor, that lay almost within his reach. Other great seaports had
arisen along the Mediterranean. Alexander founded on the west-
ern side of the Nile delta the city that to the present day bears
his name. The Mediterranean became a highway of trafiic.
Athens, Corinth, and Argos rivaled one another in splendor and

THE BEGINNINGS OF COMMERCE. 133

commercial enterprise. Fleets of ships carried merchandise and
treasures from one land to another. Foremost among these were
the fleets of Carthage. The Carthagenians established the colo-
nies of Carthagena and Barcelona on the shores of Spain, and had
steered their ships through the ' straits,' between the Pillars of
Hercules, out into the Atlantic. On the Atlantic coast of Spain
they founded the seajiort of Cadiz. One of their boldest naviga-
tors, Hanno, sailed southward along the western coast of Africa
as far as the Eight of Biafra. Carthage fell under the Roman
power one hundred and forty-six years before the birth of Christ,
and the great city was razed to the ground. Corinth and Athens
fell under the same power, and Rome held the commerce of the
world.

Venice. — .'\mong the numerous tribes inhabiting Italy in
Roman times were a people called the Veniti, living in the valley
of the Po. They were an agricultural people, but largely engaged
also in various commercial enterprises. The Po flows into the
Adriatic Sea, or that portion of the Mediterranean between the
Italian and Balkan peninsulas. At its mouth it forms a delta con-
sisting of numerous islands, between which the v^arious channels of
the river wind in their flow toward the sea. The barbarian hordes
of the north, under Alaric, had spread terror over the plains of
Italy, and when Attila with his savage bands of Huns swept west-
ward, the Vefiiti fled with their goods to the islands of the delta,
where they could effectually guard the various water ways sur-
rounding their island home from barbarians unlearned in the
handling of boats. Such was the beginning of the great city of
Venice, which for more than a thousand years dazzled the world
with her splendor and held the commerce of land and sea.

The Crusaders spread the glory of Venice far into the east, and
brought back fabulous accounts of Oriental wealth and splendor.
They thus did more to bring the east into commercial relations
with the west than could possibly have been done by any other
means at the time. Venetian travelers, like Marco Polo, made
• visits to the far east, reaching even China, or Cathay as it was then

134 COMMEKCE.

called, and brought back glowing accounts of strange lands and
peoples.

Venice, under the influence of her developing conamerce, be-
came the great center of finance, and the distributor of trade to
all the nations of Western Europe. Bookkeeping and banking
reached a high degree of perfection in Venice. Other cities of
Italy followed in her steps and became rival commercial powers.
Among these were Genoa, Florence, Naples, and even fallen Rome.
Venice still held her own, however, and continued to command
the commerce of the world.

LESSON II. — THE ERA OF DISCOVERY.

The Middle Ages. — The period of history usually called the
Middle or Dark Ages covered about a thousand years, from the
fall of Rome to the discovery of the New World. During all this
time Venice from her early start and her peculiar geographical
position, at the head of the Adriatic, held the key of commerce.
The rest of civilized Europe, however, profited by this. Art and
culture developed to a surprising degree under the influence of
the wealth which Venice spread abroad. Notwithstanding the in-
roads of the Moors or Saracens from Northern Africa into South-
ern Europe, or the influence of the feudal system in the north,
civilization, with all its attendant features, steadily advanced. Inven-
tion, manufacture, painting, letters, were all developed in the va-
rious cities of Southern Europe, and gradually spread into those
of more northern parts. New ideas succeeded old ones, and
among them new notions as to the shape of the earth and other
geographical questions took a foremost place in men's minds.
Some of the old Greek philosophers held the belief that the earth
was round, but this idea died out with the fall of Greece under
the Roman power, and throughout the long centuries that followed
men clung to the ancient idea that the earth was a flat surface.
The Mediterranean was the known sea. Beyond the ' straits '
few had dared lose sight of land.

THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 135

" Illusion dwells forever with the wave.
I know what spells are laid. Leave me to deal
With credulous and imaginative man;
For, though he scoop my water in his palm,
A few rods off he deems it gems and clouds.
Planting strange fruits and sunshine on the shore,
I make some coast alluring, some lone isle,
To distant men, who must go there or die."

Voyages of Discovery. — Such legends as those of the Golden
Fleece and of the Land of the Hyperboreans, behind the north wind,
had fired the imaginative mind of ancient Greece, and lured her
sailors westward. By this means geographical knowledge was
widened, and new settlements sprang up on distant shores of the
Mediterranean. With the perfecting of the mariner's compass,
about the beginning of the fourteenth century, a new era was at
hand. Navigators dared venture out of sight of land with reasona-
ble hopes of keeping to a given course and returning again to the
port from which they had set sail. Italy was no longer alone the
seafaring nation. Other nations of Europe joined in the new
enterprise of voyaging and discovery. France, Spain, Holland,
and England, under the advantages given to seagoing by the com-
pass, had their ships upon the ocean, and before many years the
Adantic was being explored. In 1330 the Canary Islands were
discovered, and a few years later the islands of Madeira. In 1431
the x'\zores, lying still farther west, were sighted.

Foremost among these voyagers were the Portuguese, who, see-
ing the advantages to be gained by a control of the commerce of
the East Indies, bent their energies toward the discovery of a sea
route in that direction. In i486 Bartholomew Diaz, a Portuguese
navigator, sailing southward along the African coast, reached the
land's end. From the tempests and high-running waves which his
vessel encountered, he called it the ' Cape of Storms,' but it gave
such promise of a sea route to India that on his return King
John II. of Portugal called it the Cape of Good Hope.

Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa in Italy, conceived
the idea that the earth was round, and that by sailing westward he

136 • COMMERCE.

could reach India and China. His memorable voyage in 1492
from the port of Palos in Spain resulted in the discovery of the
New World. His landfall was one of the Bahama Islands, but he
believed that he had reached India. From this mistaken idea the
entire island region is known to this day as the West Indies, and
the inhabitants of America are called Indians. Though Columbus
made four voyages to the New World, he never found out his mis-
take, and died in the belief that he had reached the East Indies.

In 1497 the Portuguese sailor, Vasco da Gama, doubled the Cape
of Good Hope, reaching Zanzibar on the east coast of Africa,
and later the port of Calcutta, thus opening the eastern sea route
to India.

Ferdinand Magellan (or Magalhaens) of Spain, firmly impressed
with the idea that the earth was round, sailed westward in 15 19.
He passed through the straits separating Tierra del Fuego from the
main continent of South America, which bear his name to-day.
He was killed in the Ladrone Islands, fighting with the natives,
but his mate, Sebastian del Cano, took command of the vessel and
still sailing westward reached Spain again at the end of three years,
his being the first ship to sail around the earth.

Colonization and Development of Trade. — The Portuguese, from
their peculiar position, occupying, like the ancient Phoenicians,
a comparatively narrow territory on the shores of an almost
unknown ocean, were the leaders in these voyages of discovery.
They were the first to open trade with China, obtaining Macao
as a settlement in 1537. Holland, like Portugal, was a maritime
country. Her inhabitants naturally developed a. seagoing life,
and the Dutch soon followed in the wake of the Portuguese to
the East Indies. They established a colony on the island of
Java in 1575.

The East and the West were developing at the same time,
under the hands of these seafaring nations of the Atlantic coast
of Europe. Spain sent her fleets of armed ships into the Carib-
bean Sea, holding Central and South America in her power. To
this day Spanish power antl influence form the largest political

PRESENT FEATURES OF COMMERCE. 137

element in these countries. Under Cortez and Pizarro she
claimed the great Aztec and Inca civilizations as her own.

France possessed herself of immense territories in North
America following the valleys of two great rivers, the Mississippi
and the St. Lawrence. She thus gained possession of water ways,
the sources of which lay in the same region, but whose parted
waters, flowing away at right angles to each other, brought them
finally to the ocean, east and south, a full quarter of the compass
apart.

The finding of gold in the New World was a powerful incentive
to discovery and settlement, but a missionary spirit was also
abroad. Foremost in the work of colonization were the Jesuits
of France and Spain. War and Christianity forced themselves,
hand in hand, into the wilderness and into the ancient culture
of the New World, from Canada to Peru. Traces of this early
colonization of America by the two great powers survive to-day
in the French and Spanish names of many places.

Other nations made settlements along the Atlantic coast. The
Dutch, at the mouth of the Hudson and in Surinam or Guiana
in Northern South America. Great Britain had become, from
her pecuhar geographical position as an island, a nation of seamen.
Under the Cabots she had explored the coast of Labrador, and
in the age of Elizabeth she began her career as a naval power,
which remains to-day one of the strongest features in her history.
From her colonies founded under Elizabeth sprang the greatest
republic the world has ever known, — Our own United States of
America.

LESSON IIL— PRESENT FEATURES OF COMMERCE AND

CIVILIZATION.

Development of Resources in Different Countries. — The re-
sources or wealth of a country are its natural products, — mineral,
vegetable, and animal. From a very early period man has devel-
oped these native products in the various regions of the earth

138 COMMERCE.

which he inhabits, by mining, cultivation of the soil, and breed-
ing of animals. Many of the useful plants and animals have been
introduced by him into new countries when the climate and other
conditions of life permitted. This we have already seen in the
cultivation of some of the common food and clothing plants. The
manufacture of the crude or raw materials into substances and
articles of use form the various industries of a people. Products,
either raw or manufactured, sent from countries where they are
native, or can be made to the best advantage, to lands where they
do not occur or cannot be worked up with profit, constitute the
exports of a country, and those foreign articles received in return,
constitute its imports. This interchange lies, as we have already
seen, at the basis of commerce.

The mineral resources form an important feature in the wealth
of many countries. Iron is the most useful and widespread of
metals, occurring as an ore or earth which requires to be smelted
in order to extract from it the pure metal for use. The smelting
of iron forms a primitive industry of numerous savage tribes to-day,
and it was in use among many of the inhabitants of Europe ages
before the dawn of history. Copper occurs native or nearly pure
in some regions, and in many others is found more or less abun-
dantly in combination with other substances. The metal copper
fused with //;/ forms the alloy known as bronze, a material in use
by many primitive peoples, both in Europe and America, long
before the use of iron. The Greeks and Romans drew their
supply of copper mainly from the island of Cyprus in the Eastern
Mediterranean, from which the name ' copper ' and its scientific
term cuprum are derived. Lead is also of quite ancient use, and
occurs in various parts of the world, principally in combination
with sulphur, as an ore called ' galena.' Gold and silver are the
two most important precious metals, their workable ores forming
a substantial basis of wealth in many countries. We have already
learned that they have been known from a very ancient time.
The thirst for gold was, as we have seen, an important element in
the discovery of new countries, especially in the Western Hemi-

PRESENT FEATURES OF COMMERCE. 139

sphere. Salt is a widespread mineral substance, used by mankinds
as a necessary element of food. It exists either in rock masses,
which must be mined out, or as a crust- like surface deposit in
places that were once covered by the sea. The use of salt goes
back to a great antiquity. It was carried long distances, and the
earliest commercial routes are supposed to have been ' salt roads.'
One of these routes extended from the salt deposits of llie Sahara
into Egypt.

Vegetable products, being mainly dependent upon climate, are
widely different in different parts of the earth. The forests of the
temperate zone yield various woods useful for building and other
purposes. Lumbering is, therefore, an important industry in these
regions. Mahogany and ebony grow in the tropical forests of both
hemispheres. The tropical forests likewise yield a vast number
of peculiar oils, gums, resins, india rubber, and coloring materials,
useful in the arts of civilized peoples. The distribution of the
more important food plants we have already considered. Plants
yielding substances from which various drugs are extracted abound
in tropical forests. All these products, found native or wild in the
different countries, are developed by man as commercial enter-
prises.

Coal is the result of the plant life of past ages and occurs in beds
of great extent and thickness in various parts of the earth. It
forms the main fuel substance of most civilized countries, and its
mining is among the most important industries.

Animal products, such as wool, feathers, silk, hides, tallow, etc.,
are developed in almost every land. Open and extensive pasture
lands and grassy mountainous regions, especially in temperate
regions, form the natural home of the grazing animals, as cattle,
sheep, and horses, the kinds most useful to man. The skins and
furs of wild animals are an important resource in the development
of a new country. In the early history of North America the
Hudson Bay Company, an English enterprise, planted outposts
and trading houses in the northern wilderness for this purpose,
and they formed an important element in discovery and settle-

140 COMMERCE. ■

ment. The manufacture of silk from the silk-worm is a peculiar
Chinese industry which has spread to other countries, where the
climate and the growth of tlie mulberry tree, on the leaves of
which this worm feeds, permit its introduction. The fossil
remains of animals form in some places immense deposits of
bone earth, which is useful as a fertilizer to enrich the soils of
crop-growing lands. The same is true of the vast quantities
oi guano, or the accumulations of sea-bird droppings on various
oceanic islands. The sea has also yielded up its harvests to man.
Fishing forms the main industry of many coastwise peoples in
northern regions, and the pursuit and capture of whales in the
oceans of both the Northern and the Southern hemispheres, for
the valuable whalebone and sperm oil, are peculiar to certain
seaports on both sides of the North Atlantic and also on the
Pacific coast of North America.

Location of Commercial Centers. — The cities of the world
have developed mainly as the result of two causes : i, protection
of groups of peoples, and 2, as centers of commercial activity.
The former became seats of government, centers of power, as
well as centers of commerce, and were located in positions that
commanded a more or less extensive surrounding territory. The
latter were located with a special view to the shipping facilities, —
good harbors, easy access to the sea. Nearly all the great cities
of the world are located on some river, usually not far from its
mouth, commanding, on the one hand, the interior of a country
with its native products, and, on the other, the commercial high-
way of the ocean. In the settlement of every country, this has
always been the leading feature. The river, bay, or estuary was
an inviting harbor, and setdements grew up along its banks. As
an illustration of this, we have only to recall the early colonies
of our own country, — Jamestown, the Delaware settlements, the
Dutch at the mouth of the Hudson, etc. Ancient history is full
of similar illustrations. The Byzantine Empire, with its center
Byzantium, was founded by Greek traders six hundred years B.C.,
on a bay of the western shore of the Bosphorus, the strait leading

PRESENT FEATURES OF COMMERCE. 141

from the Mediterranean through the Sea of Marmora into the
Euxine or Black Sea. Here was a vantage point both in
commerce and warfare, that has remained a power to the present
time. More than three hundred and twenty years after Christ
the city of Constantinople arose on the ruins of Byzantium. 'I'he
city forms the center of Turkish rule to-day, surrounded as it is
by the nations of the white race.

Commercial Relations between Different Countries. — The
present commercial relations of the various countries of the earth
are the result of the past conditions. Geography still plays the
most important part, but the advance of civilization has overcome
many obstacles which at an earlier day were hindrances and
barriers to the full development of commerce. For long years
the vast expanse of the ocean ; the dreary wastes of the desert ;
the awful solitudes of the mountain ranges, rising into regions of
perpetual snow ; the savage men and savage beasts of almost
unknown lands ; the impenetrable forests, marshes, and deadly
climate of the tropics, — all tended to separate more or less
widely the various countries of the earth from one another.
With the advance of civilization, two important discoveries have
taken place, which have largely altered the face of the earth in
relation to commerce. These two discoveries are steam and
electricity, and their application through various machines to the
multitude of human needs. Railroads and ocean cables girdle
the earth as a network, bringing distant lands into almost daily
contact and communication. New York, San Francisco, London,
Melbourne, Buenos Ayres, Calcutta, Zanzibar, and all the great
cities of the world flash messages to one another around the earth.
The locomotive has become the great agent of civilization. Its
whistle and roar wake echoes in places that a few years ago
resounded only to the cries of savages and wild beasts. The
Atlantic and Pacific shores of North America lie within a five
days' journey of each other. The great Siberian railway will soon
reach across Eurasia from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean.
The heart of ' Darkest Africa ' is being penetrated by a railroad

142 COMMERCE.

laid along the banks of the Congo. In the sacred land of Pales-
tine, a railway has been built from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and this
great civilizer stands to-day before the Holy City, the greatest
conqueror that has ever compassed her time-worn walls.

The ocean has become the highway of commerce ; its once
trackless waste is traversed by paths leading to and from every
seaport of the world. Fast-going steamships are afloat, carrying
the merchandise of nations. In every port the ships of all nations
lie, loading and unloading their various cargoes.

" Yon deep Imrk goes

Where Traffic blows,
From lands of sun to lands of snows ; —

This happier one,

Its course is run
From lands of snow to lands of sun."

Navigation has become a science. The invention of instruments
to determine the position of any point on the earth's surface was
second only to the discovery of the compass in its importance to
the world. The imaginary lines surrounding the earth are real
lines on a map or chart, and are of the utmost value to navigators,
travelers, and students of geography. They tell exactly the loca-
tion of every spot on the earth, whether land or sea, enabling the
mariner, tossing on a trackless waste of waters thousands of miles
from any shore, to know exactly where he is. A transatlantic
steamer falls in with a wreck floating in mid-ocean. Mid-ocean is
a very big place, but if the steamer's log reports from the captain's
observations at the time, — Latitude 45° 26' N. ; Longitude 32°
18' 23" W., — by referring to the chart or map every one knows
the exact spot where the derelict was seen. Latitude and longitude
are reckoned by observations on the position of certain of the
heavenly bodies, — sun, moon, and various stars, in relation to one
another and to the earth, and on the particular time of day. This
is done through the use of an instrument called the sextant.
Time or longitude is calculated from the meridian of Greenwich,
The earth's rotating on its axis from west to east brings the sun

PRESE.VT FEATURES OF COMMERCE. 143

over the meridian of every place on its surface once in twenty-
four hours. It is then tweh'e o'clock, midday, at that particular
place. In twelve hours the sun will be on the same meridian, only
exactly on the opposite side of the earth, and it will be twelve
o'clock, midnight, at the place in question.

Steam runs the plow and reaps the harvest in many lands. The
wheat that to-day is growing on a Dakota prairie is cast in a few
weeks into the bins of a Liverpool warehouse. The long-horned
steer grazing over the range of a Texas ranch, in a single week
finds himself on the crowded cattle deck of an Atlantic Liner
rolling in mid-ocean on his way to the English market. This
bringing of the ends of the earth together has introduced many
complex problems into civilization and commerce. The influence
of a labor cheaper in one country than in another sends the raw
materials of the latter to be manufactured by the former, and sent
back again at a much less cost than it would take to make the
articles in the country where the material was produced. The
United States ships raw cotton to England, for example, to be
made into garments which are sent back and sold cheaper than
they could be if made at home. The importance of commercial
intercourse between countries is a powerful influence in promoting
peaceful relations. The growing tendency is not war, but arbitra-
tion and peace principles.

One more fact of importance. The races of mankind have
come into closer contact through the wide spreading of commer-
cial intercourse. The benefits to the less-advanced peoples will
be great, if they are morally and physically able to fall in with the
march of civilization. But the rights of each and every man as a
member of the great human family, no matter to what race he
may belong, must be respected, and it becomes the duty of the
more highly enlightened peoples, the men and women of the white
race in all parts of the world, to help their less-favored brethren
and sisters to a knowledge of the best way to live. " Man," the
poet has said, " must rule the empire of himself." In the long
years of his struggle with nature he has overcome many obstacles,

144 COMMERCE.

and now beholds himself master of the world. There will always
be some high ideal to be attained, some ' best thing ' in life to be
reached, and these can only be reached by man's mastery of him-
self.

The study of geography has, after all, revealed man in his true
light, — that of a being overcoming his surroundings, itnd attaining
high places through perpetual struggle.

APPENDIX.

I. The Principal States and Cities of the World.
II. Population of the Earth.

III. Forms of Government.

IV. Extract from First Report of United States Board on

Geographic Names.
V. Geographical Distribution of Animals. — A Synopsis of
Study.
VI. How to read a Weather Map.

APPENDIX.

i. the principal states and cities of the

worLd.

Adapted from Bartholomew's Geographical Statistics.
Arranged alphabetically.

The pupil should locate each country on the map, the situation of
its principal towns, and its foreign possessions. The teacher should
question, with the use of a good wall atlas, as to these points, endeav-
oring also to bring out the fact of geographical position in relation to
commercial advantages.

Argentine Republic. — South America.

Principal Towns. — Buenos Ayres, Cordova, Rosario, La Plata,
Mendoza, Panama, Tucuman, etc.

Exports. — Wool, hides, sheepskins, tallow, live animals, maize,
wheat, flax, salted meat.

Mineral Products. — Copper, silver, coal, salt, alum, sulphur, and

gold.

Austria-Hungary. — Europe.

Principal Toiuiis. — Vienna, Budapest, Prague, Trieste, Lamberg,
etc.

Exports. — Agricultural produce, timber, sugar, fancy wares, live ani-
mals, wool, glass, leather, silks, cottons, wine, etc.

Belgium. — Europe.

Principal Towns. — Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Liege, etc.
Exports. — Cotton, woolen and linen thread, cereals and rice, ma-

147

148 APPENDIX.

chinery, coal and coke, stones, wool, wrought iron, glass, sugar, hides,
zinc, oil seeds, resin, candles, vegetables, etc.

Bolivia. — South America.
Principal Towns. — Sucre, Potosi, La Paz, Cochabamba, etc.

Brazil. — South America.

Principal Towns. — Rio de Janeiro, Bahia (San Salvador), Recife
(Pernambuco), etc.

Exports. — Raw cotton, sugar, India rubber, coffee, cocoa, tobacco,

gum, hides, etc. Logwood, mahogany, rosewood, and brazilwood grown

in the forests.

British Empire. — British Isles.

Great Britain (England, Wales, Scotland, and outlying islands) and
Ireland.

Principal Toivns. — London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester, Bir-
mingham, Dublin, Leeds, Sheffield, Edinburgh, Leith, Belfast, Bristol,
Newcastle-on-Tyne, etc.

The British Empire.

Countries under British Ride in Europe. — Great Britain and Ireland,
Heligoland, Gibraltar, Malta.

/;/ Asia. — Cyprus, British India, Ceylon, Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Straits Settlements and Malay Protectorate, Upper Burma,
North Borneo, Hong-Kong, Labuan Island, Aden, Perim, and Mosha,
Kamaran Island, Keeling and Christmas Islands, Socotra Island.

1)1 Oceania. — New South Wales, Norfolk Island, Victoria, Queens-
land, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and
Dependencies, Fiji Islands, Rotumah Island, Lord Howe Island, Her-
vey or Cook Islands, New Guinea, and other islands.

In Africa. — Cape Colony and Dependencies, Natal, Zululand,
Bechuanaland, Matabeleland to the Zambesi, Walfisch Bay, Sierra
Leone and Gambia River, Gold Coast and Lagos, Niger Districts,
St. Helena and Ascension, Imperial British-East Africa, Somali
Coast, Tristan d' Acunha, Mauritius and Dependencies, New Amster-
dam, and St. Paul.

In North Anierica. — Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, Ber-
mudas, Bahamas, Jamaica, Turk and Caicos Islands, Cayman Islands,
British Honduras, Barbadoes and Leeward and Windward Islands of
the West Indies.

PRINCIPAL STATES AND CITIES OE THE WORLD. 149

/;/ Soitth America. — Trinidad, British Guiana, Falkland Islands,
South Georgia.

Principal Towns of British India. — Calcutta, Bombay, Madras.
Hyderabad, Cawnpore, Lahore, Lucknow, Benares, Delhi, Agra, Ran-
goon, etc.

Of Australasia. — Melbourne (Victoria), Sydney (New South
Wales), Adelaide (South Australia), Brisbane (Queensland), Hobart
Town (Tasmania), Perth (West Australia), Auckland (New Zealand),

etc.

Of British America. — Montreal, Toronto, Quebec, Halifax, Ottawa,
St. John, Winnipeg, Victoria, etc.

Bulgaria. — Europe.

Principal Tmuns. — Sofia, Varna, Shumla, Rustchuk, Sistova,

Plevna, etc.

Exports. — Corn, wool, tallow, hides, butter, cheese, flax, and

timber.

Central America'.

Republics and Capitals. — Guatemala (Capital City — Guatemala),
Salvador (San Salvador), Nicaragua (Managua), Honduras (Tegu-
cigalpa), Costa-Rica (San Jose).

Chile. — South America.

Principal Towns. — Punta Arenas (Straits of Magellan), Concepcion,

Talca, Santiago, Valparaiso, etc.

Exports. — Nitre, copper bars and ores, silver ores, corn, flour,

leather, and guano.

China. — Asia.

Principal Towns. — Peking, Nanking, Shanghai, Foochow, Ningpo,

Amoy, Canton, etc.

Exports. — Tea, silk, silk manufactures, and sugar.

Dependencies. — Manchuria, Mongolia, Thibet, Jungaria, Eastern

Turkestan.

Colombia. — South America.

Principal Towns. — Panama, Cartagena, Socorro, Medillin, Bogota.

Congo Free State. — Africa.
Principal Stations. — Banana, Borna, Matadi, Lukunga, Leopold-
ville, Bangala, and Stanley Falls.

150 APPENDIX.

Denmark. — Europe.

Defwiark Proper. — Copenhagen, Islands in the BaUic, Jutland,
Faroe Islands.

Dependencies. — Iceland, Greenland, West Indies (St. Croix, St.
Thomas, and St. John).

Exports of Denmark Proper. — Wheat, barley, bacon, hams, flour,
butter, eggs, hides, skins, corn meal and oil cakes, horses and cattle.

Ecuador. — South America.
Principal Towns. — Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba.

France. — Europe.

Principal Toivtis. — Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, Bordeaux, Nantes,
Rouen, Havre, Nice, Brest, Toulon, Orleans, Calais, Boulogne, Ver-
sailles, etc.

Colonies and Dependencies in Asia. — Indian Possessions, Cochin-
China, French Tonquin. Cambodia and Annam under French pro-
tection.

In Africa. — Algeria, Senegambia, Gaboon and Gold Coast, Congo
Region, Reunion, etc.

In Ajnerica. — Guiana or Cayenne, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Pierre,
etc.

/;/ Oceania. — New Caledonia, Marquesas Islands, Tahiti, Gambler,
and other islands.

Tunis, in North Africa, is a French Protectorate.

Products and Exports. — Silks, dress stuff's, leather goods, jewelry,
wines and spirits, cereals, perfumes, chemicals, etc.

German Empire.

Principal Towns . — Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Dresden, Leipzig,
Cologne, Frankfort-on-Main, Bremen, Strasburg, Potsdam, etc.

Protectorates in Africa. — On the slave coast, on the Cameroon River,
coast of Damaraland and Namaqualand, territories of several negro
chiefs in East Africa, portion of Zanzibar coast.

In Oceania. — A portion of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago,
and other islands.

Prodncts and Exports. — Agricultural produce, woolen and silk manu-
factures, sugar, leather wares, cotton stuffs, coal, machinery, chemicals,
wines, etc.

PRINCIPAL STATES AND CITIES OE THE WORLD. 151

Greece. — Europe.
Principal Towns. — Athens, Piraeus, Patras, Hermopolis, Corfu,
Zante, Larissa, Argos, Pyrgos.

Products. — Raisins, olive oil, lead, hides, wine, figs, gallnuts, etc.

Haiti. — West Indies.
Chief To%un. — Port au Prince.

Exports. — Mahogany, logwood, coffee, cocoa, sugar, honey, and gum.
Haiti and St. Domingo are on the same island.

Hawaii or Sandwich Islands. — Pacific Ocean.
Chief Town. — Honolulu.
Exports. — Sugar, rice, bananas, hides, wool, and coffee.

Italy. — Europe.

Principal Towns. — Naples, Milan, Rome, Turin, Palermo, Genoa,
Florence, Venice. Bologna, Leghorn, Messina, Verona, etc.

Exports. — Olive oil, hemp, oranges and lemons, sulphur, chemical
products, shumac, wine, almonds, and stones.

Colonial Possessions. — A strip on the Red Sea from Assab Bay to

Massowah.

Japan. — Asia.

Principal Towns. — Tokio, Yokohama, Osaka, etc.

Exports. — Silk, tea, tobacco, coffee, rice, copper, camphor, wax, fish,

etc.

Korea. — Asia.

Chief Town. — Seoul.

Liberia. — West Africa.

Chief Town. — Monrovia.

Exports. — Coffee, cocoa, sugar, wax, ginger, palm oil, indigo, hides,

ivory, gold dust, etc.

Madagascar.

Island in Indian Ocean east of Africa.
France regulates the foreign relations of the country.
Exports. — Cattle, india rubber, hides, horns, coffee, lard, sugar,
vanilla, wax, gum, rice, and seeds.

Mexico. — America.
Principal Toiuns. — City of Mexico, Monterey, Vera Cruz, Puebla,
Campeche, Colima, Oaxaca, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, etc.

152 APPENDIX.

Exports. — Minerals, mahogany, dye woods, cattle, vanilla, coffee,
cocoa, cochineal, tobacco, drugs, etc.

Montenegro. — Europe.
Chief Towns. — Cittigne, etc.

Exports. — Shumac, flea-powder, smoked sardines, smoked mutton,
hides, skins, and furs.

Morocco. — North Africa.

Chief Towns. — Fez, Morocco, etc.

Ports. — Tangier, Tetuan, Rabat, El Araish, Casa Blanca, etc.
Exports. — Maize, beans, peas, oil, wool, dates, fowls, eggs, carpets,
slippers, goatskins, leather, grain, cattle, ostrich feathers, etc.

Netherlands (Holland) . — Europe.

Chief Towns. — Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, etc.

Colonies. — Java (Batavia the capital), east and west coast of Suma-
tra, coast possessions in Borneo, Celebes. Moluccas, New Guinea, and
other East Indian Islands. Several West Indian Islands — Curacao
Aruba, St. Martin, etc. Surinam or Dutch Guiana in South America.

Exports. — Butter, butterine, oxen and sheep, cheese, gin, sugar,

iron and steel goods, woolen and cotton manufactures, silk stuffs, and

ribbons.

Orange Free State. — South Africa.

Mainly a grazing country, being too dry for agriculture.

Chief Town. — Bloemfontein.

Exports. — Wool, ostrich feathers, hides, diamonds, etc. »

Paraguay. — South America.

Principal Towns. — Asuncion, Villa Rica, etc.

Products. — Sugar, rum, cotton, woolen cloths, and leather.

Persia. — Asia.

Principal Tl^w;/^. ^Tabriz, Teheran, Ispahan, Astrabad, etc.
Exports. — Silks, carpets, hides, tobacco, opium, gum, wool, dates,
cereals, rice, etc.

Peru. — South America.

Principal Towns. — Lima, Callao, Arequipa, Cuzco, Chiclayo.
Exports. — Guano, nitrate of soda, sheep and alpaca wool, sugar,
silver, and chinchona.

PRINCIPAL STATES AND CITIES OF THE WORLD. 153

Portugal. — Europe.
Portiiml and the Azores and Madeira Islands.
Principal Towns. — Lisbon, Oporto, Funchal (Madeira).

Colonial Possessions.

In Africa. — Cape Verde Islands, Guinea, Prince's and St. Tliomas's
Islands, Ajuda, Angola, Benguela, Mozambique, Congo Districts, etc.

In Asia. — Goa, Daman, Diu, etc. (India). Timor (Indian Archi-
pelago). Macao (China).

Exports. — Wine, cork, cattle, copper ore, fruits, oil, and salt.

Roumania. — Europe.
Principal Towns. — Bukarest, etc.
Exports. — Wheat, barley, maize, rocksalt, and cattle.

Russia. — Europe.

Russia Proper, Poland, Finland, Caucasus, Trans-Caspian, Central
Asia, and Siberia.

Principal Towns. — St. Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Riga, Khar-
koff, Odessa, Astrakhan, etc.

Exports. — Grain, wool, hemp, rape and linseed, cordage and twine,
tallow and stearine, bristles, oil-seed cake, tar, etc.

San Domingo. — West Indies.

CJnef Town. — San Domingo.

Exports. — Lignum vita;, logwood, mahogany, coffee, fustic, tobacco,

and cocoa.

Servia. — Europe.

Principal Towns. — Belgrade, etc.

Exports. — Live animals, grain, cereals, hides, prunes, etc.

Siam. — Asia.

Principal Town. — Bangkok.

Exports. — Rice, gums, teak, sandalwood, rosewood, aloeswood,
pepper, sesame, skins, birds' nests, etc.

South African Republic.
(Transvaal.)
Chief Town. — Pretoria.

Exports. — Wool, cattle, hides, grain, ostrich feathers, ivory, butter,
gold, etc.

154 APPENDIX.

Spain. — Europe.

Spain Proper, tlie Canary and Balearic Islands.

Principal Toivns. — Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Malaga,
Cartagena, Cadiz, Palma (Canaries), etc.

Exports. — Wine, oranges, raisins, grapes, olive oil, cattle, esparto
grass, cork, copper ores, iron ores, lead, salt, quicksilver, etc.

Sweden and Norway. — Europe.

Sweden.

Principal Towns. — Stockholm, Upsala, Kalmar. etc.

Exports. — Wood and timber, oats, iron bars, butter, live animals,

etc.

Norway.

Principal Towns. — Christiania, Bergen, Stavanger, etc.

Exports. — Timber, cod, cod oil, herrings, minerals, ice, etc.

Switzerland. — Europe.

Principal Towns. — Geneva, Basel, Bern, Lau.sanne, Ziirich, Luiern,
etc.

Manufactures and Exports. — Silks, cottons, linen, woolens, lace,
thread, watches, machinery, ice, cattle, cheese, etc.

Turkish Empire.

Turkey in Europe, beside the immediate provinces, includes East
Roumelia as a self-governing province, and Bulgaria as a tributary prin-
cipality, also Bosnia, etc.

Tripoli, in North Africa, is a Turkish province.

Principal Towns. — In Europe. — Constantinople, Salonica, Adriano-
ple, Philippopolis. etc.

In Asia. — Smyrna, Damas, Bagdad, Aleppo, Beirut, Mosul, Jeru-
salem, Trebizond, etc.

Exports. — Tobacco, cereals, fruits, silk, opium, mohair, cotton,
coffee, skins, wool, oil seeds, valonia, carpets, etc.

Egypt. — Africa.
( Turkish Protectorate . )
Principal Towns. — Cairo, Alexandria, Damietta, Rosetta, Port
Said, Suez, etc.

Exports. — Cotton and cotton seed, beans, wheat, sugar, maize, rice,
gum, hides, wool, ivory, ostrich feathers, etc.

PRINCIPAL STATES AND CITIES OF THE WORLD. 155
United States of America.

States. Capitals* and Chief Towns.

Alabama Montgomery,* etc.

Arkansas Little Rock,* etc.

California Sacramento,* San Francisco, etc.

Colorado Denver,* Colorado Springs, etc.

Connecticut Hartford,* New Haven, etc.

Delaware Dover,* Wilmington, etc.

District of Columbia . . Washington * (Capital of U.S.).

Florida Tallahassee,* Jacksonville, etc.

Georgia Atlanta,* Savannah, etc.

Idaho Boise City,* etc.

Illinois Springfield,* Chicago, etc.

Indiana Indianapolis,* etc.

Iowa Des Moines,* etc.

Kansas Topeka,* etc.

Kentucky Frankfort,* Louisville, etc.

Louisiana Baton Rouge,* New Orleans, etc.

Maine Augusta.* Bangor, etc.

Maryland Annapolis,* Baltimore, etc.

Massachusetts .... Boston,* Worcester, etc.

Michigan Lansing,* Detroit, etc.

Minnesota St. Paul,* Minneapolis, etc.

Mississippi Jackson,* Vicksburg, etc.

Missouri Jefferson City,* Kansas City. St. Louis, etc.

Montana Helena,* etc.

Nebraska Lincoln,* Omaha, etc.

Nevada Carson City,* etc.

New Hampshire . . . Concord,* Portsmouth, etc.

New Jersey Trenton,* Newark, etc.

New York Albany.* New York, Troy, Buffalo, Roches-
ter, Syracuse, etc.

North Carolina . . . . Raleigh,* etc.

North Dakota .... Bismarck,* etc.

Ohio Columbus,* Cincinnati, Cleveland, Toledo,

etc.

Oregon Salem,* Portland, etc.

Pennsylvania .... Harrisburg,* Pittsburg, Philadelphia, etc.

Rhode Island .... Providence,* Newport, etc.

156

APPENDIX.

States

South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas . .
Utah . .
Vermont .
Virghiia .
Washington
Wisconsin
Wyoming

Capitals* and Chief Towns.

Columbia,* Charleston, etc.
Pierre,* etc.
Nashville,* etc.
Austin,* Galveston, etc.
Salt Lake City.*
Montpelier,* etc.
Richmond,* etc.
Olympia,* Tacoma, etc.
Madison,* Milwaukee, etc.
Cheyenne,* etc.

Territories.

Alaska Sitka.*

Arizona Phoenix,* Tucson, etc.

Indian Territory . . . No organized Territorial Government.

New Mexico .... Santa Fe,* etc.

Oklahoma Guthrie.*

Uruguay. — South America.

Principal Towns. — Montevideo, etc.

Exports. — Cattle, preserved meats, skins, hides, tallow, wool, hair,
guano, bone dust, ostrich feathers, etc.

Venezuela. — South America.

Principal Towns. — Caracas, Tocuyo, Maracaybo, La Guayra, etc.
Exports. — Coffee, sugar, corn, cocoa, cotton, hides, tobacco, indigo,
bark, tallow, dyewoods, timber, copper ores, and gold.

Zanzibar. — East Africa.

Chief Towns. — Zanzibar (on an island off the coast), Mombas,
Quiloa, etc.

Exports. — Ivory, caoutchouc, hides and skins, cloves, orchilla,
cocoanuts, gum-copal, seeds, etc.

POPULATION OF THE EARTH.

157

II. — POPULATION OF THE EARTH BY CONTINENTS.
From Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society for January, 1891.

Divisions.

Africa . . .

America, N.
America, S. .
Asia . . .
Australasia .
Europe . .
Polar Regions

Total .

Area in
Square Miles.

11,514,000
6,446,000
6,837,000

14,710,000
3,288,000

3>555.ooo
4,888,800

51,238,800

Inhabitants.

1 27,000,000

89,250,000

36,420,000

850,000,000

4,730,000

380,200,000

300,000

1 ,487,900,000

Number of

Inhabitants per

Square Mile.

II. O
13.8

5-3

57-7

1.4

106.9

0.7

29.0

POPULATION OF THE EARTH ACCORDING TO RACE.
Estimate by John Bartholomew, F.R.G.S.

Race.

Number.

Race.

Number.

White ....
Black ....

610,500,000
150,150,000
630,000,000

American . .

Islanders . . .

Total . .

15,000,000
35,000,000

Asian ....

1,440,650,000

158

APPENDIX.

III. — FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.

Absolute Monarchies. — China, Madagascar, Morocco, Persia, Russia,
Siam, Turkey.

Limited Monarchies. — Austria-Hungary, Belgium, British Empire,
Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hawaii, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portu-
gal, Roumania, Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Norway.

Republics. — Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nica-
ragua, Orange Free State, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, San Domingo,
Switzerland, Transvaal, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela.

IV. — EXTRACT FROM THE FIRST REPORT OF THE
UNITED STATES BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES.

Letters.

Sounds.

Example.

ah, a as in father

Java, Banana, Somili, Bari.

eh, e as in meti

Tel el Kebir, 0161eh Me-

dina, Levuka, Peru.

English e; /as in ravine; the sound of ee

in beet. Thus, not Feejee, but ....

Fiji, Hindi,

0 as in mote.

double 0, as in hoot.

All vowels are shortened in sound by doub-

ling the following consonant

Yarra, Tanna, Jidda, Bonni.

Doubling of a vowel is only necessary where

there is a distinct repetition of the single

sound

Nuulua.

English / as in ice

Shangliai.
Fuchau.

orv as in ho7v. Thus, not Foochow, but

is slightly difterent from above

Nanao.

is the sound of the two Italian vowels, but
is frequently shirred over, when it is

scarcely to be distinguished from ey in

the Enc^lish they

Beirut Beiliil.

English b.

is always soft and nearly the sound oi s\

the hard c is given by /&

Celebes.

is always soft, as in church

Chingchin.

GEOGRAPHIC NAMES.

159

Letters.

d
f

g
h

kh
gh

n J
ng

Sounds.

English (^

English/; ph should not be used for the

sound of f. Thus, not Haiphong, but .
is always hard (soft^ is given by 7) . . .
is always pronounced when inserted.
English j. Dj should never be put for this

sound

English k. It should always be put for the

hard c. Thus, not Corea, but ....

the Oriental guttural

is another guttural, as in the Turkish . .

as in English.

has two slightly different sounds, as in

finge7\ singer.
as in English,
should never be employed ; gu is given by

as in English

is always a consonant, as in yard (Kikuyu),
and therefore should not be used for the
vowel i. Thus, not Mikindany, but . .

English z

Accents should not generally be used, but
where there is a very decided, emphatic
syllable, or stress which affects the sound
of the word it should be marked by an
acute accent

Example.

Haifong, Nafa.
Galapagos.

Japan, Jinchuen.

Korea.
Khan.
Dagh, Ghazi.

Kwangtung.

Sawdkin.

Mikinddni.
Zulu.

Tongatdbu, Galdpagos,
Palawan, Sarawak.

160 APPENDIX.

v. — GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.

A Synopsis of Study.*

Reading Matter. — Works by Alfred Russell Wallace — " Darwinism,"
" Island Life," and '' Geographical Distribution of Animals." Also
''The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals" — by
Angelo Heilprin. International Science Series.

1. Geographical Distribution and Diversity of Species. — General
facts and observations.

a. Popular idea — diversity of animals due to diversity of climate
and vegetation, animals distributed in zones or regions of latitude —
e.g. arctic, temperate, and tropical zones, etc.

b. Incorrectness of this idea seen by comparing the animals of equa-
torial Africa and South America, South Africa and Australia, Europe
and temperate America.

c. Incorrectness of idea proved also by widely ranging animals — as
opossums; crows found in all parts of the world but South America;
sloths found only in that continent ; antelopes found only in Asia and
Africa ; lemurs only in Madagascar and adjacent regions ; birds of
paradise only in New Guinea.

2. The Causes of Dispersal.

a. Original home of an animal or its 'center of development.*'

b. Increase of individuals is enormous and causes rapid diminution
of food-supply in a restricted area — (^e.g. a, bird living 5 years and
producing 10 pairs of young would increase, if unchecked, to 100,000,000
in 40 years — IVallace).

c. This necessitates the enlarging of an animaPs range in order to
obtain more food, and establishes a wandering habit .

d. Accidental causes of dispersal — driftwood, floating ice, winds,
etc.

3. Barriers Limiting an Animal's Range. — An animal in wandering
meets with various barriers that tend to check its further progress —
two kinds, physiographic and organic.

a. Mountain ranges separate species, e.g. Andes, Alps, Pyrenees, etc.

b. Rivers and arms of the sea.

c. Islands.

* This synopsis is intended especially for the teacher.

GEOGRAPHICAL DTSTKIBUrWN OF ANIMALS. 161

d. Isothermal lines {heat zones).

e. Deserts and forests.

We have to consider what facilities different classes have in over-
coming barriers, and what barriers are most effectual.

4. Mammals. — Ability of many to roam over whole continents,
checked only by food and climate.-

a. Elephant lives on both plains and mountains ; ascends Adam's
Peak, Ceylon.

b. Tiger swims arms of the sea ;^ has great powers of dispersal, can
endure the cold of North China and Tartary as well as the heated jun-
gles of Bengal.

c. Rhinoceros and lion are widely dispersed, area of land and food
only limiting their possible range.

d. AjDes, monkeys, lemurs, and many small animals leading arboreal
lives are much more restricted.

e. Open country essential to some animals, e.g. antelopes, zebra, etc.

f. High mountains for goats and ibex.

g. Rivers for beaver, etc.

//. Climate limiting a mammaPs range; more often due to change of
veg-etation as the result of climate than to climate itself.

i. Monkeys limited to equatorial belt of forest 30'^ wide ; due largely
to food (fruit). One monkey inhabits Himalayas above snowline
(altitude 11.000 feet).

j. Many northern animals bounded by isotherm of 32° — polar bear
and walrus.

/'. Fossil remains of elephants and rhinoceros found imbedded in ice
proves their once colder habitat.

I. Valleys and rivers as barriers. — Their humidity, etc. Monkeys
and birds (trumpeters) on the Amazon.

;//. Arms of the sea are barriers. Few mammals can swim very wide
areas of water, but many swim well for short distances, e.g. jaguar,
bear, bison, deer, rodents, etc. ; pig's ability to swim.

71. Ice floes and drift timber.

o. Bats, seals, and cetaceans have very great facilities for dispersal.

5. Birds. — Though possessing greater powers of dispersal (flight),
they are as strictly limited as mammals.

a. Petrels, gulls, and sliore birds wide rangers. Most species con-
fined to one or other ocean.

162 APPENDIX.

b. Smaller perching birds much more limited.

c. Dispersal of birds by winds ; American birds in Europe, etc.

d. Barriers to birds. — Narrow seas and straits often effectual bar-
riers ; forest country ; mountain ranges rising above woody country ;
great rivers.

e. Migration of birds — regular, compared with the irregular periodi-
cal movements of some mammals {e.g. lemming, antelopes, etc.).
Movements of fishes more like birds.

f. Migration in Europe. — Constancy of appearance ; routes. The
nightingale ; wide range ; antiquity- of migrations ; past conditions of
land; the Mediterranean a dangerous crossing.

g. India and China — birds come in autumn from Europe and West-
ern Asia.

h. North America. — Migrations mostly eastern ; many more migra-
tory and many less resident species than in Europe, significance of this.
Wood warblers and orioles ; cliff swallow ; bobolink, its range has in-
creased with extension of wheat and rice growth.

/. South temperate America. —

j. Habit of wandering in birds exaggerated. Why? Instinct; Gla-
cial period ; nesting site, more or less regular in many species.

k. Importance of food. — Winged insects and caterpillars, signifi-
cance.

6. Reptiles and Batrachians. — With exception of marine forms,
reptiles are scarcely more fitted for crossing ocean and seas than are
mammals.

a. Reptiles on oceanic islands.

b. Several groups differ considerably in dispersal and overcoming
powers — snakes most dependent on climate, not found above 62^^ in
North America ; nor on mountains to any great height (Alps 6000
feet). Different stations of snakes.

c. Lizards, tropical as a rule, but go farther north and reach higher
altitudes than snakes (10,000 feet in Alps). Dispersed over the ocean
probably in egg state to some extent, as they inhabit islands where
there are no snakes or mammals.

d. Batrachians (frogs, etc.). — Wider ranging than reptiles; deserts
and oceans are barriers to them, as dryness and salt water are fatal.

7. Fishes, Fresh-water and Marine. —

a. Temperature is a barrier.

b. Depth of water a barrier.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 163

c. Limited migration.

d. Dispersal by winds.

e. Eggs carried by birds.

8. MoUusca: Marine, Fresh-water, and Land. —

a. Marine mollusca. — Many kinds drift in mid ocean; probably only
limited by temperature, presence of certain enemies, and scarcity of
food. Slow-moving forms, as whellv and cockle, range widely, as their
young are free swimming.

b. Fresh-water mollusca. — We would suppose them to be limited to
particular river basins, but they are widely dispersed. Eggs become
attached to feet of aquatic birds. Salt water fatal to them.

c. Land shells. — A more difificult problem ; very sensitive to salt
water, and not in places much frequented by aquatic birds, still are
widely dispersed over globe and in most oceanic islands, possessing
remarkable vitality, e.g. snail glued down to tablet in British Museum
for four years. Darwin's experiment shows that when they form a
membrane over mouth of shell, can resist sea water for some time (14
days). Attached to feet of wading birds which wander inland. Even
though it should only occur once in a thousand years, a few snails
carried to a distant island would by these means eventually stock it.

9. Dispersal of Insects. — Winged insects have varied means of dis-
persal over globe ; many can fly immense distances ; many carried far
out to sea by storms, e.g. hawk moths 250 miles from tropical shores ;
Darwin caught a locust 370 miles from nearest land. ' Tropical insects
in the London docks. Great vitality of insects, e.g. beetles in strong
spirit and in boiling water. Barriers to insect — presence or absence
of certain forms of vegetation ; parasitic and mimicking species de-
pend on presence of other animals ; enemies to the several stages of
insect existence form a barrier.

10. Distribution affected by Changed Conditions of Earth's Surface. —

a. Physical geography — contour and relief; depth of water; posi-
tion of desert, lake, and forest ; ocean currents ; climate ; winds, etc.
— very important.

b. Relations of land and water to each other — area of water three
times that of land. Elevation and subsidence. Large masses of land
have probably been more isolated. Shallow parts of ocean are mostly
in the vicinity of land ; significance of these facts.

164 APPENDIX.

c. Continental areas. — Land mass almost continuous, consists only
of three masses : i , American ; 2, Asia-African ; 3, Australian.

d. Slow process of upheaval has always produced land close to con-
tinental areas.

e. Present isthmuses small and insignificant compared with countries
they unite : Suez a desert barrier ; Panama a more effectual connection.

/. Asia : Himalayas a great transverse barrier.

g. Africa : Great Sahara Desert, transverse barrier.

h. Europe and Asia cannot be separated zoologically.

/'. Recent changes in continental areas : Sahara was under water at
a very recent period ; sea shells, identical with living Mediterranean
species, found abundantly as high as 900 feet ; deposits of salt abun-
dant ; a species of fish found in inland salt lake, identical with one in
Gulf of Guinea.

j. Mediterranean has suffered subsidence in parts ; submerged banks
300 to 1200 feet, other parts 13.000 feet deep.

/'. Remains of African elephant, of a fossil elephant, and two species
of hippopotamus found in Sicilian caves ; in Malta, three species of
fossil elephant ; significance of these facts.

/. Many shells and corals of West Indies and Pacific coast are iden-
tical ; some living fishes also ; significance.

1 1 . Glacial Epoch. — Effect on existing species ; evidence of ' drift.'

a. Many fossil animals and plants show that, previous to glacial
epoch, the climate of Central Europe was much warmer than now, and
a temperate climate extended into Arctic regions, allowing a magnifi-
cent vegetation to flourish within 12 degrees of pole.

b. Gradual refrigeration of climate taking place. life forms were
driven southward or exterminated, e.g. mammoth, reindeer, etc.

c. Evidences of the etTect of Glacial epoch upon life, seen in recent
remains of shells with living arctic representatives ; in arctic and
alpine plants. White Mountains and Labrador ; Pyrenees and Scotland
and Scandinavian Peninsula ; in changes of vegetation, e.g. prehistoric
Denmark. Old forests, peat bogs, kitchen-middens.

d. Cause of glaciation (Wallace, " Island Life," Croll, " Climate and
Time ").

12. Organic Barriers. — Complex effects.

a. Goats in island of St. Helena, destroying forests.

b. Swine in Mauritius, exterminating the dodo. Swine kill poison-
ous serpents.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 165

c. Cattle often prevent growth of trees ; effect on insects and birds.

d. Effect of Paraguay fly ; effect of South African tse-tse fly on dif-
ferent animals.

e. Cats and clover (Darwin).

f. General conclusions ; hypothetical case (Wallace).

13. Zoogeography. — Food, climate, and physical character of land
of utmost importance in making an animal what we see it.

a. Native country or habitat.

b. Diversity ; how produced.

c. Early types were fewer ; present types more numerous.

d. Effect of surrounding conditions and power to wander, the two
great factors in producing diversity ; different parts of the earth char-
acterized by different animals as a result of these two factors.

e. Earth divided accordingly into zoological regions.

'/". The animals of a particular country are collectively called its fa7t}ia.

g. We would suppose all animals closely allied to inhabit the same
or continuous areas of country, and vice versa.

h. Certain widely distributed animals are not found in certain coun-
tries, e.g. bears and deer not found in tropical or South Africa.

/. Certain closely allied animals are found widely separated, e.g. tapirs,
anthropoid apes, and camel tribe. These are problems to be consid-
ered ; their solution found in the two factors and in the past history of
the earth and its inhabitants.

j. Importance of geology, physical geography, and the study of fos-
sils or paltcontology.

k. Most important class of animals in determining regions are mam-
mals ; then birds ; other groups follow.

/. Primary divisions dependent on great barriers — mountain range,
ocean, desert, climate (isotherms).

14. Palgearctic or Eurasiatic Region. — {North Temperate Realtn.)*

a. Barriers.

b. Characteristic animals — almost entire family of moles ; peculiar,
carnivores ; camels ; deer ; yak ; chamois ; saga-antelope and addax ;

* The Arctic Realm. — Now includes the northern portion of both the Eurasiatic
and North American regions. The animals given are those peculiarly character-
istic of each region — and not those ranging throughout the North Temperate^
Realm.

166 . APPENDIX.

peculiar rats ; dormice; tailless hares. Peculiar genera and species of
birds numerous.

c. Several sub-regions characterized by certain peculiar species.
Local barriers.

15. Ethiopian Region. — {Tndo-African Realm.) — Africa south of the
Atlas Mountains and the islands of the Madagascar* group.

a. Characteristic animals — peculiar apes, gorilla, and chimpanzee ;
lemurs, hippopotamus and giraffe strictly peculiar ; such highly char-
acteristic groups as hyaenas ; several cats ; hyrax ; rhinoceros (two
horned) ; zebra and numerous antelopes.

b. But no bears, moles, camels, deer, sheep, goats, or wild cattle.

c. Peculia genera and species of birds numerous — bee-eaters, horn-
bills, shrikes, crows, starlings, cuckoos, and the peculiar plantain-eaters ;
the Guinea-hen and secretary bird highly peculiar.

d. Altogether a very isolated and peculiar region.

16. Oriental Region. — {Indo-Africau Realm.) — India, China, and
Malay islands as far as, and including, Java and Borneo.

a. Barriers.

b. Rich and varied animal life. — Orang-outang; distinct family of
lemurs ; remarkable insectivore (flying lemur) ; peculiar carnivora
(civets, weasels, etc.) ; peculiar dolphin found in Ganges and Indus;
peculiar deer-like form (chevrotain) ; buffalo and zebu; rhinoceros
and elephant, etc. Numerous peculiar birds.

17. Australian Region. — Australia and Polynesia; one of the best
defined regions, including Australia and the adjacent islands as far
east as the Sandwich and Marquesas groups. The island continent of
Australia is in the track of the southern desert zone ; no inland moun-
tain chain ; interior a parched desert.

a. Highly characteristic mammals. — Marsupials and monotremes ;
rats, mice, and bats the only other mammals.

b. Marsupials diversified to fill every position in economy of Nature
— carnivorous, insectivorous, herbivorous, etc.

c. Birds highly peculiar — no true finches, woodpeckers, vultures,
nor pheasants ; but many parrots, birds of paradise, lyre birds, mound-
makers, cassowaries, brush-tongued paroquets strictly peculiar ; pigeons
and kingfishers remarkably developed.

* Dr. J. A. Allen separates Madagascar as a distinct Le7nurian Realm,

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. 167

i8. Nearctic Region. — {North Temperate Realm. ^ — North America
to the highlands of Mexico. Northern part now included in Arctic
Realm.

a. Characteristic animals — star-nosed mole; peculiar weasels;
raccoon ; peculiar seals on coast ; prong buck, musk sheep, and Rocky
Mountain goat ; musk rat, pouched rats or gophers, prairie dog, and
chipmunk; Canada porcupine and white-footed mouse.

b. A number of distinct birds — wood warblers, wrens, finches, etc.

c. Subregions — local barriers.

19. Neotropical Region.* — South and Central America; richest in
peculiar forms of any region in the world ; isolated.

a. Characteristic mammals — two families of tailed monkeys ; blood-
sucking bats ; chinchilla and cavy ; tree porcupines ; sloths, armadillos,
and ant-eaters i^Edoitata) ; marsupials, (opossums) ; one mole-like
form ; llama and several deer, the only ruminants ; peccary and tapir
the only non-ruminating hoofed mammals.

b. Birds highly peculiar — humming birds, ant thrushes, trumpeters,
toucans, puff birds, jacmars, etc.

c. Relations of Nearctic and Neotropical regions ; significance.

20. Geological Distribution. — Study of the geological history of
animals (fossils) reveals their relations to tijiie, as geographical dis-
tribution reveals their relations to place.

a. Many problems of distribution can only be solved by a survey of
past conditions.

b. Origin of existing species ; immense lapse of time since their first
appearance.

c. Animals change with changing physical conditions ; great length
of time required.

d. Rapid multiplication a cause of dispersal over newly raised areas
of land.

e. Most radical difference between species dependent on degree of
isolation by most effectual barrier.

/. Spread of species follows geological change ; extreme slowness of
the movement.

* Dr. Allen's classification divides South America into two distinct realms, the
American Tropical and the South American Temperate.

168 APPEND rx.

21. Divisions of Time. — Geological history divided into eras, ages,
periods, and epochs, each determined by certain great changes that
have taken place in physical geography, climate, and forms of life.

a. Each great division of time recorded in a rock fonnatioii or rock
system; the life remains fovuid in each are termed xX.'s, fossils.

b. Each division is characterized by the dominance of some particular
class of life forms, e.g. age of fishes ; age of coal plants.

c. Each age has gradually merged into the succeeding one ; in one
age, the life of the next begins to appear.

d. Each class does not die out, but its species become changed
according to laws already pointed out, and in succeeding ages new
types appear higher than those of preceding age, more complex in
structure (ascending series).

22. Dynamics. — Great rock beds of earth's crust as we see them
to-day have resulted from the ceaseless action of ocean, rain, rivers,
ice, wind, and frost upon ancient land areas which have appeared and
disappeared from time to time owing to certain internal conditions
producing upheaval (elevation) and sinking (subsidence) of crust.

a. These same geological processes are going on to-day ; have always
been going on very slowly.

b. Sudden revolutions have occurred in earth's history, causing great
destruction of life ; life was not entirely extinguished.

c. Then, as now, shells lived in ooze of sea bottom or were cast up
on ancient beaches ; leaves and branches of trees and bodies of animals
were carried down by rivers and buried in the mud of lakes and seas.

d. Their remains have been deposited in the mud or sand, which in
the long lapse of time has become hardened into rock (shale, slate,
sandstone, limestone, etc.), and are preserved to the present day as
fossils.

e. Generally only the hard parts of animals are preserved (shell,
bone) ; often only their impressions or casts.

f. Kind of fossils found depends on: i, kind of rock; 2, country;
3, age.

23. Chronology. — Five great eras of geological history, each em-
bodied in a corresponding system of rocks —

a. Eozoic (dawn of animal life), seen in Archsan or Primary rock
system.

HOW TO READ A WEATHER AfAP. 169

b. Palaeozoic (old life) — Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous ages ;
rocks of transition series.

c. Mesozoic (middle life) — Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous ; rocks
of Secondary series.

d. Cenozoic (recent life) — Tertiary and Quaternary periods and
deposits.

e. Psychozoic (rational life), — present system of sediments.

VI. — HOW TO READ A WEATHER MAP.

This map represents the data collected by the Weather Bureau at
Washington, D.C., from points all over the United States for a certain
day in May, i8 — .- A synopsis of the weather, accompanying the map,
was stated thus : " The storm has moved rapidly during the past twenty-
four hours, and is now central over the Lakes Erie and Ontario Dis-
trict. An area of high barometer, with clear and cooler weather,
occupies the Northwest, following after the storm. Generous showers
have occurred over nearly all the country during the past three days,
in many localities the fall being very heavy."

Explanation. — The heavy black lines are isobars ; the dotted lines,
isotherms. Arrows fly with the wind, and the signs of the ring in their
shafts indicate states of the weather, thus : Q Clear ; 0 Partly Cloudy ;
0 Cloudy ; 0 Rain ; © Snow. Horizontal lines colored pink (not
shown in this map) indicate warmer., io° or more. Similar lines col-
ored purple (on this map horizontal lines showing a faintly shaded
area) indicate colder, \o° or more. Close set vertical lines (shown on
map) indicate a rainfall of \ inch or more. The isobars indicate the
pressure in tenths of an inch as shown by the figures at their ends.
The isotherms represented are those of 50°, 60", and 70° F. A con-
siderable area of cold is indicated on the map in the storm's wake inci-
dent to the anticyclone in the Northwest.

This storm developed in the Rocky Mountain Region, and was one
of the most disastrous in many years. It swept eastward over the
United States passing out onto the Atlantic in a rather narrow path.

INDEX.

Abyssinia, 62, 93, 100.
Abyssinians, 92.
Adriatic Sea, 133.
^gean sea, 94.
Afghanistan, 114.
Africa, future of, 105.

physical geography of, 100.

western, loo.
African landscapes, 103.

tribes, 103.

zoology, 102.
Agave, 27.
Air, 22.
Alaric, 133.
Alaska, 39.

Albert Edward Nyanza, 102.
Albert Nyanza, 102.
Aleutian islands, 120.
Alexander, 132.
Algonkin, 121.
Allen, Dr. J. A., 24.
Alloys, 130.
Alpaca, 86, 124.
Alpine passes, 30.
Alps, 29, 97.
Altai, 108.
Altitude, 36.

vegetation zones of, 36.
Amazon, 12, 120.
Amboyna, 66.
America, 14, 94.

American continents, physical geogra-
phy of, 117.
American Indian, culture, 117.
American race, 115.

tribes and peoples of, 120.

American tropical realm, 24, 25.

Amu river, 106.

Amur river, 109.

Andaman islands, 125, 126.

Andes, 12, 29, 53, 119.

Angles, 94.

Animals, domestication of, 78.

Anios, 112.

Annam, iii.

Annamese, iii.

Anteaters, 25.

Antelope, 25, 102.

Antilles, Greater and Lesser, 119.

Anti-trades, 53.

Apaches, 123.

Apennines, 97.

Appalachian system, 12, 26, 29, 120.

Arabia, 63, 64, 93.

Arabiarf sea, 109.

Arab invasion, effect of, 105.

Arabs, 65, 68, 92, 105.

Arab traders, 131.

Aral, sea of, 93, no.

Araucanians, 124.

Arawaks, 124.

Archipelago, 14.

Arctic America, 119.

Arctic belt, 26.

Europe, 112.

group, 112.

ocean, 12.

realm, 24.
Areas of low pressure, 49.
Argentine republic, 67.
Argos, 132.
Aristotle, 87, 130.
Arizona, 123.
Arkansas river, 123.

171

172

INDEX.

Arrow-release, 'jj.
Aryan peoples, 93.
Aryan words (Flax), 73.
Aryans, western, 94.
Asia, destiny of, 114.

ethnic chart of, 107.
Asia Minor, 82, 87, 112.
Asian race, 106.

Asia, physical geography of, 108.
Asiatic peoples, effect of geographical

features in the history of, 114.
Ass, 82.
Assam, 61.

Assyrian civilization, 31, 93.
Asters, 27.

Athapasca stock, 123.
Athens, 132.
Atlantic ocean, 12.
Atlas mountains, 92.
Atmosphere, 22.

action of, 18.

relation to life, 23.

relation to surface, 23.
Attila, 113, 133.
Auroch, 25, 76.
Austafrican, 106.

Austafrican race, ethnic chart of, loi.
Australia, 14, 61.
Australian realm, 24, 25.
Australians, 127.
Australic stock, 127.
Austria, 29.

Azores, discovery of, 135.
Aztec civilization, 123.

Bab-el-Mandeb, 132.

Baber, 113.

Babylon, 31.

Babylonian civilization, 93.

Buckleys, 80.

Bahama islands, 119, 136.

Balkan peninsula, 94, 133.

Baltic nations, 31.

Baltic sea, 114.

Bamboo, 25.

Banana, 70.

Banda islands, 66.

Bangweolo, 102.

Banking, 134.

Bantu group, 104.

Banyan, 25.

Baobab, 25.

Barbarian, 90.

Barbary States, 92.

Barcelona, 133.

Barley, 68.

Barren grounds, 12.

Beaches, 11.

Bear, 25, 77.

Bear, polar, 77, 121.

Bechuanas, 104.

Bedouins, 92.

Beeches, 25.

Belooehistan, 114.

Bencoolen, 66.

Bengal, bay of. 53, 65, 68, 108, 109.

Berber peoples, 92.

' Big game,' of Africa, 102.

Bight of Biafr.i, 133.

Birches, 25.

Bird-life, Africa, 102.

Bison, 25, 76.

Black sea, 29, no, 114.

Black Stream, 61.

Black race, home of the, 100.

Blondes, 98.

Blow tube, 77.

Bog iron ore, 19.

Bolivia, 64.

Book-keeping, 134.

' Boomerang,' 127.

Borneo, 125.

Bosphorus, 114, 140.

Bow and arrow, 77.

Brahmaputra, 109.

Brahminism, 114.

Brazil, 61, 64.

current, 64.

mountains of, 12.
Breeze, sea and land, 47.
British America, 12, 39.
British isles, 11, 31.
Brittany, inhabitants of, 94.
Bronze, 138.
Brunettes, 98.
Buddhism, no, 114.
Buffaloes, 25.
Bulgarians, 96, 113.

INDEX.

173

Burmah, iit.
Burmese, iii.
Bushmen, 105.
Byzantine empire, 140.
Byzantium, settlcn>ent of, 140.

Cabots, the, 137.

Cactus, 27.

Caddoe, 123.

Cadiz, 133.

Calcutta, 136.

' Calico,' 72.

CaHcut,72.

Cahns, belt of, 46.

Cambodia, iii.

Camel, 84.

Camel, Bactrian, 84.

Canaan, 131.

Canada, 137.

Canary islands, discovery of, 135.

Canons, 17.

Canton, iii.

Cape Bon, 132.

Cape Horn, 120.

Cape of Good Hope, 66, 67, 135.

' Cape of Storms,' 135.

Cape St. Roque, 64.

Carboniferous period, 27.

Caribbean Sea, 119, 136.

Caribs, 124.

Carnivora, Quarternary, 76.

Caroline islands, 125, 127.

Carthage, 31, 132, 133.

Carthagena, 133.

Carthaginians, 85.

Caspian sea. 98, 108, 109.

Cassava meal or bread, 70.

Cassiquaire, 120.

Cataracts, iS.

Cathay, I33.

Caucasus, inhabitants of, 97.

mountains, 92, 108.
Celebes, 125.
Celestial empire, iii.
Central America, 119.
Central American group, 123.
Central Asian plateau, 108.
Ceram, 125.

' Cereal,' 67.

Ceres, 67.

Ceylon, 61, 64, 66, 125.

Chaldea, 73.

Chaldeans, 92.

Chalk, 19.

" Change of seasons," 35.

Chase, animals of the, 75.

geography of the, 76.

(primitive conditions), 75.
Chepewyans, 123.
Cherokees, 123.
Chickasaws, 123.
Chile, 68, 124.
Chillingham cattle, 80.
Chimpanzee, 102.
China, 29, 61, 67, 68, 87.

great wall of, 62, iii.
Chinaman, in.
Chinese, 31, no.
Chin-Xong, 68.
Choctaws, 123.
Christianity, 93.
Chukchis, 112.
Cinchonas, 25.
Cinnamon, 66.
Civilization, 90.

Aztec, 123.

Grecian, 94.

Indian, 94, 96.

Persian, 94.

Peruvian, 29.

Roman, 94.
Cliff dwellers, 123.
Climate, continental, 39.

definition of, 33.

elements of, 33.

influence on man, 54.

moral effects of, 57.

oceanic, 39.

physiological effect of, 55.
Climates, effect of hot and cold, 58.

mountain, 58.
Climatic zones, cause of, 40.
Clothing, 71.
Clouds, 23, 52.
Cloves, 66.
Coal, 139.
Coast line, Africa, 31.

Eastern North America, 31.

174

INDEX.

Coast line, South America, 31.

Western Europe, 31.
Coast lines, 10.
Cochin China, 65, iii.
Coffee, 62.

conditions of growth, 63.

drinking, 63.

history and commerce, 63.
Coinage, 130.
Colonization, 136, 137.
Color, distribution of, 56.

(human), 55.
Colorado, 123.

Columbus, Christopher, 135. "

Comanches, 123.
Commerce, 129.

ancient routes of, 131.
Commercial centres, location of, 140.
Commercial relations, 141.
Comoro islands, 125.
Congo, 12, 31, 103, 104.
Constantinople, 87, 141.
Continental irregularity, 30.
Copper, 130, "138.
Coral polyps, 19.
Cordilleran chain, 119.
Corinth, 132.
' Corn belt,' 68.
Corn, Indian, 68.
Cortez, 67, 82, 88, 123, 137.
Cossacks, 113.
Cotton, 27, 72.
Cow tree, 25.
Creeks, 123.
Crocodile, 103.
Crusaders, the, 63, 133.
Cuba, 64.
Culture, 90.
Cuprum, 138.
Cyclones, 48.

anti-, 49.

paths of, 49.
Cyprus, 138.

Dakota stock, 123.
Danube countries, 29.
Dardanelles, 114.

Darjeeling, 108.

Dark Ages, 134.

" Darwinism," 14.

Date, the, 71.

Dayaks, 126.

Deer, 25, 76.

Defense (primitive conditions), 75.

Delaware settlements, 140.

Deltas, II, 18.

Denmark, 94.

Deodhunga, 109.

Desert belts, 53.

Desert, Great American, 117.

Desert sands, 18.

Diaz, Bartholomew, 135.

Distribution, 23.

Dnieper, 97.

Dniester, 97.

Dog, the, 79.

Domesticated animals, other, 84.

Domestication of animals (primitive

conditions), 78.
Don river, 97.
Drainage, Asia, 109.
Dravidians, 127.
' Drift,' 18.
Dromedary, 84.
Drop-spear, 'j'j.
" Dry season," 35.
Duck, 84.
Dunes, 18.
Dust motes, 52.
Dust whirls, 50.
Dutch, 62, 63, 66, 136, 137.
Dwarfs, 104.
Dwina, 12.

Earth's crust, rising of, 13.

sinking of, 13.
Earthworms, action of, 20.
East Africa, 12, 53.
East Cape, 112.
Easter island, 127.
Eastern question, 114.
Eastern Turkestan, 109.
Ebony, 139.
Edict of Nantes, 88.
Egypt, 19, 31, 63, 68, 73, 114.
Elburz mountains, 108.

INDEX.

175

Electricity, 141.
Elephant, 25, 84.

African, 85, 102, 106.
Elizabeth, age of, 137.
England, 94,97, 114, 135.
Environment, 28.
Eskimo, 54, 77, 120.
Euphrates, 31, 68, 93.
Eurafrican, 98.

race, ethnic chart of, 95.
Eurasia, 14.

ethnic chart of, 107.
Eurasiatic region, 25.
Euxine, 141.
Everest, Mount, 108.
Exports, 138.

Fans, 104.

Farther India, no.

Feudal system, influence of, 134.

Fiji islands, 125, 126.

natives of, 126.
F'inland, 112.
Finnic peoples, 112.
Finns, 112.
Fishing, 77, 140.
Flax, 72.
Fleece, Angora, 86.

Kashmir, 86.
Flemish weavers, 87.
Flora, North America, 27.
Florence, 134.
Flumes, 17.
Fog, 52.
Food, effect of, 57.

(primitive conditions), 75.
Foraminifera, 19.
Forests, 20.
Formosa, 125.
Fossil remains, 16.
Fowl, jungle, 83.
Fowling, 77.
Fowls, 83.

France, 29, 135, 137.
Franks, 94.
French, 96.
Friendly islands, 125.

Ganges, 18, 31, 87, 94, 109.

Garden spots, 31.

Gareep river, 102.

Gautemala, 64, 119.

Genghis Khan, 113.

Genoa, 134.

Geographical considerations, 96.

Geographical features, permanence of, 12.

Germany, 94.

Geysers, 16.

Ghiliaks, 112.

Gifford, J., 20.

Gilbert islands, 125. ''

Giraffe, 25, 102.

Glacial period, 18, 76.

Glaciers, 18.

Gneiss, 16.

Goat, 81.

Gobi, desert of, 109.

Gold, 130, 138.

Golden fleece, 135.

Goldenrods, 27.

Goose, 84.

gray-lag, 84.
Gorilla, 102.
Goths, 94.
Gradient, 48.
Granite, 10, 16.
Great Britain, 137.
Great Lakes, 31.
Great Mogul, the, 113.
Great plains, 27.
' Great Spirit,' 117.
Greece, 29, 31.
Greenhearts, 25.
Greenland, 14.
Greenwich time, 142.
Guano, 140.
Guatemala, 119.
Guiana, 63, 64, 66, 137.
Guinea, 62, 103.

coast, 104.

Gulf of, 102.

Gulf of Mexico, 119, 121.
Gulf States, 123.
Gulf Stream, 39.
Guyot, 29.

176

INDEX.

Hamitic stock, 92.

Hannibal, 85.

Hanno, 133.

Hawaiian islands, 125.

' Head hunters,' 126.

Heat of earth, 16.

Height and depth, 11.

' Height of land,' 120.

High Asia, no.

' Hill peoples,' 127.

Himalayas, 11, 30, 61, ig8, 109.

Hindu-Kush mountains, 94, 108.

Hindus, 31, 94.

Hindustan, 94, 96.

Hippopotamus, 25, 102.

Hoang-Ho, 31, 61, 109, no.

Hog, products, 83.

Holland, 31, 94, 135.

Hong-Kong, in.

Horse, the, 81, 82.

fossil remains of, 82.

Horsechestnuts, 27.

Hot springs, 16.

Hottentots, 105.

Hovas, 126.

Huckleberries, 27.

Hudson bay, 120, 121.

Hudson Bay Company, 139.

Hudson, settlements at mouth of, 140.

Humboldt, 67, 71.

Humboldt current, 41.

Humming birds, 25.

Hianus, 20.

Hungary, 29.

inhabitants of, 113.

Hurricanes, 49.

Hydrothermal fusion, 16.

Hyena, 25, 102.

Hyperboreans, 135.

Ice action, 18.

Icy bay, 121.

Imports, 138.

Incas, 124.

India, 29, 61, 67, 87.

Indian corn, 68.

Indian ocean, 12, 14, 63.

20.

Indians, 115.

of Patagonia, 124.
Indian tribes (Map), 122.
Indo-African realm, 24, 25.
Indus, 31, 94, 109.
Industries, 138.
Insect-life, 103.
Intelligence, 28.

Invention, development of, 134.
Iran, plateau of, 94, 108.
Ireland, 97.
Irish, 94.
Iron, 130, 138.
Iron ore, 138.
Iroquois, 121.
Ishmaelites, 131.
Islam, 105.

Island geography, 125.
Island peoples, branches of, 126.
distribution of, 126.
means of dispersal of, 127.
physical traits of, 126.

Islands, 11.

Islands, growth of tropical

Isobars, 47.

Isothermal lines, 40.

Isothermal zones, 41.
their oscillation, 42.

Israelites, 92, 131.

Isthmus of Panama, 119.

Isthmus of Tehuantepec,

Italian group, 96.

Italians, 96.

Italy, 68, 94, 96, 133.

Ivory, 105.

Jamaica, 64.
Japan, n, 61, 87.

current, 39, 60.
Japanese group, 112.
Jamestown, 140.
Java, 61, 63, 125, 136.
Javanese, 126.
Jaxartes, 109.
Jerusalem, 132.
Jesuits, 137.
Jordan river, 131.
Justinian, 87.

123.

INDEX.

177

Kaffirs, 80, 104.

Kalahari desert, 105.

Kalgan gale (Great Wall of China),

Kalmucks, 113.

Kamchatkans, 112.

Kameroons, 12.

Kanchinjinga, 108.

Kangaroo, 25.

Karakorutii, 109.

Kayaks, 121.

Keltic peoples, 94.

Kenia, 100.

Khasia hills, 53.

Khinghan, 108.

Khyber pass, 114.

Kilimanjaro, 100.

King John II., 135.

Kioways, 123.

Kirghis, 113.

Kirghiz steppes, 82.

Koraks, 112.

Korea, 87.

Koreans, 112.

" Koumys," 82.

Kuen Luen, 61, 109.

Kuro Siwo, 61.

Labrador coast, exploration of, 137.

current, 39.
Ladrone islands, 125, 136.
Lake Baikal, 112.
Lake Michigan, 123.
Lamas, no.
Land, formation of, 13.
" Land of the B.acks," 103.
Language (Aryan), 96.
Lapland, 112.
La Plata, 12, 119.
Lapps, 112.
Larches, 25.
Lascars, 128.

Latin-speaking peoples, 94, 96.
Latitude, 34.

Latitude and longitude, 142.
Lava, 16.
Lava fields, 16.
N

62.

Lead, 130, 138.

Leather, 85.

Lemur, 25.

Leniurian realm, 24.

Lena, 12, no.

Leopard, 25, 102.

Letters, development of, 134.

Lhasa, no.

Libyan group, 92.

Life, 21.

animal, 21.

areas, 23.

conditions of, 28.

plant, 22.

sequence of, 27.

unity of, 28.
Lime formations, 19.
Limpopo river, 102.
Linen, 73.
Lion, 25, 102.

Liver, influence on color, 55.
Living matter, 19.
Llama, 84.
Locusts, 27.
Lombardy, 73.
Lombroso, C, 59.
Lost land, 14.
Low archipelago, 125.
Lower California, 123.
Lowlands, Asia, 109.
Loyalty islands, 126.
Lumbering, 139.

Macao, 136.
Macassars, 126.
' Mace,' 66.
Mackenzie, 12.
Madagascar, 24, 25, 66, 125.
Madeira islands, discovery of, 135.
Magellan, Ferdinand, 136.
Magnolias, 27.
Mahogany, 139.
Maize, 68.
Malabar coast, 65.
Malay archipelago, 14.
Malayic stock, 126.
Malay islands, 66.
peninsula, 65.

178

INDEX.

Malay pirates, 128.
Malays, 126.
Mallard, 84.
Malta, 97.
Mammalia, 25, 76.
Man, black, 89,

red, 115.

white, 89.

yellow, 89.
Manchuria, 113.
Manchus, 113.
Manioc, 69.
Manlike apes, 25.
Manufacture, development of, 134.
Maoris, 126.
Marco Polo, 62, 133.
Marshall islands, 125.
Marshes, growth of, 20.
Marsupials, 25.
Mashonaland, 132.
Mauritius, 64, 66, 125.
Mayas, 123.
Mediterranean region, 13, 14, 30, 97.

sea, 30, 131, 132.

volcanoes, 16.
Medium of exchange, 129.
Merriam, Dr. C. H., 38.
Mesopotamia, 67, 93.
Mexican group, 123.
Mexico, 67.
Micronesians, 126.
Middle Ages, the, 134.
Milking, 81.

Mississippi, 11, 12, 18, 31, 137.
Missouri, 12.

Mohammedanism, 93, 105, 114.
Moisture, 33.
Molucca islands, 65, 66.
Money, 129.

of savage tribes, 130.

origin of, 130.

piece of, 130.

weighing of, 130.
Mongolia, 113.
Mongolian, the, 113.

plateau, 109.
Mongolic group, 113.
Mohair, 86.
Monsoons, 47.
Moors, 134.

Morocco, 65.

Morse, Prof. E. S., 78.

Mosul, 72.

Mound builders, 123.

Mountain climates, 58.

ranges, 11.

ranges, origin of, 15.

walls, 29.
Mountains, 11.
Mount St. Elias, 123.
Mozambique, 62.

current, 64.
Mulberry, 87.

South Sea islands, 88.
Mule, 82.

" Mule battery," 83.
Mummy cloth, 73.
Musk sheep, 121.
' Muslin," 72.

Namollos, 112.
Nan-king, iii.
Naples, 134.
Narwhal, 77, 121.
Natal, 61.

Nations of Europe, 94.
Navajos, 123.
Navigation, 142.
Navigators islands, 125.
Negrillos, 104.
Negritic stock, 126.
Negroes, 103.
Negroid peoples, 104.
Negroids, 79, 103.
Nelson river, 12.
Neolithic, 76, 79, 80.
New Caledonia, 126.
New Guinea, 24, 125.
New Hebrides, 126.
New Mexico, 123.
New Zealand, 24, 125.
Nicaragua, iig.
Nicobar islands, 125, 126.
Niger, 12, 102.
Nile, II, 12, 18, 31, 102.

valley, 19, 92, 96, 103, 104.
Norsemen, 94.
North American plateau, 27, 117.

INDEX.

179

North American region, 25.
North Atlantic, 14.

group, 121.
North Pacific, 14.

group, 123.
North polar area, 12.
North temperate realm, 24, 25.
Norway, 14, 67.
Nubia, 104.
Nutmeg, 66.

Nyanza group of lakes, 102.
Nyassa, 102.

Oaks, 25.
Oats, 68.
Obi, 12, no.
Oceania, 125.
Ocean cables, 141.

currents, 39, 50.

formation of, 13.
Off-shore islands, 14.
Ohio valley, 123.
Okhotsk, sea of, 108.
Ophir, 132.
Orange river, 102.
Orinoco, 12, 120.
Ottoman empire, 114.
Ox, the, 80.
Oxus, 93, 106, 109.
Oxygen, 22.
Ozone, 59.

Pacific ocean, 12, 14, 16, 19.

Pacific slope, 30, 117.

Painting, development of, 134.

Palasolith, 76.

Pali«olithic age, 76.

Palestine, 93.

Palm belt, 26.

Pamir, 94, 108.

Pampas, tribes of, 124.

Papuas, 126.

Patagonia, 119.

Pawnees, 123.

Peat, 19.

' Pecuniary," 130.

Peking, iii.
Pelew islands, 125.
Peninsulas, 13.
Peoples, African, 103.

Keltic, 94.

Slavonic, 96.

Teutonic, 94.
Pepper, black, 65.
' Pepper-corn rents,' 65.
Persia, 63, 65.
Persians, 94.
Peru, 64, 72, 124, 137.
Philippines, 11, 65, 125.
Phcenicia, 31.
Phoenicians, the, 131.
Pig, the, 83.
" Pigeon English," in.
Pillars of Hercules, 133.
Pines, 25.
Pitcairn, 127.
Pitfall, 77.

Pizarro, 82, 124, 137.
Plains, 12.

Plains, growth of, 18.
Plain's Indians, 123.
Plain, the Great Siberian, 108, 109.
Plantain, 70.
Plateau, Central Asian, 108.

of Thibet, 109.
Po, II, 18, 31. 133.
Poles, 96.

Polished Stone Age, 76.
Polynesia, 125.
Polynesians, 126, 127.
Portugal, 135, 136.
Portuguese, 62, 66, 96, 135, 136.
Potato, sweet, 69.

the, 69
Products, animal, 139.

vegetable, 139.
Province, arid, 27.

humid, 27.
Ptolemy, 34.
Pueblo Indians, 123.

Quartz, 10.

Quaternary geography, 99.
period, 76.

ISO

INDEX.

Qquichua, 124.
Quito, 67.

Races, physical traits of, 90.

social status of, 90.
Railroads, 141.

Raiment (primitive conditions), 75.
Rain, 17, 23, 52.
Rainfall, 51.

distribution of, 53.
" Rainy season," 35.
Realms, 24.
Red man, characteristics of, 115.

origin of, 115.
Red race, 115.
Reindeer, 85.
" Reindeer epoch," 76.
Religion, 91.
Resources, development of, 137.

mineral, 138.
Rhinoceros, 25, 102.
Rice, 27, 68.
Rivers, 12.

African, 102.

American, 120.

Asian, log.
River valleys, 31.
River terraces, 18.
Rocky mountains, 11, 117.
Roman roads, lost, 19.
Rome, 29, 31, 96.
Roumania, 67.
Russia, 12, 67, 97, no, 114.
Russians, 96.
Ruwenzori, 100.
Rye, 68.

Saghalien island, 112.
Sahara desert, 14, 19, 92.
Salomon islands, 125.
Salt, 139.

deposits, 14.
' Salt roads,' 139.
Salt water, 23.
Samoa islands, 125.
Samoyeds, 112.

Sandwich islands, 125.
Saracen conquest, 87.
Saracens, 134.
Sargasso sea, 51.
Saskatchewan plains, 26.
Saskatchewan river, 123.
Savage, 90.
Saxifrages, 27.
Saxons, 94.

Scotch highlanders, 94.
Sea bottoms, 11.
Sea, distance from, 38.

of Marmora, 141.

route, the eastern, 136.
Seal, 77, 121.
Sebastian del Cano, 136.
Sedimentation, 11.
Seminoles, 123.
Semitic stock, 92.
Senegal river, 102.
Senegambia, 103.
Sericulture, 87.
Servians, 96.
Sextant, 142.

Sexual selection, effect of, 56.
Seychelles, 125.
Shaler, Prof. N. S., 29.
Shamo, 109.
Sheep, 80, 81.
Shire river, 102.
Shoshonee, 123.
Siam, 65.
Siamese, in.
Siansk, 108.
Siberia, 12, 67, 109.
Siberian railroad, 114.
Sibiric branch, the, ill.
Sicily, 97.
Sidon, 132.
Sierra Nevada, 117.
Silk, 86.

Silk moth (silkworm), 87.
Silver, 130, 138.
Simooms, 50.
Sinitic branch, no.
Sioux tribes, 123.
Siva, 80.

Slave trade, 104, 105.
Slope exposure, 37.
Sloths, 25.

INDEX.

181

Smelting, 130. ^38-

Snowflakes, 53.

Social states, cause of different. 91.

Society islands, 125.

Soil, 18, 2Q.

Soudan, 62, 103, 104-

South Africa, 100. ,

South America, physical geography of,

South American temperate realm, 24, 25

South Atlantic group, 124.

South Atlantic ocean, 120.

South Pacific group, 124-

South Pacific ocean, 120.

Spain, 29, 31. 68, I3S. 136, I37-

Spaniards, 65, 124-

Spanish, 96.

invasion, 82, 123.

Sperm oil, 140-

Spice islands, 65.

Spices, the, 65.

ISeTlE-in Pasha Relief Expdt.), 70.

Stanovi, 108.

Steam, 141- , ,

Steppes, herdsmen of the, 113.

St. Lawrence river, 120, 137.

Stone age, 76.

Storms, 47-

Straits of Magellan, 119-

Stratified rocks, 15-

Subregion, cold temperate, 26.

warm temperate, 26.

Su<Tar cane, the, 27, 64.

Su^ar, history, range, and commerce, 65

Sultan, 114-
Sumatra, 64, 125.
Sun burn, 56.
Sun's rays, 34-
Surinam, 63, i37-
Swiss, 29. -

lake dwellers, 67, 72. 80.

Switzerland, 97.
Syria, 68, 92, ii4-

Tagalas, 126.
Tamerlane, 113.
Tanganyika, 102.
Tanning, 85.

Tapioca, 70.
Tasmania, 125.

natives of, 127.
Tataric group, 113-
Tea, black, 62.

'brick,' 62.

green, 62.

conditions of growth, 61.

consumption of, 62.

gardens, 62.

history and commerce, 61.

plant, 60.

range and cultivation, 61.
Temperate forest belt, 26.
Temperature, 33.
Teutonic peoples, 94-
Thian Shan, 108.
Thousand-fathom line, 14.
Thunderstorms, 50.

Tiber, 31.
Tiger, 25.
Tigris, 31, 72.93-
Timbuctoo, 105.
Timor, 125.
Tierra del Fuego, 120.
natives of, 124.

Tin, 130. 138-
Tinneh, 123.
Tomato, the, 70.
Tonga island, 127.
Tonquin, in-

Tornadoes, 50.

Torres Strait, 63.

Torrid zone, 35.

Totem, 91.

Trade, 129.

development of, 130.

Traffic, 129.
Trapping, 77-
Trinidad, ii9-
Tulip poplars, 27.

Tundras, 109.
Tunguisic group, ii3-

Tungus, 113-

Tupis, 124.

Turkey, 63, 112.

Turkish dominion, 114-

Turks, 113-
ryphoons, 49.

Tyre, 132.

182

INDEX.

Ural range, 12.

river, 106.
Utes, 123.

Valleys, 17.
Vandals, 94.
Vasco da Gama, 136.
Vegetable mould, 19.
Vegetation, 22.

African, 103.
Vegetation, distribution of, 26.
Venezuela, 64.
Venice, 31, 133, 134-
Veniti, 133.
Victoria Nyanza, 102.
Vikings, 31.
Vine, the, 71.
Volcanoes, 16.
Volga river, 97, 113.
Voyages of discovery, 135.

Wallace, A. R., 14.

Walrus, 77, 121.

Water, action of, 17.

Waterspouts, 50.

Weather, 50.

Weapons, bronze and iron, 76.

Welsh, 94. ■

Western Africa, 100.

Western Europe, 30, 31.

Western Hemisphere, 117.

West Indies, 64, 65, 66.

Whalebone, 140.

Whaling, 140.

Wheat, 66.

Wheat range and yield, 67.
White skin, 98.
White Race, cradle of, 97.
White race, geographical distribution of,
92.

North Mediterranean branch of, 93.

original home, 92.

South Mediterranean branch of, 92.
Willows, 25.
Winds, 18, 23.

Buys Ballot's law of, 46.

constant, 46.

counter-trades, 46;

effect of earth's rotation on, 44.

periodic, 46.

prevailing, 39.

primary cause of, 43.

trade, 46.
Wolf, 25, 77, 79.
Wombat, 25.
Wool, 86.

Yak, 85.

Yang-tse-kiang, 31, 61, 109, no.

Yams, 69.

Yellow race, home of the, 106.

Yenisei, 12, no.

valley, 113.
Yucatan, 119.
Yucca, 27.
Yukon, 12, 123.

Zambesi river, 102, 104.
Zanzibar, 66, 105, 136.
Zebra, 25, 82, 102.
Zebu, 80.
Zulus, 104.

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Wright's Nature Reader, No. IV. Has lessons in geology, astronomy, world-life,

etc. Boards. 70 cts.

For advanced s7ipplementary reading see our list 0/ books in English Literature.

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS,

BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO.

Number.

White's Two Years with Numbers. Number Lessons for second and third year
pupils. 40 cts.

AtWOOd'S Complete Graded Arithmetic. Present a carefully graded course in
arithmetic, to begin with the fourth year and continue through the eighth year. Part I.
200 pages. Cloth. 40 cts. Part II. 382 pages. Half leather. 75 cts.

Walsh's Mathematics for Common Schools. Special features of this work are

its division into half-yearly chapters instead of the arrangement by topics; the omission,
as far as possible, of rules and definitions; the great number and variety of the problems;
the use of the equation in solution of arithmetical problems; and the introduction of the
elements of algebra and geometry. Parti. 2 iS pages. 35 cts. Part. II. 252 pages. 40 cts.
Part III. 365 pages. Half leather. 75 cts.

Sutton and Kimbrough's Pupils' Series of Arithmethics.

Pri.m.akv Book. Embraces the four fundamental operations in all their simple relations.

So pages. Boards. 22 cts
Intermediate Book. Embraces practical work through the four operations cancellation,

factoring and properties of numberS; simple and decimal fractions, percentage and simple

interest. 128 pages. Boards. 25 cts.
Lower Book. Combines in one volume the Primary and Intermediate Books. 208

pages. Boards, 30 cts. Cloth. 45 cts.
Higher Book. A compact volume for efficient work which makes clear all necessary

theory. 275 pages. Half leather. 70 cts.

SafEord's Mathematical Teaching. Presents the best methods of teaching, from
primary arithmetic to the calculus. Paper. 25 cts.

Badlam's Aids to Number. For Teacliers. First Series. Consists of 25 cards for
sight- work with objects from one to ten. 40 cts.

Badlam's Aids to Number. For PupHs. First Series. Supplements the above
with material for slate work. Leatherette. 30 cts.

Badlam's Aids to Number. For Teachers. Second Series. Teachers' sight-work

with objects above ten. 40 cts.

Badlam's Aids to Number. For Pupils. Second Series. Supplements above with
material for slate work from 10 to 20. Leatherette. 30 cts.

Badlam's Number Chart. n x 14 inches. Designed to aid in teaching the four
fundamental rules in lowest primary grades. 5 cts. each; per hundred S4.00.

LuddingtOn's Picture Problems. 70 cards, 3 x 5 inches, in colors, to teach by pic-
tures combinations from one to ten. 65 cts.

Pierce's Review Number Cards. Two cards, 7x9, for rapid work for second and
third year pupils. 3 cts. each ; per hundred ^2.40.

Howland'S Drill Card. For rapid practice work in middle grades. 3 cts. each ; per

hundred $2.40.

For advanced 'ivork see our list of books in JMathemaiics.

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS,

BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Hyde's Lessons in EngliS'i, Book I. For the lower grades. Contains exercises
for reproduction, picture lessons, letter writing, uses of parts of speech, etc. 40 cts.

Hyde's Lessons in English, Book II. For Grammar schools. Has enough tech-
nical grannnar for con\;ct use of language 60 cts.

Hyde's Lessons in English, Book II with Supplement. Ha.s, in addition

to the above, i iS pages of technical grammar. 70 cts.
Supplement bound alone, 35 cts.

Hyde's Advanced Lessons in English. For advanced classes in grammar schools
and hign schools. 60 cts.

Hyde's Lessons in English, Book II with Advanced Lessons. The Ad-
vanced Lessons and Book 1 1 bound together. 80 cts.

Hyde's Derivation of Words. 15 cts.

Mathews's Outline of English Grammar, with Selections for Practice.

The application of principles is made through composition of original sentences. 80 cts.
Buckbee's Primary Word Book. Embraces thorough drills in articulation and in
the primary difficulties of spelling and sound. 30 cts.

Sever's Progressive Speller. For use in advanced primary, intermediate, and gram-
mar grades. Gives spelling, pronunciation, definition, and use of words. 30 cts.

Badlam's Suggestive Lessons in Language. Being Part i and Appendix of

Suggestive Lessons in Language and Reading. 50 cts.

Smith's Studies in Nature, and Language Lessons, .a. combination of object

lessons with language work. 50 cts. Part I bound separately, 25 cts.

Meiklejohn's English Language. Treats salient features with a master's skill and
with the utmost clearness and simplicity. $1.30.

Meiklejohn's English Grammar. Also composition, versification, paraphrasing, etc.
For liigh schools and colleges, go cts.

Meiklejohn's History of the English Language. 78 pages. Part in of Eng-
lish Language above, 35 cts.

Williams's Composition and Rhetoric by Practice. For high school and col-
lege. Combines the smallest amoiuit of theory with an abundance of practice. Revised
edition. Si.oo.-

Strang's Exercises in English. Examples in Syntax, Accidence, and Style for
criticism and correction. 50 cts.

Huffcutt's English in the Preparatory School. Presents as practically as pos-
sible som; of the advanced methods of teaching English grammar and composition in the
secondary schools. 25 cts.

Woodward's Study of English. Discusses English teaching from primary school to
high Collegiate work. 25 cts.

Genung's Study of Rhetoric. shows the most practical discipline of students for the
maknig of literature. 25 cts.

GOOdchild's Book of Stops. Punctuation in Verse. Illustrated. 10 cts. ^
See also our list of books for the study of English Literature.

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS,

BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO.

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