Full text of "Library of universal knowledge. A reprint of the last (1880) Edinburgh and London edition of Chambers' encyclopaedia, with copious additions by American editors"

'" I I

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES

L I B E A E Y

OIYEBSAL KNOWLEDGE.

A REPRINT

OF THE LAST (1880) EDINBURGH AND LONDON EDITION
OF CHAMBERS'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA,

(Slitlj Copious ^fciitions bn ^mcman bitors.

FIFTEEN VOLUMES,
VOLUME II.

NEW YORK:

AMERICAN BOOK EXCHANGE,

T B i B u N ; K BUILDING,

1880.

AMERICAN BOOK EXCHANGE;
NKMT YORK.

tBCTHOTYI-KD ril TIIB
OOXINISINO ItUOM.H OP

8 w OKP:ES s HON,

New YORK.

J. CAMI-BK.I.L,

PRINT KB.

16 Vanduwatcr tit., ii. J.

LIBRARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE.

A TJ'DIPIIONE, an instrument to assist the hearing. A thin rectangular sheet of
jL\. substance resembling ebonite, provided with a handle, and having the semblance
of a fan. When used as an A., the sheet is strained into a curve by strings which
lead from the outer edge to the base of the handle. The outer i-d^e is then placed against
the upper teelh, and the. sound-vibrations, gathered at the. surface of the A., are com-
municated to the auditory nerve through the teeth and bones of the head. The A. may
be u-vd with artificial teeth, if they are well sealed on the upper jaw.

AUDITOR (Lat. audio, I hear), the name given to certain officers appointed to examine
accounts in behalf either of the government, of courts at law, of corporations, or of
private persons. The term doubtles> owes its origin to the old practice of delivering
accounts ri'-ii <-<v. Arnrr-oKKK K. In ITS'), public auditors were appointed, under the
title of "Commissioners for Auditing the Public Accounts," by 20 Geo. III. c. 52, by
which the patents of lord Sondes and lord Mountstuart, as nuili'tor* f Hi,' imjii-fxtx, were
vacated, the sum of ?(KX) per annum being made payable to each of them for life, iu
lieu of a percentage which had been paid them on the amount of expenditure audited.
Many subsequent statutes have been passed for the purpose of extending and defining
the duties of these commissioners, and regulating the business of the audit oth'ce. The
commissioners of audit are empowered to call on all public accountants to account for
moneys or stores intrusted to them; and. should they fail to do so, are required to certify
their names to the remembrancer of the exchequer, and the attorney-general of Kngiaiul
or Ireland, or the lord advocate of Scotland, in order that they may be proceeded against
a- defaiiliers. These proceedings, however, may be stayed tor a time by the, lords of
the treasury, by whom the whole arrangements of the audit-oflice are controlled, on the
application of the accused. The accounts of the ordnance, of the army and navy, and
the land revenue, are now subjected to examination in the audii-o'iice. By '2 Will. IV .,
C. 99, the powers and functions of the coininis.sioners of public accounts in Ireland were
transferred to the commissioners for Great Britain. The present establishment it the
audit-office consists of a chairman, rive commissioners, a secretary, and a large number
of inspectors and examiners. The patronage is in the lords of the treasury. AUIHTOK
OF TIIK C'orirr OK SKSSIOX. in Scotland, is an officer whose duties consist in t;:.xing the
costs of suits in which expenses are found due, a remit being made to him for that
purpose, either by a division of the court or a lord ordinary. The auditor returns a
report to the judge or court making the remit, by whom decree is pronounced for the
amount of the taxed account. Objections to the auditor's report maybe stated to the
judge or court. The nomination of the auditor is in the crown, the" office being held
a-l ritiint tint <-iit/i<fnt. In the inferior courts an officer with corresponding powers is
usually appointed by the court iu which he officiates. The office of audito*" of the court
of session corresponds in many respects to that of the taxing-masters in the court of
chancery. In Germany the name auditor is applied to junior legal functionaries.

AUDITOR ('Uifr). The federal, state, and city governments elect or appoint auditors
to supervise accounts. In the United States treasury department there are six, each
having charge of a single branch of service. States" anil cities iiMially have one or
more. An A. may be appointed by a court to state items and balances of accounts which
are iu question ; he has authority to hear testimony, and in some states his reports are
linal as to questions of fact. Churches, benevolent, and other societies, usually hava
A.'s for inspection of financial accounts.

ATJDITOEY NERVE. By anatomists, the A. N. is associated with the facial, and i
the seventh in order of origin from the brain, counting from before backwards. Ta
seventh pair consists of the poriio dura or facial, the portio mollis or auditory, and a
Miiall intermediate portion. The portio mollis apparently commences by some white
streaks in the floor of the fourth ventricle; it then runs forward to the hack of the petrous
portion of the temporal bone, and enters the internal auditory meatus. The facial then
leaves it to pass along the canal called the aqueductns faliopii. and the auditory divides
into two portions, which diverse ihe >maller one posterior for the semicircular canals
auu the vestibule, the other for the cochlea. Those entering the semicircular canal*

30.1 148

AiiiHoy. {

AUCM-SI>T.

divide.- into five branches, forming at last a nervous expansion somewhat analogous to
the retina.

Several theories have been held at different periods with regard to the manner in
which the nerves terminate in the cochlea, and how sound i.s transmitted from the latter
to the brain. The latest, and that which is at present entertained by most physiologists,
is that of M. Schultze. It has been shown, by actual experiment, that when a nerve in
connection with a muscle is acted upon by a succession of very rapid strokes from the
little hammer of a tetanmotor, and, when the strokes have arrived at a certain number
in the second, a stimulus is sent along the nerve exciting the muscle to action. It is in
,';:ie same wav that M. Schultze supposes the impression of sound to bo propagated to
''the nerves of the cochlea, by means of a series of little tetanmotors called the teeth of
Corti. who discovered them. They are situated in the spiral lamina, which separates the
piral canal in the interier of the cochlea into an upper and a lower half or seala. The
spiral lamina consists of an osseous septum, next to the central axis of the cochlea, and
of a membranous layer, which prolongs the osseous septum to the outer wall of the
cochlea, thus completing the spiral lamina. This membranous septum is double, and

between its layers there is a chamber
which contains the teeth of Corti,
ranged side by side throughout the
whole length of the spiral lamina, and
gradually getting shorter from base to
apex, like the strings of a harp or piano-
forte. The chamber is tilled up by a
Fig. 3. tremulous jelly-like fluid. The diagram,

a, the osseous septum grooved for the passage of the % 3, represents a perpendicular section
rorhlear nerve 6. which terminates by a free end Ot the spiral lamina. \\ lien the waves
inside the chamber c, along the floor of which it lies or vibrations of sound strike against the
for a lu>it distance; d, a, are the two layers of the >__ * t \. f> i,,,.,,] tbn-o iTnnce -M-M
membranous septum. Lying in contact with the bones ot the . huul tlio.se >oncs .lie
end of the nerve is the enlarged extremity of a rod caused to Vibrate; this vibration IS
e, which is connected in a nail-like mauuer by the transmitted through the head to the
hinge /to another rod, which is fixed at g. , (()1R , S ()f the coculca< wllicu iu tum

set in motion the tremulous jelly which fills up the membranous chamber, c.

ATJDLEY, Sir JAMES, one of the original knights of the order of the Garter, founded
in 1344 by Edward III., on his return from France after the victory of Cres-y. was
frequently" in personal attendance on Edward the Black Prince, whom he accompanied
to France in 1346. He was so conspicuously brave at the battle of Poictiers that the
prince retained him as his own knight, and declared him to be the bravest soldier on his
side. He conferred on him an annual revenue of 5(10 marks, which A. immediately ga\
up to his squires. This act of disinterestedness becoming known, the Black Prince
< -nt'crrcd a further annual sum of 600 marks upon him. A. aKo accompanied the B ack
Prince into Spain, and in 1369 the office of seneschal of Poitou was conferred upon him.
He took part in the capture of La-Roche-sur-Yon in Poitou, in the same year, and d.
a few months after. The prince attended his funeral obsequies at Poictiers.

AUDLEY, THOMAS, lord Audley of Waldon. 1488-1544; an English lord chancellor,
lie was chosen speaker of the commons in the Long parliament in 1529; in 1532, he was
made a knight and successor of Sir Thomas More as keeper of the great seal. In l.">:'>3.
Henry Y11I. made him lord chancellor, in which capacity he presided at the trial of
More and others. When the confiscated church lands were parceled out, A. got Christ
church in London with all its real estate, together with the great abbey of Walden, in
K><rx, which lie made into a residence for himself. He gave lands to the support of
what was then Buckingham college, Oxford, which was incorporated after the gift under
the name of St. Mary Magdalen's college

AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR, 1797-1841; an entomologist, native of Paris. "\Vith
Dumas and Brongniart, in 1824, be began the Annul* ,,f \,itural Science. He was pro-
ie-snr of entomology in the museum, and a physician, in 1826. He was the founder and
first president of the entomological society, and in 1838 a member of the academy, lie
investigated, at the request of the government, the injuries done to vine and silk culture
by insects, and contributed a great number of reports and papers on his favorite subject,
and, with others, wrote a work on the insects injurious to vineyards, etc.

AVFM'AIV. a co. in n.c. Missouri, intersected by the St. Louis, Kansas City and
Northern, and a branch of the Chicago and Alton railroads; (i?."> sq.m. ; pop. '80. 19.883.
It is a grazing and agricultural region, generally level and fertile. Beds of coal have
been found. Co. seat, Mexico.

AUDRAM. GKHAUD. one of the most celebrated engravers of ;he French school, w:>*

b. at I,\on in 1640. He belonged to a family distinguished for its excellence in this
department of art. After a three years' residence at Home, where he studied under
Carlo Maratti, and acquired a high reputation by his engraving of pope Clement IX.. he
v,-a- recalled to France by Colbert, and was appointed engraver to his majesty Louis
XIV. Here he engraved the principal works of I.ebrun, with whom he lived on terms
<if the closest friendship. 1IU ma>terpiec<-s are a series of engravings illustrating the
buttles of Alexander. He d. at Paris, 1703.

SAwdley.
Auersperg.

AUDUBOX, a co. in s.-w. Iowa; 630 sq.m.; pop. '75, 2370. Agriculture is the
leading interest. Co. seat, Exira.

AUDUBON, JOTTN JAMES, a distinguished American ornithologist, wash, in Louisiana,
United States, iu May, 1780, where his parents, who were hoth French, had settled on a
plantation. His father, who was himself an ardent lover of nature, early directed In.s
son's attention to natural objects. The youth conceived a passion for the study of
binU; and a book of ornithological specimens determii.ed Lim to become a draughts-
man. About the age of 14. he went to Paris, and studied for some time under the
celebrated David. In 1798, he was settled on a farm in Pei.nsylvania by his father, bin
he did not distinguish himself as an agriculturist. IP 1810 he sailed down the Ohio with
his wife and child, on a bird-sketching expedition. The following year, he visited
Florida for a like purpose; and for many years alter he continued his ornithological
researches among the American woods; to the neglect of his ordinary business. The
latter he finally abandoned; and in 1824 he wen:, to Philadelphia, where he was intro-
duced to prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte, win: so warmly encouraged him m his pian<
that he determined on publication. After tw<> years' further exploration of the forests
of his native country, lie came to Europe wi'.n the view to secure subscribers for his
work on Tin Birds of An>, / >'. He met vith a warm reception from such men is
Heischel. C'uvier. Humboldt, Brewster, "\Vi\son, and Sir Walter Scott. The issue of 'i:>
work was commenced shortly after, ead.i bird being delineated life-size. The colored
engravings were chiefly executed by tin. lak- Mr. W. H. Li/.ars of Edinburgh. The
work was completed in 87 parts, elephai.i fo'.io, containing 448 plates. While the work
was in process of publication in tins' country (it was finished in 1839). A revisited
America three time-?, in order to make further researches. In 1831. he began the
publication of his Atmricitn OrntthrJogicdl Bi<>r/r(i]i}ni in Edinburgh, which was al>
completed in 1S39. In 1839, A. finally re turned to America, where, in 1844. he publisher
a reduced edition of his works.. Assisted by Dr. Buchanan, he also published 'lJt
ynii'lriipnl* <>f America, and a Biography of American Quadrupeds. He d. Jan. 27, 1851,
in his 71st year.

AUENBRUG'GER, or AVENBRUG'GER, VON AU'EXBHUO, LEOPOLD, 1722-1809;

an Austrian physician who discovered the mode of investigating diseases of the chest and
abdomen by auscultation. He applied his ear to the chest, and noted the sounds that
followed a smart blow of his hand on the patient. His treatise on the subject attracted
little atiention until it was translated and illustrated by ( 'orvisant. in 1808. when it
quickly led ihe way to Laenncc > improvement, whereby "the ear is aided by the stetho-
scope. The great value of A.'s discovery has long been" universally admitted.

ATJEB. ALOIS, was b. May 11. 1813. at Wels, in upper Austria, and was trained in a
printing estiiblisnment of his native town to be a compositor, corrector, and manager.
During his scant/ leisure moments, A. employed himself in acquiring a knowledge of
French. Italian. English, and other languages, in which he underwent an examination
in l*:i~> and 1*36. before the university of Vienna. His brilliant appearance on this
occasion opened up to his ambition the probability of a professorial chair. In Oct., 1837,
he was appointed professor of Italian in the college of Linz, in upper Austria. Here
he labored assiduously in public and private teaching, and published a variety of useful
srhool-bonks. on a system peculiar to himself. In 1839 he set out on his travels through
G'.'rmanv, Swit/erland, France, and England, collecting materials for his favorite art.
From 1841 to isi.is. he was director of the national printing-office at Vienna. In 1847 he
was elected member of the academy of sciences. He made known a photographic dis-
covery, "spontaneous impression." in !>'( Entdeclwng des JfattirwlMdrucke.r (1864). He
d. in 1869 A. published the SpracJiaUe, or Lord's Prayer, in 60S tariff uage*. with Homan
types 1 1S44); and the Lord's Prayer in 200 languages, with their national alphabets (1847).

'- ATUKE-PlUNTING.

AU ERBACH. BERTIIOLD. a popular German author, of Jewish extraction, was b. at
Xorflstetten, in the Wurtembcrg Black Forest, Feb. 28, 1812. He received his education
at CarNruhe. Stuttgart, Tubingen. Munich, and Heidelberg. Having at an early period
abandoned the study of Jewi>h theology, he devoted his attention to literature. His
tirst publications, Judaism <md Mtl,rn Literature (Stuttg. 1836), and a translation of the
works of Spinoza, with a critical life of his author (5 voTs. Stuttg. 1841). had a philosoph-
ical tendency. In his E<lui;itid Citizen (C'arlsruhe, 1842). and Village T<t!t* f th> Black
Fi>r<*t (1843). he applied himself to the portraiture of real life, and succeeded well. The
Vi!!iir/t' Tale* were translated into English. Swedish, and Dutch, and were generally
admired. Among his other works are thrift >md Vulk (184G) ; Do* Lnntllmns inn Rl in
(1869); Wt'cd* r nkblatk z>tr Gf&Juch diestr Tage (1871); Waldj'ritd U874). ek-.

AUERBACII. HKINUICH (real name STUOMEK), 1482-1542: a Bavarian physician
and friend of Luther. He erected a large building in Leipsic in 1530 which is still
known as the Auerbachshof, in which is a cellar where the great reformer drank, and
out of which, as the people believed, Faust, the magician, rode upon a barrel, an event
kept in memory by a painting on the wall of the cellar.

A I EKSPKRG. AnoLrii WILIIELM DANIEL. Prince, b. 1821: son of prince Wilhelm
Auersperg; served as a major of dragoons; in 1867, a member of the Bohemian diet, and

Anersporjy. g

Augmentation.

president of the assembly; in 1869, member of the upper chamber of the Austrian Rciehs-
t.-iLr: in 1871, mcceeded Benet as the bead of the Austrian ministry, lie was iu the
same ollice iu 1879.

AU'ERSPERG, ANTON AT/EXANDEU, Count von, 1806-76; an Austrian statesman
and poet, more widely known by the nom de j/luine " Anastasuis Grim." lie belonged
to an old Suabian faiiiily which obtained large estates in Carniola. Afier studying law
and philo>ophy in Vienna and Grat/. lie traveled over Europe and England, and in 18:>9
married the coauten .Maria von Altems. He was offered official position but refused,
as he was a prominent liberal and a strong opponent of Metternich and his policy. He
wrote verses while a student, and in 1830 published a small volume, and also a semi-
political romance. The next year his political reviews appeared and made a great
sensation, exciting the government to detect the writer, who was lined 50 ducats. In
1835. he issued another collection of patriotic verses, and in 1837 collected his earlier
writings into one volume, of which nearly 20 editions have been published. In 1848, he
was ciiosen to the German " Vorparliament," and soon afterwards to the Frankfort
national assembly, where he was on the "left center." lie left in disgust before the
year ended, in consequence of the murders of Auerswald and Lychnowski. In 18."9, he
returned to public life, but in 18ol was made a life-member of the Austrian Hevrenhaus,
where lie was the author of addresses to the throne. In the diet of Carniola and Slyria
he was a liberal and the supporter of German ideas. In 1808, he was elected president
of the delegates of the Austrian crown lands, but, except the seat in the Hevrenhaus,
he resigned all official positions. Some of his speeches, especially those in the confes-
sional debates of 1868 and 1874, have attained great popularity. Robin Hood (iu
German) was his last poetical work of consequence.

AU'ERSPERG, CARLOS, Prince, b. 1814; an Austrian statesman, member of one of
the oldest families of the empire. On the re-establishment of constitutional government,
in 1861, he was made president of the upper chamber of the Reichsralh; and as repre-
sentative of the Bohemian landed nobility in the diet of Prague, he has taken a conspicu-
ous part in the defense of the constitutional system against clerical and feudal reaction,
and in establishing the unity of the empire against federation. lie was a zealous
supporter of the liberal cabinet, at the head of which was his brother Adolph.

AU'ERSTADT, a village in Saxony, 10 m. w. of Naumburg, where Davoust won
a great victory over the Prussians under the duke of Brunswick on the day (Oct. 14,
1806) that Napoleon defeated their main army at Jena. Napoleon made Davoust duke
of A.

AU'GEAS, or AU'GEIAS, according to one account, the son of Helios and Iphibofl, but
according to others, of Phorbas and Hermione, was king of Elis and renowned for his
wealth iu oxen, of which he fed 3000 head in his stables. When the dung of these
animaU had been allowed to accumulate for many years, Hercules was commissioned by
Eurystheus to cleanse the Augean stables in one day, and was promised as payment a
tenth part of the oxen. Hercules accomplished the task by turning the courses of the
rivers Peneus and Alphetis through the masses of ordure. When A. refused to pay the
stipulated wages, a war ensued, and A. was slain by Hercules. The fable of the Augean
stables often serves as an allusion in declamations on political corruptions, etc.

ATTGEREATT, PIERKE FKAXCJOIS CFIATILES, duke of Castiglione, marshal and peer of
France, one of the most brilliant and intrepid of that band of general officers whom
Napoleon gathered around himself, was the son of a tradesman, and was b. 21st Oct., 18r>7.
After serving some time in the French carabineers, into which he enlisled at the are of
17, lie entered the Neapolitan service, in which he remained until 1787. when he settled
in Naples as a fencing-master. With other French residents, he was banished from
thai citv in 1792, and immediately volunteered into the French revolutionary army
intended for the repulsion of the Spaniards. His services were so conspicuous, that in
less than three years he was made general of a division. In 1795 he accompanied the
arm;,- to Italy, where he greatly distinguished himself, especially in the field, but also in
the council. He took an active part and gained much glory in "the battles of Millesimo,
Oeva. l.odi, Castiglione (for which he received his title), Roveredo, Bassano. etc. In 1797,
he was appointed to the command of the army of the Rhine; but in u few months after.
the directory not liking the spirit he displayed there, made him commander of the Kith
division at 1'erpignan. This post he resigned in 1799, when he was elected as deputv
into tin; council of the five hundred. In 1801 he received the command of the army in
Holland, and was active in several engagements. In 1804 lie was made a marshal: and
in the following year he commanded a division of the army which reduced the Vorarl-
lM;rg; and was afterwards en paired at VVet/.lar, Jena, Eylau; also in Italy (1809); Spain
(1810); Berlin, Bavaria, and S;-.\ony (1813). He d. June It, 1816.

AUGER, FLEXIBLE, an invention which permits great freedom in the direction of
a boring tool. Its shaft is a closely coiled, flexible, steel spiral, fitted at one end with a
pheave or pulley, and at the other with a suitable jaw for holding a bit. This shaft
turns within a flexible tube, lined with spiral wire. Motion is communicated to the
pulley by a cord, or belt, from some fixed machinery, and the belt is kept strained by a

AUK>- utation.

r/nintcr-rope which is tied to some firm support. Augers arc used varying from three
eighths of uu inch to an inch in diameter. The larger requires an inch driving cord.

AUGIEB, GriLLAVME YICTOK EMII/K, a French dramatist of considerable reputation,
was b. at Valence, ou the 17th of Sept., 1820. and v. as educated for the profession of an
advocate, lie soon, however, showed a prcdiiee tion for letters, especially the drama.
In 1844, he composed a piece in two acts, and in verse-, entitled L C<(/ut : . which he offered
to the Theatre Francais, but without success. The Odi-on, however, received it, and it
was played at that theater with considerable applausj for nearly three months. This,
while it is the first, is said to be likewise the best of A.'s works, containing some excel-
lent moral lessons, set in a frame-work of the antique, and made attractive by elegant,
versification. In the following year, the Theatre Francais sought his services, and he
produced for that theater his second comedy, entitled l'/i Jl^/nni^ tic JJ'i/i, in three acts,
and in verse. This was a comedy of the d:iy. ami was only partially successful. A
third, L'Ar<-ii(uri<rc, which appeared in 184*. was better received; still "there was said to
be too much of commonplace in the moral sentiments with which it abounded.
(jdbrielle, in live acts, and in verse, which appeared in 1*49, was also a highly moral
piece, and gained tor its author the Monthyoo pri/e. In IN./,', A. wrote a drama, entitled
Diane, hi which Kadiel took the principal part, but in spite of all her efforts it proved
a failure. He was more fortunate with 'Jsi Pin-re d>- T<m<-he. \\ prose comedy in live acts,
written in partnership with Jules Sandeau, and produced in 1N33. In the, same year he
wrote a verse-comedy, in three acts, entitled Piiidbt rt<\ said to be a charming </< nre piece,
in which the grace of the details supplies the absence of intrigue. His subsequent
pieces, however, belong ail more or less to the comedy of intrigue. Such are Is Mnrin(/e
fOlympe; 1* (r. //<//< r \[. J\,iri, : r, writien in partnership with Jules Sandeau; and J^a
Jfrrditc/te dt (;>r<;<x J)<;nd!n all produced in 18.V5: L Juiiicxve, in 1N">S; J,<x /,,'-.// /,,-*
Pauvres, in the same year, written in conjunction with E. Foussier; and the B<nu J/T-
inge, also in conjunction with Foussier, in 18."i9. Either singlv or with others, M. A. has
also written L-x Eft""'- *. I. F.lx dc Gi'>!/^r, Mittr, (im'rin, L<i C"nt/if/i-/:i. L C/ntuxe mi
llDinan, L'JLit'it I '. ,.'. J'/"l J-"ri.^i< r, and S (/>/* the last mentioned an opera, the music
by Gounod. In 18"i6, he published a small volume of 7%V<x, some of which are very
elegant both in thought and expression. Usually, A. is regarded as one of the leaders
of the school of good sense; in his later pieces, however, approaching too much to the
manner of the younger Dumas. In 1858, M. A. was elected a member of the Academic
Fran9aise. and in the same year was promoted to the rank of ollicer in the Ityioii d'/ion-
ncur, of which he became a commander in 1808.

ATTGITE (from Gr. anfic. brilliancy), or PY'KOXEVE (from Gr. pyr. fire, and renos. a
gucsO, a mineral very nearly allied to hornblende (q.v.), which lias, indeed, by some
mineralogists been regarded as a variety of it, although the distinction between them is
undeniably important, ns characterizing two distinct scries of igneous rocks. A con-
sists of 47 to f>6 per cent of siiica, 20 to 2-1 per cent of lime, and 12 to 19 per cent of
magnesia, the magnesia sometimes giving place in whole or in part to protoxide of iron,
and some varieties containing a little alumina, or a little protoxide of manganese. Its
specific gravity is o. 11).") to 3.f>2.'>. It is little affected by acids, or not at all. It is usually
of a greenish color, often nearly black. It cnstalli/.cs in six or eight-sided prisms vari-
ously modified; it often occurs in crystals, sometimes imbedded, often in grains or
scales. It is an essential component of many igneous rocks particularly of basalt (q.v. ( ,
dolerite. and A. porphyry (see POHPHYKY), from which chiefly it derives its importance
ns a mineral species. A. rock, consisting essentially of A. alone, occurs in the Pyrenees
A. is a common mineral in the trap-rocks of Britain and other countries. It is rareh"
associated with quart/, in which respect it differs from hornblende, but very often with
labradorite, olivine, and leucite. Fluorine, which is generally present in sin, ill quantity
in hornblende, has never been detected in A. The form of the crystals is al-o different
in the two minerals, as well as their cleavage: but prof. Gustav Rose of Berlin ha*
endeavored to show that the difference between A. and hornblende arises only from the
different circumstances in which crystallization has taken place, and that A. i's the pro-
duction of a comparatively r .pid. and hornldende of a comparatively slow cooling. He
regards some of the varieties as intermediate. His views have Ix'en supported by experi-
ments, and by a comparison of A. with certain crystalline substances occurring among
the scoria? of foundries. Dfitpnidf, saJilite, and roccolite are varieties of A. Diallarje (q.v.)
and ftypemtficnc (q.v.) are very nearly allied to it.

AU'GLAIZE, a co. in w. Ohio, intersected by the Dayton and Michigan and the
Lake Erie and Louisville railroads; 339 sq.m. : pop. '80, 85.466. The .Miami canal
passes through, and it is drained by A. river. Surface level, well wooded, and soil fer-
tile. C'o. scat. Wapakoneta.

AUGMENTATION, in heraldry. See HERALDRY.

AUGMENTATION, in music, is the reproduction of a melody, or principal subject of
a composition, in the course of the progress of the piece, in notes of greater length than
those notes in which the melody is first introduced. The tempo remains unaltered. A.
i* of great importance in the treatment of the subjects, or themes, for fugues, and, when
cleverly used, produces great effects.

Augmentation. Q

Auguries.

AUGMENTATION, PROCESS OF, in Scotch law, is an action in the court of teinds
(q.v.) by the minister of a parish against the titular, or beneficiary, and heritors, for the
purpose of procuring an increase to his stipend. The moderator and clerk of the pres-
bytery to which the minister belongs must also be called as parties. By 48 Geo. III. c.
133, it is enacted that no A. shall be granted till the expiration of 15 years from any A.
previous to the act, nor till the expiration of 20 years from any A. subsequent to the act.
A period of 20 years must thus elapse between each augmentation. The amount of the
A. i> tixed, or modified, as it is termed, in grain or victual; the stipend itself being paid
in money, according to the liars' prices (q.v.) of each year. In addition to the ascertain-
ment or modification of a suitable stipend, regard being had to the state of the teind.
the extent of the parish, the expense of living, and the like a process of A. has the fur-
ther object in view of locating the stipend so modified i.e., of assigning it in due pro-
portions to the heritors or otlier parlies in posses-ion of the tithes. This latter object is
intended by means of what is called a scheme of locality i.e., an allotment of the
stipend modified to the several parties liable therefor. This scheme is prepared at the
instance of the second junior lord ordinary (q.v.), on a remit from the teind court. The
last conclusion in a summons of A. is for a suitable sum, or increase to the sum already
allowed, for communion elements i.e., for bread, wine, and other necessaries for cele-
brating the sacrament of the Lord's supper after the Presbyterian fashion. When there
is not a sufficient amount of teind to bring the stipend of the minister up to 150 per
annum., with 8 6s. 8d. for communion elements, it is provided by 50 Geo. III. c. M4.
and 5 Geo. IV. c. 72, that the residue shall l)e paid by the exchequer. In addition to
their stipend, ministers have right to a manse and glebe, or a provision of 50 annually
in lieu of them. See STIPEND, GLEBE, MANSE; see also PARLIAMENTARY Ciiritcii.

ATJGSBUBG, historically one of the most notable'dtic* in Germany, is situated in the
angle between the rivers \Vertach and Lech, and is the chief city of the circle of Swabia
and Neuburg, in Bavaria. The pop. is (1875) 57.210. Though presenting an antique
and rather deserted appearance, A. has numerous fine buildings, and especially one
noble street, the "imperial" Maximilian Strasse, adorned with bronze fountains. The
industry of A. is reviving; several cotlon and woolen factories are in operation, as well
as manufactories of paper, tobacco, and machinery. Its gold and silver wares still retain
their ancient reputation. The art of copper engraving is extinct; but printing, lithog-
raphy, and bookselling have taken a new start. The Alffiitminc Zi'itmnj, the n;o>t
widely circulated paper in Germany, is published here. In 1870. there were 10 printing
establishments and 84 book-shops. There are 74 breweries. Banking and stock-jobbing
are extensively carried on; and it is still the emporium of the trade with Italy and
southern Germany. It is the center of a system of railways connecting it with Ni'irn
l>org and Leipsic, with Switzerland, Munich, etc. The 'foundation of A. was the
"colony" planted by the emperor Augustus, 12 n.c., after the conquest of the Vindelici.
probably on the site of a former residence of that people. It was called Anf/uxfa Vfii-
tleliconnn, and hence the present name. It became the capital of the province of IHiaMia,
was laid wa>te by the Huns in the 5th c., and came next under the dominion of the
Prankish kings. In the war of Charlemagne with Thassilo of Bavaria, it was :i>_ain
destroyed. After the division of Charlemagne's empire, it came under the duke of
Swabia; but having become already rich by commerce, was able to purchase gradually
many privileges, and finally became, in 1276. a free city of the empire. It now ro-e to
greater consequence than eVer, and had reached the summit of its prosperity by the end
of the 14th century. About this time (1368). its aristocratic government was set aside for
a democratic, winch lasted for 170 years, till the aristocracy, favored by C'hai ]
regained the ascendency. A. continued in great eminence for its commerce, manufac-
ture-;, and art, till the war between Charles V. and the Protestant league of Schmalkald
(1540). Along with Nurnberg it formed the emporium of the trade between northern
Europe and the south, and its merchants were princes whose ships were in all seas. See
FVGGER. It was also the center of German art as represented by the Holbeins, Eurk-
mair. Altdorfer, and others. Many diets of the empire were held in A., and the leading
events of the reformation are associated with its name. The discovery of the ro:id to
India by the cape, and of America, turned the commerce of the world into new cbai.nels,
and dried up the sources of A.'s prosperity. It lost its freedom with the abolition of the
German empire in 1806, and was taken possession of by Bavaria.

ATTGS'BTJRG CONFESSION, the chief standard of faith in the Lutheran church. Its
history is the following. With a view to an amicable arrangement of the religious split
that had exi-ted in Germany since 1517, Charles V., as protector of the church, had
convoked a diet of the empire, to meet at Augsburg. Sth April, 15:50, and had required
from the Protestants- a short statement of the doctrines in which they departed from
the Catholic church. The elector, John, of Saxony, therefore, in Mar., called on his
Wittenberg theologians, with Luther at their head, to draw up articles of faith, to lay
before him at Torgau. The commissioned doctors took as a basis, in so far as pure doc-
trine was concerned, articles that had been agreed to the previous year at conferences
held at Marburg and Schwabach, in the form of resolutions of the Lutheran reformers
of Germany against the doctrines of Zwingli. These doctrinal articles supplemented,
and with a practical part newly added, were laid before the elector at Torgau. Mel

9 Augmentation.

Auguries.

anchthon then, taking the Torgau articles as a foundation, began in Augsburg, in May,
and with the advice of various Protestant theologians, as well as princes and other
secular authorities, composed the document, which he first called an apology, but which
in the diet itself took the name of the A. C. Luther was not present in Augsburg,
l>eing then under the ban of the empire, but his advice was had recourse to in its com-
position The Torgau articles were in German: the confession was both in German
and Latin: and Mdanchthon labored incessantly at its improvement till it was presented
to the emperor. June 25. The character of Mefanchthon, in the absence of Luther, had.
led him. in setting about the composition of the document, to aim at maintaining a spirit
of love, forbearance, and mediation, as well as the utmost brevity and simplicity. Its
object, which only became gradually apparent after the meeting of the diet, was, in the
first place, to give a collected view of the belief of the Lutheran Protestants, aiming at
the same time at refuting the calumnies of the Catholics, and at laying a foundation for
measures of reconciliation.

The first part of the confession contains 21 article? of faith and doctrine' 1. Of God;
2 Of original sin; 3. Of the Sou of God; 4. Of justification; 5. Of preaching; 6. Of
new obedience; 7 and 8. Of the church; 9. Of baptism; 10. Of the Lord's supper; 11.
Of confession: 12. Of penance; Ki. Of the use of sacraments; 14. Of church govern-
ment: 15. Of church order; 16. Of secular government; 17. Of Christ's second coming
to judgment; 18. Of freewill; 19. Of the cause of sin; 20. Of faith and good works;
21. Of the worship of saints. The second and more practical part, which is' carried out
at greater length, contains seven articles on disputed points: 22. On the two kinds of
the sacrament ; 23. Of the marriage of priests; 24. Of the mass; 25. Of confession ; 26.
Of distinctions of meat; 27. Of conventual vows; 28. Of the authority of bishops.

This document, signed by some six Protestant princes and two free cities, was read
before the emperor and the diet. 25th June, 1580. Melauchthon, not looking upon the
confession as binding. l>egan shortly after to make som- 1 alterations in its expression; at
la>t. in 1540. he published a Latin edition ((_'<> nfixxio Variata) in which there were
important ciianires and additions. This was especially the case with the article on the
Lord's supper, in which, with a view to conciliation, he endeavored to unite the views
of the Lutherans ami Calvinists. This gave rise subsequently to much controversy;
orthodox Liitheranism repudiated the alterations of Melauchthon, and long continued
to subject his memory to great abuse: though it is clear that Melanchthon and his
adherents contemplated no substantial departure in doctrine from the original confession.
It is not certain that the form of the confession found in the Lutheran standards is
identical with the unaltered A. C., as the two original documents German and Latin
laid before the diet have been lost. The chief distinction between the orthodox Luther-
ans and the reformed churches of Germany has all along been adherence to the " unal-
tered" or to the "altered" confession. It was even a matter of controversy whether the
"reformed" were entitled to the rights secured to the Protestants by the religious peace
of Augsburg, concluded in 1555, on the ground of the "unaltered" confession. Though
the A. C. is still formally adhered to by the Protestant churches of Germany, it is con
siy no longer the expression of the belief of the vast majority of the meml>ers. after
the great advances made by theology, and the many alterations in public opinion and
feeling 1 .

ATTGS BURG INTERIM. See INTERIM.

AUGUR. CHRISTOPHER C., b. 1821 ; a graduate of West Point and brigadier-general
in the U. ^. army; served in the war with .Mexico, and in various Indian skirmishes.
In the civil war he was major-general of volunteers, and was wounded at Cedar moun-
tain. At tiie close of the war he was brevetted major-general of the regular army.

AUGUR. HKZKKTAII. 1791-1853; an American artist. His l>est work is the :<tatue
of "Jephtha and his Daughter" in the Trumbull gallery of Yale college: but what
gave him greater fame was the invention of a machine for carving, which is uo.v in
general use.

AUGURIES and AUSPICES. These terms are familiar to every reader of Roman

history, and are. besides, so frequently employed in English in a secondary and meta-
phorical sen-;', that a vague notion of their original meaning is caught up even by those
who know nothing of classical antiquities. As. however, the entire religious and political
life of the early Romans was deeply penetrated by the influence of their sacred super-
stitions, and as amongst these auguries and auspices held a prominent place, a clear
conception of what they were is "a matter of considerable moment. The following
statements exhibit, in a condensed form, the substance of what is known on the subject.
Like almost all primitive nations, the Romans believed that every unusual occurrence
had a supernatural significance, and contained, hidden in it, the will of heaven regard-
ing men. To reveal or interpret this hidden will, was the exclusive privilege of the
augur. who apparently derived his official designation, in part at least, from urin, a bird;
while Roman history abundantly proves that the observation of the flight of birds was
a principal means adopted for discovering the purpose of the gods. It was not, how-
ever, any one who could be appointed an augur. The gods selected their own inter-
pi eters that is to say, they conferred the divine gift upon them from their very birth;
but an educational discipline wa-s also considered necessary, and hence a "college of

A t'.u-u-t. 1

August!. 1U

augurs" figures in the very dawn of Roman history. Romulus, it is almost certain, -was
n augur Himself. He is said to have been skilled in the art of divination from his
youth; and by "divination" we mu>t specially understand augury; for the Romans,
with patriotic piety, held all the forms of divination practiced in other countries to ho
useless a qd profane. Previous to the Ogulnian law, passed in tha year 307 B.C., tliere
were only four augurs, who were selected from the patricians. I5y this law, however,
the plebeians became eligible for the pontifical or augural offices, and live were immedi-
ately created. For more than ~00 years, the number continued the same, till Sulla, in
81 B.C., increased it to fifteen. Finally, in the first days of the empire, when all parties,
sick of the long civil wars, hurried to throw their privileges at the feet of the monarch
bo hod brought peace into their homes, the right of electing augurs at his pleasure
was conferred on Augustus, alter which the numl>er became indefinite.

At first the augurs were elected by the comitia cnrinta; but as the sanction cf the
former was necessary to give validity to the acts of the latter, they could always " veto"
any elections which were obnoxious to them; so that the power of electing members to
fiil up vacancies naturally fell into the hands of the college itself, and so continued till
103u.c., when a tribune of the people named Ahenobarbus carried a law by which it
was enacted that for the future, vacancies in the augural and pontifical ol'iccs should
not be filled up by those religious corporations themselves, but by a majority of certain
picked tribes. This new law was occasionally repealed and re-enacted during the civil
wars which lasted till the time of Augustus, The scramble for power, however, during
these political vicissitudes, as well as the general advance of knowledge, had rendered
its prophetic pretensions ridiculous in the eyes of educated people. By Cicero's time,
it had lost its religious character altogether, but was s;ill regarded as one of the highest
political dignities, and coveted for the power it conferred.

The modes of divination employed by the augurs were five in number atigiirium ex
, ex acibun, ex tripudii*, ex fuadrupea&nu, ex dirt*. The frst, related to the interpre-

tation of the celestial phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, was apparently of
Etruscan origin, and held to be of supreme significance. The wcoiid related to" the
interpretation of the noise and flight of birds. It was not every bird, however, that
could be a sure messenger of the gods. Generally speaking, those " consulted," as it
was called, were the eagle, vulture, crow, raven, owl, and hen. The first two belonged
to the class of alilcn, or birds whose Jtiyld revealed the will of the gods; the last four to
the class of oscincs, whose voice divulged the same. These two modes of augury were
the Oldest and most important. Of the other three, the auguries t>.r, tri;>ut/ii* were taken
from the feeding of chickens; the auguries ex quad^upedUm*, from four-footed animals
as, for instance, if a dog, or wolf, or hare ran across the path of a Roman, ami startled
him by any unusual motion, he mentioned it to an augur, who was expected to be able
to advise him what to do; the auguries ex dirw (a vague kind of augury), from any
trifling accidents or occurrences not included in the previous four such as sneezing,
stumbling, spilling salt on the table, etc.

At Rome, the auspices were taken on the summit ^f the Capitoline hill; and the
ground on which the augur stood was solemnly set apart for the purpose. The latter
theu took a wand, and marked out a portion of the heavens in which his observations
were to be made. This imaginary portion was called a temp'um (hence rout, iti/,l<tri. to
contemplate), and was subdivided into right and left. According as the birds appeared
in either of these divisions were the auspices favorable or unfavorable. How vast tho
political influence and authority of the augurs must have been is seen from the fact that
almost nothing of any consequence could take place without their sanction and approval.
The election of every important ruler, king, consul, dictator, or praetor, every civic
officer, every religious functionary, was invalid if the auspices were unfavorable. No
general could lawfully engage in battle no public land could be allotted no marriage
or adoption, at least among the patricians, was held valid unless tho auspices were first
taken, while the comitia of the centuries could be dispersed at a moment's notice by the
veto of any member of the augural college.

\Ve have employed the two terms, auguries and auspices, as synonymous. But a
Blight difference is perceptible between them: not the augurs only, but the chid magis-
trates of Rome (inheriting the honor from Romulus), held the "auspices." while the
" auguries" were exclusively in the possession of the former; but the mode of divination.
and the end to \w obtained by it. seem to have been the same in both cases.

The power of taking the auspices in war was confined to the comi.uuider-in-chief;
and any victory gained by a legate was said to be won under the auspices of his superior.
and the latter alone was entitled to a triumph. Hence has originated the very common
phrase in our language, "under the auspices" of some one. which usually denotes
nothing more than that the person alluded to merely lends the influence of his name.

AUGUST, the sixth month in the Roman year, which began with .Mar. was originally
styled M'.rfi'li'x, and received its present name from the emperor Augustus, on account o'f
wveral of the most fortunate events of his life bavin? occurred daring this month. On
this month he was first admitted to the consulate, and thrice entered theci'y in triumph.
On the same month, the legions from the .laniculiini placed themselves under his
auspices. Kgypt was brought under the authority of the Roman people, and an end put
to the civil wars. (See Mucrobius, i. IS.) As the fifth month, or (juintnis, had pre-

Antrust,
August L.

viously been styled Julius in honor of Julius Caesar, a day was taken from Feb. to
make A. equal with July.

AUGUSTA, the name of two considerable cities in the United States. 1. A. is the
capital of Maine, situated on both banks of the river Kcnnebec, which is here crossed by
a bridge 520 ft. long. Its lat. is 44 19' n., and long. 09 50' w. Up to A. the river is
navigable for sloops from its mouth, a distance of 4o in., in a straight line; while a dam,
.constructed immediately above the city, enables steamboats to ply more than 20 m.
above, as far as Waterville. A. is also a station on the railway between Portland and
Bangor. The dnm. too, which improves the navigation, has created a vast water-po\ver,
which is extensively employed for manufacturing purposes. Between 1830 and 1870,
the pop. had increased from 3980 to 7808. 2. A. is the second city in Georgia, on
the Savannah, 2:31 m. from its mouth. Its lat. is 33 28' n., and long. '81 r 54' w. It has
extensive railway communication; and a canal, from a point 9 m. up, brings the waters
of the Savannah to the city on such a level as to furnish a fall of 35 or 40 ft. a water-
power which is extensively and profitably employed. It is spacious and regular in its
plan Greene street, for instance, being 168 ft. broad. The chief buildings are the city
ball, a masonic hall, an odd-fellows' hall, the Richmond academy, ihe Georgia medical
college, the opera-house, and an orphan asylum. The city also possesses an arsenal,
water-works, and numerous banks, factories of which the chief is " Augusta factory,"
with 500 hands foundries, flouring-mills. churches, hospitals, and newspapers. Of late
years, the pop. has increased rapidly. In 1880, it was 22,301.

AUGUSTA, a co. of Virginia, in the valley of the Shenandoah; 900 sq.m. : pop. '70,
23,70;} 6737 colored; in '80,^5,5007000 colored. It is watered by Ihe branches of the
Shenandoah and their tributaries, and by several small streams rlo'wing into the James
river. The elevation is considerable, including as it does the ridge dividing the waters
of the Shenandoah from those of the James. The population is largely of Scotch-Insh
descent, with an intermixture of the German element from Pennsylvania. The ci'.ief
productions are beef, pork, mutton, wool, wheat, corn, rye, oats, barley, hay, and
tobacco. The streams furnish an abundance of water power. Deposits of iron and
magnesia are found in some places. Near Craigsville is an inexhaustible deposit of
coral marble of line quality, and in the eastern section anthracite coal is abundant.
Mineral springs abound, 'the educational advantages of the county are of a superior
kind.

AUGUSTA , JOHN, 1500-75; a German theologian. lie studied at Wiirtemberg under
Luther and Melanchthon, though he did not adopt all of the former's views. lie was a
minister among the Bohemian brethren, and subsequently the bishop of the sect. After
the Schmalkalden war, all the sect were banished, and A. and other leaders arrested,
lie was o tiered freedom if he would make public recantation, but this he declined to do.
In 15(54 he was liberated, pledging himself not to teach or preach. He wrote an
Outline of ike JJvctriitt'S of the Bukeininn Brethren, and two other religious works.

AUGUSTA, MARIA LOUISA CATHERINE, b. Sept. 30, 1811: queen of Prussia and
empress of Germany, daughter of Charles Frederick, the grand duke of Saxe Weimar,
by a daughter ot Paul I. of Russia. She was brought up at the court of her grandfather,
Charles Augustus, where she was intimate with Goethe. Her oldest sister married
Charles, prince of Prussia, and she married his brother William, June 11, 1829. Her
only children are the crown prince and the princess Louisa, whose education she herself
personally superintended. The empress is a lover and patron of arts and letters, and is
greatly beloved for Ix-nevolence, and for personal exertion for the relief of wounded
soldiers in 1870-71, which work she supplemented in 1872 by founding a seminary for
the education of the daughters of officers who fell in the war.

AUGUSTA I1ISTORIA, or AUGUSTAN HISTORY, the title of a collection of biog-
raphies of Roman emperors from Adrian to Carinue. The memoirs are important for
matters of fact, but the literary character is poor. The first edition was printed as early
as 1475, at Milan. There is no English translation.

AUGUSTAN AGE, the literary period of Rome which was at its height in the reiga
of Augustus, during wjiich such writers as Ovid, Horace. Cicero, Virgil, and ( atullus
flourished, with patrons of literature like Meca-nas. At that a'je the language was in its
perfection, and men of letters were held in high honor. The English A. A. was the
period of Addison, Swift, Steele, and their compeers. In France such a period is
assigned to thelatter part of the reign of Louis XIV.

ATJGUS TENBURG, a village of 800 inhabitants in the center of the island of Alsen.
It is noted for being the residence of the duke of IIolstein-Sondcrburg-Augustenburg,
for its splendid " stables," and for the castle belonging to the ducal family.

ATJGUS'TI, a learned German theologian, b. in 1772 at Kschenberga, near Gotha. He
studied at Jena under the celebrated Griesluich. and afterwards devoted himself for some
time tn public teaching. In 1798, he became lecturer (prirat-dwut) in philosophy, and
in IStK) 1 e was appointed professor-extraordinary of the same. Three years after, he
succeeded Ilgen in the chair of oriental literature; but his love of theological studies
becoming predominant, he a'-ci-ptcd the offer of a theological professorship in the
university of Breslau, where he exerted a wide and beneficial influence. In 1819, he was

Augustine.

transferred to Bonn, and made a director of the consistory at Cologne. Other ecclesias-
tical honors were conferred on him during the course of his life. He d. on the 28th
April, 1841.

In the early part of his career, A. was a decided rationalist; but subsequently he
returned to orthodox' Lutheran ism, more, perhaps, from the conservative bias of his
nature, than from a.iy profound conviction of the truth of the national creed. The
change, however, was not accompanied, as is usual in such cases, with any intense
bigotry. A. remained to the last a liberal-hearted Christian. His writings, marked by
great learning, industry, and spirit, are much esteemed by his countrymen. The most
important io his Manual of Christian Archaotof/t/ (Leip., 1836-37).

AUGUSTINE, AuuKLirs ST., the greatest of the Latin fathers, was b. at Tagaste, a t.
of Numidia, on the 13th of Nov., 354 A.D. His father, Patricius, was poor, but of good
family, and tilled the oiliee of magistrate. He continued a pagan till advanced in years,
and was only baptized shortly before his death. He does not seem to have been remark-
able for any elevation of mind; on the contrary, one may fairly conclude, from his sou's
statements, that he was an irascible, kind-hearted man, more intent on his son's advance-
ment in this world than in that which is to come. His temper often caused great sorrow
to his gentle and pious wife, who loved him faithfully, however, and was therefore
rewarded with the secret by which she could charm the evil spirit out of him. Patrieius
was very anxious that A. should become a fine scholar, as he noticed that not a few
people in his day were obtaining large incomes by their "wits." A. was accordingly
sent to school at Madaura, and subsequently to Carthage, to complete his studies.
Previous to this, however, he had enjoyed the inestimable felicity of a religious education
at home. His mother, Monnica, had been his best instructor. Neamler truly says:
"Whatever treasures of virtue and worth the life of faith, even of a soul not trained DJ
scientific culture, can bestow, was set before him in the example of his pious mother."'

The energy and penetration of intellect exhibited by the young A. excited the most
flattering hopes. When he left home for Carthage, a joyous, ardent, and resolute stu-
dent, a bright career of worldly prosperity seemed to open before him. But strong as
A. was, the temptations of Carthage were stronger. His nature, deep, impetuous, and
passionate, thirsted for excitement. He had just reached the age when happiness is
conceived to be synonymous with pleasure, and Carthage, the second city of the empire,
was rank as Rome in its sensual corruptions. A. fell. In his Confcxx'onit, he paints the
frightful abyss into which he felt himself plunged; nor does he seek to excuse himself;
on the contrary, the shadow of his guilt is thrown forward over all his boyish life, ami
he displays even a morbid zeal andacuteness in pointing out what others, less censorious,
might term the frivolous errors of his childhood, but which seemed to A. the parents of
his subsequent vices, and therefore equally bad and equally reprehensible. Before he
had reached his 18th year, his mistress bore him a son, who was named Adeodatus
afterwards baptized along with him at Milan. The thing which appears to have tirst stirred
his deeper being into life \va a passag > which he suddenly came across in the II" rt, nxiux
of Cicero, treating of the wortli and dignity of philosophy. To use the language of
N'Miider: " The conflict now began in his soul which lasted through eleven years of his
life. As the simplicity of the sacred Scriptures possessed no attractions for his taste a
taste formed by rhetorical studies and the artificial discipline of the declamatory schools
especially as his mind was now in the same tone and direction with that of the
emperor Julian, when the latter was condncte.l to the Platonic theosophy; as. moreover,
he found so many things in the doctrines of the church which, from want of inward
experience, could not be otherwise than unintelligible to him. while lie attempted to
grasp, by the understanding from without, what can be understood only from the inner
life, from the feeling of inward wants, and one's own inward experiences; so under these
circumstances, the delusive pretensions of the Manichaean sect, which, instead of a blind
belief on authority, held out the promise of clear knowledge and a satisfactory solution
of all questions relating to things human and divine, presented the stronger attractions
to his inexperienced youth." A. now became a professed Manich:enn. Returning tola's
native town, he lectured fora short time on "grammar" that is to say, on literature.
Boon afterwards, he returned to Carthage, to pursue his profession under more favora-
ble auspices. Here he wrote, in his '.27th year, his first work, De Apto et Pnlchro
a treatise on aesthetics, which has unfortunately been lost. About the same time his
spiritual nature became keener and more imperative in its demands. The futile specu-
lations of the visionary sect to which lie had attached himself now became apparent,
lie had a series of interviews and conversations with Faustns. one of the most celebrated
tea<-hers of Manichoeism; and these so utterly disappointed his expectation*, that he left
tiie society in disgust and sad bewilderment, after having wasted ten years in a fruitless
s arch for wisdom and truth,

In 383, he went to Rome, followed by the tears, the prayers, and the anxieties of his
excellent mother, \yho was not, however, bereaved of hope, for both her faith and lid-
love were strong. After a short stay, A. left Rome, and proceeded to Milan, where he
became a teacher of rhetoric. Is'o chamjc could have been more fortunate. At this time,
the bishop of Milan was the eloquent and devout St. Ambrose. An intimacy sprang
tip between the two. A. often went to hear his friend preach. He was r-ot,
however, as yet a Christian. He had only emerged, as it were, from Mauiclucism

1 3

Atignstlne.

the region of night-dotids and shadows and was now gazing on the gray dawn
of the Platonic philosophy, prophetic of t; e noontide splendors of Christianity
which were soon to burst upon his vision. Still, A. did not afterwards despise tins
preliminary training; he was too great and honest a man for that. He confesses
that the Platonic writings "enkindled in his mind an incredible ardor;" they
awakened his deeper spiritual nature, which keenly upbraided him with his sins. Once
more he studied the Bible, although from a purely Platonic point of view, and rather
wishing to find in it " those truths which he had already made himself acquainted with
from the Platonic philosophy, but presented in a different form." He began to think
that Christ and Paul, by their glorious life and death, their divine morality, their great
holiness, and manifold virtues, must have enjoyed much of that "highest wisdom"
which the philosophers thought confined to themselves. For some time he clung to his
Platonic Christianity, and shaped the doctrines of the Bible according to it ; but when he
found that it was weak to overcome temptations, and that "he himself was continually
borne down by the ungodly impulses which he thought lie had already subdued," the
necessity of a living personal God and Savior to rescue him from the condemnation of
his own conscience, and impart a sanctifying vitality to the abstract truths which he
worshiped, shone clear through all the stormy struggles of his heart. In the eighth
and ninth books of his ("///;. W//., he has left a noble though painful picture of his
inward life during this momentous crisis. It is sufficient to say that the spirit of God
triumphed. On the 2-jth of April, 387 A. D., A. along with his natural son, Adeodatus,
of whom he seems to have been justly fond, was baptized by Ambrose at Milan.
Shortly after he set out on his return home. At Ostia, on the Tiber, his beloved
mother, who had followed him to Milan, died; her eyes had seen the salvation of her
son. and she could depart in peace. After her death, and before leaving Italy for
Africa, A. wrote his trcati>es. 1) \!->i\l'u.-t fadcsue CatJioUcw ct (k Mrf!t." Mititic]<(p>;nnn;
D (juiiutii((t< Ai.iiini; and DC l.ibcro Arbiiri. It is unnecessary to relate at any length
the subsequent life of Augustine. His character and principles of action had become
fixed, and he now brought the whole majesty of his intellect to bear upon the side of
Christianity. Having, as was then customary for converts, divided his goods among the
poor, lie retired into private life, and composed several treatises De Gi /*/' C<>itti;i
Miinirha-uft, D. J// '/</, DC Mifjf.it r<>, nudlti V< n't /.'< J /ffto>>, which secured him a high repu-
tation. In 391, he was ordained a priest by Valerius, bishop of Hippo; and during the
next four years, though earnestly engaged in the work of preaching, contrived to write
three different works. In 395. he was made colleague of Valerius. Then ensued a
period of hot strife, known in church history as the bonatist and Pelagian controver-
sies. A., as may naturally be supposed, having passed through so fierce a fire of per-
sonal experience on religious questions, would be very jealous both of what he kin ir to
be the truth, and of what he on\y thought to be the truth. This, added to his acute and
profound intellect, made him. in spite of the poverty of his historical erudition, a most
formidable and relentless antagonist. But this portion of his career will fall to lx;
treated more properly under Pelagius and Pelagiauism (q.v.). In 397, appeared his
Ct'i'fixxiuitx, in 13 books. It is a deep, earnest, and sacred autobiography of one of the
greatest intellects the world has seen. Passages of it have no parallel except in the
Psalms of David. In 413. he commenced his De Ciritate Dei. and finished it in 426. It
is generally considered his most powerful work. Exception may be taken to much that
it contains. The learning is no doubt very considerable, but it is not accurate. A. was
an indifferent scholar: he had studied the Latin authors well; but of Greek "he knew
little, and of Hebrew, nothing." Many of his reasonings are based on false and unten-
able premises, and he erred often in his etymological explanations: but in spite of these
and other drawbacks, the final impression left on the mind is, that the work is one of the
most profound and lasting monuments of human genius. In 428, A. published his
J\, tritrtiitiom-x. in which he makes a recension of all his previous writings. It is a work
of great candor. He frankly acknowledges such errors and mistakes as he had discov-
ered himself to have committed, explains and modifies numerous statements, and mod-
estly reviews his whole opinions. His end was now drawing nigh. In 429, the Vandals,
under the barbarian Genseric. landed in Africa; next year they besieged Hippo. A.,
now in his 76th year, prayed that God would help his unhappy church, and grant
himself a release out of this "present evil world. He d. on the 28th of Aug., 430, in the
third month of the siege.

Xo mind has exerted greater influence on the church than that of Augustine. Con-
sistency of theological opinion is not to be looked for from him, nor from any of the
church fathers. A larger sphere of freedom was permitted to religious speculation in
those unfettered days, before creeds were encircled with that traditional sanctity they
now possess. Nevertheless, we have little difficulty in determining the central tenets of
his theological belief. He held the corruption of human nature through the fall of man,
ii'^l the consequent slavery of the human will. Both on metaphysical and religious
grounds, he asserted the doctrine of predestination, from which he necessarily deduced
the corollary doctrines of election and reprobation; and finally.' he strenuously supported,
against the Pelagians, not only these opinions, hut also the doctrine of the perseverance
of the saints. "At the same 'time, it is but fair to add that, even on such points, his
language is far from uniform; that much of the severity of his doctrines arose from the

A ii-nst ini'. I 1

utu.

bitter and painful remembrance of his own early sins, and from the profound impres-
sion which the corrupt stale of society in his time, and the vast desolations of harharism,
had made on his earnest and susceptible soul; and that, in Jus desire to give glory to
God, he sometimes forgot to be just to man. In illustration of this may be mentioned
the fact (see Neander, Mosheim, and Waddington's church histories) that the maxim
which justified the chastisement of religious errors by civil penalties, even to burning,
was established and continued by the authority of A., and thus transmitted to following
uires. In his epistle to Dulcitius, a civil magistrate, who shrank from pulling in force
the edict of Honorius against heretics, houses these words: "It is much better that
w>mc should j>cri: h by their own lircs. than that the whole body should burn in the ever-
la>ting llames of Gehenna, through the desert of their impious dissension." In the
opinion of Neander, it was to the somewhat narrow culture and the peculiar personal
I'xperience and temperament of Augustine, that the doctrines of absolute predestination
and irresistible grace, first systematized by him, owed much of that harshness and one-
fcideduess which so long obstructed their general reception by the church, and which
continue to render them repulsive to multitudes.

His life has been written by Tillemont, and his entire works have been repeatedly
edited. The Benedictine edition, published at Paris in 11 vols. (1(579-1 700). is the best.
Numerous editions of the Vonfenxf^iu-n and DC Ciritate Dd have appeared; the ir.ost
recent of the latter by Marcus Dods, D.r>. In the "Library of Fathers of Ilie Holy
Catholic Church," are translations into English of A.'s (.'onfi.-i'ioii*, Kj'i-oxition on M.
Joint'* Go*))el and on the Pxulm.1. &'rmomt on the 3V?/ 1 Trxtaim at. and Short Trattii-ex. His
txnnuit. vn the Mount is translated by Trench, and his Letters by Rev. .1. G. Cunningham.

ATJ GT/STINE, PAINT, first archbishop of Canterbury, was originally a monk in the
convent of St. Andrew at Rome. In 596, he was sent, along with forty other monks, 1 y
pope Gregory I., to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, and establish the authority
of the Roman see in Britain. The missionaries were kindly received by Kthell'crt. king
of Kent, whose wife Bertha, daughter of the king of the Parisians, was a Christian, and
retained a Frankish bishop in her suite as chaplain. A reside nee was assigned to them
at Canterbury, then called Durorernmn, where they devoted themselves to monastic
exercises and preaching. The conversion and baptism of the king contributed greatly
to the success of their efforts among his subjects, and it is recorded that in one day A.
baptized 10.000 persons in the river Swale. Nominal as much of this conversion must
have Ik-en, there is abundant testimony to the fact that a marked improvement in the
life and manners of the Anglo-Saxons followed the evangelistic labors of A. and his
companions.

In 597, he went to Aries, by direction of the pope, and was there consecrated arch-
bishop of Canterbury and metropolitan of England. On his return, he dispatched a
presbyter and monk to Rome, to inform the pope of his success, and obtain instruction
on certain questions. Gregory's advices with regard to the propagation of the faith aie
admirable examples of that pious ingenuity which has ofte'ii characterized the missionary
policy of the church of Rome. Thus, instead e>f destroying the heathen temples. A.
was recommended to convert them into Christian clam-he s. by washing the walls with
holy water, erecting altars, and substituting holy iclics ami symbols for the images of
the heathen gods. A.'s subsequent efforts to establish his authority over the native
British church were not so successful as his missionary labois. He- el. in < M. and was
buried in the church-yard of the monastery bearing his mime, fr ,nned by king Kthelbert.
His body was removed to the cathedral of Canterbury in H'l'l. Bede's H.'i-toriii /.VrW-
nxtira Genfi* Arifjlorum is the great authority for the life ot St. A. A thoughtful and
pleasing sketch of it will be found in the Rev. Arthur P. Stanley's Historical Mutwrial*
of Cmtterbitry, Lond., 1855.

The site anel remains of St. A.'s monastery were purchased in 1844 by Mr. Bcresford
Hope, by whom the>y were presented to the archbishop of Canterbury in trust, for the
erection of a missionary college in connection with the church of England. This
institution was incorporated by royal charter in 1848. The buildings, in which as much
of the ancient structure as possible has been preserved, contain accommodation for about
4~> students, whose course of study extends over three years. Twenty exhibitions have
been founded in connection with the college.

AU GUSTINES, or AreiusTix'iANS, names given to several religious bodies in tho
Roman Catholic church. Whether St. Augustine ever framed any formal rule e>f
monastic life, is uncertain; but one was de-duced from bis writings, and was adopted by
as many as 30 monastic fraternities, of which the chief were the Canons Regular, the
Knighis Templars (ej.v.), the Regginir Hermits, the Friar> Preachers or Dominicans (ej.v.),
miel the Prcmonsiratensians (q.v.). The CANONS l*K(;ri,Aii OK ST. ArcrsTiNK. or A i si IN
(' \NONS. appear to have been founded or remodeled ahe>ut the middle' of the 1 !th century.
Their discipline was lc*< severe than that of monks properly so called, but more- rigid
than that of the secular or parochial clergy. They lived under one ie>e>f. having a coiunon
dormitory and refectory. Their habit was a long cassock, with a white rochet o\erit.
all covered by a black cloak or hood, whence they were often called Black Cations. In
England, where they were established early in the 12th e\. they had about 170 Louses.
the earliest, it would seem, being at Nostell, near Pontefract, in Yorkshire. In Scotland

I x Augustine.

Augu&tua.

they had about 25 houses: the earliest at Scone was founded in 1114, and filled by canons
from Nostell; the others of most note were at Inchcolm in the tirth of Forth, St.
Andrews, Hoiyrood, Cambuskennelh, and InchalTray.

The BI;<;(;:M; HKK.MITS, HKU.MITSOK ST. AUGUSTINE, or AUSTIN FHIAHS. were a much
more austere order, renouncing all property, and vowing to live by the voluntary aim*
of the faithful. They are believed to have sprung from certain societies of recluses who,
in the llth and 12th centuries, existed especially in Italy without any regulative consti-
tution. At the instigation, as is alleged, of the rival fraternities of Dominicans and
Franciscans, pope Innocent IV., about the middle of the 13th c., imposed on them the
rule of St. Augustine, whom they claimed as their founder. In l'2~>ti, pope Alexander
IV. placed them under the control of a superior or president called a "general. ' la
12*7, a code of rules or constitutions was compiled, by which the order long continued
to IK' governed. About 1570. friar Thomas of Je.-us, a Portuguese brother of the order,
Introduce^) a more austere ride, the disciples of which were forbidden to wear shoe*,
whence they were called dixc>dr+,iti, or "barefooted friars."

The degeneracy of the order in the 14th c., called into existence new or reformed
August'mian societies, among which was that Saxon one to which Luther belonged.
But in his day, even these had fallen victims to the general corruption of I hi* priesthood,
and he inflicted serious injury upon it by his unsparing denunciations. After the French
revolution, the order was wholly suppressed in France, i?pain. and Portugal, and partly
in Italy and southern Germany. It was diminished even in Austria and .Naples. It is
most powerful in Sardinia and America.

The name of A. was given also to an order of nuns who claimed descent from a
convent founded by St. Augustine at Hippo, and of which his sister was the first abbess.
They were vowed to the care of the sick and the service of hospitals. The Hotel-Diet!
at Paris is still served by them.

ATTGTTSTO WO, a t. of Poland, the capital of a circle of the same name, on the Xetta,
a feeder of ilie Bug, 133 in. n.e. from Warsaw. It was founded by Sigismiind Augustus,
king of Poland, in 1557. It has woolen and linen manufactures, and some nade in
horses and cattle. Great part of the surrounding district is occupied by lakes and
marshes, or covered with forests. Pop. '07, 9354.

AUGUS TTJLT7S, ROMULUS, the last emperor of the western portion of the Roman
empire. His name was Augustus, but the diminutive title under which he is universally
known was given him by the Romans on account of the essential littleness of his char-
acter. He was the son of Orestes, a Pannonian of birth and wealth, who rose to high
rank under the emperor Julius Nepos, whose favor he repaid by stirring up the barba-
rian troops in the pay of Home to mutiny against him. On the flight of the emperor,
Ore-tes conferred the vacant throne on his son A. (476 A.D ), retaining all substantial
power in his o>vn hands. Orestes, failing to conciliate the barbarians, who had helped
him against Nepos, with a grant of the third of the lands of Italy, they, under the com-
mand of Odoacer. besieged him in Pavia, and capturing, put him to death. A. yielded
at once, and bring of too little consequence to be put to death, he was dismissed to .t
villa near Naples with an annual pension of GOOD pieces of gold. His after-fate is
unkpown.

AUGUSTUS, CATUS JULIUS C.KSAU OCTAVIAXUS. the son of Octaviusand Atia (daugh-
ter of .luliri, the younger sister of .lulius C';esari. was b. 2'!d Sept., B.C. 63. The Octa-
vian family came originally from Velitra, in the country of the Volsci; and the branch
from which A. descended was rich and honorable. His 'father had risen to the rank of
senator and piu-for. but died in the prime of life, when A. was only 4 years old. A. was
carefully educated in Rome under the guardianship of his mother a'nd his step-father,
Lucius Marcius Philippus. At the age of 12, A. delivered a funeral oration over his
grandmother: at 16. he received the toga virilis. The talentsof the youth recommended
him to his- grand-uncle, Julius Tiesar, who adopted A. as his son anil heir. At the time
of Tatar's assignation (Mar. 15, HP. 44), A. was a student under the celebrated orator
Apollodorus. at Apollonia in Illyricum, where, however, he had been sent, chiefly with
a view to yam practical instruction in military affairs. lie returned to Italy, assuming
the name of Julius C;i-sar Octavianus, and at his landing at Brundusium, was welcomed
by deputies from the veterans there assembled; but declining their offers, lie chose to
enter Rome privately. The city was at tnis time divided between the two parties of the
republicans and the friends of Mark Antony: but the latter had, by adroit maneuvers,
rained the ascendency, and enjoyed almost absolute power. A. was at tirst haughtily
treated by the consul, who refused to surrender the property of C'tesar. After 8OHM
fighting, in which Antony was worsted, and had to flee across the Alps. A., who had
made himself a favorite with the people and the army, succeeded in -retting the will of
Julius desar carried out. He found an able friend and advocate in Cicero, who had at
first ^ regarded him with contempt. The great orator, while imagining that he was labor-
ing in behalf of the republic, was in fact only an instrument for raising A to supreme
power. When Antony returned from Gaul with Lepidus, A. joined them in establishing
R triumvirate. He obtained Africa. Sardinia, and Sicily; Antony, Gaul: and Lepidus.
Spain. Their power was soon made absolute by the "massacre' of those unfriendly to
them in Italy, and by victories over the republican army in Macedonia, commanded by

Augustas.

Brutus and Oa.shis. After the battle of Philippi, won by A. and Antony, of which the
former unjustly claimed all the credit, whereas it mainly belonged to the latter, the
triumvir- 'made a new division of the provinces A. obtaining Italy, and Lepidus,
Africa. The Perusian war, excited by Fulvia, wife of Antony, seemed likely to lead to
a contest between A. and his rival; but was ended by the death of Fulvia, and the
subsequent marriage of Antony with Octavia, sister of Augustus. Shortly afterwards,
the claims of Sextus Pompeius and Lepidus having been settled by force and fraud,
the Roman world was divided between A. and Antony; and a contest for supremacy
commenced between them. While Antony was lost in luxurious dissipation at the
court of Cleopatra, A. was industriously striving to gain the love and confidence of the
Roman people, and to damage his rival in public estimation. At length war was
declared against the queen of Egypt, and at the naval battle of Actium (q-V^), B.C. 31. A.
v.a< victorious and became sole ruler of the whole Roman world. Soon afterwards,
Antony and Cleopatra ended their lives by suicide. The son of Antony by Fulvia, and
Ca-.-arfon. son of Caesar and Cleopatra, were put to death; and in B.C. 29, after dispos-
'infif of several affairs in Kgypt, Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor, A. returned to Rome in
triumph, and closing the te'mple of Janus, proclaimed universal peace.

His subsequent measures were mild and prudent. To insure popular favor, he
abolished the laws of the triumvirate, adorned the city of Rome, and reformed many
abuses. At the end of his seventh consulship (B.C. 27). he proposed to retire from office,
in order that the old republican form of government might be re-established, but he was
ultimately induced to retain his power. Hitherto, since Caesar's death, the consul had
been named Oetavian; but now the title of A nfjumti.nt (meaning " sacred" or "consecrated")
wa< conferred on him. In the eleventh consulship of A. (B.C. 23), the tribunitian power
was conferred on him for life by the senate. Republican namesand forms still remained,
but they were mere shadows. A. was in all but name absolute monarch. In 12 i;.c., on
the death of Lepidus, he had the high title of pontifex maxinms. or high priest, bestowed
on him. The nation surrendered to him all the power and honor that" it had to give.

After a course of victories in Asia, Spain, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Gaul, etc., A.~(9 B.C.)
suffered the greatest defeat he had sustained in the course of his long rule, in the person
of Quiutilius Varus, whose army was totally destroyed by the Germans.

This loss so afflicted A. that for some time he allowed his beard and hair to grow, as
a sign of deep mourning, and often exclaimed: "O Varus, restore me my legions!"
From this time A. confined himself to plans of domestic improvement and reform, and
so beautified Rome, that it was said, " A. found the city built of bricks, and left it built
of marble." He also founded cities in several parts of the empire; and altars were
raised by the grateful people to commemorate his beneficence; while by a decree of the
penate, the name Augustus was given to the month Sextilis.

Though surrounded thus with honor and prosperity, A. was not free from domestic
trouble. The abandoned conduct of his daughter Julia was the cause of sore vexation to
him. He had no son, and Marcellus, the son of his sister, and Caiusaud Lucius, the sons
of his daughter, whom he had appointed as his successors and heirs, as well as his
favorite step-son Drusus, all died early; while his step-son Tiberius was an unamiablo
character whom he could not love. Age, domestic sorrows, and failing health warned
Jnm to seek rest; and to recruit his strength, he undertook a journey to Campania: but his
infirmity increased, and he died at Nola (Aug. 19, A.D. 14), in the 77th year of his age.
According to tradition, shortly before his death, he called for a mirror, arranged his hair
neatly, and said to his attendants: " Have I played my part well? If so, applaud me!"
A. had consummate tact and address as a ruler imd politician, and could keep his plans
in secrecy while he made use of the passions and talents of others to forward his own
designs. The good and great measures which marked his reign were originated mostly
by A. himself He encouraged agriculture, patronized the arts and literature, and was
himself an author; butonly a few fragments of his writings have been preserved. Horace,
Virgil, and all the most celebrated Latin poets and scholars, were his friends His was
the Aiif/'ixtitn dfjf of literature. His death threw a shade of sorrow over the whole
Roman world; the bereaved people erected temples and altars to his memory, and num-
Ixjred him among the gods.

AUGUSTUS, Elector of Saxony (1553-1586), son of duke Henry the pious, and of
Katherine of Mecklenburg, was b. July 31, ir>2l>, at Freiberg, then the seat of his father's
court. While still a youth, he spent some time at Prague, and there formed an intimate
friendship with Maximilian, king Ferdinand's son, afterwards emperor of Germany.
in I'll*, lie married Anna, daughter of Christian III. of Denmark, who was universally
popular on account of her devoted adherence to Lutheranism and of her dome-tic
worth. After the death of his brother Maurice in !.">.',::. .\ . vircecdcd to the electorate.
His rule is chiefly noticeable as bearing upon the history of the newly established Prot-
estant church. Equally intolerant and incon-i-tent in' his theology. A. fiist used his
Utmost influence in favor of the Calvinistic doctrine of the sacraments; and then, in
1574. adopted the Lutheran tenets, and persecuted the Cahinists. On the other hand,
however, it must be owned, to his honor, that, by his skillful internal admini-tra-
tion.be raised his country far above the level of any other in Germany, introducing
valuable reforms both in Jurisprudence and finance, and giving a decided impetus to
education, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. He even wrote a book on the

Augustus.

management of orchards and gardens, and commanded that every newly-married pair
should, within the first year of their marriage, plant two fruit-trees. The Dresden
library owes its origin to him, as do also most of its galleries of art and science. His
own favorite private pursuit was that of alchemy, in which the electress Anna also took
H part. In the Jan. of 1586 the electress having died in the previous year A.
married a younir princess of Anhalt, hut died a month after, and was buried in the
cathedral of Freiberg. He was succeeded by his sou, Christian I.

AUGUSTUS II., FREDERICK, commonly called the Strong, elector of Saxony and
king of Poland, second son of the elector, John George III., and of the Danish princess,
Anna Sophia, was horn at Dresden in 1670. His extraordinary strength was developed
by a careful physical education, and his mental faculties more successfully cultivated
than his morals. From 16S7 to 1689 he traveled over the greatest part of Europe, but
was prohibited hy his father from visiting Home. "Upon his father's death (1G91). he
went to Vienna, and there formed an intimacy with Joseph, king of Koine, which mate-
rially influenced his politics. When, in 1694, he succeeded to his brother George as
elector, instead of turning his arms against France, according to previous arrangement,
he undertook the command of the Austro-Saxon army against the Turks in Hungary.
Alter the battle of Olasch, in 1696, he returned to Vienna as a candidate for the throne
of Poland, vacated by John Sobieski. Bidding higher than prince Conti for the crown
(10 million Polish florins), and adopting the Catholic faith, he was elected king by the
venal nobles; and having, hy his imposing force, awed the adherents of Conti, he was
crowned at Cracow, 16th Sept.. 1697. On ascending the throne, he promised to regain,
for his new kingdom, the provinces that had been ceded to Sweden; but his efforts to
do this only led to the defeat of himself and his allies, his own deposition as king of
Poland, the election of Stanislaus Leszcynski. and the ignominious peace of Altranstudt
in 1706. So complete was his humiliation, that A. was compelled to send a letter of
congratulation to the new Polish king, together with all the crown-jewels and archives.
However, on receiving intelligence of the defeat of Charles XII. at Pultowa, in 1709,
he declared the treaty of Altranstildt annulled, marched with a powerful army into
Poland, formed a fresh alliance with the czar, and recommenced a v.'a: with Sweden,
which continued raging with redoubled fury, till the death of Charles XII. at Fredericks-
hall, in 1718. gave a new aspect to affairs, leading first to a truce, and eventually to a
peace with Sweden. Moanwhile, a confederation, headed by a Polish nobleman, had
been formed against the Saxons, and repulsed them with much success, till, in 1716,
through the mediation of the czar, a compact was made between the Poles and A r ,
agreeably to which the Saxon troops left the kingdom. The king now found himself
obliged to employ conciliation, and the splendor of his dissolute court soon won the
i,i vor of the Polish nobles, who followed his example but too closely. Saxony had
bitter cause to regret the union of the crowns. Its resources were shamefully squan-
dered, even when want and famine were in the laud, on the adornment of (he capital,
on the king's mistresses, his illegitimate children, and the alchemists who deluded him
with hopes of the elixir of life. A supported the fine arts as ministering to luxury,
but did little for the cause of science. Despotic in principle, though easy in temper;
ambitious as well as luxurious; reckless alike in the pursuit of war and pleasure, death
overtook him in the midst of projected festivities. On his way to the Warsaw diet,
gangrene of an old wound set in, and he died in Feb., 1733, and was buried at Cracow.
Hy his wife a Protestant, and daughter of the margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach
he left an only son. who succeeded to him. The most celebrated of his numerous ille-
gitimate offspring amounting; it is affirmed, to somewhere about 300 was Maurice,
count of Saxony.

AUGUSTUS III., FREDERICK, elector of Saxony and king of Poland, the son and
successor of the above, was born in Oct., 1696, and carefully educated by his mother in
I lie Protestant faith. At the age of 15, however, he left her tutelage for'a tour through
Germany. France, and Italy, where he changed his religion, secretly professing Catholi-
cism at Bologna, in 1712, though the fact was not publicly known in Saxony till five
years later. It is possible that an eye to the crown of Poland, and to an alliance with
one of the Austrian princesses, may have had something to do with this step. After
succeeding his father in the electorate in 17:'>3, he was chosen king of Poland by a part
of the nobility; and triumphing over the rival claims of Stanislaus Leszcynski, sup-
ported by Louis XV., was unanimously proclaimed three years later. He inherited his
father's sumptuous tastes, though not his talents; and his 'love of art, cultivated by Ins
Italian tour, enriched the gallery of Dresden with noble paintings. The government of
hi- country he made over entirely to his prime minister, count von Bruhl, whose, whole
political system consisted in complete dependence upon Russia. In 17-12. alarmed at
i he increased power Prussia had obtained by the conquest of Silesia, A. formed an alli-
ance with Maria Theresa: and by the secret treaty of Leipsic, contracted to supply her
with 50,000 men. But their united troops were 'completely routed by the Pru-sians in
1745; and Frederick II. pushing on into Saxony, A. had to escape 'from his capital,
saving his art-treasures, but leaving his state-papers in the hands of the conqueror. In
1746, -the peace of Dresden restored him Saxony: but the close of the year airain saw
him embroiled with Prussia. Joining the camp at Pirna, he narrowly escaped hc-ini;
U. K. II. 2

Augustus. 1 Q

Au tii ale.

conclusion of the peace of Hubertsburg. A. returned to Dresden, where he died in 1763.
His son. Frederick Christian, succeeded him in the electorate, and Stanislaus Ponia-
towski became king of Poland.

AUGUSTUS FREDERICK, 1773-1843, Prince of Great Britain and Ireland, duke
of Sussex, sixth son of George III. At Rome he married Lady Augusta Murray.
daughter of the earl of Dunmore, a Roman Catholic; but the marriage was annulled
because he had acted without the consent of the crown. She separated from him at
once, and their children, a son and a daughter, took the name of D'Este. In 1801. A.
was made a peer, with a grant of 12,000 a year, to which 9000 was subsequently
added. He was a liberal on most questions, and favored the abolition of the slave-trade.
Roman Catholic and Jewish emancipation, free trade, and the reform bill. In 1810, he
was grand master of freemasons; in 1816, president of the society for the encouragement
of useful arts; and in 1830, president of the royal society. The prince was a liberal patrou
of literature and the arts, and possessed an unusually tine library.

AUK, AJ.cn, a genus of web-footed birds, the type of a family called alcafl<r, which
was in great part included in the Linnivan genus alca. and to many of the species of
which, now ranked in other genera, the name A. is still popularly extended. The
alcadw are amongst those web-footed birds collectively called bracAypteret (i.e., short
winged) or divers by Cuvier, remarkable for the shortness of their wings, which they
employ as fins dr paddles for swimming under water, some being even incapable of
tiying; and for the position of their legs, further backward than in other birds, which
makes walking difficult, and compels them, when on laud, to maintain an upright atti-
tude. They are distinguished by the very compressed bill, which, in the true auks, is
vertically elevated, and so sharp along the ridge as to resemble the blade of a knife: and
by their entirely palmated feet, destitute of hind toes. The auks are entirely confined
to the seas of the northern hemisphere the penguins taking their place i the southern
and are most abundant in the colder regions. All of them have a dense plumage, which
generally exhibits on its surface a beautifully polished appearance and silvery lustre.
The genus alca, as restricted by Cuvier and others, contains only two species, distin-
guished from the puffins (q.v.), which also belong to this family, chiefly by the greater
length of the bill, and its being covered with feathers as far as the nostrils. The bill,
both in the auks and puffins, is transversely and strongly grooved. But even the two
known species of the restricted genus alca, differ from one another in a most important
particular the wings of the one, the great A., being so short that it is quite incapable
of flight, like the penguins, of which it maybe deemed the true northern representative,
whilst the other, the razor-bill, has comparatively long wings, and flies well. The
GREAT A. (aim impennin), so far as is known, is now extinct. It was as large as a goose.
It was an inhabitant of the most northerly shores, and a very rare visitant of the Orkney
and Shetland islands and the Hebrides. It was almost equally rare in Norway and
Sweden, but was formerly frequent in Iceland and Greenland, and localities on the
coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland. The rapidity with which this bird moved under
water was extraordinary; one of them having been pursued by a six-oared boat for
hours in vain. Like most of the alcada, the great A. laid only one egg, about 5 in.
in length, and 3 in its greatest breadth. The egg was laid on" the bare rock, without
any attempt at a nest. The RAZOR-BILL (q.v.) (A. torda) is the only other species now
commonly included in the genus alca,. The name LITTLE A. is often given to a bird
also called the RoTCHE.(q.v.)(mergulus alle, formerly alca, aUt\ common in arctic region-.
The common puffin is sometimes called the Labrador auk. The northern parts of
the Pacific ocean abound in auks remarkable for a somewhat quadrangular bill, notched
near the tip, and which form the genus plialeris. One of them. P. j>*itt,ir>il<i is known
as the parrakeet auk. All the auks feed upon fishes, crustaceans, and other marine
animals, which they pursue under water, and for which they dive to great depths.

AULAF, or ANT.AF, d. 980; a pagan king of Northumberland. Athelstan expelled
him from Northumbria. whence he fled to Ireland. In 937 he tried to recover his
kingdom, but was driven out and went back to Ireland to ravage that country. After
Athelstan's death, A. recovered Northumbria by defcntinir Kdmund at Tamworth.
Edred. Edmund's successor, compelled A. to embrace the Christian religion: but the
Christians themselves drove him out, and he once more went to Ireland, where In-
defeated and put to death Murdock, king of Leinster, in 957. Other princes fell before
him, and lie called himself king of Ireland. In 980 he lost his son and heir, and went
on a pilgrimage to lona, where he died.

AULAPOLAY , or ALEPPI, a t. of India, in the native state of Travaneore, on the sea
coast, in 9 30' n. lat., and 76 24' e. long. There is no shelter for .shipping, but ships
anchor 4 or 5 m. from the shore. There is, however, a considerable trade in tim-
ber, betel-nut, coir, pepper, and cardamoms. This t. communicates with Quilon and
Trivandrum on the s., and with Cochin on the n.. by canals parallel with the sea-coa-i
and connecting a series of lakes or back-waters. Between these and the sea is a com-

] (i Augustus.

Auinale.

munieationby a wide crock, through which the timber for exportation is floated, which
is brought from the forests of the rajah of Travancore on the western Ghauls.

AULIC COUNCIL (I,at. aula, court or hall), one of the two highest courts of the old
German empire, co-ordinate with the imperial chamber. It came into existence in 1495,
and seems to have been at first employed principally in preparing business matters regard-
ing the crown lands and the empire generally, in order to expedite the decisions of the
imperial chamber. It soon, however, began to assume or acquire higher functions.
After 1502, the states submitted important grievances to its independent consideration:
but it. did not receive a fixed constitution before 1559. In 1654, it was formally recog-
nized as the second of the two supreme courts, and equal in dignity to the imperial
chamber. It was composed of a president, a vice-prc.-ident, a vice-chancellor, and
eighteen councilors, who were all chosen and paid by the emperor, with the exccj-
tion of the vice-chancellor, who was appointed by the elector of Mainz. Of the
eighteen councilors, six were Protestants, whose votes, when they were unanimous,
could not be set aside by those of the others, so that a religious parity was to some
extent preserved. The councilors were divided into three classes counts, barons, and
men of learning all of whom were on a footing of equality, except that the last men-
tioned received a higher salary, and were usually advanced into the ranks of the nobility.
The council held aloof from politics, but under its jurisdiction were placed: 1st. All
mattersot' feudality in which the emperor was immediately concerned; 2d. All questions
of appeal on the part of the states from decisions in favor of the emperor in minor court.-;
;}d. Whatever concerned the imperial jurisdiction in Italy. On the death of the emperor,
the council was dissolved, and had to be reconstructed by his successor. It finally cease <1
to exist on the extinction of the old German empire in 1806.

AULIS, a t. in Fm-otia, on the Euripus strait, where the Greek fleet assembled before
sailing for Troy. Its temple of Artemis was standing in the time of Pausauias, but the
t. contained only a few workers in pottery.

AULNAY DE CHARNISE, CIIAULES r>E MENOU, a French land-owner, conspicu-
ous in the history of Acadie, or Nova Scotia. He was agent first for Isaac de Radzilly,
proprietor of Acadie, and afterwards for Charles, the brother of Isaac, whose rights he
purchased. There was a long contest between A. and La Tour, a rival proprietor, in
which both sought aid from New England. A. triumphed, capturing Mine. La Tour,
in 1045, after which he was appointed governor. His widow married his rival, LaTour.

AULVS GELLIUS, a Latin author in the time of the Antonines, of whom little is
known beyond his 2>oct<>t Atlicn 1 , a mass of ill-digested but valuable information con-
cerning the men and manners of the age.

AUMALK, a t. in France, 40 m. n.e. of Rouen; pop. '66, 2929. Here, in 1592, in a
battle between the Spaniards and French, Henry of Navarre was w r ounded. A. was a
county in the early part of the 15th c., and belonged to Claude Lorraine, son of Rene II.
Claude was created duke of Guise, and became the head of that famous house.

AUMALE, a t. of Algeria, on one of the headwaters of the Sahel, 57 m. s.e. from
Algiers. It is situated on the great road from Algiers to Constantino. It is a strong
military post, with barracks, magazines, and hospitals. Pop. 5196, of whom 1468 are
Europeans.

AUMALE, CHARLES DE LORRAINE, Due d', b. 1554, was an ardent partisan of the
league in the politico-religious wars which devastated France in the latter half of the Kith
century. The aim of the league was ostensibly to suppress the Huguenots, but in reality
to secure the supreme power to the Guises. Closely allied by blood to this crafty and
ambitious family, A. from the veryfirst entered with fanatical sympathyinto its schemes,
and after the murder of the duke of Guise a4, Blois, in Dec., 1588, he became, along
with the duke of Mayenne, the leader of the party. In 1589, he seized Paris, dissolved
the parliament, and imprisoned its members. Shortly after, he put himself at the head of a
body of troops to attack the town of Seulis, but was defeated byLaNoue, and compelled
to retreat. Always unfortunate in war, his presence seemed invariably to insure the OMI
throw of his friends. 1 Ie commanded a portion of the forces of the league at the battles of
Arquesandlvri, where the Huguenots triumphed under their skillful and sagacious mon-
arch. Henry IV. But A. was as obstinate ashe was unlucky, and in the end proved himself
as traitorous as he was obstinate. He held out for the league in Amiens until the populace
expelled him, when he suddenly allied himself with the Spaniards who had invaded Picardy.
refused the royal pardon, and delivered over to.the enemy several places in his possession.
For this he was impeached, condemned, and sentenced to be broken alive on the wheel.
His property was confiscated, but he himself escaped. lie lived in exile till his death,
which took place at Brussels, in 16:51. He left no male posterity.

AUMALE, HENKi-EniKNK-PiiiLippE, Louis D'ORLEANS, Due d', b. at Paris, Jan. 16,
1822, is the fourth son of the late king of France, Louis Philippe. He enjoyed the privilege
so rare among princes of being educated along with his fellow-men, at the college <!
Henri IV. , where he exhibited considerable talent . and obtained several honors. When 16
years of age, he entered the army, soon distinguished himself bv his bravery, and passed
rapidly through the various grades of rank. In 1848, he embarked at Brest for Alsreria.
where he commanded a subdivision of the French army, and performed some brilliant

Anne. C)f\

Auricula. -^

exploits, the most signal of which was his surprising Abd-el-Kader, when encamped in the
environs of Goudjilab. By this coup demain, which occurred on the 16th of May, 1843,
there fell into his hands a multitude of cattle, 4 standards, 3600 prisoners, and the corre-
spondence and treasure of the emir. He was, inconsequence, elevated to the rank of lieuten-
ant-general, and appointed to the government of the province of Constantino. In 1847,
lie succeeded marshal Bugeaud in the governor-generalship of Algeria. While holding
this high office, he was exposed to a series of hitter attacks by the democratic "opposi-
tion''^ the chamber of deputies, but was ably defended by Gui/ot. After the expul-
sion of his father, he withdrew from Algeria, having first, with self-denying patriotism,
exhorted the colony peaceably to obey the orders of the metropolis. He then resided in
England till 1871, when he returned to France, and was elected a member of the assem-
bly. He was elected a general of division in 1872, and presided over the council of war
which tried marshal Bazaine. He was elected a member of the academy in 1871. His
chief writings are Les Zouaves et let Chasseurs-a-pitd, and llixbnre des Condes.

ATTNE, the French cloth-measure corresponding to the English eV. Both words are
derived from the Lat. ulna. The English ell = 1| yard = 45 inches; the French <nnu'
usuelte (or nouvelle) = 1 metre = 47 inches English". The old "//< was a little shorter.

ATJNOY, MARiE-CATHERraE-JuMELLE BE BERNEYiLLE, Comtesse d', a celebrated
French authoress of the reign of Louis XIV. She was b. about 1650, and d. at Paris,
.fan.. 1705. She composed fairytales, romances, and historical memoirs. Among her
fairy tales may be mentioned, The Yellow Diearf, The }\fiite Cat, and Cherry and Esar Stair.
Many of these fictions have been translated into English, and are greedily read by school-
boys. They have, both in France and other countries, gone through numerous editions,
and are the sole monuments of her fame; for her sentimental novels, llipi>t>hit<\ and ('mute
de Dugla*, have long ago vanished from the eyes of men; while her historical memoirs
are not regarded as at all trustworthy.

AURANTIA CEJE (from aurantium, modern Latin for an orange), a natural order of
exogenous plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, often of great beauty. Both leaves
and bark are generally very smooth, and all parts are filled with little transparent recep-
tacles of a fragrant volatile oil, which especially abounds in the leaves and in the rind of
the fruit. The leaves are alternate, and always articulated with their stalks, which are
frequently winged. The flowers have a short 3 to 5 toothed, withering calyx, and 3 to 5
petals, which are broad at the base, sometimes slightly coherent, and imbricated in bud.
The stamens are equal in number to the petals, or a multiple of their number: the fila-
ments sometimes slightly coherent in one or more bundles; the anthers terminal and
erect. The stamens and petals are inserted on a disk. The ovary is free; there N one
style with a thickish stigma. The fruit (a ] .<</'//>//>/>) is pulpy, with a leathery or spongy
rind, of one cell, or of a number of separable cells: the seeds attached to the axis, with
thick cotyledons and no albumen, not unfrequently containing more embryos than one.
The order contains about 100 known species, natives of warm climate*, and almost all
of the East Indies. The species of the genus citrus (q.v.) are the best known, among
which are the orange, lemon, citron, etc. But the order contains many other plants pro-
ducing agreeable fruits, among which the cegle mnrmelos (see jEoi-E) called bhel or
bael, in India cookia pumtata (the wampee), glycosmu HtHfolin, and trijihatia trifUata
deserve particular notice. The fruits, ripe and unripe, juice and rind, the flowers, leaves,
bark, etc., of a number of species are employed medicinally. The medicinal uses of
agle marmelos have been already noticed in the article ^EoLE; those of the species of
rit /'/.<< will be mentioned under their proper heads. The leaves of ber;i< r<i knuiiiii are
used by the Hindoos as a stomachic and tonic, the bark and roots as stimulants. /'. //>
iiia elfptuiiit'Dii. a large tree growing in most parts of India, yields a gum which closely
resembles gum-arabic, and is used for similar purposes. The young leaves of this tree
have a smell like that of anise, and are used by the native practitioners of India as a
stomachic and carminative. Skimmia (or UmoniaY lanreola and */////?/>< _;V///<////Vv/ are
remarkable exceptions in this order, as to the climate to which they are adapted: the
former grows on the cold and lofty mountains of the n. of India, braving frost and snow;
the latter, a beautiful shrub, recently introduced into Britain from Japan, is perfectly
hardy even in the severest winters; its evergreen leaves and pretty little red lorries
remaining quite uninjured by frost, whilst it's small white flowers, produced early in
Mimmer, have the fragrance of orange blossoms.

AURE LI A. See CHRYSALIS.

ATJRELIA NUS. Lrrirs POMITIUB also named CLAUDIUS DoMmrs and V.\i.ri:ir<
one of the most powerful of the Roman emperors, was of very humble origin. Ids
father having l>een a husbandman. He was b. about A.D. 212, and enlisting early as a
common soldier, he rapidly distinguished himself, and held the highest military oilices
ruder Valerianus and Claudius II. On the death of Claudius (A.D. 270), A. was elected
mperor by the army. lie commenced his reign by vigorous opposition to the barbarian
AJemanni, or Marcomanni, whom he expelled. Thereafter, he commenced the en ction
"f a new line of fortified walls round Rome, which were not completed till the reiun of
I'robus (.\.n. 276). Their ruins still mark the boundaries of Home in the time of Aure
liun. Finding that the province of Dacia (now Wallachia) could not be maintained

.) I Aune.

^ * Auricula.

against the assaults of the Goths, he surrendered it, on certain conditions, and strength-
ened the frontier of the Honian empire by making the Danube its boundary. He next
turned his attention to the east, where the renowned queen, Zenobia (q.v.), had extended
her -way from Syria to Asia Minor and Egypt. A. defeated her in two battles, and
besieged her fa) Palmyra, from which she attempted to escape, when she saw defense
would prove unavailing. She was. however, taken prisoner, and soon after the city Mir-
reiidered, and was treated leniently. Shortly after A. had departed, a new insurrection
took place. He returned in 273. and gave the splendid city up to destruction. A. was
again called to the eaM by a rebellion in Egypt, instigated by Firnuis, a merchant of
L'.eat iniluence. which he speedily quelled. Besides, Tetricus. who had held imperial
power in Caul since before the death of Gallienus, rinding himself unable to wield, sur-
rendered it to Aurelian. By restoring good discipline in the army, order in domestic-
affairs, and political unity to the Roman dominions. A. merited the title awarded to him
by the senate "restorer of the Roman empire." He fell a victim to conspiracy during
his campaign against the Persians (A.D. 276).

ATJRE LITTS, MARCUS. See ANTONINUS.

AURKLLE, or D'Al'KELLE. DE FALADINES, b.1803; a French soldier, distinguished
in the Crimean war. In the German war he was the commander of the fifth French
division at Met/. After Napoleon's fall he organized the army of the Loire, drove Von
der Tann from Orleans, and won the first victory for France, for which he received the
chief command of the army of the Loire. He was repulsed in an attack upon the army
of prince Frederick Charles, and beaten by the grand duke of Mechleuberg at Arlc-
may: the next day prince Frederick drove him back to the forest of Orleans and took
-ion of the town. A. was soon afterwards removed from his command, and
offered that of the camp at Cherbourg, which he refused, and he also refused to succeed
gen. Clun/.y. In th national assembly he was opposed to continuing the war. At a later
period lie was commander of the national guards in the department of the Seine, and a
member of the Ba^ainc court-martial.

AUREOLA, or AU'HEOLE, the halo, or "glory," with -which old painters encircled
the heads and sometimes the entire persons of angels, saints, and martyrs. The circle
with a cross was given to the Saviour only : without the cross, to canonize saints. Though
supposed to be a Christian invention, it appears that it was used long before Christ in
pictures of Hindoo deities.

AU'RKl'S, or DENA'IUUS AUREUS, the oldest standard gold coin of Rome, coined 207
B.C.; average weight, 121 grains.

AU RICLES, two cavities of the heart. See HEART.

ATJKIC'ULA, Priiti'/In <uirif>iln, a plant of the same genus with the primrose (q.v.),
much cultivated in flower-gardens. The A. has long been a florist's flower. It was
highly esteemed by the Romans, and has. at least since the beginning of the 18th c.,
received particular attention from the florists of England and Holland. It is one of
those (lowers, the cultivation of which is often most successfully prosecuted in the little
garden* of operatives near large towns. Lancashire is particularly famous for it. The
A. has smooth, dark-green leaves, scapes (or leafless stems), and calices, covered with a
mealy powder. A similar line meal appears also on the flowers, and adds much to their
beauty. The A. is a native of the Alps and other mountains of the middle and s. of
Europe, and of sub-alpine situations in the same countries. It is found also on the Cau-
casus and the mountains of Syria; it grows in shady and moist places. In a wild state,
it has comparatively small flo-.vers, of a simple yellow color, on short stalks, forming an
umbel of generally six or seven on one scape, with the same delightful fragrance which
aids so much to made it a favorite flower in cultivation. The leaves are used by the
inhabitants of the Alps as a remedy for coughs.

By cultivation and art. the A. has been brought to great beauty and splendor of color.
Red, pink, crimson, apple green, and mulberry are the chief colors which the different
varieties exhibit. More than 1200 varieties have been reckoned, and new ones are con-
tinually raised from seed. Some of them are entirely of one color, others of two or
more: some are delicately shaded, and some variegated. The mere color of an A. is not
of so much consequence, in the eye of a florist, as the form and shading. The chief
requisites of a good A. are large flowers, so many of them on one scape as to give full-
ness to the umbel, the flower-stalks so strong that the flowers do not hang down; the
scape itself must be so tail, that the umbel of flowers may rise completely above the
leaves, and so strong as to bear it erect: the flower must be nearly round; the white or
yellow eye in its center must be distinct and round, its color not mixing with the ground
color, which, however, may mix at the outer part with the green of the margin. The
green margin adds much to the beauty of many varieties. The mealiness of the flower
differs much in different varieties. the A. blooms in April and May, and often also a
second time in the end of autumn, which adds to the charms of the flower-border,
although it is to the first or proper flowering-season that the florist looks. It succeeds
best in a rich light soil, and cultivators diligently prepare for it composts of various
kinds, but in general consisting elderly of fresh loamy soil, and of well-rotted horse or
cow dung, often with the addition of a little sand. The finer varieties are always culti-

Auricula. OO

Aurora. ^

rated in pots, and require great attention. They are protected from the serere weather
of winter, and during the flowering-season, from wind and rain. They ought, however,
previous to flowering, to stand in an airy, sunny situation. Their delicacy forms a strik-
ing contrast to the natural hardiness of the plant; but few sights are more pleasing than
that of a collection of choice auriculas, tastefully arranged. They are propagated by
offsets, generally in the latter part of August. When it is proposed to raise the A. from
seed, care ought .to be taken to select the finest flowers, which are encouraged to ripen
their seed.* by exposure to sun and air, hand-glasses being placed over them during heavy
rains. The seed is sown either in autumn or spring, generally in boxes placed under
shelter, or in a slight hot-bed. The more weakly plants are tended with particular care,
as -they are generally found to produce the finest flowers.

The name A., originally Latin, is derived from aui-is, an ear on account of a fancied
resemblance of the leaves to the ears of an animal.

AURIC ULA, a genus, and AVKKT LID.K, a family of gastropod mollusca. They
have a spiral shell, covered with a horny epidermis, the first whirl very large tind. the
spire short, the aperture elongated and toothed. They belong to that section of gastro-
pods in which the sexes are united in the individual, and to the same order with the
common snails, haring respiratory organs adapted for breathing in air, although some
of them are capable of subsisting for a considerable time in water. Some of them
inhabit fresh-water marshe>. and others prefer the vicinity of salt water. They gen-
erally belong to warm climates, and some of them attain a large size. Atiri'etiht midii-,
a native of the East Indies, is known to shell collectors by the name of Midas's ear.

AURIC ULAR CONFESSION. See CONFESSION.

AURIC ULATE, in botany, a term applied to leaves, stipules, etc., and signifying that
they have at the base two small ear-like lobes.

AURIFABER (Lat. for GOLDSCHMIDT), JOANNES, 1519-79; a Lutheran divine, friend
and companion of the reformer. He was educated at Wittenberg, became tutor to
count Mansfeldt, and in the war of 1544 was with the army as chaplain. Afterwards
he lived with Luther as his secretary, and was present at his death. Half of the nexj;
year he was in prison with the elector of Saxony, who had been captured by Charles Y.
He was for some years court preacher at Weimar, and in 1566 was appointed minister
of the Lutheran church at Erfurt, holding the place until his death. He collected many
of Luther's manuscripts and letters, and assisted in editing them. He also published
Luther's Table Talk, in 1566.

AURI'G'A, or THE WAGONER; a northern constellation in which is Capella, a very
brilliant star of the first magnitude.

AURILLAC, a t. of France, capital of the dep. of Cantal (Auvergne). A. is
situated in a pleasant valley on the banks of the Jourdanne, about 269 in. s. from Paris.
It is said to owe its origin to a Benedictine monastery founded in the 9th c. by St.
Gerard. The English, in the 14th and 15th centuries, of ten besieged the town, and it was
frequently taken and pillaged during the religious wars in France in the 16th century.
The streets are wide, but irregular, and are kept clean by streams supplied by a reser-
voir above the town and by a canal from the Jourdanne. The neighboring quarries supply
slates to cover the houses. The principal buildings of A. are the churches of Notre
Dame and St. Gerard, St. Stephen's castle, the theater, college buildings, which contain
a valuable public library, and the corn market. There is also a monument erected to
the memory of the French philanthropist, M. de Montyon. Paper, jewelry, lace, copper
utensils, leather, and beer are the chief industrial products. Pope Sylvester II. was
b. at A., and the infamous Carrier of the first French revolution. Pop. '76, 10,399.

AURIOL, a t. in France, in the dep. of Bouches-du-Rhone, 16 m. n.e. of Mar-
seilles; pop. '66, 5182. The manufacture of flags is a prominent business, and there
are coal-mines near the town.

AUROCHS, the European bison; a wild animal of the bos family, once plentiful over
northern Europe, but now scarce and probably to be found only in "the royal Lithuanian
forests, where it is protected. The A. was probably contemporary with the mammoth,
and it is thought to be the animal described in C;r>;i'r's works as abundant in the forests
of Gaul. There were two species, bos ureus and fa* ]-t/n/</t /</*, and of both fossil re-
mains are found in post-tertiary deposits in Europe and America. It has been suggested
that the animal furnished food for prehistoric mankind.

AURORA (styled Eds by the Greeks), the goddess of the dawn, or "morning redness,"
was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Selene, and wife of
the Titan Astneus. Zephyrus, Boreas. Xotus. Hesperus and the other stars were her
children. She was described as rising in the morning from her bed in the ocean, borne
along on a chariot drawn by the divine steeds Lampus and Phaeton, ascending
heaven from the river Oceanus, where she lifted with her "rosy fingers" the curtain of '
night, and announced the light both to gods and men. Homer' frequently describe- A
as the goddess of day, and the tragic writers identified A. with Jl< ///</>/ (the day). She
wa- n-presented as clothed in a rosy yellow robe, with a star shining on her forehead,
and a torch in her right hand. She" had a passion for mortal youths, aud carried off
Orion, Cleitus, and Tithonus.

no Auricula.

*"' Aurora.

AURORA, a city in Kane co., 111., on Fox river, and the Chicago and Iowa, and
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroads, 38 m. s.w. of Chicago; pop. '80, 12,059.
The rivc-r furnishes abundant water-power for manufacturing purposes. There are rail-
way repair shops here, which employ about 1000 men.

AURORA, a city in Dearborn co., Ind., on the Ohio river, and the Louisville branch
of the Ohio arid Mississippi railroad; 2o in. below Cincinnati. It has a number of
manufactories, but the river trade is the most important business. Pop. '70, 3304.

AUBCRA BOREALIS, or NORTHERN LIGHTS, (Ger. Xordltcht), the name given to the
luminous phenomenon which is seen towards the n. of the heavens by the inhabi-
tants of the higher latitudes. During the winter of the northern hemisphere, the
inhabitants of the arctic zone are without the light of the sun for months together, and
their long dreary night is relieved by the light of this beautiful meteor, which occurs with
great frequency in these regions. Those who have explored the southern seas have
seen the same phenomenon in the direction of the south pole, so that the term polar
lights might be more appropriate than northern lights to designate the aurora. The
appearance of the A. B. has been described by a great variety of observers, both in
horthern and central Europe, all of whom give substantially the same account of the
manner in which the phenomenon takes place. It is briefly as follows: A dingy aspect
of the sky in the direction of the n. is generally the precursor of the aurora; and
this gradually becomes darker in color, and assumes the form of a circular segment
surrounded by a luminous arch, and resting at each end on the horizon. This >/<<//,
fi'ij'in: nt. as it is called, has the appearance of a thick cloud, and is frequently seen as
such in the fading twilight before the development of the auroral light. It's density
must, however, be very small, as stars are sometimes seen shining brightly through it.
This dark segment is bounded by a luminous tu-dt of a bluish-white color, which varies
in breadth from 1 to G diameters of the moon, having the lower edge sharply denned,
and the uppe^ edge only when the breadth of the arch is small. This arch may be
considered to be a part of a luminous ring elevated at a considerable distance above tin-
t-art h's surface, and having its center corresponding with some point near the north
pole. An observer several degrees s. of this auroral ring would see towards the n. only
a small arc of it, the larger part being hid by the earth; to one situated not so far
s., it would appear as a larger tfnd higher arch; to one placed below it, it would be seen
as an arch passing through the zenith; and to one situated within the ring and further
n., it would be found as an arch culminating in the s. On this supposition, nearly all
the various positions of the auroral arch may be accounted for. The center of the ring
corresponds probably with the magnetic n., which. is at present situated in the island of
Boothia Felix. Hence it is that in Greenland, which is situated to the e. of this island,
the auroral arch lias been seen stretching from n. to s. with its highest point in the w.
The luminous arch, once formed, remains visible for several hours, and is in a constant
state of mot'ion. It rises and falls, extends toward the e. and towards the w., and breaks
sometimes in one part, sometimes in another. These motions become all the more
observalile when the arch is about to shoot forth rays; then it becomes luminous at one
point, eats in upon the dark segment, and a ray of similar brightness to the arch mounts
with the rapidity of lightning towards the zenith. The ray seldom keeps the same
form for any length of time; but undergoes continual changes, moving eastward and
westward, and fluttering like a ribbon agitated by the wind, After some time, it
gradually fades in brightness, and at last gives way to other rays. When the aurora
attains its full brightness and activity, rays are projected from every part of the arch,
and if they do not rise too high, it presents the appearance of a comb furnished with
teeth. When the rays are very bright, they sometimes assume a green, sometimes a
violet, a purple, or a rose color, giving to the whole a variegated and brilliant effect.
The accompanying sketch, taken from Mailer's Knxi/n'xrhe PhytOt, of the A. B. in Nor-
way, represents a Beautiful aurora of this comb-shaped character; the effect of color,
however, is wanting Incomplete the picture. When the rays darted by thp luminous
arch are numerous and of great length, they culminate in a point which is situated in
the prolongation of the dipping needle, somewhat s.e. of /he zenith. There the}' form
what is called the lirml croim; and the whole heavens, towards the e., w., and n., pre-
sent the appearance. of a vast cupola of fire, supported by columns of variously colored
light. When the rays are darted less brilliantly, the crown first disappears, then, here
and there, the light becomes faint and intermittent, till at last the whole phenomenon
fades from the sky.

The preceding description indicates the general features of the appearance of the A.
B. ; but several auroras have been described which presented striking peculiarities.
Sometimes the phenomenon assumed the form of one or more curtains of light, depend-
ing from dingy clouds, whose folds were agitnted to and fro. as if by the wind. Some-
times this curtain seemed to consist < -f separate ribbons of light, arranged side by side
in groups of different lengths, and attaining their greatest brilliancy at the lower edges.
In this country the A. B. seldom occurs with the distinctness and brilliancy which
attend it in northern latitudes, but the description just given portrays the type to which
such appearance of the meteor more or less approximates.

The height of the aurora has been variously estimated. The first observers were

Aurmiffabad. OX

Ausonius. ^ *

iiicliucd to place the seat of it beyond the atmosphere; but this hypothesis is untenable,
as the aurora does not seem to be affected by tlie rotation of the earth, but appears to be
in every respect a terrestrial phenomenon. By taking observations of the altitude of the
highest point of the ar-ch of the same aurora at different stations, heights varying from
5 to 500 m. have been calculated. The cause of these widely differing results may be
found iu the probability that exists of each observer seeing a different arch of the
aurora for himself, and he is, in consequence, furnished with no comparable or reliable
data for his calculations. It is now, however, generally admitted, on what, are con-
sidered to be sufficient grounds, that the A. B. occurs at various heights, and that it is
seldom found beyond 90 m. above the surface of the earth. The distance of the stations at
which the same aurora has been visible, indicates the enormous geographical extent, and
likewise the great altitude which the phenomenon frequently attains. One aurora, for
instance that which occurred on the 3d of Sept., 1839 was seen in the Isle of Skye by
M. dc Saussure; at Paris, by the astronomers of the observatory; at Asti, in northern
Italy, by M. Quetelet; at New 7 Haven, in Connecticut, by Mr. ITcrrick; and at New
Orleans, by credible observers. On the other hand, some observers of eminence assert
that the aurora sometimes descends to the region of the clouds, and appears almost u
a local phenomenon. A brilliant aurora was seen by Mr. Farquharson, the minister of
Alford, in Aberdeenshire, on the 20th of Dec., 1829, from 8 to 11:30 in the evening,
above a thick bank of clouds, which covered the tops of the hills to the n. of where he
lived, and which never attained an altitude of more than 20. The same aurora was
seen in the zenith, at 9:15, by Mr. Paul, another minister, at Tullynessle, which is
about 2 in. n. of Alford, so that the height of it could not have been quite 4000 ft.

The noise that is alleged to accompany the A. B. in high latitudes would indicate for
it a comparatively moderate height. Some of those who have heard it, compare it to- the
nose that is produced by the rolling of one piece of silk upon another; and others, to the
sound of the wind blowing against the flame of a candle. In Siberia, it has been related
that this noise sometimes resembles that attending the discharge of fireworks; and that
the dogs of the hunters, when overtaken by such an aurora, lay themselves with terror
on the ground.*

The intimate connection between the A. B. and the magnetism of the earth is shown
by various facts. During the occurrence of the phenomenon, the magnetic needle
appears very much disturbed, sometimes deviating several degrees from its normal
position, and appearing to be most affected when the aurora is brightest; and this oscilla-
tion is frequently perceived far beyond the district where the aurora is seen. The vertex,
likewise, of the luminous arch is almost always found to be in or very near the magnetic,
meridian, and the boreal crown has its seat in the prolongation of the freely suspended
needle. There seems, moreover, to be a connection between the magnetic poles of the
earth in regard to the aurora for, so far as has been ascertained, the mete oroccurs simul-
taneously at both. The A. B. appears to be an electric discharge connected with
magnetic disturbance. If one of Gassiot's vacuous tubes be brought near an electric
machine, or between the poles of an induction coil, flashes of light pass between the ends,
which bear a striking resemblance to the A. B. A comparison of the spectra of the two
goes far to establish identity. The auroral spectral line, according to Angstrom, is a
yellow line near the sodium line, and is the same as the air line seen in the solar light
when the sun is near the horizon. Other lines, however, have been seen, which cannot
as yet be produced by the physicist from any known substance.

A line drawn through the s. of Spain to the n. of the Sandwich islands, and
through Cuba, marks the southern limit of the A. B. (in the northern hemisphere); though
occasional displays have been noticed even further s. To the n. of a line passing
through Edinburgh, the frequency of the A. B. rapidly increases, until a maximum is
reached in a line through the n. of Spitzbergen, after which the frequency diminishes as
the north pole is approached.

AUEUNG ABAD, or Throne-town, the name of at least four places in India. The most
important is in the territory of the Nizam, situated on the Doodna, a tributary of the
Godavery. The pop. is estimated at about 60,000. Its monuments of former grandeur
are a palace, now in ruins, built by Aurungzebe, and the mausoleum of Aurungzebe's
daughter.

ATJRTTNGZEBE' (properly, Aurangzib, "ornament of the throne") was the most power-
ful of the great Moguls, the last who ruled with energy and effect, He was )>. on the
22d Oct., 1618, and was 10 years old when, his grandfather dying, his father, Shah-.Iehan,
ascended the throne. A. early aspired to wield the rod of empire, but he craftily hid his
designs beneath the cloak of piety. In 1657, his father, who had previously promoted
him to high civil and military offices in the state, in performing the duties of which he
greatly distinguished himself, was seized with an illness from which lie was not expected
to recover. The reins of power were at once seized by his eldest son, Dara, who treated
his brothers very arbitrarily Shuja at that time being governor of Bengal, A. of the
Deccan, and Miirad of Guzerat. The first immediately took up arms. A.'s policy was

* Arctic voynfr<'rs, such as Parry and Franklin, throw doubt on the existence of any such noise, for
no! one of the numerous and brilliant auroras seen by them was ever attended with the faintest sound.

f) r Anrungabatl.

** Ausoiiius.

to let the t\vo fight it out, and exhaust each other, and then to play off his third brother
Rirainst the victor. He conferred with Murad: assured him he had no earthly ambition;
that the crown he strove for was a spiritual, and not a temporal one; and that, for affec-
tion's sake, and witli a view to promote the interests of the true faith Dura was liberal
in his reiiirious opinions, and had written a book to prove that Mohammed and Brahma
agreed in all essential points he would support his pretensions to the throne. Miirad
believed him, and the forces of the two were joined. .Meanwhile, Dara having overcome
Shuja's army, directed his forces again.-! his other two brothers; but A.'s plausibility
prevailed over Dara's generals, who deserted, and Dara had to seek safety in flight. By
this time, however, Shah-Jehau had somewhat recovered. A. professed the utmost
loyalty, bur secretly gave his son instructions to take possession of Shah-Jchan's palace,
Which was done, and the aged monarch was made prisoner. A. next seized and confined
his too confiding brother, Miirad; and after a struggle of two or three years' duration,
Dara and Shuja also fell into his power, and all three were put to death. The scepter
was now firmly within the grasp of Aurungzebe. He professed not to care for the impe-
. rial insignia, but was ultimately induced to receive them on Aug. 2, 1(578. He, at the
same time, assumed the presumptuous title of Alemgir. " conqueror of the world." He
also took the title of Mohi-eddin. " the reviver of religion." In the seventh year of A.'s
reign, his father died, at a good old age; but there are suspicions, nevertheless, that his
death was hasiened by slow poison, administered by command of his son.

A.'s lung reign of half a century was distinguished by great outward prosperity; but
the empire was diseased at its heart. Everywhere there was distrust; A., who had
established his empire by fraud, was naturally enough distrusted by all. He lacked con-
fidence in his statesmen, who, in their turn, distrusted him and one another. His sons
imitated him in his disobedience to his father, and the Hindoos, whom he treated with
great harshne-s. excited the Mahrattas against him in the s. Still his great abilities
suiliced during his reign not only to preserve his empire in tact, but even to enlarge it
considerably. Discord between the monarchs of Bijapur and Golcouda, which was
mainly due to his policy when acting as governor of the Dec-can, enabled him to add
'i wo kingdoms to Ins empire. But the seeds of decay which had been sown in his
reign b >re ample fruit in the reign of his son. The decadence of the Mogul empire dates
from A.'s death, which took place at Ahmednuggur, on the 21st Feb., 1707, in the 89th
year of his age. and 50th of his reign. The latter years of A.'s life were passed in misery.
The memory of his own crimes weighed heavy on his soul. He lived in constant dread that
he himself would receive of the measure which he had meted out to others. His court was
remarkable among oriental courts for its economy and freedom from ostentation. A.'s
character was not without its good features, as in-tanccd by the fact, that in the third
year of his reign, when there was a great famine in the land, he gave unreservedly the
funds of his treasury, which had been greatly augmented by his frugality, to procure
food for his people.

Al SA'BLE, a t. and village in Clinton co., X. Y., on the A. S. river, 7 m. from lake
Champlain- pop. of township, '~0, 2863. In the vicinity of the village is a great chasm
or gorge, much visited by tourists.

AUSCULTATION (Lat. <ixctilt<>, to listen), a mode of detecting diseases, especially those
of the heart and lungs, by listening to the sounds produced in the cavity of the chest.
This is done either by the unassisted ear (iunnrili'<itt> A.), or by the aid of a simple sound-
conveying instrument, the- stethoscope (q.v.) (nil!iit< A. ). By care and attention, the
normal sounds produced by respiration and the beating of the heart may be distinguished
from the several abnormal sounds indicating disease. A. is classed among the most
important of discoveries in modern medical science. It details are ably explained by the
discoverer, Laeunec. See PERCUSSION.

AUSoXHS a tribe of unknown origin in ancient Italy, said in tradition to be
descended from Auson, a son of Ulysses and Calypso. They gave the name Ausouia to
southern Italy, afterwards called Magua Gra>cia. Niebuhr supposes they were of the
Oscau nation.'

AUSO NIUS. Di:< irs MAOXVS. the most conspicuous Roman poet in the 4th c. after
Christ, was b. at Burdegala (Bordeaux), about 309 A.D. Scaliger asserts that his father,
Julius A., was the favorite physician of the emperor Valentinian, but the assertion has
no historic basis, so far as we know. He was, however, a man of considerable import-
ance, having been at one time honorary prefect of Illyricum. and he appears to have
taken care that the young A. should receive an excellent education. Many amiable
female relatives fostered, and probably flattered the talents of the boy. After finishing
his curriculum at Toulouse, he returned to Bordeaux, where, after practicing for a short
time at the bar, lie turned his attention to literature, and soon distinguished himself as a
professor of oratory. Some years later, lie was appointed by Valentinian tutor to his son
Gratian: afterwards qua-stor, and, by Gratian, prefect of Latium. and subsequently
consul of Gaul (o79 A.D. ). On the death of Gratian, A. retired from public life to his
estate at Bordeaux, where he occupied himself with literature and rural pursuits until
the time of his death (392 A. D.). The question whether or not A. was a " Christian, "has
occasioned much controversy, and remains yet unsettled. His works include translations
of Greek eclogues, a collection of 150 epigrams, epistles in verse and prose, 20 so-called

Aussig. 9 (*

Austin. ^

idyls and other descriptive pieces, which, though admired in their day, are general!}'
worthless, aud bear all the marks of the corrupted taste prevalent in literature daring his

time. But though destitute of every true poetic quality, A. occasionally displays a cer-
tain neatness and grace of expression, which show that, in a better era. he might have
proved a greater poet. Besides these, he also wrote a panegyric on the emperor Gratia::.
full of bombastic phrases and fulsome adulation. Editions of his writings have been
given bv Scalier (Leydeu, 1375), Tollius (Amsterdam, 1669-1671), and Souchav (Paris.
1730). '

A rs'SIG, AUSSYENAD, or LABEM, a t. of Bohemia, at the junction of the Elbe and
the Bela, 44 in. n.n.w. of Prague; pop. '69, 10,933. In 1426. A. was destroyed by the
Hu$>ites and in 16:'.9was seized by Sweden. There is a church here which, it is claimed,
was begun in 826, containing a " Madonna" by Carlo Dolce. The trade of A. is in coal,
fruits, mineral waters, and timber.

AUSTEN, JANE, a novelist of deservedly high reputation. Her father was rector of
Steventon, Hampshire, at which place his daughter was b., Dec. 16. 17?."). Mr. Austen,,
who was himself a gentleman of some literary attainments, bestowed on his daughter
an education superior to that usually given to young ladies in her sphere of life in the
end of last century. Jane was distinguished alike by good sense, sweetness of disposi-
tion, and personal attractions. Her novels, which are rather limited in subject, are
remarkable for the truthfulness with which they portray the everyday life of the middle
- of England in her time, and for their delicate, yet withal distinct discrimination
of the various shades and peculiarities of character. Sir Walter Scott said of her:
" That young lady had a talent for describing the involvements, feelings, and characters
of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I have ever met with. The big bow-
wow I can do myself like any one going: but the exquisite touch, which renders common-
place things aud* characters interesting from the truth of the description and the senti-
ment, is denied to me." Miss A. 's first four novels S//.v, <intt .S /<>////#//, Pr>d> and
Prtj'ulicc, MiiHxfu'ld Pnrk, and Emma, were published anonymously between 1811 and
1816. Nortluinger Abbey and Persuasion followed, with her "name on the title-page, in
1818, after her death, which took place at Winchester, July 24, 1817.

AUSTEN, WILLIAM, an English metal-worker and designer of the 15th c.. celebrated
as the constructor of the famous tomb of Richard de Bcauchamp. earl of Warwick, in
St. Mary's church, Warwickshire. Men of taste and judgment have not hesitated to
put his works on an equality with those of Italian artists of the same period.

AUSTEKLITZ, a small t. in Moravia, about 12 m. e.s.e. from the t. of Briinn. stands
on the Littawa. and has a pop. of 3800. A. has a handsome palace; but it is celebrated
chiefly as the place where Napoleon I., in Dec., 1805. defeated the combined forces of
Austria and Russia, under the command of their respective emperors. After the capitu-
lation of Mack, at Ulm, Oct. 17, Napoleon had marched on without opposition to
Vienna, of which he took possession Nov. 11, 1805. The Russian and Austrian forces
had retreated to Moravia, aud Napoleon had fixed his head-quarters at Briinn. Towards
this locality the troops of Alexander and Francis marched in five parallel columns to
offer battle. The movements of the allies were ill-conducted, and evidently made with-
out a due knowledge of the strength of the French army, which was concealed by the
tac'ics of Napoleon. It amounted to about 80,000 men: while the allied armies numbered
84,000, of which 16,000 were cavalry. The battle commence*d at seven, on the morning
of Dec. 2, and the Russian line was soon broken. The left wing of the allies Buffered
severely towards the close of the engagement, and endeavored to save themselves by
crossing a frozen lake; but Napoleon ordered his artillery to fire upon thd ice, which
was broken up, and about 2000 perished in the water. According to Alison, the allies
lost 30,000 in killed, wounded, aud prisoners, and the French 12,000. Russian and
French accounts make their respective losses smaller. The battle was followed by an
armistice, the terms of which were dictated by Napoleon: and immediately after, on the
26th of Dec., by the treaty of Presburg, which determined that Austria should surrender
the Venetian territories, and also her possessions fli Swabia and the Tyrol.

AUSTIN, a co. in s.e. Texas, on both sides of the Bra/os: traversed by Iho Houston
and Texas Central railroad: 1024 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 15.087 6574 colored. Timber and
stock-raising are the chief resources. Co. seat, Bellville.

AUS TIN, the capital of Texas, lies on the left bank of the Colorado. 200 m. from its
mouth, in lat. ',W 15' n., long. 97 47' w. In winter, A. is accessible to steamboats from
the sea. Pop. '70, 4428.

AUSTIN, JOHN, a distinguished writer on jurisprudence, was b. on Mar. 3, 1790. At
the :i!re of 16, he entered the army, and served as a suba'.lern with his regiment in
Sicily. But lie left the service after the peace, and in ISIS was called lo the bar. In
IS-jo.' he married Miss Sarah Taylor, of Norwich (see Ai SUN. SAKAH). to whom he had
been attached for many years, and went to live in (Jueen square, Westminster, next door
to Jeremy Bentliam and Mr. James Mill. In their society, his attention was naturally
turned to the subjects he afterwards cultivated with success. He was compelled by bad
health to abandon his practice at the bar, about the time when the university of London

O >7 Atissig.

^ Austin.

was founded, aud he then received the appointment of professor of jurisprudence. To
lit himself for the chair, in the autumn of 1827 he settled at Bonn, then the residence of
Niebuhr, Brandis, Schlegel, Arndt, \Velcker, and Mackeldey, and lie remained there
throughout the winter. He returned to England well acquainted with the writings of
some of the most eminent of the continental jurists. His lectures wi re well received by
a fi'W distinguished men; but the subject was not recognized as a necessary branch of
legal study, and evidently did not supply that kind of knowledge best calculated to
promote practical success in the legal professions. A. believed the position of a
German professor of law to be the most enviable in the world; and with a small
but sure income, he would have devoted his great powers to the excluMvc cultiva-
tion of the subjects discussed in his lectures. But, unfortunately, no provision was
made for the chair of jurisprudence beyond class fees, and iu the ab.-ence of stu-
dents, A., in 1832, was reluctantly compelled to resign his appointment. In the
same year, he published his Province of ,f/ir<*]>n//r, i/<; ])< /,///<///-'/, a work, at the
time, fit tie appreciated by the general public, and the small success it met did not
encourage him to undertake other publications on the allied subjects. In the estimation
of competent judges, however, it placed its author in the highest rank among writers on
jurisprudence. In is:!:5. he was appointed by lord Brougham a member of the criminal
law commission. The post was not much to his ta>te, as he did not believe that the
public received any advantage from such bodies, in the efficacy of which for constructive
purposes he put no faith. "If they would give me 200 a year," he said, "for two
years. I would shut myself up in a garret, and at the end of that time 1 would produce
a complete map of the whole field of crime and a draft of a criminal code." These, he
thought, a commission might with some profit revise and amend. A. was afterwards
appointed a member of a commission to inquire into the grievances of the Maltese.
He returned to Kugland in IS'!*, not in good health, and wa^ advised to try the springs
at Carlsbad. During his stay in Bonn he had been delighted with the ropcct the Ger-
mans manifest for knowledge, their freedom of thought, and the simplicity of their
habits. With his slender means, decent cxi.-.tence in England was scarcely possible, and
he removed with his family to Germany, living at Carlsbad in summer, at Dresden and
Berlin in winter. The revolution of 1848 drove him back to England, and he then set-
tled at \Veybridge. where he d. in Dec., 1859, universally respected for the dignity and
magnanimity of lijs character. His lectures on the principles of jurisprudence had
remained in manuscript and imperfect. Since his death they have been prepared for
the press by his widow, and published between 1801 and 1863, under the title of Lectures
an ,Jn ri*]ir<i<l< use, hiinij n ^-'jiifito " The Province of Jurisprudence Ddi I'tuiiud," etc. On
this work his fame now rests.

A.'s great merit consists in his having been the first English writer who attached pre-
cise anil intelligible meaning to the terms which denote the leading conceptions under-
lying all systems of jurisprudence. With a very perfect knowledge of the methods of
Roman and English law, he displayed genius of the highest order in devising a novel
system of classification for the subject-matter of his science. The work he did is incom-
plete. but it forms a sure foundation to future laborers in the same field. It is universally
recoiriii/fd as an enduring monument of learning and genius, and it entitles its author
to take rank with Hohbes and Bentham. as one of the three Englishmen who have made
contributions of importance to the philosophical study of law. A. said of himself that
his special vocation was that of " untying knots'" intellectual knots; and it was so.
He -it himself to the task of exposing the errors hid under the phrases and metaphors
current among writers on law, and this he accomplished with such skill and subtlety as
to make his works models of close and sound reasoning. In education, they now per-
form a most important part that of disciplining the mind of those who devote them-
selves to the study of law and of the mental sciences generally in the difficult art of
precise thought: and intthis way they exercise an influence it is scarcely possible to over-
estimate on the rising generation of lawyers, publicists, and statesmen. See Memoir of
A. prefixed to the I., Hums on Jurisprudence, and an article on A. in J. S. Mill's Disser-

Al'STIN", JONATHAN LORIXG, 1748-1826. He was b. in Boston, a graduate of
Harvard, joined in the revolution, and was secretary of the Massachusetts board of war.
In 1777. he was one of the commissioners sent to Paris to announce the capture of Bur-
goyne. Franklin employed him as an agent in England, and on his return in 1779, he
was rewarded by congress. The next year he sailed for Spain as agent of the colonies,
but was captured and taken to England', though soon afterwards liberated. He was sec-
retary and treasurer of the new state of Massachusetts.

Al'STIN, MOSKS. d. 1*21; a Connecticut pioneer in Texas. lie took his family to the
weM in 1798. and from 1800 to 1*20 was engaged chiefly in lead-mining. While at' Bexar,
Texas, he got permission from the Mexican commandant to colonize 300 families, and
soon began the work, which was more fully carried out by his son.

Al'STIN. S\MIKI.. D.D.. 1700-1S30: b. Conn.: a Congregational clergyman, who
graduated at Yale; studied theology, and was ordained in 17S<> a- pastor of a church at
Fairhaven. In 1790, he took charge of the First church in Worcester. Mass., and in 1815
was chosen president of the university of Vermont, where he remained six years. He

\u-tin. OQ

Australia. zo

returned to Wcrrrp>trr in 1855. In the closing years of his life he was slightly deranged.
He pui;lihed several religious works.

AUSTIN, Mrs. SARAH, wife of John Austin, is well known as the translator of many
of the best contemporary French and German works. She belonged to the Taylors of
Norwich, a family remarkable for the men and women it has produced distinguished by
literary and M-iriitilic ability. A faithful and devoted wife, she spent a great mauy years
with her husband abroad, and she enjoyed the friendship of many of the most eminent
persons in continental society. Mrs. A. translated from the German, Ciuiraett.rixiics of
Goethe, by Falk, etc., with notes (1833); Froffmentofrom the German. Pn>y< Writer*, with
notes (1841); and The >'/<//// trittiuiit an End, by F. "\V. Carove (several editions). She
also translated from the German, Ranke's Pop*.* of Rome and his lli*t<n-y <>f G< rnmntf
ditrtH'j the liif'n-iiniiiint. Such is the excellence of these works, that they have been com-
mended by the best judges as deserving to retain a place in English historical literature.
Mrs. A. translated from the French, M. Cousin's lit port on Public Education in 1'
(1834), and M. Guizot's work on The Enr/lMi Rccolution (1850). She published in 1839 a
work On X'ttioitdl Education; and in 1857, Letters on Giiiii t&hoolxand on the Trtiinimj
of Wor!.' : nt/-ironK a. From 1861 to 1863, she was engaged in editing her husband's lec-
tures from his manuscripts, a duty she discharged with very great ability. She d. at
Wey bridge, on the 8th of Aug., 1867.

AUSTIN, STEPHEN F., d. Dec., 1836; son of Moses, and head of the Texan colony
founded by his lather. The colony occupied the site of the present city of Austin.
Though much annoyed by Indians, he made it successful, and it received many acces-
sions until the Americans became BO numerous that they held a convention in Mar.,
1833, to form a government for themselves. "Without heeding the Spanish population,
they agreed upon a plan, and A. took it to Mexico to receive its ratification, but there
were so many revolutions on foot that he did not get a hearing. Then he sent a letter to
Texas, recommending the Americans to unite all the settlements and municipalities and
organize a state. This cost him three months' imprisonment, and longer surveillance;
but in 1835 he returned to Texas and took command of the small revolutionary army.
He induced Sam Houston to take the chief command, while A. went as commissioner to
the United States, and prepared the popular mind to receive the new republic of the lone
star. Before his mission was successful he returned to Texas, where he died.

AUSTIN, WILLIAM (or BILLY); the half-witted boy of Deptford who was reputed to
be the son of queen Caroline; though she was legally acquitted of the charge, she kept,
him near her. In 1830, he was sent to a lunatic asylum in Milan, and came back to Eng-
land in 1845. After a medical examination, at the request of his guardian, he 'A as
ordered to a private asylum in London.

AUSTEALASIA. a term etymologically equivalent to Southern Azia, but according to
usage different. While Southern Asia vaguely means the lower regions of that continent,
A. definitely indicates those large, or comparatively large, islands which, lying between
the Malayan or Indian archipelago and Polynesia proper, are at once rounded off in
collective position from the former, and distinguished in individual magnitude from the
latter. The islands in question are chiefly Papua or New Guinea, Australia. Tasmania,
New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, New Ireland, and New Britain all to be
again noticed in tbeir places. Though the name is not in general use. yet it seems nec-
essary to a satisfactory system of geographical classification. In its entire extent. A.
cannot be much less than Europe.

AUSTRALIA, the s.w. division of Australasia. By some, it is strictly defined to be an
island as, indeed, may either of the masses of land called the old and the new worlds
while by others it is loosely described as a continent. It is bounded on the w. by
the Indian ocean; on the n., by Torres strait; on the e., by th#Pacific; and on the s.',
by Bass's strait. It extends in s. lat. from 10 to 39, and 'in e. long, from 113 to 1.">4 ;
while its longest dimensions, as incidentally noticed under the head of AMI:I;ICA. may be
said to run respectively on a meridian and a parallel. The parallel in question is that
of about 25, nearly the mean lat. of A. ; and the meridian is that of 142 or 143 , nearly
the mean long, of Australasia a meridian, too, which, when produced in either direc-
tion, seems to mark out both Tasmania and Papua as geological continuations of Aus-
tralia. In English measure, the greatest breadth from n. to s. is upwards of 2000,
and the greatest length from e. to w. nearly 2600 miles. Of the resulting rectangle
of 5,200,000 sq.m., A. comprises more than a half, perhaps four sevenths, or. in
all, about 2,970,000 sq.m. half the area of South America, as the next larger conti-
nent, or ten times that of Borneo, as the next smaller island.

In the mutual relations of itself and the ocean a point of vast importance to so large
a mass of land A. is decidedly inferior to every one of the grand divisions of the globe.
It is not indented by the sea. as is North America on the e.,or Asia on the e. and
s., or Europe on all sides but one. Again, as to navigable channels between the
coast and the interior. A. is not to be compared even to Africa with its Nile and its
Zambe/.i. its Niger and its Congo, its Gambia and its Senegal, and its many smaller arter-
ies of communication besides.

Among the indentations of the coast, the gulf of Carpentaria, on the n % e.. the
only one of considerable magnitude, does, it is true, penetrate inwards about 500 m. from

OQ Austin.

Australia.

cape York on the e., and about 400 from cape Arnhem on the west. This opening is
entirely surrounded by tropical regions, rendered suitable for colon i/at ion by the fre-
quent and moderate rains. In connection with the construction of the overland electric
telegraph from Adelaide, through the heart of the continent, to Port Darwin on the gulf
of Carpentaria, distant 2000 m. effected by the government of South Australia, and
opened in 1872 settlements have taken place in territories very different from what
earlier observations seemed to indicate. For, saving the desert lying in the center in
lat. 27 to ~~> s , the interior of Australia is found to be covered with soil more or less
fertile, in which, except during periodical droughts, that sometimes reduce the surface to
a condition not unlike that of a beaten road, the rain-fall is suilicient to revive the dor-
mant germs of vegetable life, and to clothe the country with grass; while, occasionally,
the fall of rain is so great as to transform the whole of a plain, as far as is visible, into a
sea, on the disappearance of which, in a wonderfully short time, the ground becomes cov-
ered with verdure. The other inlets put together are scarcely equal in -i/e to the gulf
of Carpentaria alone: while, strictly speaking, most of them are rather mere bends in the
coast-line than actual arms of the ocean. Of the secondary iidets, the two that cut deep-
est into the land are the gulf of St. Vincent and Spencer gulf, in the south. Of har-
bors, properly socalled. there is a remarkable deficiency; and this deficiency is all the
more important from the dangerous character of the reef girt shores. As to liuvial com
munications between the coast and the interior, they can. with a single exception, hardly
lie said to cxi-t at all. The interior and the coast are alike unfavorable to the produc-
tion and maintenance of regular and permanent streams. The interior comprising
the whole mass within a border of not more than 100 m. in average width, and repre-
senting, in proportional size, the plate of a mirror with the scantiest possible breadth of
frame round it sends, as a general rule, hardly any tribute to the ocean. So far from
possessing any reservoirs for the supply of rivers, its only large bod}' of water, the brack-
ish pool or salt marsh, according to circumstances, of lake Torrens (q.v.), is the land-
locked receptacle of at least one of its principal streams. With the single exception of
the Murray, and perhaps its southern affluents, even such inland water courses as do con-
duct their surplus to the sea, lose each a large proportion of its volume through evapo-
ration and absorption. With regard to the coast streams, again, the mountains, which
form the dividing ridge, being, in general, only about 100 m. from the sea, the streams
are for the most part, from their shortness, of comparatively insignificant size. This is
more peculiarly the case on the s. for the Murray, as flowing from the inner slope
of t':e maritime ridge, is no exception to the general rule. To the w. of the Glenelg,
which empties itself into the Southern ocean, between capes Northumberland and
P>riilgewat:-r. the coast yields not a single river worthy of the name: while the entire line
between Streaky bay and cape Arid a stretch of 10" of long, on the Great Australian
Right pours, incredible as it may seem, not a single drop of fresh water into the South-
ern ocean.

But the poverty of Australian hydrography is aggravated by the singularities of the
so-styled " weatherology." An alternation of more or less rainless and rainy periods is
characteristic of the Australian skies. The rivers 'undergo a similar alternation of
drought and Hood, the one state being, within certain limits, almost a- destructive as the
other. Even in these inequalities there is great irregularity. During the period of
drought, a river presents a succession of phases a scanty, though still regular stream;
nearly stagnant ponds with a connecting thread of water between them; detached
" wafer holes" in all the gradations of a constantly decreasing depth; moist pits that may
yield their buried treasure to the spade; and, lastly, parched hollows where the labor of
digging may be expended in vain. In the drought, for instance, from July, 1838, to
Aug.. 188ft during which "not a drop of rain fell in Sydney" even the Murray,
generally described as the only permanent river of any magnitude in the country,
dwindled away into a chain of pools: and a recent explorer in western A. found on the
bed of a large river an nfflurnt, if it may be so called, of the thoroughly broiled and
baked Murchison the indubitable footprints, then 3 years old, of preceding explorers.
The Hood, again, varies as widely, if not so definitely and gradually, as the drought.
To select what may be regarded as an average instance from a list of the floods of the
Hawkesbury in New South Wales: the torrent, at the end of July and beginning of
Aug.. 1808, rose to a height of 86 ft., or fully 50 above the edge of the bank, destroy-
ing the uncut crops of the settlement, and sweeping away stacks of wheat and great
quantities of stock of every description. More than 60 such visitations appear to have
been ascertained and recorded within the historical period, now extending over 80 years,
of which about a third occurred in winter, the remainder being distributed in not very
unequal proportions between spring, summer, and autumn, and that without the exemp-
tion of any one of the twelve months of the year.

The rivers of the e. coast the Brisbane, Richmond, Clarence, Macleny. Hastings,
Manning. Hunter, Hawkesbury, and Shoalhaven are, in general, towards their mouths,
tidal streams, (lowing between high banks through a comparatively level region. Some
of those of Victoria such as the Glenelg spring from a moist and undulating tract of
country, while most of the others rise amonir the lofty ranges and snowy peaks of the
Australian Alps the coldest section of the bordering mountains by reason both of their
altitude and of their distance from the equator. They are subject to frequent freshet!"
in winter, and are less eccentric than the other rivers of A. in general. To the w. of

Australia.

the Glenelg, as stated above, rivers may be said almost to disappear. South A. possesses
only a few inconsiderable streams, and a number of usually dry torrent-courses; and as
to the Great Bight, still further to the w., more than 500 in. of the coast have been
already charaeteri/cd as utterly waterless. To the w., again, of cape Arid, the coast pre-
sents only a few small lakes and inconsiderable water-courses, but nothing worthy of
the name of river. On the w. side of A., the Swan river is by far the largest of "the
water-courses. Generally speaking, the whole of them are fed almost solely by the
winter rains, many of them, during the dry season, either disappearing through a great
part of their course, or dwindling into a series of detached pools. Along the remainder
of the w. eoast, no rivers worth notice have yet been discovered. Nor yet along the
n.w. have any been found, excepting a few small ones towards Cambridge gulf. The rivers
of this neighborhood much resemble in character those of the opposite angle in the
colony of Victoria. They rise at no very great distance from the sea. Near their
sources they are mere torrents; but in the lowlands their generally slow currents wind
through fertile plains and valleys, which are subject to sudden and terrific inundations.
In North A. are several comparatively considerable rivers the Victoria, the Flinders,
the Roper, and the Albert. They are wide streams, rising in the elevated region of the
interior, and traversing a rugged country, which is often flooded. Lastly, along the
n.e., the streams are distinguished by their length, a distinction which they owe to their
being parallel with the coast. They are the Mitchell, Lynd, Burdekon. Macken/ie,
Dawson, Fitzroy, Belyando, etc.; the whole of them, with the exception of the two last
named, having been discovered by Dr. Leichhardt. To pass from the rivers of the coast
to those of the interior, we must confine ourselves to two of the latter Barcoo or Vic-
toria, and the Murray with its numerous tributaries. The upper part of the Barcoo was
first discovered by Sir T. Mitchell, in a broken district, lying 300 or 400 m. from the e.
coast, and nearly on the tropic of Capricorn. Its broad reaches might there have lloated
a steamer. Since then, it has been traced by Mr. Gregory through a solitary course into
lake Torrens, though, in point of fact, it is only from time to time that it actually has a
surplus to pour into its receptacle. The system, again, of the Murray and its tributaries
is vastly more complex. Rising on the w*. or inner slope of the Australian Alps, it flows
to the w.n.w. with a plentiful stream, which alone m the country, after the fashion of a
tropical river, rises and falls regularly according to the season; and, though macessibh-
to ships of any size from the sea, it has an internal navigation of about 2000m. in length.
On its left or southern side.it receives several considerable streams, such as t lie Ovens
and the Goulburn. But it is on the right or northern side that the basin of the Murray
is m.)st peculiar. The principal affluents in this direction are the Murrumbidgee anil
the Darling. The Murrumbidgee, to which the Lachlan, only less " mysterious'' than
the Darling, contributes such surplus as it from time to time may have, forms the i-hief
strand of a complicated net-work of water-courses. The Darling, after it has received
all its tributaries, pursues its lonely way for 660 m., sending off branch after branch to
lose themselves in landlocked lagoons. Nor is its growth less curious than its lower
channel. The whole of the interior drainage of the maritime ridge of New South Wales
between lat. 25 and lat. 34, a stretch of about 625 m., converges into a vaM ba.-in of
clay, on the 30th parallel, where the Balonne, Dumaresque, Gwydir, Namoi. Castlercagh,
Macquarie, and Bogan, after spreading out in spacious marshes, and amid complicated
junctions and bifurcations, unite such surpluses as absorption and evaporation may have
left them to lorm the " mysterious" Darling.

Such being the hydrography of A., the investigation of the interior, so far as it has
hitherto advanced, has been conducted almost entirely by land. In 1844, Sturt pene-
trated to the center of the country, between Spencer gulf 'on the s., and the gulf of Car-
pentaria on the n., meeting sterility and drought. In 1847, Leichhardt, encouraged by
the success of his previous expedition from Sydney to Port Essington, started from
Morcton bay on the e., for western A., following a sort of diagonal of nearly the greatest
possible length; and, as was to be dreaded, he must have failed in his bold enterprise;
tor neither of himself nor of his companions has any intelligence ever been received.
Subsequent explorations made by Stuart (1858-02), Burke and Wills (1860-01 X and
by expeditions in search of them, have resulted in the discovery that this interior of-
the Australian continent is, on the whole, well fitted for pastoral, and, in many places.
for agricultural purposes. Sec A TSTUALIAN EXPLOITATIONS. Any detailed "view of
the climate, besides being equally difficult and unsatisfactory with respect to so vast
an aiiirn-gate of latitudes and longitudes, has been rendered comparatively unnecessary
by tin- incidental allusions to the subject in the preceding paragraphs. The following
are tabular statements extracted from local publications:

MEAN ANNTJ\L RAIN-FALL.

Locality. Latitude. Rain-fall.

Brisbane. Queensland, lately Moreton bay , 27 1' 35.92 in.

Port Maci|iiarie, New South Wales 31 25' 70.79

Sydney. Xew South Wales 33 51' 49.00

Port Phillip, Victoria Colony 38 18' 29.16

Lake Alexandrina, mouth of the Murray 35 17.45

Adelaide, South Australia 34 55' 19.90

York, West Australia 31 5S' 25.39

Australia.

FREQUENCY OF RATXY DAYS.

Port Sydney. Port

Month. Adelaide. Phillip. South Head. Macquarie.

January 46 13 11

February 45 12 11

March 5 7 13 12

April , 10 11 12 12

May 10 13 12 11

June 11 11 12 9

July 14 12 13 9

Auttiist 15 14 11 8

September 11 12 11 9

October 10 12 12 10

November 6 10 11 9

December 5 7 11 9

Whole year 105 120 143 120

The mean temperature of Melbourne is 59, being about 9 C higher than that of Lon-
don. The warmest month is Jan., the mean of which is 68; the coldest is July,
49'. 34. The corresponding temperatures of London are 63 and 36.

Ctology. The little that is yet known of the geology of A. has been chiefly obtained
from occasional notes scattered through the journals of scientific traveler.-;. So
utterly unknown were the mineral treasures of this continent, that it was only compara-
tively lately, and by the merest accident, that the Burra Burra copper-mines were
discovered. In 1851. fanners were turning up with the plow the auriferous alluvium;
pebbles of gold-bearing quartz were used for garden-walks: and we have heard of an
Oxford graduate who ornamented his garden-walls by building into them masses of
white quart/, variegated with portions of the unrecognized yellow metal. In 1846, when
count Strelecki submitted to Sir K. Murchison a series of rock and mineral specimens
eathered in southern A., the practiced eye of that veteran in geology recognized in them
a remarkable resemblance to the rocks in the auriferous districts of the Ural mountains,
which lie had thoroughly explored. He could not ascertain that gold had ever l>eeii
found in the colony, but so certain was he that the precious metal existed, that he-
printed and circulated amongst the miners of Cornwall a paper urging them to emigrate
to New South Wales, and seek there for gold, as they had been accustomed to seek for
tin and zinc among the alluvial debris of their own hills. After a fe\v years, in the
researches of Mr. Hargreaves, and the diggings that followed, this remarkable predic-
tion was fulfilled to an extent that could not have been anticipated. This narrative is of
much value, as showing that geology is no longer in the hands of empirics; that its truths
have been so gathered and arranged as to afford bases for safe inductions; and that,
when rightly used, this science is of the first importance, even when tested by the
utilitarian Cm' bono? of the age. Recognizing this, the colonial governments of A.
have appointed state geologists, who have begun their examination of the Australian
continent, and h ,ve published several reports."

In looking at the continent as a whole, it will require not many broad touches to
convey all that is at present known. An immense, roughly quadrangular and compara-
tively flat district in central A., extending from the southern shores in lat 33 s., where
it forms a coast-line of somewhat bold cliffs, to 18 s. lat., and having for its eastern
and western limits 124 and 138" e. long., is composed of tertiary rocks. The super-
ficial characteristics of this vast almost unpeopled tract have already been described.
Nothing more is known regarding its structure. Three other patches of tertiary rocks
exist. The larger is a broadish tract, which forms the coast of western A. northwards
from the colony of Perth, a< far as the tropic of .Capricorn. The second occupies a
considerable portion" of the valley of the Murray river, in that district known as lower
Darling. The last and smallest patch covers the southern slope of the Australian Alps,
extending along the shore from Wilson's promontory to cape Howe.

The immense central expanse of tertiary beds is surrounded by a continuous belt of
ptutonicand i/nfn///'>rjJ''' rock*, onlv broken on the southern shores, where it forms the
coast-line, and where the sea has indented it, forming a bay which has for its bound-
arit - the more enduring primitive rocks. This crystalline belt is, on its e., n., and
western sides, separated from the sea by a tract of land having a nearly equal breadth of
100 m. throughout it> course. Tracing this from its southern termination in western
A., we find a limited region of pala'ozoie rocks occupying the colonized district around
Perth, and containing valuable coal-beds. Northwards, as already indicated, the coast-
line consists of tertiary rocks. From their termination in lat. 23} s., the rocks along
the whole western and northern shores are composed of secondary strata. On the
eastern shore, from cape York to the western boundary of Victoria, the formations
belong to one or other of the primary series. Through the whole extent of this
boundary tract, whether consisting of tertiary, secondary, or primary strata, numerous
and often extensive patches of igneous rocks exist which have been erupted during the
tertiary or post-tertiary epochs.

Australia.

About 100 m. from the bounding tract of palaeozoic rocks on the eastern limits of A.,
nnd running parallel with it, there is an equally broad strip of similar strata extending
from the shores of the gulf of Carpentaria to Hash's strait. These two regions, which
unite together and are largely developed in the southern portion of Victoria, supply the
great store of Australian mineral wealth. The veins which intersect these strata were
the original matrices of the gold. It has not, to any extent, been sought for in this, its
original position, from a belief that the amount of metal decreases as we descend in the
solid rock. Mr. Sehvyn, colonial geologist for Victoria, has, however, lately reported
in favor of quarrying for the gold in the solid rock. The greatest amount" of gold is
found in the heaps of debris or old alluvium derived from the denudation of the old
slaty rocks. The auriferous rocks of eastern A. are lower silurian, as shown by Messrs.
Lnnsdale and Salter, from the examination of specimens of pentameri, trilobites, and
r.>rals from the strata which overlie them. !M; - . Sehvyn has referred the Victoria gold-
bearing strata to the same age, from the occurrence in them of about 60 species of lower
silurian fossils, including trilobites, graptolites, and linguke. The auriferous quartzose
veins are most abundant in the vicinity of eruptive rocks, whether granite, porphyry,
or greenstone.

Messrs. Sehvyn and Resales have shown that the superficial drifts containing the
gold consist of three distinct stages. The lowest or oldest contains the remains of wood
and seed-vessels differing little from the present vegetation ; among them the cones of
banksia, an exclusively Australian genus, have been identified. The remains of animals
exhibit also the representatives of the living fauna of the country. Gigantic: marsupials
then existed kangaroos, potwroos, and wombats representing "the elephants, and even
the large carnivora of Asia; but with the exception of the mastodon, of which one
species has been found in A., there were, it would seem, no generic forms common to
this great district and the rest of the land in the eastern hemisphere. In Victoria, these
beds of alluvium have been overflowed and even interlaced by basaltic //,*///<.(. which
evidently proceeded from terrestrial volcanoes, inasmuch as the vegetable matter beneath
them has been charred and destroyed in situ by the eruption.

An extensive coal-field has been known for some time as occupying the whole of the
great basin of the Hunter river and its tributaries, down to the sea-coast at Newcastle,
where several beds crop out on the beach. For a good many years, the monopoly held
by the Australian Agricultural Company, in the working of the coal, has ceased to exist.
aiid as the result, the trade has increased enormously. From Port Hunter the coal is
dispatched to all parts of A., and even to New Zealand and California. Beds belonging
to the carboniferous system have been discovered also in western A., near Perth, and the
coal has been successfully, though not so extensively wrought there.

After gold and coal, the next most important "Australian mineral is coppfr. The
Burra Burra mines, in South A., were discovered in 1842. The lode is 17 ft. wide,
and of vast extent. The ore contains 75 pet cent of metal, and is quarried out like stone
in immense masses. Copper has also been wrought for several years at Balhurst. in
New South Wales. The poorest ores are here most abundant, the rich pyrites existing
only in small quantity. Copper is now mined and smelted in western Australia.

Iron is spread in great profusion over all the continent. To such an extent does it
exist in several of the mountains on the north coast, that they violently affect the
magnetic needle. At Berrima, in New South Wales, an oxidulated iron ore, from
which is manufactured a good steel, has been worked, but not successfully. Iron has
been noticed in quantity in both southern and western Australia.

Lead is most abundant e. and s.e. from Adelaide, at Mt. Beevor, and near cape .Tervis.
The ore of Glen Osmond mines, near Adelaide, yields 75 per cent of lead, besides a
proportion of silver. This metal is also wrought at Geraldine, in western Australia.

Manganese, bismuth, tin, and antimony have been met with in South A., as also good
specimens of jasper, chalcedony, and opal.

Zinc and quicksilver arc mentioned as occurring in western Australia.

Botany <m<l Z"l<>f/y. The natural history of A. is remarkably different from that of
jiny other quarter of the globe. Its 'trees which seldom form de^se forests, but are
scattered as in a lawn or park, where the colonist finds pasture for his (locks without
nny previous clearing are, almost without exception, of very peculiar appearance.
Among the largest of them are species of eucalyptus (q. v.), some of which attain the
height of 150 or 200 ft., rising without branches to at least half their height, their stately
steins resembling beautiful columns. Some of the eucalypti, on account of their
resinous exudations, are known to the colonists as gum-trees. Their leaves are leathery.
It i<. indeed, ageneral characteristic of the trees and shrubs of A., that their leaves are ever-
green and of a firm texture; and although in this a beautiful adaptation may be
perceived to the prevailing dry ness of the climate, the foliage wants the delic ey and the
liveliness of tints which in other countries form so much tlie charm of the landscape.
The catmrin<p (see CASUARINA) or cassowary-trees (beef-wood, she-oak, swamp-oak.
etc.), among which, as among the < nrnlypti, are some of the largest and most useful
timber-trees, are still more singular in appearance; their long, wiry, jointed hranchlcts,
which LTcatlv resemble those of eyiiimtn. are quite leafless, having only very small
sheaths in-tcad of leaves. Equally destitute of foliage are the greater number of the
" (q.v.), which abound in the Australian flora. The abundance of protcace<?

Australia.

which order includes the genus banksin-, already noticed in the geology connects the
Uoru of A. with that of the cape of Good Hope, to which there are also other points of
resemblance; and although true heaths do not appear, their place is supplied by a variety
of heath-like plants of other natural orders, and particularly of the order r/w/vV/Wm', of
which some (of the genus fjxwri*) now take tlu-ir plac witli heaths among the favorite
or. laments of our greenhouses. ArnncttriiiK (q.v.) forma connecting link between the
flora of A. and that of C'hili. In the more northern parts, palms and other tropical
productions connect it in like manner with that of the s.e. of Asia.

Few of the trees or shrubs of A. produce edible fruits, and those known as Tasma- \
nian currants, Tasmanian cranberries, etc., are not of much value. The seeds of the
araucarias are edible, having some resemblance to almonds. Almost none of the native
vegetable productions of A. have been found worthy of the care of the gardener, except
HS objects of beauty or curiosity; and it produces no plant which has yet found its way,
or seems in the least degree likely to find its way, into agriculture- unless, indeed, some
of its pasiuiv plants may prove to be peculiarly adapted to dry climates. But the cul-
tivated plants of other" countries have been introduced with great success by the colo-
nists, and their gardens boast not only of the fruits common in England and the south
of Europe, but of some of those of China.

The zoology of A. is particularly characterized by the prevalence of marsupial (q.v.)
quadrupeds, of which comparatively few exist in any other part of the world. Some of
them are herbivorous, as the kangaroos (q.v.), potoroos (q.v. ). and wombats (q.v.); some
feed indifferently on roots and insects, as the bandicoots (q.v.); some are carnivorous, as
the thylacine (q.v.) and the dasyure (q.v.) the tvjer and the irild cat of the colonists
but all are marsxipial : that is, the females have a pouch for the young, which are born
in a much less advanced state than the young of other viviparous animals. Besides its
marsupial quadrupeds, A. has few others, yet known, except some species of bat; a kind
of dog, known a* the dingo (q.v.); and the echidnas (q.v.) and duck-bills (<>rnith</rltyn-
rfiuK) (q.v.). animals which have been regarded as forming a connecting link between
quadrupeds and birds, both upon account of external form and anatomical structure,
and to which nothing at all similar exists in any other part of the world.

,Many of the birds of A. are very beautiful, but they do not exhibit peculiarities so
general and striking as its quadrupeds, or even its plants. The einu (q.v.) may be
regarded as the Australian representative of the ostrich and cassowary. The black swan
is chiefly remarkable for its color. Ducks of various kinds, falcons, doves, parrots, and
many other birds of families well known elsewhere, connect the natural history of this
isolated continent with that of the other regions of the globe. Reptiles are numerous,
but exhibit as a class no very marked peculiarities, nor is there in any other department
of zoology so wide a difference from the rest of the world as in the mammalia. Among
the fish of the Australian shores and rivers are many species which are not found else-
where, but they present no remarkable common characteristic. Among them are no
trouts. salmon, or other salmouUUe, which, indeed, do not extend into the southern hem-
isphere. Attempts to export ova to A., and colonize her waters with salmon, have not
been successful.

As to the cultivated productions, wool may be reckoned the grand staple of Austra-
lia. For sheep-farming, the country, so far as it is not a desert, seems to be admirably
adapted. The colonist, instead of having, as in America, to he\v his way through dense
forests, with tangled underwood, sees around him either open pastures or park-like woods
overshadowing their green sward. His main difficulty is the scarcity of water, or rather
the possibility that such a scarcity may occur. Wheat ; s grown to advantage, particu-
larly in South Australia; cotton, tobacco, and sugar are produced in New South Wales
and Queensland: the vine is grown extensively by the colonists, who have begxin to avail
Un'in>rlve- of the capabilities of the respective colonies by rearing the productions of
tropical and temperate climates, both of which are possessed by Australia.

Hixtory. In 1606, the north coast was descried by the Dutch on board of iheDuyfcn,
and about the same time bv a Spanish expedition sent from Peru in 1605, one of the
commanders of which gave Ins name to Torres Straits. It is probable, however, that A.
had been long known to the Chinese. In 1619 and 1622 respectively, the west and south-
west COUMX wen- seen. In 1642, the island, called for some time Van Diemen's Land, but
now Tasmania, was visited by Tasman, who, within a month, sighted also New Zealand,
lu 1697, Swan river was discovered by Vlaming. In 1770, Cook, then on his first voy-
age, explored nearly the whole of the east coast, designating the same New South Wales.
In 179^, Ha-s, a surgeon in the navy, ascertained the separation of A. and Tasmania, by
passing through the strait that bears his name. In 1802, Port Philip was entered; and
in the same year, Flinders pretty nearly completed the general outline by sailing along
the southern shore. To pass from discovery to colonization: there was "established, in
1788, the settlement of New South Wales, and from this all the other British Australian
settlements, with the exception of Swan river, have successively been planted. Norfolk
island, erected, in 1790, into a penal settlement for New South Wales, was in 1856 allot-
ted to the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty, most of whom were removed for
this purpose from Pitcairn's island. The other colonies, whether offshoots or not of
-mth Wales, assumed an independent existence in the following order: Tasmania.
Western A. or Swan river, 1829; South A., 1834; New Zealand, 1841; Victoria,
U. K. II. 3

Australian.

1851 ; and, lastly, Queensland or Moreton bay, 1859 (sec these heads). Besides these flour-
ishing colonies, a settlement was established near Port Essington in 1839, but was aban-
doned in 1845, on account of the unhealthiness of the climate. Subjoined is a summary
table of statistics for al} the more important of these dependencies, not including thosv
incipient settlements that have been effected along the course, and at the terminus, of th
overland line of telegraph.

COCOXIES.

Square
miles.

Pop.

1S71.

Exports.

Imports.

1871.

\VooL

1871.

Gold.

1S71.

Land

tion.

1S74.

Pub. rev.

1S75

Put),
debt.
1875.

Xew S'h Wales
Victoria.

323,437
B8.15B

760,000
678,600
978,1100
26,215
102,000

503,981
730,198
185,626
120,104
25.353
99,828
256,260

11,245,032
14,557,820
8,582,397

'l99'.?S(l

9,*<>,4.V.
12,341,995
2,158,022
2,434.4a>
198,010
778,087
4,078,193

Lbs.

94,061,560

517,515
83,976

MM*)

1,986,996

Oz.
206.938

1.W7.SS9

Cwts.

13,340

127',9ii

Acres.

1..I.!T.7 4,121,996

1,330.484: l,iV.r!i
CI.'JlS 1,261,464
4.'.-,x.i-. > 157.775

11,470,637

2.!7.35ll

S'th Australia.
Queensland....
w'n Australia.
Tasmania
New Zealand..

Totals

100,634

::i.C,7H
l,943,fi7 2,7aB,95

1,4*1,400

730,029

2,956,450

1,920,8501 37,147,219

31,598,238

168,785.993

2,774,980

141,251

5,186,903

14,083,7091 47^33,290

The native population of A. belongs to the race or group of tribes variously
nated as negritos, Austral negroes, or kefononesians (" black islanders")- The chief mem-
bers of the group, besides the Australians, are the papuans of New Guinea, Now Cale-
donia, and New Hebrides, and the natives of Tasmania. See ETHNOLOGY, NEGRITOS.
The Tasmanians are now extinct, and the Australians are rapidly diminishing in num-
ber; their condition will be considered under the head of each colony. In Victoria
they still number 1330 (not included in the foregoing table). The 38, 540 natives of New
Zealand (also not included in the table) belong to the Polynesians (q.v.).

AUSTRALIAN EXPLORATION'S. Since the article AUSTRALIA in the first issue of thr
Encyclopedia was written, additional information collected by various exploring expedi-
tions has largely modified the opinion formerly entertained with regard to its interior,
The expedition of Sturt from South Australia to the center of the country in 1845, dis-
pelled the notion of a great inland sea, but it substituted the much less hopeful on*
of a vast and burning lifeless waste; and this opinion appeared to be corroborated by
the fate of the gallant Leichhardt, who, after his successful overland journey from New
South Wales to Port Essington in North Australia, started in 1847 to traverse the island
from Queensland to Western Australia, and was never more heard of. It was fora tim
universally considered as decided that a million of sq.m. in the interior was hopelessly
barren, and in consequence further explorations were abandoned. However, in ls.">s.
John M'Douall Stuart, a companion of Sturt in his travels, having made a short expe-
dition to the n.w. of the colony of South Australia, brought back the cheering news
that a very extensive tract suitable for colonization existed in that quarter, well supplied
with lakes and running "creeks," nnd presenting millions of acres of excellent pasture.
Despite, therefore, the arrival of Gregory in the same year from the n.e. of the colony
with additional unfavorable reports, Stuart resolved to resume once more the exploration
of the interior from s. to n. ; and, starting from South Australia in 1S60, he held a gen-
erally n. by w. course, till his further progress was stopped by the threatening aspect of
the natives, at a point in lat. 18 17' s., long. 134' e. Returning with his t\vo compan-
ions to organize a stronger force, he retraced his steps (1861) on the previous track; but,
after traveling 100 miles further than before, was baffled by an impenetrable scrub.
through which lie in vain sought a passage. Want of provisions forced him to return a
second time; but nothing daunted he started once more in 1862 along the now familiar
path, and on July 24th of that year stood on the shore of the Indian ocean at Van Die-
men's gulf. Mr. Watcrhouse, the naturalist, who accompanied Stuart in his third e\i>v
dition, divides the country passed through into three regions: the first, extending H^ far
n. as lat. 27 18' s., is watered by springs and is suitable for pastoral purposes, though
subject to great heat and drought in summer. The springs either issue from the suri'aev
of the plains or from the tops of curious conical eminences evidently of volcanic ori-
gin; these eminences varying from the size of a beehive to a Considerable hill. Th
second region, extending* north wards to lat. 17 86' s., is much more defective in water-
supply, and its vegetation chiefly consists of a pungent-flavored coarse grass, known as
"porcupine grass" (otherwise tpiniffx ortritMliii p>ingenx\ good pasture being only found
in the hollows of creeks. This region also presents several ranges of hiils of low eleva-
tion, the maximum height being 2000 feet above the plain. The third region, which
extends from lat. 17 36' s. to the sea-coast. po<>c e> a rich soil, sometimes lacustrin*
and sometimes alluvial, clothed with the usual abundance of tropical vegetation, and well
timbered

The resumption of the exploration of interior Australia by Stuart had the effect of
arousing general attention to the subject in the other colonies; and accordingly, Avhih>
Stuart was on his 1860 expedition, the colony of Victoria was fitting out another t>arfr
for the same purpose. This expedition, which was put under the command of R. O'Hara

Australian.

Burke, consisted of a large party with a number of camels (which had a short time pre-
viously been imported by the Victorian government from India), and left Melbourne on
Aug. 20, 1860, reaching Cooper's creek in the middle of December. Finding tliat his com-
pany was too numerous and too much encumbered. Burke left the greater portion at the
<reck under Brabe, to await his return, and with his second in command, William John
Wills, and two others, Gray and King, started, with 6 camels, 1 horse, and 12 weeks'
provisions, in a northerly direction, reaching the mouth of the Flinders river, at the head
of the gulf of Carpentaria, on Feb. 11, 1861, being the first explorers who crossed Aus-
tralia from sea to sea. Unable, however, to obtain a view of the ocean, on account of
(he extensive marshes which skirt the coast-line, they commenced their return journey,
and, arriving at Cooper's creek on April 21 found, to their astonishment, the camp com-
pletely deserted. From indications marked on a tree close by, they were induced to dig
at its foot, and found a small supply of provisions, and a note to the effect that the party
in waiting had left Cooper's creek to return home; the note being dated April 21, the
very day on which the exhausted explorers reached the camp, and having been only
seven hours written when read by Burke. In their worn-out condition, it was a hope-
less task to think of following this fresh party to the river Darling through 400 m. of
desert, though, had they done so, they would have mctBrahe returning with a third sec-
tion of the expedition, which he liadmet at the Darling, and led back to Cooper's creek,
reaching it on May 8, but retracing the road to the Darling, on finding (after a very slight
examination) no signs of Burke's party having arrived there; so Burke, resolving to gain
the nearest pastoral station of South Australia, 150 m. distant, the three travelers (Gray
had already succumbed to fatigue and famine) pursued this new route at the rate of
4 to 5 m. per day, till want of water compelled them to return to the Cooper, though,
had they known that the station they sought was not more than . r >0 (instead of, as they
thought, 100) m. off, they might by a strong elTort have readied it, and been saved.
Instead of this, they returned to Cooper's creek; and their camels being now all dead,
and their provisions nearly exhausted, they resolved, as a last resource, to seek out some
camp of natives, where they mi-rht remain till assistance reached them from the colony.
But their limbs were growing feebler and feebler; at last, on June 28, Wills lay down to
die, requesting the others to go on; and on June 30, Burke also succumbed. King, the
sole survivor, succeeded in reaching the natives, with whom, he lived for 2i months,
till a party under J lowitt, which was sent out from Victoria in quest of Burke and Wills.
arrived at the creek, and rescued him. Burke's experiences of the interior are, as far as
we can gather from the scanty records, equally favorable with those of Stuart, lie
found some good grassy country n. of the Cooper, then passed through a sandy and
stony district; but from the tropic of Capricorn to the sea, a large proportion was richly
clad with verdure and well watered, with now and then a range of hills traversing it.

The unaccounted-for absence of Burke and Wills produced much excitement in the
two southern colonies, and gave birth to three separate expeditions, with the view of
bringing aid to the missing explorers. Two of these were fitted out by Victoria, and
one by South Australia. The former two were intended to act in concert, and were sent
round from Melbourne to Rockhampton, in Queensland, in the Firefly of 200 tons. At
Hockhampton, Walker and his party were landed, in order to make the gulf of Carpen-
taria overland, while the brig pursued her voyage to the head of the gulf, and landed
Landsboroughand his party at the mouth of the river Albert, in the middle of Oct., 18CJ.
On the 17th, Landsborough commenced his march, and following out his instructions
to make for Stuart's "central" mount, followed up the Albert and Gregory rivers, and
1 hence diverging more to the w., found that the water-supply had wholly failed.
Turning then southwards along the river Herbert, his small party of three whites and
two aborigines in all were compelled to stop in lat. 20 11^' s. by the menacing atti-
tude of the natives, and returned to their depot on the Albert, which they reached on
Jan. 19, 1862. Here they learned that Walker had arrived on Dec. 7; bringing the
important news that he had found traces of Burke's party on the Flinders; and Lands-
borough accordingly resolved to penetrate in an easterly direction. On reaching the
Flinders, he found all traces obliterated by the rains, but notwithstanding ascended the
river for 280 m., then crossed to the Thompson, followed it up for the greater part of
its course, afterwards striking out eastwards to the Barcoo or Cooper, and failing to
reach Cooper's creek on account of the extreme drought, made for the settlements on
the Darling, and arrived at Melbourne in Aug., 1862. Landshorpugh found the country
between the gulf and the Thompson to consist of good soil thickly grassed; and, with
rare exceptions, water was generally abundant.

The South Australian expedition was got up on a much larger scale, consisting of 8
men, 4 camels. 26 horses, 12 bullocks, and 100 sheep, and was put under the command
of M'Kinlay, an experienced explorer. It started from Adelaide on Aug. 16, 1861. and
on Sept. 24, had parsed the furthest settlements of the colony; crossed the formerly
mysterious lake Torrens. which was at that time a dry desert; and came into a district
abounding with lakes and creeks, and luxuriantly clad with grass whenever the rain
afforded support to animal life. Here it was learned that the fate of Burke and Wills
had been ascertained, and the party then held northwards for the gulf of Carpentaria.
Leaving the lake district, they entered the great desert, whose inhospitable nature had
been so vividly described by Sturt 16 years before: but curiously enough, in a district

Anstrasla. QC

Austria.

in which Sturtjmd almost perished of thirst, M'Kinlay's party were almost carried away
by a flood. In lat. 25 s., they emerged on au extensive country, abounding in grassy
plains, watered by rivers, and intersected by hill ranges; and in lat. 22 s. they entered
upon a country of tropical character, reaching the Leichhardt, which they followed
down till the deep and broad mangrove creeks and boggy Hats which form a wide bor-
der round the beach of the gulf, hindered their further "progress; so that, like all the
preceding explorers, with the exception of Stuart, a glimpse of the ocean was denied
them. From the Leichhardt river they then proceeded in au e. by s. course, reaching
P>owen at Port Deuisou, in Queensland, in the beginning of Aug., 1862, and thence
reached Adelaide by sea.

The results of these explorations of interior Australia agree in this, that there is a
much larger extent of territory available for colonization than was formerly believed;
that, in fact, by far the greater portion of the interior is more or less suitable- for colo-
nization, and that only to that portion of it lying in the center in lat. 27' to 25 s. can
the term desert be with justice permanently applied. Yet Sturt's desert was certainly
no fancy, and his route to the center of the interior was through a barren waterless
waste, while M'Kinlay, who followed nearly the same track, was delighted with abun-
dance of rich pasture and water. The truth seems to lie between the two extremes;
Sturt's expedition was carried out during a year of unusual drought, while the recent
expeditions here sketched took place during exceedingly moist seasons, the year 1861
and 1862 being the wettest the colonists of Victoria had ever known. Consequently, we
should err in supposing the interior to be a mere desert on the one hand, or a bloom-
ing, well-watered expanse on the other. It is in reality a surface covered with soil more
or less fertile; the basaltic rocks and clays being the most, and quartz, sandstone, and
granite least fertile; and the rainfall is sufficient, in ordinary seasons, to revive the dor-
mant germs of vegetable life, and cover the surface with a crop of grass more or less
luxuriant. On the other hand, the occasionally long continuance of drought, accom-
panied with an excessive amount of evaporation, wholly dries up some streams, con-
verts others into a series of pools, connected by threads of water, or "creeks," reduce*
extensive lakes to marshes or to shallow pools, in which the concentration of the solu-
ble salts of the soil renders the water so brackish as to be wholly undrinkable, and
restores the verdant surface for a time to the condition of a desert, herbage remaining
only on the banks of creeks. The rainfall, which is the sole water-supply in the central
districts, does not occur at regular intervals, but there is every reason to suppose
that the excessive drought experienced by Sturt has not reappeared since 1845. Occa-
sionally, the fall of rain is so excessive as to convert the whole of the plain, as far as
the eye can reach, into a shallow sea, which, however, soon disappears by the drainage
of the rivers and creeks, or under the influence of the excessive evaporation, and in
an almost incredibly short period thereafter, the ground is clothed with verdure. The
climate of the northern districts is very different; there we have a temperature even
higher, but its effect on vegetation is rendered very favorable by the frequent and
moderate rain.s.

These expeditions have also contributed a few facts respecting the rivers of North
Australia. The Flinders was estimated by Landsborough to be fully 500 in., and the
Albert 100 m. long; the Roper was found by Stuart to be a deep wide river at about 100
in. from its mouth ; on the whole, the river system of North Australia is much more
extensive than was formerly supposed.

In 1865, an expedition under the command of M 'Intyre, was undertaken to ascertain
the fate of Leichhardt, but it could not advance further than Cooper's creek.

Our knowledge of the interior of western Australia was considerably extended by
the expedition which started from the west under Forrest in 1869; and the observations
made during the construction of the overland telegraph line from Adelaide to Port
Darwin, on the gulf of Carpentaria, confirmed the view that some of the interior of the
island continent is fitted for agricultural purposes. The expeditions of Gosse and War-
burton in 1873 explored part of the terra incognita, w. of the central telegraph line.
Forrest in 1874 again crossed the country from Perth eastward, reaching the telegraph
lines in 27 s. lat.; waterless and treeless wastes were the distinguishing features. (Tile*
in 1876 traversed the continent in a n.e. direction, finding the country to the eastward
desolated with drought. H. V. Barclay in 1878 crossed the hitherto unknown country
between Alice Springs on the telegraph lines and the e. boundary of South Australia.
in e. long. 136 30'. AU the water-courses and creeks passed over were dried up, but
some fine country was laid open. The view northwards in s. lat. 21 50', only disclosed
sand ridges and spinifex.

AUSTRASIA, or the East Kingdom, the name given, under the Merovingians, to the
eastern possessions of the Franks, embracing Lorraine, Belgium, and the right bank of
the Rhine, and having their central point at Metz. At the time of the rise of the Frankish
power, these districts were of great importance, as they formed the connection with the
German mother-country, and were the most thickly inhabited l>y Franks. After the
time of Charles Martel, the division of the Frankish kingdom into A. and Neustria lost
its political importance. Under Charlemagne's successors, A. merged into Germany
and Neustria, or west Frank-land, into France.

O'/ Austrasia.

Austria.

ATISTEIA, ARCHDUCHY OF, the cradle and nucleus of the Austrian empire, lies on
both sides of the Danube, from the mouth of the Inn to Presburg, on the borders of
Hungary, and embraces an area of about 15,000 sq.m., with a pop. in 1854 of 2,654,237.
It now forms three of the crown-lands, or administrative provinces of the empire vi/.,
lower and upper Austria (or Austria below, and Austria above the Ens), and the duchy
of Sal/burg. See AUSTKIA, EMPIRE OP. The s. and w. portions are mountainous; the
n. and e. are more level and fertile, containing the great plain of Vienna, the Marehfeld,
etc. The pop. is mostly German and Catholic. The chief towns, besides Vienna, are
'Wiencr-Mcu.stadt, Salzburg, Steyer, Linz, and Ischl (q.v.).

AUSTRIA, EMPIRE OF, or ATJPTRO-HUXGARIAX MONARCHY. The Austrian domin-
ions form a compact territory, with a circumference of about 5350 miles. The body of
the empire lies in tlie interior of Europe, though it lias about 500 m. of sea-coast on the
Adriatic. A. borders on Italy, Switzerland, Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Russia, Rouma-
nia, Servia, Turkey, and Montenegro. With the sanction of the Berlin congress of 1878,
the small territory of Spi/./.a, on the Montenegrin frontier and formerly Turkish, has
been incorporated with Dalmatia; the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
though occupied and also administered by Austria, cannot of course be regarded as part
of the Austro-llungarian monarchy. The following table shows the area and population
of the empire at the time of the census:

Crown-lands. Area in Sq. Miles. Population in 1869.

Lower Austria 7,563 1,990,708

Upper Austria 4,576 736,557

Salzburg 2,734 153,159

Styria 8,567 1,137,990

Carinthia 3,958 337,694

Carniola 3,811 466,334

Coast districts, or Illyria 3,048 600,525

Tyrol and Vorarlberg 10,980 885,789

Bohemia 19,822 5,140,544

Moravia 8,481 2,017,274

Silesia 1,964 513,352

Galicia 29,874 5,444,689

Bukowina 3,981 513,404

Dalmatia 4,881 456,961

Hungary 68,583 11,633,162

Croatia and Slavonia 18,432 1,168,037

Transylvania 23,147 2,115,024

Military frontiers 12,800 593,232

Total 237,202 35,904,435

A later estimate of the total area makes it just 240,000 sq. miles. In 1876, the pop. was
calculated to have increased to 37,350,000.

This population comprises the military establishment, which, excluding the landwehr,
was. at the end of 1876, on a peace footing, 271,757 men; and 777,496 on a war footing.
The naval forces of Austria consisted, in April, 1876, of 47 steamers and 10 sailing-
vessels.

The first eleven of these divisions except a part of Illyria and also part of Galicia,
making an extent of 75,180 sq.m., with a pop. of above 12,000,000, formerly belonged to
the German Confederation.

frn-fw. Three fourths of A. is mountainous or hilly, being traversed by three great
mountain chains the Alps. Carpathians, and Sudetes (q.v.), whose chief ridges are of
primitive rock. The Rluetian and Noric Alps stretch from Switzerland to the Danube,
and contain the highest points of the Austrian territories, the Ortler Spitze rising to
12, 779 English feet. Their height declines gradually towards the e., where the Leitha hills
(3000 ft.), "overlooking the plain of Vienna "form the transition to the Carpathians. This
chain rises on the left bank of the Danube, near Presburg, and sweeping in a curve, first e. ,
andthen southward through Transylvania, again meets the Danube. The highest pointis
Butschetjo, in Transylvania.whcre a height of 9528 ft. is reached. The central part, or
Tatra mountains, arc vast granitic masses, resembling the Alps in character; the highest
of these is t lie Lomnitz, in the longitude of Cracow, 8133 feet. The Alps are accompanied,
n and s. , by parallel ranges of calcareous mountains, covering whole provinces with
their ramifications. The Carpathians are lapped on their northern side by sandstone for-
mations: mountains of the same character also occupy Transylvania. Springing from the
11. w. bend of the Carpathians, the Sudetes nm through the n.e. of Moravia and Bohemia,
in which last the range is known as the Riesengebirge, or Giant mountains. The
boundary between Bohemia and Prussian Silesia passes over the Schneekoppe, the
highest peak of these mountains, which is 5275 ft. in height. Continuous with this
range, and beginning on the left bank of the Elbe, are the Erzgebirge, or Ore mountains,

301148

Austria.

cm the confines of Saxony; and veering round to nearly s.e., the range is further pro-
longed in the Bohemian-forest mountains, between Bohemia and Bavaria. The chief
plains of the Austrian empire ar*e the great plains of Hungary (the smaller of these is in
the w., between the offsets of the Alps and Carpathians, and is about 4200 sq.m. in
extent; the other, which is in the e., and traversed by the Danube and the Theiss, has
an area of 21,000 sq.m.), and the plain of Galicia.

From the gulf of Triest to the s. point of Dalmatia, A. has a sea-line of about 1000
in., not counting the coasts of the numerous islands, the largest of which is Veglia, 28
m. by 12. The chief lakes are the Flatten see (about 400 sq.m.), and the Xeusiedler see
(about 100 m.), both in Hungary. The first is navigable by steamers, and both are rich
in, fish, and have fruitful vineyards around them. The Alps and Carpathians inclose
numerous mountain lakes. The Long lake in the Tatra mountains lies at an elevation
of GOOO feet. The most remarkable of all is the Zirknitz lake (q.v.) in Illyria. There
are extensive swamps or morasses in Hungary. One connected with the Neusiedler see
covers some 80 sq. miles. A good deal has been done in draining morasses.

The leading rivers that have navigable tributaries are: the Danube (q.v.), which has a
course of 849 m. within the Austrian dominions, from Passau, at the mouth of the Inn,
to Orsova, on the frontier of Walachia, and receives, on the right, the Inn, Traun, Ens,
Leitha, Raab, Drau, and Save; and, on the left, the March. Waag, Neutra, Gran, Theiss.
Bega, and Temes: the Vistula (q.v.), with its tributary the Bug: the Elbe (q.v.), with
the Moldau and Eger: the Dniester and Adige (q.v.) have no navigable tributaries; this
last, which rises in (he Rha^tian Alps, and flows past the famous city of Trent, enters
Lombardy above Verona, and confers on that country the benefits of what commercial
importance it possesses being navigable only up to a point below r Legnago. The
Rhine only bounds the empire for about 14 m. above lake Constance. The Isonzo, Zer-
magna, Kerka, and Xarenta flow into the Adriatic.

The canal system of Austria is in general not extensive. Canal construction is recent.
The Vienna and Neustadt canal, in lower Austria, has a length of 40 m. : the Bacser or
Franz canal, between the Danube and Theiss in Hungary, 69 m. ; and the Bega canal.
constructed by the Romans, between the Bega and Temes, 88 miles. Extensive lines
are still capable of being opened up, affording the only possible communication with
many places now inaccessible, and, at the same time, the means of rescuing tracts of
arable land from inundations.

The cUmate of A. is on the whole very favorable; but from the extent and diversity
of surface, it presents great varieties. In the warmest southern region between 42 to
46 lat., rice, olives, oranges, and lemons ripen in the better localities; and wine and
maize are produced everywhere. In the middle, temperate region from 46 to49 c , which
has the greatest extent and diversity of surface, \\iue and mai/e slill thrive in perfection.
In the northern region, beyond 49. except in favored spots, neither wine nor maize
succeeds; but grain, fruit, flax, and hemp thrive excellently. The mean temperature of
the year is, at Triest, 58 F. ; at Vienna, 51; at Lemberg. in Galicia, 44.

The raw products of A. are abundant and various; and in this respect it is one of the
most favored countries in Europe. What one province lacks, another supplies. Its
mineral wealth is not surpassed in any European country; it is only lately that Russia
has exceeded it in the production of gold and silver. Mining has been a favorite pur-
suit in A. for centuries, and has been encouraged and promoted by the government.
Bohemia, Hungary, Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, and Tyrol take the first place in respect
of mineral produce. Except platina, none of the useful metals is wanting. The mine*
are partly state property, and partly owred by private individuals. The value of their
yearly produce is estimated at about 9,000,000. Of this sum coal yields about a half,
iron a fifth, salt a tenth, and gold and bilver together one fourteenth. The number of
persons employed in mines and smelting-works is about 150,000, a third of whom are in
Hungary. Cold is found chiefly in Hungary and Transylvania, and in smaller quantity in
Salzburg and Tyrol. The same countries, along with Bohemia, yield silver. The dis-
covery of quicksilver at Idria (q.v.) first brought this branch of mining industry into
importance. This metal is now also found in Hungary, Transylvania. Styria, and
Carinthia. Copper is found in many districts tin, \n Bohemia alone. Zinc is got
chiefly in Cracow and Carinthia. The most productive lead-mines are in Carinthia.
Iron is found in almost every province of the monarchy, though Styria, Carinthia, and
Carniola are chief seats. The production, though great, Is not yet equal to the con
sumption. Antimony is confined to Hungary; arsenic, is found in Salzburg and Bohemia,
cobalt in Hungary, Styria. and Bohemia; sulphur in Galicia, Bohemia, Hungary, Sal/
burg, etc.. though not'enough to supply home consumption. Graphite is found abund-
antly in Bohemia, Moravia, Carinthia. etc.

The useful earths and building stones are to l>e had in great profusion; all sorts of
clay up to the finest porcelain earth (in Moravia. Bohemia, and Hungary), and likewise
marble, gypsum, chalk, etc. Of precious ami semi-precious stones are the Hungarian
opal (which passes in commerce as oriental), Bohemian garnets (the finest in Europe),
cornelians, agates, beryl, amethy.st, jasper, ruby, sapphire, topaz, etc.

The following table shows the principal metals and minerals produced in A. in 1872,
and their value in florins:

Austria.

Weight. Value in florins.

Gold (Austrian pound) 2,804 1,892,287

Silver 74,043 3,331,925

Quicksilver (Austrian hundredweight) 7,170 1,240,798

45,013 477,179

30,886 1,342.033

102,339 1,305,646

8,477,115

648,318

Sine

Copper
Lead

Iron, ru\v and east "
Graphite

Mineral coal 93,971,990

A. is peculiarly rich in salt. Rock-salt exists in immense beds on both sides of the
Carpathians, chiefly at Wieliczka (q.v.) and Bochnia in Galicia, and in the co. of
Marmaros in Hungary, and in Transylvania. The annual produce of rock-salt is
greatly above 3.000,000 cwt. Salt is also made at state salt-works by evaporating the
water of salt-springs. The chief works are those at Ebensee, Aussee, Hallstadt, Ischl,
Hallcin. and Hall in Tyrol. From two to three million cwt. are thus produced annu-
ally. A considerable quantity is also made from sea-water on the coasts of the Adriatic.
The sale of salt is in A. a government monopoly. Of other salts, alum, sulphate of iron,
and sulphate of copper are the chief. There are inexhaustible deposits of coal in the
monarchy; but they have not yet been rightly explored, nor are nearly all that are
known yet worked." They are spread over all the provinces; but the richest are in the
mountain-systems of Moravia and Bohemia. Of recent years, however, a great deal
has been done to develop this particular branch of mining. A. has abundance of min-
eral springs, frequented for their salubrity; 1600 are enumerated, some of them of Euro-
pean reputation, as the sulphurous baths of Baden in lower A., the saline waters of
Karlsbad, Marienbad, and Ofen, etc.

The rcf/fhMe i>nxl,uctions, as might be expected from the vast variety in the soil and
position of the different provinces, are extremely various. Although three-fourths of
the surface is mountainous, more than rive-sixths is productive, being used either for
tillage, meadows, pasture, or forest. Grain of all kinds is cultivated, most abundantly
in lluiiirary and the districts s. of it on the Danube; in Bohemia, Moravia. Silesia,
and Galicia". Agriculture is not yet far advanced; the prevailing system is still what is
called the three -held system, introduced into Germany by Charlemagne, in which a crop
of winter wheat is followed by one of summer grain, and that by fallow. In Hungary,
the Magyar adheres to his primitive husbandry, the German and Slav are adopting
rational methods. Rice is cultivated in the Banat, but not enough for the consump-
tion. Potatoes are raised everywhere; and in elevated districts are often the sole sub-
sistence of the inhabitants. Horticulture is carried to great perfection ; and the orchards
of Bohemia, A. proper, Tyrol, and many, parts of Hungary, produce a profusion of
fruit. Great quantities of cider are made in upper A. and Carinthia, and of plum
brandy in Slavonia. In Dalmatia, oranges and lemons are produced, but not sufficient
lor the requirements of the country; twice as much olive-oil is imported as is raised in.
the monarchy.

In the production of wine, A. is second only to France. With the exception of
Galicia. Silesia, and upper A., the vine is cultivated in all the provinces; but Hungary
stands first, yielding not only the finest quality of wine, but four-fifths the amount o'f
the whole produce of the empire. The average produce of the whole empire is esti-
mated ut about 400,000,000 gallons, which is mostly consumed by the inhabitants them-
selves.

Of plants used in manufactures and commerce, the first place is held by flax and
hemp. Flax is cultivated almost universally; white hemp in Galicia, Moravia, and
Hungary. Tobacco is raised in great quantities, especially in Hungary, which also in
first in the cultivation of rape-seed. Bohemia raises hops* of the first quality, which
are partly exported; though other provinces require to import from abroad. The indigo
plant has been lately successfully acclimatized in Dalmatia. Nearly a third of the pro-
ductive surface is covered with wood (66,000 sq.m.), which, besides timber, yields a
number of secondary products, as tar, potash, charcoal, bark, cork, etc.

As to animal*, bears are found in the Carpathians, Alps, and Dalmatia; wolves,
jackals, and lynxes in these same districts, and also in the Banat, Croatia, Slavonia, and
the military frontiers. The marmot, otter, and beaver are also found in Dalmatia.
Game has of late sensibly diminished. The wild goat lives in the highest, the chamois
and white Alpine hare in the middle regions of the Alps and Carpathians. More pro-
ductive than the chase are the fisheries of the Danube, Theiss, and numerous streams,
lakes, and ponds. The chief sea-fishing is in Dalmatia. Leeches, procured chiefly in
Hungary and Moravia, form an article of considerable trade. For foreign commerce
the most important branch of rural industry is the rearing of silk. A. produces about a
quarter of a million of silk cocoons annually. The silk trade is very extensive in the
Tyrol the yearly supply of cocoons in that country being 32.000.

The breeding of domestic itHhiial* has not yet advanced to what the home wants
require. In some districts it is excellent, in others quite neglected. Horse-breeding is
promoted by what are called "military studs." Besides a number of imperial studs.

Austria.

there are a great many private establishments, especially in Hungary, for the same pur-
pose. The supply of black-cattle is not equal to the demand; great numbers are fur-
nished by Hungary and Galicia. The breeding of sheep, like tliat of horses, has been
a special object of care, to the government The riner wools are furnished by Moravia,
Bohemia, Silesia, lower A., and great part of Hungary and Galicia. The great mass is,
however, composed of what is known as middling and inferior sorts. Goats are reared
chietly in Dalmatia, and swine in Hungary. In 1872, the number of horses in the mon-
archy was stated at 3,548,442; cattle, 12,704,405; sheep, 20,103,395; goats, 1,552,055;
swine, 6,994,752; and bee-hives, 1,531,152.. Nearly three-fourths of the population are
engaged in husbandry, so that A. is decidedly an agricultural state, though its capabili-
ties in this respect have by no means been fully developed.

The population is very unequally distributed. The most populous districts are
those of the s.w. and of the n-w. The Alpine regions and those of the Carpathians are
the sparsest; and generally the density diminishes towards the east. At the end of 1869
Austria had, besides Vienna, 3 cities of above 100,000 inhabitants, and 32 others with
more than 20,000. Vienna, with 834,284 inhabitants then, was found by special census
in 1875 to have, with suburbs, 1,020,770. The population of Austria embraces a greater
number of races, distinct in origin and language, than that of any other European coun-
try except Russia. The proportions in this respect are here given from the official state-
ments of 1879. The Slavs are the most numerous race, amounting to 16,219,000, nearly
50 per cent of the whole population in 1870. They form the bulk of the population of
Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola. Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, the military front ; ers, th
Woiwodina, the n. of Hungary, and Galicia. They are, however, split up into a num-
ber of peoples or tribes, differing greatly in language, religion, culture, and manners;
so that their seeming preponderance in the empire is thus lost. The chief branches of
the Slavic stem are the northern Czechs (the most numerous of all), Ruthenes, and Poles,
and the southern Slowens, Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians. The Germans numbered
9,040,000, or about 25 per cent. They are dispersed over the empire, but predominate
most in the duchy of A., Salzburg, Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, w. oi' Hungary, etc. Th
Romanic peoples (speaking languages derived from that of ancient Rome) amounted fco
3,456,000, or fully 9J^ per cent, and are divided into western and eastern. To the first,
the Germans give the general name of Welsch. They consist of Italians, inhabiting th
8. of Tyrol, Istria, and Dalmatia; the Ladins (Latins), occupying some valleys in Tyrol;
and the Friauls about Gortz, n. of Triest. The eastern Romans are the Valaks or VV r al-
lachians, styled by themselves Rumuni, who are found in Transylvania, Hungary, t\ut t
Woiwodina, Bukowina, and military frontiers. The Magyars, or Hungarians proper,'
numbered 5,431,000 (over 15 per cent): they are located chiefly in Hungary and Transyl-
vania; also in the Woiwodina, and a few in Croatia and Slavonia. The small remain-
ing portion are composed chiefly of Jews, Armenians, and Bohemians or gypsies; and
collectively they number 1,354,000, which is pretty nearly 3f per cent.

As to religion, the great bulk of the nation is Roman Catholic. At the beginning of
1870 there were 23,954,233 Roman Catholics; of Greeks in union with the church of
Rome there were 3,941,796; not in union, 3,050,830. The Protestants of all denomina-
tions numbered 3,570,989; and the Jewish persuasion claimed 1,375,861. The church
of Rome has 11 archbishoprics and 40 bishoprics, and an army of secular priests. At
the accession of Joseph II., there were 2024 convents; but at the end of the French war
(1816) they had been reduced to 800. There are at present nearly 300 abbeys and abov
500 convents.

Education, since 1849, is under the care of a minister of public worship and instruc-
tion. As compared with other German states, the education of A. presents some pecu-
liarities. There is a greater prevalence of establishments where the pupils both live and
receive instruction; also of schools for special callings. Instruction, again, whether
high or low, is mostly gratuitous, or of trifling cost, being provided from general or
local public funds. The government has recently made liberal allowance for elemen-
tary education. Another peculiarity is the sway of the clergy, both in schools and uni-
versities. The primary schools are, to a very large extent, in their hands. The num-
ber of elementary schools lias increased greatly in recent times. The law enforces com-
pulsory attendance at the " Volks-schulen," or national schools, of all children between
the ;iges of 6 and 12: and parents are liable to be punished for neglecting to svnd (hern.
Hungary Is Still backward in elementary education. There are ciirht technical schools
in the empire. The eight universities are at Vienna. Pracrue. Grilt/, Innsbruck, Pcsth,
( 'meow, Lemberg, and Czernowitz (the latter founded in 1875). The first four of these,
ranking as German universities, had in 1872

Vienna. Prague. GrStz. Innsbrtick.
Professors and teachers

Ordinary professors 68 48 40 41

Extraordinary professors 88 23 10 7

Assistant professors 86 21 17 9

Teachers of languages, etc 8681

Total 200 97 70 58

Austria.

Vienna. Prague. Gratz, InnsbrUck.
Students

Faculty of theology 198 207 103 197

jurisprudence 1304 640 312 104

philosophy 697 265 143 148

medicine 1383 500 292 79

Total matriculated students. 3564 1612 850 528

Non-matriculated students 317 97 76 84

Total 3881 1709 926 612

In 1875, Vienna had 3920 students; Prague, 1751; Pesth, 122 teachers and 1912 students;
Cracow and Lcmberg, the universities of Galieia, and the other Slavonian provinces,
number 70 professors and 1800 students. There are also a large number of establish-
ments where the pupils are received young, and educated and trained for special pro-
fessions, for the army and navy, for the counting-house, for the mine and the farm, a*
accoucheurs, etc. There are, Itesides, a large number of institutes for the promotion of
science and art. The fruits of this extensive educational system are not what might
be expected, in consequence of the priestly and monarchical restrictions which hedge it
round. The chief libraries are the imperial and university libraries of Vienna. There
are in the whole monarchy 755 newspapers and other periodical prints, of which fully
the half are in German. Such of them as are political are fettered by conditions which
render them quite worthless as organs of public opinion.

The )/i>iii>ij<tcturiitf/ industry of A. is not yet adequately developed, but of late years
has made great strides. The annual value of its manufactures not including small
trades is estimated at 1200 to 1500 million florins, while that of its husbandry may reach
2500 millions. Bohemia takes the lead in this industry; then follow Aus'tria proper,
Moravia and Silesia, and Hungary. Vienna is the chief seat of manufacture for articles
of luxury; Moravia, Silesia, and Bohemia for linen, woolen, and glass wares; Styri.i
and Carinthia. for iron and steel wares. The chief manufacturdfl articles of export are
those of silk and wool; the only others of consequence are linen twist, glass wares, and
cotton goods. The yearly value of manufactured iron is about 54 million florins. The
glass wares of Bohemia are of special excellence. The hernp and flax industry is one of
the oldest and still most important. No branch of industry has risen more rapidly than
that of cotton. The manufacture of silk is very extensive. The manufacture of tobacco
is a state monopoly, and brings a revenue of nearly 60 million florins; the salt mon-
opoly, 18 millions.

In respect of commerce, A. is most unfavorably situated. High mountains oppose
great obstacles on all hands to communication, and separate the producing districts from
the only sea that touches the empire; while the chief navigable rivers have their mouths
in other countries. Much has been done to remedy these obstacles. Since 1809, a length
of 20,000 m. of highways has been made. The great Alpine roads over the Stelvio pass
and the Semmering (q.v.) are among the most remarkable constructions of our times.
More remarkable still are the railways over the Brenner pass and the Semmering. The
first railway in A. was a horse railway, constructed in 1825-32. The state in 1841,
resolved to 'undertake the construction of railways, and since then a great extent has
been laid down. A tolerably complete network of railway now brings all places of
importance into easy communication with each other. The total length of railways in
the empire open to traffic in Oct., 1876, was 10,852 English miles. The length of lines
under construction was about 2000.

The length of telegraph lines in the empire in 1876 was about 28, 000 English miles.
The number of messages carried in 1875 was 5,458,920. In 1876 there were in Austria
proper 4366 post-offices, and in Hungary 1930. The number of letters and packets pass-
ing through the post in A. in 1875 was 244,331, and in Hungary in 1874, 68,673.

"River-communication received a great impulse from the introduction of steam. By
means of the Danube steam company, formed in 1850, and a second company <1S52)
confined to tug-navigation, passengers and goods are now conveyed on the Danube
between Ulm and Galatz, and on to Constantinople. The Austrian Danube steam com-
pany has a fleet of steamers plying on the Danube, the annual receipts from conveyance
of goods being more than 7 million florins. This traffic would be vastly greater were
the lower Danube freed from the influence of Russia.

A great number of the political impediments to commerce have been removed or
diminished. The customs-boundary that separated Hungary and the adjoining provinces
from the rest of the empire, was done away in 1851, so that the whole is included in one
customs district, with the exception of Dalmatia, winch still forms a small district by
itself; the free ports of Triest. Fiume. one or two other minor free ports and districts.
By the new tariff, which came into partial operation in 1852, A. has passed from a pro-
hibitive to a protective system. No article is admitted duty-free: but absolute prohibi-
tion is confined to articles of state monopoly (salt, powder, and tobacco). Goods for
mere transit or trans shipment pay no duty. But the foreign commerce of A. is nothing
compared with that between the different "provinces. The great center of this internal
commerce is Vienna: other important markets areLinz, Prague, Lemberg, Brody, Pesth,

Austria.

Griltz. The imports and exports of merchandise and bullion for the whole of the efnpire
except the province of Daimatia, which, as has been mentioned, is uot within the impe-
rial line of customs, were tabulated as follows for 1875 and 1876 :

Merchandise. Bullion and Cola.

Florins. Florins.

IMPORTS 1875 552,500,000 15,800,000

1876 516,900,000 33,800,000

EXPOUTS 1875 504,500.000 18,400.000

1876 509,600,000 30, 500,000

For Daimatia, the imports were in 1875, 13,400,000 florins, and in 1876, 12,900,000; th
exports in 1875 were 10.400,000, and in 1876. 7,800,000. The principal articles of import
into the Austrian empire are raw cotton and other materials for spinning, the value of
this item reaching in 1876 the sum of 95,600,000 florins. Next in importance come
manufactured cloths, valued at 61,600,000 in 1876; tobacco, and miscellaneous colonial
produce. Some of the imports are partially re-exported; of native produce exported the
most important are articles in metal, valued at 67,200,000 florins; cereals, 54,600,000;
wood. 30,600,000; and pottery, 29,200,000.

The chief harbors of A. are those of Istria Triest, Rovigno, Pirano, Citta Xuova.
etc.; of Croatia Fiume, Buccari, Novi; of Dalinatia Zara, Spalatro, Kagusa, Cattaro.
Cur/ola, etc.

As to form of r/oeernment, A. is a monarchy hereditary in the house of Hapsburg-
Lothringen. In the case of the reigning family dying out , the states of Bohemia and
of Hungary have the right of choosing a new King; but for the other crown lands, th
last sovereign appoints his own successor. The reigning house ruu.st profess the Roman
Catholic faith.

Till 1848, Hungarj- and Transylvania had a constitution limiting the monarchy, which
was absolute for the rest of the empire; though the several provinces had each its con-
sultative council composed of clergy, nobles, and burghers. After the revolution of
1848, and the subsequent reaction," all marks of independence of the separate prov-
inces disappeared. ' The imperial constitution granted (octrm/irtt) .March 4, 1849.
as well as the provincial constitutions that followed, were abolished, and government
was organized in the most absolute form by the imperial " patent" or charter of Dec. 31,
1851. The patent guaranteed to every religious body recognized by law protection in
the observance of public ordinances, in the management of its own affairs, and in the
possession of buildings and funds for the purpose of worship and ins! ruction. Th
relation of the Roman Catholic church to the state was put upon a new footing. It was
no longer under the oversight of the secular authority, the j>l<tc<if/m ></,/<//// and church-
patronage were abolished, ecclesiastical jurisdiction for discipline, and the independent
administration of church property, were conceded, and the intercourse of bishops and of
all Catholics with Rome left free. The clergy had no longer to submit to examination
or tests on the part of the state; they were nominated by the state, but only with th
concurrence of the bishops, and without that concurrence they could not be deprived
of their otlice. Along witli all this, they obtained an overwhelming influence over
education, even in the universities; and by the concordat signed in the early part of
1856, this influence was very greatly increased. The patent further guaranteed the equality
in the eye of the law of all citizens irrespective of nation, rank, or religion, and thw
liberation of the land from all serfdom. Subsequent patents (e.g. for Hungary. Croatia,
etc., in 1853) regulated the claims between existing proprietors and their vassals, and
determined the indemnities due to the former for their seignorial rights.

But since the year 1867 A. has been reconstructed as a twofold empire, con-
sisting of a Qennao or " Cisleithan " monarchy, and a Magyar or " Tran>leithan " king-
dom. The former is generally known as Austria proper, and the latter as Hungary.
Each of the two countries has its own laws, parliament, ministers, and government; and
the formal tie between them is a body known as the delegations. These form a parlia-
ment of 120 members, the one-half is chosen by the legislature of German Austria,
which is represented by it, and the other half represents Hungary. The person of the
sovereign is another knot in the tie l>etween the two members of the empire. The
Magyars claim, under certain conditions, the right of freely electing their monarch.
The delegations have jurisdiction over all matters affecting the common interests of the
two countries, especially foreign affairs, war. and finance; the ministries of which'
three departments are responsible for the discharge of their official functions to the
delegations, a committee of whom sits permanently. The acts of the delegations require
to be confirmed by the representative assemblies "of their respective countries: and in
this manner it is attempted to leave the self-government of both Austria proper and
Hungary free.

The administration of Austria proper is divided at present among seven ministries
puMic education ;md ecclesiastical affairs, agricultural, finance, interior, national d< feiise,
co '.merer, and justice. Formerly the ininiMry \va< merely the collective or-.raii of thw
unpcrur, and was responsible to him alone. But a bill passed by the reichsrath in 1867,

Austria.

and sanctioned by the emperor, renders it responsible to that parliament of the western
empire.

The reichsrath consists of an upper and a lower house. The upper house is consti-
tuted by princes, nobles, archbishops, bishops, and life members nominated by the
emperor. Tiie lower house numbers 353 members, elected by the 14 provincial diets of
the empire in the following proportions: Bohemia, 92; Dalmatia, 9; Galicia, 0!'; Higher
Austria, 17; Lower Austria, 37; Salzburg, 5; Styria, 23; Carinthiu, 10; Carniola, 9;
Bukowina, 9; Moravia, 36; Silesia, 10; Tyrol, 17; Vorarlbcrg. 3; Istria and Triest, 4.
The members of the rcichsrath are elected in the provincial diets, and no cue who is not i
a member of one of these is eligible to the wider sphere of legislation. The emperor
nominates the presidents and vice-presidents of both houses. The rights claimed by the
rcichsrath arc: 1. Consent to all military laws; 2. Co-operation in legislature affecting
trade and commerce, customs, banking, posting, telegraphs, and railways; 3. Exami-
nation of the estimates, and general control of the public debt. To give validity to bills
passed by the reichsrath, the consent of both chambers is required, as well as the
sanction of the emperor.

The executive of Hungary is carried on in the name of " the king " by a responsible
ministry.

Finance. The protracted Avars of the first 15 years of the 19th c. had so
exhausted the resources of A., and shattered her credit, that paper money, after being
already twice reduced, had again sunk to 25 per cent of its nominal value; and even 5

BT cent loans could only be obtained at a sacrifice of sometimes more than 50 percent,
tiring the 30 years that followed the war, much was done to restore the state credit,
and 4 per cent" state p;-pcr was bought at par. Tlie revolution of 1848 brought new
difficulties, from which the finances had not recovered, when the Crimean war increased
the expenditure; the war with Prussia and Italy in 1866 increased the public debt by
about 300,000,000 florins, but on the other hand freed A. from the Lombardo-Venetiau
debt of about 35,000,000 florins.

The budirct. estimates for the common affairs of the empire, for 1872, were revenue,
17,208,883; expenditure, 110,647,498 florins; leaving a deficit of 93,438,615. The esti-
mated revenue for 1877 was 117,091,389 florins, which was balanced by the estimated
revenue. On the 1st July, 1876, the national debt of the Austrian empire was 3, 066,269, 072
florins, or '306,526,906 sterling. The estimated revenue for Austria proper (the
countries represented in the reichsrath) in 1877 was 376,037,817 florins; the expenditure,
405.569,474 florins.

JiixtiH'ii* The nucleus around which this great empire has grown was that part of
the archduchy of A. that lies below the Ens. In the age of Charlemagne, about 800, the
defense of the .south-eastern frontier of Germany against Asiatic hordes gave rise here
to a margraviate, called the eastern mark or boundary of the empire, or Ostreich (Austria),
the eastern government; which, being united in 1156 to the country above the Ens, was
raised to a duchy. After coming, in 1282, into the possession of the house of Hapsburg
(q.v.). it rapidly rose to a powerful state. The princes of that house extended their
dominion by marriage, purchase, and otherwise, over a number of other states, and from
1-4:N held almost uninterruptedly the throne of the German empire. By the acquisition
|15','6 and 15271 of the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary, the house of A. rose to the
rank of a European monarchy. In 1804, Francis declared himself hereditary emperor
of A., and, two years afterwards, laid down the title of emperor of Germany and king
of the Romans.

In the earliest times, what is now the duchy of A. was inhabited by the Taurisci, a
Celtic people; but their name subsequently disappeared before that of the Norici. After
the conquest of the Xorici by the Romans (14 B.C.), the country to the u. of the Danulx. 1
belonged to the kingdom of the Marcomanni (q.v.); on the s. of the river lay the Roman
provinces of Noricum and Pannonia. in which last was the municipal city of Vindo-
bona (Vienna). Tyrol formed part of Rh.Ttia. All these boundaries were swept away
by the irruption of the northern peoples; and the regions in question were occupied in
succession, during the 5th and 6th centuries, by Boii, .Vandals, Goths, Huns, Lombards,
and Avari. After the Lombards had settled in Italy, the Ens came, about 508, to be
the boundary between a tribe of German origin and the Avari, a people who had pene-
trated thither from the cast. The Avari having, in 788, crossed the Ens, and fallen
upon Bavaria, then part of the Prankish empire, Charlemagne drove them back (796) as
far as the Raab, and united the district from the Ens to that river with Germany, under
(lie name of the East Mark. Marchia Orientalis, or Austria. lie sent colonists, mostly
Bavarians, into the new province, and appointed over it a margrave. It came into the
po-M'S-inn of the Hungarians in 900, but was reconquered by Otto I. in 955, and reunited
with Germany.

As margrave of the reconquered province, the emperor, in 983, appointed Leopold
of Babenberg (q.v.). whose dynasty ruled A. for 260 years. Under Henry Jasomirgott
(1141-1177), the mark above the Ens was annexed to the lower mark, the united province
raised to a duchy, and important privileges conferred on the newly named duke and

* As the history of A. ami its rul>rs involves, for many centuries, the main strand of the thread of
European history, it is given at somewhat more than the usual length.

Austria.

his heirs. This Henry Jasormrgott took part in the second crusade ; he also removed
the ducal residence from Leopoldsberg to Vienna, now first called a city, and began the
building of the cathedral of St. Stephen. Under his successors, nuiiHuo'is additions
(Styria, Carniola) were made to the possessions of the house. Leopold Vi. undertook
numerous expeditions against the Hungarians and the infidels, and is reckoned the hot
of the Babcnbenr princes. The line became extinct with his successor, Frederick, who
fell in battle with the Magyars (1246).

Then followed an interregnum from 1246 to 1282. The emperor Frederic II. at
first treated the duchy as a lapsed fief of the empire; shortly, claims were set up by
Count Hermann of Bavaria, who was married to a niece of the deceased margrave,
Frederic; and when Hermann died, and the empire was distracted by the contests
between rival emperors, the "states" of A. and Styria chose Ottokar, son of the Bohemian
king, as duke, who made good his nomination about 1260. Ottokar, refusing to acknowl-
edge Rudolf of Hapslmrg as emperor, was defeated, and lost his life and possessions, in
the battle of Marchfeld (1278); and the emperor shortly afterwards (1282) conferred the
duchies of A.. Styria, and Carinthia on his son Albrecht.

The accession of the Hapsburg dynasty with Albrecht I. (q.v.) was the foundation
of A. 's subsequent greatness. The despotic Albrecht contended successfully with Hun-
garians and Bavarians, but while attempting to subdue the Swiss, he was murdered near
Rheinfelden (1308) by his nephew, John of Swabia, whom he had deprived of his heredi-
tary possessions. Of his 5 sons, Frederic was chosen (1314) by a party to the imperial throne,
but was defeated (1322) by his rival, Ludwig of Bavaria. Duke Leopold was defeated
at Morgarten (1315) in his attempt to reduce the Swiss cantons that had thrown off their
allegiance to Albrecht I. At last, by the death of all his brothers, Albrecht II. reunited
the Austrian possessions, increased "by various additions. After his death (1358), two
aons, Rudolf and Albrecht III., successively followed in the duchy of Austria. Another
son, Leopold, held the other lands, but lost his life at Sempach, in seeking to regain the
Hapsburg possessions in Switzerland. The posterity of Albert and Leopold formed the
two lines of A. and Styria. During Albrecht III.'s reign, Tyrol and other districts were
ceded to Austria. After his death (1395), the dukedom was held by his son, Albrecht
IV. Albrecht V., who succeeded his father in 1404, by marrying the daughter of the
emperor Sigismund, succeeded ((1438) to the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, and was
at the same time raised to the dignity of German emperor, as Albrecht II. "With his
death, in 1439, Bohemia and Hungary were for a time lost to the house of A., as were
also, after a bloody struggle, the last of the family possessions in Switzerland. But the
imperial dignity was henceforth uninterruptedly held by them. With Ladislaw,
Albrecht's son, the Austrian line of the house closed (1457), and their possessions went
to the Styrian line. Of this line was the emperor Frederic III., who raised the dignity
of his house by making A. an archduchy. After the death of Ladislaw and of
his own brother, Albrecht, Frederic came into the undivided possession of the archduchy
(1464).

His son, Maximilian I., by marrying Maria, daughter of Charles the Bold, acquired
(1477) the Netherlands. Becoming emperor on the death of his father (1493), he ceded
the government of the Netherlands to his son Philip. Under Maximilian, Tyrol fell
again to the chief branch of the house of A., several districts were acquired from
Bavaria, and fresh claims were established on Hungary and Bohemia. The court of
Vienna began to be the seat of German art and science. The marriage of the emperor's
son Philip with Johanna of Spain set the house of Hapsburg on the throne of Spain
and the Indies. Philip died in 1506, and on the death of Maximilian I., in 1519, Philip's
son, Charles I. of Spain, was elected German emperor as Charles V. (q.v.). Charles
resigned by treaty all the German possessions, except the Netherlands, to his brother,
Ferdinand I (q.v.).

Ferdinand I. had married the sister of Lewis II. of Hungary; and on the death of
the latter in the battle of Mohacz (1526), he claimed the kingdoms of Hungary and
Bohemia, along with Moravia, Silesia, and Lausatia. His claim was contested by John
Zapolya, who secured the aid of sultan Soliman II. ; and Ferdinand, after contests
extending over 20 years, had finally to pay an annual tribute of 30, 000 ducats to Soliman
for possession of Lower Hungary. Ferdinand was also fain to surrender "Wiirtemberg
to Duke Ulrich (1534), on condition of its reverting to A. on the death of the male line.
Nevertheless, the possessions of the house of A. (in the German line) were at this time
already of the extent of 110,000 sq. miles. On the abdication of Charles V. (155(5), Fer-
dinand succeeded to the imperial dignity; he died 1564, with the reputation of .
ruler, 'hough he was strongly conservative of everything established, and introduced
the Jesuits.

In the partition of the inheritance that took place among his three sons, the eldest,
Maximilian II., received the imperial crown along with A., Hungary, and Bohemia;
the second, Ferdinand, Tyrol and Upper A.; the third, Karl, Styria, Carinthia, etc.
Maximilian was more fortunate in Hungary than his father. The death of Soliman
before Szigeth (1566) led to a truce; he got his eldest son, Rudolf, crowned king of Hun-
gary in 1572, and shortly after, of Bohemia, and also chosen king of Rome. But his
attempt to bring the crown of Poland into his house failed. Maximilian II. was fond of
peace, tolerant in religion, and a just ruler. He died 1576; and of his 5 sons, the eldest,

Austria.

Rudolf II., became emperor. Under him, the possessions of the archduke Ferdinand
of Tyrol, who had married Philippine Welser (q.v.), the beautiful daughter of an Augs-
burg burgher, reverted to the other two lines, Ferdinand's children not being considered
noble. Rudolf II. adhered to the old feudal usages, and was a negligent sovereign,
leaving everything to his ministers and the Jesuits. His war with the porte and Tran-
sylvania brought him little credit; and the Protestants' of Bohemia, oppressed by the
Jesuits, extorted from him a charter of religious liberty. At last he was obliged, in 1608,
to cede Hungary, and, in 1611, Bohemia and A. to his brother Matthias (q.v.j. Matthias,
who became emperor in 1612, concluded a 20 years' peace with the Turks, and ceded
(1617 and 1618) Bohemia and Hungary to his cousin Ferdinand, son of the archduke
Karl of Styria, third son of Maximilian II. Matthias lived to see the outbreak of the
thirty years' war (q.v.), and died March 20, 1619.

Bohemia refused to acknowledge his successor, Ferdinand II. (q.v.), to whom all the
Austrian po~-e<M<ins had again reverted, and chose the elector palatine, Frederic V.,
the head of the Protestant union, as king. The states of A. and the Hungarians were
also refractory. But the battle of Prague (1620) subjected Bohemia to Ferdinand; who
formally set about rooting out Protestantism in that country and in Moravia, annulled
their right of electing their king, and the patent of religious freedom granted them by
Rudolf II., and set up a Catholic reformation tribunal which drove thousands into exile.
The emperor also succeeded in extorting acknowledgment of his sovereignty from the
states of A., among which Protestantism predominated; after which Protestantism was
rigorously prohibited. Hungary also was at last compelled to yield, which had revolted
under the prince of Transylvania. But this religious war and persecution cost the hous<!
of A. the life-blood of its possessions. Of 732 cities in Bohemia, only 130 were left; of
30,700 villages, only 6000; of 3,000,000 inhabitants, only 780,000. Under Ferdinand's
successor, the emperor Ferdinand III. (1637-1657), A. continued to be a theater of
war; and at the peace of Westphalia (1648), had to cede Alsace to France. Ferdinand
III.'s son and successor, Leopold I., provoked the Hungarians to rebellion by his sever-
ity. Tekeli (q.v.) received aid from the porte, and Kara Mustapha besieged Vienna
(1683); which was rescued only by an army of Poles and Germans under John Sobieski
hastening to its assistance. The emperor's generals now reduced the whole of Hungary,
which was declared a hereditary kingdom in the male line (1687). Prince Eugene com-
pelled the porte (1699) to restore the country between the Danube and Theiss, and, in
1718, to cede other important provinces to Hungary. The struggle between Leopold
and Louis XIV. of France for the heirship to the king of Spain, led to the war of the
Spanish succession (q.v.), during which Leopold died, May 5, 1705. He was of sluggish
phlegmatic character, and wholly under the influence of the Jesuits.

His eldest son and successor, the enlightened Joseph I. (q.v.), continued the war. He
d. childless, April 17, 1711. and was succeeded by his brother. Karl VI. The peace of
Utrecht concluded under his reign (1713) secured to A. the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua,
Naples, and Sicily. The monarchy now embraced 190,000 sq.m., with 29,000,000 inhab-
itants, and had a revenue of 14,000,000 florins, with an army of 130,000 men. Its
strength, however, was soon much exhausted by fresh wars with France and Spain. At
'lie peace of Vienna (1737), Karl VI. had to give up Naples and Sicily to Don Carlos of
Spain, and part of Milan to the king of Sardinia, receiving only Parma and Piacenza
instead. He also lost at the peace of Belgrade (1739) nearly all the fruits of Eugene's
conquests, giving back to the porte Belgrade, Servia, and the parts of Wallachia and
Bosnia that had belonged to Austria. The emperor conceded all these points with the
view of securing adhesion to the pragmatic sanction (q.v.), which conferred the succes-
sion on his daughter, Maria Theresa.

With his death (Oct. 20, 1740) the male line of the Hapsburgs was extinct, and Maria
Theresa, who was married to Franz Stephan, duke of Lorraine, assumed the govern-
ment. But counter-claims were raised on all sides, and a violent war arose, in which
England alone sided with Maria. Frederic II. of Prussia conquered Silesia. The elec-
tor of Bavaria took the title of archduke of A., was crowned king of Bohemia at Linx
and Prague, and elected emperor as Karl VII. (1742). The Hungarians alone stood by
their heroic queen; who, at the peace of Breslau (1742) was forced to yield Silesia to
Prussia. Frederic renewed the war by coming to the assistance of the emperor; but
Karl dying (1745), Maria Theresa's husband was elected German emperor as Franz I. A
second treaty of peace (1745) secured Silesia anew to Prussia; and at the peace of Aix-
la-Chapelle (1748), A. had to cede Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to Don Philip of
Spain, and several districts of Milan to Sardinia. These sacrifices secured the existence
of the Austrian monarchy; but Maria Theresa wished to recover Silesia, and with this
view, entered into alliance with France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden; but after a bloody
seven years' war (q.v.), Prussia retained Silesia, and A. had spent her blood and treasure
in vain. At this time, paper-money first appeared in A., under the name of state-bonds.
At Franz's death (1765), his son, Joseph II., became German emperor, and joint-regent
with his mother of the hereditary states. Collateral branches of the house of A. were
planted by the younger sons of Maria Theresa, the archduke Leopold of Tuscany, and
the archduke Ferdinand, who married the heiress of Este (see MODENA). In the first
partition of Poland (1772), A. acquired Galicia and Lodomeria. and the Bukowina was
ceded by the porte in 1777. At the death of the empress in 1780, the monarchy had an

Austria.

extent of 234,000 sq.m., with a pop. of 24,000,000, and a debt of 160,000,000 florins.
The administration of Maria Theresa was distinguished by unwonted unity and vigor
both in home and foreign relations.

Her successor, Joseph II., was an active reformer in the spirit of the enlightened
despotism of the times, though often rasli and violent in his mode of proceeding. He
introduced economy into every* department, remodeled the censorship of the press,
granted liberties and rights to Protestants, abolished 900 convents, and revised the
school-system. His protective system of duties, though exhibiting his narrowness as a
statesman, gave a start to native manufactuies. But his reforming zeal and passion for
uniformity excited opposition; the Netherlands rose in insurrection, and other disturb-
ances broke out, which hastened his end (1790). He was succeeded in the government,
by his brother, the grand duke of Tuscany as German emperor, Leopold II. who suc-
ceeded in pacifying the Netherlands and Hungary. Peace was concluded with Prussia
and Turkey (1790). The fate of his sister, Marie Antoinette, and her husband. Louis
XVI., led Leopold to an alliance with Prussia; but he d. (Mar. 1, 1792) before the war
with France broke out. The war was declared by France on his son Fran/ II., the same!
year (see FRANCE). By the treaty of Campo Formip (q.v.), 1797, A. lost Lombard y and
the Netherlands, receiving in lieu the Venetian territory; two years later, at the second
partition of Poland, it was augmented by West Galicia. Franz, in alliance with Russia,
renewed the war with France in 1799, which was ended by the peace of Luneville. Il is
needless to follow all the alterations of boundary that the Austrian dominions underwent
during these wars. The most serious was at the peace of Vienna (1809), which cost A.
42,000 sq.m. of territory, and 11,000,000 florins of her revenue. It was in 1804, when
Napoleon had been proclaimed emperor of France, that Franz declared himself heredi-
tary emperor of Austria, uniting all his dominions in one empire. On the establishment
of the confederation of the Rhine, he laid down the dignity of German emperor, which
his family had held for nearly 500 years, and now took the title of Franz I., emperor of
Austria.

The humiliating peace of Vienna was followed (1809) by the marriage of Napoleon
with the archduchess Maria Louisa; and in Mar., 1812, Napoleon and Franz entered into
alliance against Russia. But when the Russian campaign of 1812 had broken the
power of the French emperor, his father-in-law declared war on him (Aug., 1813), and
joined the alliance of England, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden. The active part which
the emperor Franz now took in the downfall of Napoleon, his consenting to the banish-
ment of his son-in-law to Elba, and the firmness with which lie signed the declaration of
outlawry against him on his return to France, and contributed to his final overthrow,
thus deciding the fortunes of his own daughter and her son all furnished grounds of
claim to that full indemnity for her losses which A. obtained at the close of the war. In the
remodeling of the map of Europe that took place at the congress of Vienna (1815), 82,000
sq.m. were added to the 258,000 possessed by A. after the last partition of Poland, besides
the advantages she gained in point of compactness, and facilities for trade, especially by
the acquisition of Venice and Dalmatia. Ferdinand, the emperor's uncle, was al-o
restored to the grand duchy of Tuscany, of which he had been dispossessed by Napoleon.

After that time, A. exerted a powerful influence in European politics generally, and
more especially in the German confederation; and that influence was uniformly hostile.
to constitutionalism (^ee METTEUNICH). When the Polish revolution broke out' a strict.
neutrality was assumed; but a Polish corps that, was driven into the Austrian territories
was disarmed, and sent into Hungary, while a Russian division that had taken refuge
on Austrian soil was let go, and equipped with the Polish weapons.

The death of Franz I. (Mar. 2, 1832) made little alteration in the policy of A. ; FT-
dinanjd I. trod in his father's footsteps. The political alliance with Russia and Prussia
was drawn closer by a personal conference of the emperor with Nicolas 1. and Frederic
William III. at Teplitz, Oct., 1833. The wonted calm was interrupted in 1840 by the
war against Ibrahim Pacha in Syria, in which A. took part in union with England. An
nttempt at insurrection in Italy in 1844 was a complete failure.

But under this long-continued peace and superficial calm, the internal condition of
the empire was coming to a crisis. The stifling bureaucratic system of government and
police supervision, had produced only irritation and discontent, and was powerless to
compress the fermentation. The opposition in the several nationalities became stronger
and stronger, and the tactics of playing these nationalities off against one another, no
longer succeeded. The Polish insurrection, which led to the incorporation of Cracow
with the monarchy (Nov., 1846), had turned into a frightful rising of the peasantry in
(Jalicia against the nobles. This enabled the government to overpower the political
rising; but the success only increased the danger of the crisis, by encouraging il to pro-
ceed in the old reckless way. In the meantime the opposition to Austrian rule in Italy,
Hungary, and Bohemia, was becoming uncontrollable, and even the states of lower
A. insisted on some control in the management of the state. The revolutionary
movement was already in full swing in Italy, when the fall of Louis Philippe (Feb. 24,
1848) shook Europe to its foundation. A host of petitions and addresses was followed,
Mar. l;'. by a popular movement in Vienna, to which the government and military.
fter a feeble resistance succumbed. Metternich resigned, (lie nrming of the citizens
and freedom of the press were granted, and the emperor promised to convoke a consul-

Austria.

tative assembly from all parts of the empire. At the same time, the opposition in Hun-
gary had carried their demand for an independent ministry responsible to the national
diet, and the emperor was not in a position to withstand it. The 22d of Mar. saw the
insurrection break out at Milan, and Radetzky, the military commander, forced to retire
on Verona. Venice rose at the same time, and drove out the Auslrians.

While the revolution was thus victorious in the provinces, the central authority wa
in a state of dissolution. The authority passed into the hands of the national guards
and the students' legion (the Aiila). A rising of the people (May 15), in support of the,
central committee, formed from the national guards, which the government had
attempted to dissolve, compelled its continuance, and also a revision of the electoral law,
so as to convert the new diet into a constituent assembly. These proceedings led to the
flight of the court to Innsbruck (May 17). An unsuccessful attempt of the government
to break the power of the " Aula," resulted in the appointment of a committee of safely,
to whose influence the government had to submit. ASlavin insurrection broke out m
Prague after Easter, which was repressed with bloody severity by Prince WindischgriU/.
While the emperor was thus lingering at Innsbruck, leaving Vienna in the power of tin-
populace, and the Hungarians were pursuing an independent course, it was in Italy that
the power of A. began to recover itself.

Radetzky had at first been reduced to the maintaining of a defensive position at.
Verona, against Charles Albert of Sardinia, who had declared war on A. at the outbreak
of the revolution, and the forces that came to his aid from Tuscany, Rome, and Naples;
and the foreign policy of A. was in such a state of discouragement, that negotiations
were entered into under the mediation of Great Britain, offering the Lombards indepen-
dence on moderate conditions. But in June, Radetzky took up the offensive, reduced
in succession Vicenza, Padua, and other cities, and then turning against the chief
Sardinian force, defeated it at Custozza (25th July), and drove it from the field. The
fruits of the victory were the dissolution of Charles Albert's army, and a truce which
again delivered Lombardy to Austria.

In the mean time, the government at Vienna was more powerless than ever. The
emperor remained at Innsbruck, and the constituent diet was opened, July 22, by the
archduke John, as his representative. But a new crisis was ripening in Hungary. The
Croats, under their ban, Jellachich (q.v.), opposed the predominance of the Magyars, and
refused obedience to the Hungarian government, which, under the Batthyanyi-Kossuth
ministry, was pursuing a policy almost independent of Austria. Jellachich's' resistance
was officially condemned by the emperor, and he was threatened with deposition ; but,
ns subsequently appeared, his conduct was secretly approved by the court. The
archduke Palatine, Stephen, now left Hungary, after a last attempt at conciliation: and
the emperor, who had returned to Vienna after repeated invitations, named count
Lamberg commissioner, with the supreme command in Hungary. Lamberg. however,
was murdered on the bridge of Pesth (Sept. 28). The Hungarian parliament was now
dissolved, and the command given to Jellachich. But the parliament continued its
sittings, and appointed Kossuth president of the committee of defense. When the
imperial troops now began to march against Hungary, a frightful insurrection broke out
in Vienna (Oct. 6), which was attributed to Hungarian instigation. The arsenal wa*
stormed, and the war-minister, Latour, murdered; the court fled to Olmiitz, a committee
of safety was appointed, the armed populace organized, and the Polish gen. Bern put
at the head of military affairs; while the diet wavered between royalty and revolution.
In the mean time, the military forces had withdrawn, and joined Jellachich, in order to
prevent the Hungarians coming to 'the aid of the Viennese. Windisehgriitz now
approached with an army, and declared Vienna in a state of siege. The attack began on
the 23d of Oct., and after a resistance of eight days, Vienna surrendered.

Severe measures were then taken ; and a number of leaders, among others, Robert Blum
(q.v.), were condemned and shot. The diet now met at Kremsir, and a new ministry
was formed, into which prince Schwartzenberg, count Stadion, Bach, Bruck. and others
entered. But the vigorous policy thought to be necessary for the restoration, and advo-
cated by the archduchess Sophia, was not responded to by the easy nature of Ferdinand
I. Accordingly, the emperor abdicated, Dec. 2. as did also the archduke Franz Karl,
and the latter's son, Franz Joseph (q.v.), was declared emperor.

In winter, Windischgriltz entered Hungary, and began the Hungarian war. After the
encounters at Raab and Babolna. Ofen was" besieged (Jan., 1849), and the Hungarian*
retired beyond the Theiss, and had time to organize themselves under such able leaders
as Gorge! and Klapka. and to prepare for the struggle of the following summer.

In the mean time, important events took place elsewhere. In Mar. (21-23), Radetzky
made his rapid and decisive campaign, which, by the victory of Novara, led to the
abdication of Charles Albert, and an indemnification for war expenses from Sardinia of
15 million lire. With the surrender of Venice, which took place in Aug.. the subjuga
lion of Italy was complete.

At Kremsir, the diet proving intractable, was dissolved, Mar. 4, 1849; and a constitu-
tion was granted (w//v>;/?>(), with two elective chambers, responsible ministers, and other
constitutional provisions. In the national assembly at Frankfurt, A. opposed th?
project of a confederated state under the leadership o"f Prussia, and managed to thwart
the conferring of the empire of Germany on the Prussian king (Mar., 1849).

Austrian. AQ

Autochthones.

In Hungary, the Magyars, though the Germans and Slaves within the country itself
were hostile to them, began the campaign with decided success. Bern conquered
Transylvania in spite of Russian aid; and the rest of the Hungarian army advancing
westward in spring, were successful against the imperial forces at Szolnok anil
"NVaitzen. "Wiudischgrhtz was replaced in the command by TVelden. but the imperial
cause was not improved. Kossuth's hopes rising, he proclaimed the deposition
of the house of Hapshurg, and virtually made Hungary a republic. By May,
Pesth and Ofen were again in the hands of the Magyars; and although gen.
"\Velden was recalled, and the command given to Hayuau, there was little prospect
of success against the Magyars, if a treaty with the c/ar had not brought the aid of a
Russian army under Paskewitsch. The Austriaus still suffered several rever.-.es. and the
Hungarians performed splendid feats of arms, such as Gorgei's victory at Waitzen, and
Klapka's sally from Komorn ; but from June, the war on the whole 'began to be more
favorable to A., whose forces were well managed by Hayuau and Jellachich; and the
intervention of the Russians brought an irresistible weight of numbers against the
Magyars. After the affairs of Szegedin and Debreczin, Haynau's engagements on the
Theiss, and the raising of the siege of Temeswar, it was in vain that Kossuth transferred
the dictatorship to G5rgei. Gorgei, whether from treachery, as the other Magyar leaders
maintain, or from necessity, as lie himself avers, laid down his arms to the Russians at
Vilagos (Aug. 13). The surrender of Komorn, in Sept., completed the subjugation of
Hungary, which was treated as a conquered country, and the officers taken in Aiad were
dealt with by Haynau with a bloodthirsty rigor.

A. was now free to attend to politics, internal and external, and the spirit of the
restoration soon showed itself. One important fruit of the revolution was retained the
liberation of the soil from the burdens and trammels of feudalism. All other liberal
concessions very soon disappeared For a time, the forms of the constitution of Mar.,
1849, were retained; but the rigorous military government and the surveillance exercised
over the press, showed the tendency of things. The fundamental principles of the con-
stitution turned out to the profit only of the Catholic church, which got rid of the place-
turn regium. In the beginning of 1851, Schmerling and Bruck, the liberal element of the
ministry, retired; and in Aug. appeared a number of imperial decrees rendering the
ministers accountable to the emperor alone. At last, Jan. 1, 1852, it was announced that
the constitution and the fundamental rights were abolished, trial by jury set aside, the
old press law r revived, etc. This was followed by still greater concessions *of influence to
the clergy. The emperor did not conceal his predilection for absolute military govern-
ment. All this was not effected without manifestations of discontent. The tires of
revolution w r ere still smouldering in Hungary and Italy; and in Lombardy, though still
under strict military law, a tumult broke out, Feb., 1853, in which a number of
officers and soldiers were stabbed. The finances, too, notwithstanding vigorous
measures for improving the material resources of the country, continued in a bad state,
so that incessant loans were required to cover the current deficit.

On the confused arena of German politics, the struggle for ascendency was kept up
between A. and Prussia. In Oct., 1850, the two powers were armed and ready to come to
blows; but the bold and determined policy of Schwartzenberg prevailed, and Prussia
gave way. The points in dispute it might be difficult for any but a German to under-
stand, even if it were worth trying. See GERMANY, HESSE-'C'ASSKL. The result wa
that Prussia's scheme of a union was given up, and also A. 's admission with all her terri-
tories into the German confederation; and in 1851, the old diet was restored. After the
death of Schwartzenberg, the foreign policy of A. was more conciliatory, and her inter-
ference in German affairs less dictatorial. Prussia and A., after Dec., 1852, were more
friendly, on the whole, though the war in Italy gave rise to considerable ill-feeling
between the two powers. In Feb., 1853, a commercial treaty was concluded, which wa"s
of the utmost consequence to the prosperity of A. , as removing a great part of the
obstructions to her commerce with the rest of Germany.

In 1S53, a difference took place between A. and Turkey, which formed, as it were, a
prelude to the war in the Crimea. In the quarrel between the Montenegrins and the
porte, A. took the part of the Montenegrins; she had also complaints as 10 the infringe-
ment of rights possessed by her on the Adriatic coast, and regarding the treatment of
Christians in Turkey. The threatening mission of count Leiningen, Feb., ISoi}. procured
redress of these grievances. As if following up this movement, Russia came forward
as the special protector of the Greek Christians of the Ottoman empire, and made demands
on the porte which were held inconsistent with his sovereign rights. It was the
interest of A., as well as of the rest of Europe, to maintain the Integrity of the Ottoman
empire; but although she united with England and France in endeavoring to settle the
question by negotiation, when the war broke out, her peculiar relations to Russia led her
to remain neutral during the contest.

The conduct of A. in Italy, especially after 1849, was such as to make that country- a
"standing menace to Europe." The government of A. in that portion of Italy of which
she obtained possession by the treaty of 1815, was far from satisfactorv; but what was
chiefly complained of by the other powers was her interference in the affairs of the inde-
pendent states of the peninsula. By means of secret treaties (copies of which were laid
before the British houses of parliament this year, 1859), A. obtained a most undue influ-

JQ Austrian.

Aulociiilion**.

ence in Parma, Tuscany, Modcna, the States of the Church, and in the kingdom of the
Two Sicilies. That influence was of course exercised in the interests of despotism, and
in opposition to the welfare of the people, whose wishes their rulers, backed by Austrian
troops, were enabled to set at defiance. The position of A. in Italy was canvassed at
the meetings which followed the signing of the treaty of peace at Paris in 1856, but
nothing resulted from the discussions. Sardinia seeing herself gradually environed by,
and afraid to fall a victim to the prevailing Austrianism, after all remonstrances of a
peaceful kind had failed, began to arm. A. demanded her immediate disarmament, on
pain of war; but Sardinia, whose army was swelled with volunteers from every part of
the peninsula, and who had previously entered into a treat} 7 , offensive and defensive, with
France, refused. A. accordingly commenced hostilities by crossing the Ticino on the
29th of April, 1859. On the 3d May, France, as the ally of Sardinia, formally declared
war against A.; but in anticipation of what was to follow, she had several days before
dispatched troops into Piedmont. The Austrian troops were beaten in every engage-
ment that followed, and so effectually, that on the 6th July, the emperor, who latterly
had taken the chief command of his army, was fain to conclude an armistice with the
emperor Napoleon, who also commanded in person. On the 12th of the same month,
the two potentates met at Yillafranca, and agreed to come to terms of peace, the chief con-
ditions of which were to be the cession of Lombardy to Sardinia. See ITALY. In I860,
a short and bloody war occurred between A. on the, one hand, and Italy and Prussia on
the other (see GERMANY), issuing in the cession of Yenice to Italy, and the dual reorgan-
ization of the empire as described above. Since then, the Sclavonic Bohemians have
continued to struggle in vain for the separate crown rights of their ancient kingdom.
The part taken by the government in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78, which led to the
occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, provoked very bitter feeling in the Hungarian
section of the empire.

AUSTRIAN LIP. the thick lip so characteristic of the Ilapsburgs, derived from Cym-
barga, a niece of a king of Poland, who was noted for beauty and unusual strength.

AUTAU GA. a co. in central Alabama, on the A. river; 650 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 11,623
7292 colored. The soil is fertile; the surface uneven. There are several cotton and other
factories. The Selma, Rome, and Daltoii railroad touches the w. part of the county.
Co. seat, Prattville.

ATJTEUIL, formerly a country village at the entrance of the Bois de Boulogne, now
inclosed within the fortifications of Paris. It is known as the residence of famous liter-
ary men such as Boileau and Moliere.

AUTHENTIC (Gr.) is a term applied to any writing or document, the contents of which
may be depended upon for their truth or accuracy. It is frequently employed as synony-
mous with genuine, though a distinction has been drawn, especially by Biblical critics,
between the two words. Authenticity, it i.s said, refers to the statements made by an
author; genuineness lo the authorship itself. Tims, we speak of a History of England
as A., when the narrative is admitted to be correct; and we say of such and such a gos-
pel or epistle that it is genuine, when we are convinced that it is the composition of the
writer to whom it is attributed. See bishop Watson's Apology for the Bible, and dean
Trench's Study of Wards. This distinction, however, appears to be artificial rather than
real; that is to say, it does not inhere in the original signification of the words.

AUTIIENTICS, tehe Latin translation of Justinian's Novelfa and a literal conveyance
of the original. The term was applied to extracts from the decisions of the " Novel laj"
by which previous decisions were set aside or modified. Two German emperors, Fred-
erick I. and II., put forth A. in their own names, and ordered them to be inserted in the
Justinian code.

ATJ'TO, entering into many compound scientific terms of Greek extraction, is the-
Greek pronoun self. In some compounds, it denotes the agent or subject, as in
autocrat, automaton, autonomy; in others, the object, as in autobiography, autocratic,
autodidactic; in others, again, a mere reference to the subject, as in autochthonous. This
variation in the grammatical relation of A. sometimes occasions ambiguity in the mean-
ing of the compound. Thus, autograph means both a machine that writes of itself, and
also a writing done with the person's own hand; autocracy, both the mastery over one's
self, and the sole rule or absolute authority over a people or state.

AUTOCHTHONES, according to Greek mythology, the first human pair who-
appeared in the world, and who, as the name implies, were believed to have sprung fro,t.n
the earth itself. Instead of only one pair for all lands, each district of Greece had its
own A., who were supposed to have sprung from rocks, trees, or marshy places; the
most peculiar and wide-spread belief being that which traced the origin of" mankind to
the otherwise unproductive rocks. Was there a shadow of Darwinism in the legend
that the A. of Athens, Erysiehthon, had legs like a serpent; or did it merely indicate that
they were supposed to have come from a bog? The earth-born giants who made war
upon the gods also had serpent legs. In Thebes the race of the Sparti were said to have
sprung from a field sown with dragon's teeth, and the Phrygian Corybantes to have been,
forced out of hill-sides, like trees, by Rhea, the great mother. These originals of men in
various countries were supposed to have lived like animals, in caves and woods, till by the
U. K. II. 4

Autocracy. ,~A

Autotype.

help of gods and heroes they reached a stage of civilization. A. is applied in a general
way to indicate the original inhabitants of a country.

AUTOCRACY (Gr. self-mastery or wle-mastcri/) signifies that form of government in
which the sovereign unites in himself the legislative and the executive powers of the
state, and thus rules uncontrolled. Such a sovereign is therefore called an autocrat.
Nearly all eastern governments are of this form. Among European rulers, the emperor
of Russia alone bears the title of autocrat, thus signifying his constitutional absoluteness.
Kant used the word A., in philosophy, to denote the mastery of the reason over the
rebellious propensities.

AUTO DA FE (Port. Act of Faith) was the name given to the procession or ceremony
that used to take place in Spain and Portugal at the execution of heretics condemned to
death by the inquisition. It was generally held on a Sunday between Whitsunday and
Advent* very often on All-saints day. At dawn, the dismal tolling of the great bell of
the high church gave the signal to begin the drama of the day; for as such it was looked
upon by the people, who thronged to it in troops, believing' that they did a good work
in merely looking on. Men of the highest rank reckoned it prudent to give their coun-
tenance to the "holy" tribunal at these processions, and even grandees of Castile did not
disdain to make themselves familiars of the inquisition. The procession was led by the
Dominicans, carrying the rl.ig of the inquisition; next followed the penitents, on whom
only penance had been laid; behind them, and separated by a great cross which was
borne before, came those condemned to death barefoot, clad in the sanbenito, and with
a pointed cap on the head; then, effigies of the fugitives; and lastly, the bones of dead
culprits, in black coffins, painted with flames and hellish symlx)ls. The frightful train
was closed by the army of priests and monks. The procession went through the princi-
pal streets to the church, where, after a sermon on the true faith, the sentence was
announced. In the mean time, the accused stood before a -crucifix with extinguished
torches in their hands. After the sentence had been read to them, an officer of the inqui-
sition gave each of the condemned a blow on the breast with his hand, as a sign that they
were given over by that tribunal to the secular power; on which a secular officer took
them in charge, had them fettered, and taken to prison. A few hours afterwards, they
were "brought to the place of execution. If they yet, at the last, made profession of the
Catholic faith, they were so far favored as to be first strangled; otherwise, they were
burned alive, and with them the effigies and bones of the fugitive and dead culprits. As
a rule, the king, along with his whole court, had to exalt by his presence the solemnity
of the horrid t ansaction. The most splendid auto da fe took place at Madrid, under
Charles II., in 1USO; the last was held as recently as towards the middle of last century.

AUTOGEAPH (Gr.) is a term applied to what is written with the person's own hand,
and :imt by an amanuensis. In relation to manuscripts, it, is used in opposition to a co]ti/.
The collection of autographs has, especially in recent times, become an object of eager
pursuit, and consequently they form a branch of literary trr.de. Their value is deter
mined by the interest felt in the writer, the scarcity of such relics of him. and the con-
tents of the writing. Besides portraits of famous persons, we wish, particularly in the
case of distinguished contemporaries, to possess a specimen of their handwriting, or at
least their signature, as the peculiarity of the sty hi the physiognomy of the handwriting
completes our knowledge of their personality. Lithography is particularly serviceable
in this matter, not .only by supplying fac-similes for biographical and historical works
.and for portraits, but also by multiplying impressions of coll eted autographs, such as
have appeared in England by Smith, in Holland by Nathan, and in Genrany by Dorow.
But deserving mention before all others are the Jsoarvphie d<x II>nniinx CtHlnt-x (Svols.
Par. 1828-30), to which a supplement appeared in 1839; and l\\e Autog'rapJtfii-Prachtal-
bum sur 200 jt'irifjen GeddcJitnisxfrifr de# Wcxtfiili^-Jn n /'/ n<-< /<..</, //-.>-, ,v (To]. I.eip. ISIS).
"W^e possess an uninterrupted succession of the royal autographs of England from king
Richard II. downwards! Fac-similes are to be found in .< irt<>r/><i).JtK <f !?/,</!. AV-///V.
Leuriiui. n<l Remarkable 'Per&naffeti, ('<>i,xhintnin< in AW/.-7/ ]Iivi<>i>/.fi-ni tin Hdgn of
Richard II. to that of Clmrlcx 11.. by John Gough Is ichols (fol. Loud. 1829). The preface
to'thc work contains some interesting notices.

.AUTOL YCUS, a Greek astronomer and mathematician of Pitane in .Eolia. about 330
n.c., wrote on the revolving sphere, and on the rising and silting of the fixed stars.
Both works, printed in Dasypodius's P>-f>n<ix/'ti<>///.-' Dm-trin't 6^7/mcoi (Strasb. !")?-). eon-
tain, for the most part, only such propositions of spherical astronomy as can be solved
by -means of a globe; and, instead of presupposing the knowledge of spherical trigonome-
try, they seem rather .to prove that A. himself was unacquainted with it.

AUTOMATON is derived from two Greek words signifying self-movement, ami is
usually implied to machinery constructed to represent human or animal actions. The
construction of automata has occupied the attention of mankind from very early ages.
Archytas of Tarentum is reported, so long ago as 400 B.C.. to have made a pigeon that
could" fly. Alberlus Magnus ami Roirer Bacon, in the 13th c.. are said but there is
some dubiety about the matter to have made respectively a porter to open the door.
and a speaking head. In France, in the beginning of the ISth c., many persons busied
themselves in the construction of automata: and among other thinrs, a pantomime, in

K 1 Autocracy.

Autotype.

five acts, was represented by actors moved by machinery. The most perfect A. about
which there is absolute certainty, was oue constructed by M. Vaucauson, and exhibited
in Pans in 1738. It represented a flute player, which placed its lips againr-t the instru-
ment, and produced the notes with its lingers in precisely the same manner as a human
being dues. In 1741, M. Vaucauson made a flageolet-player, which with one hand beat
a tambourine; and in the same year he produced a duck. This \sas a most ingenious
contrivance, the mechanical duck being made to conduct itself in every respect like i It-
animated pattern. It swam, dived, ate, drank, dressed its wings, etc., as naturally a.s its
live companions; and, most wonderful of all, by means af a solution in the stomach, it
was actually made to digest its food ! An A., produced by M. Drox. drew likenesses of
public characters; and, some years ago, Mr. Fabcr contrived a figure, exhibited in vari-
ous places. Edinburgh among others, which, by means of certain keys, was made to
articulate simple words and sentences very intelligibly, but the effect was not pleasant.
The chess-player of Kern) clen was long regarded as the most wonderful of automata.
It represented a Turk of the natural size, dressed in the national costume, and seated
behind a box resembling a chest of drawers in shape. Before the game commenced,
the artist opened several doors in the chest, which revealed a large number of pulleys,
wheels, cylinders, springs, etc. The chessmen were produced from a long drawer, ns
w.is also a cushion for the figure to rest its arm upon. The A. not being able to speak,
signified when the queen of his antagonist was in danger by two nods, and when the
king was in check by three. The A. succeeded in beating most of the players with
whom it engaged: but it turned out afterward-; that a crippled Russian officer a very
celebrated chess-player was concealed in the interior of the figure. The figure is said
to have been constructed for the purpose- of effecting the officer's escape out of Russia,
where his life was forfeited. So far as the mental process was concerned, the chess-
player was not. therefore, an A. ; but great ingenuity was evinced in its movement of
the pieces. M. Houdin. the celebrated conjurer, was the inventor of some striking
automata. See Mutton's Mathematical Recreations; Memoirs of Robert Hviidin. Load.
1859. Chapman fc Hall.

ATTTON OMY (Gr. se^f-legislation] is the arrangement bv which the citizens of a state-
manage their own legislation and government; and this evidently may, with certain
restrictions, be the case also within limited bodies of the same people, such as parishes,
corporations, religious sects. The term A. is used to designate the characteristic of the
political condition of ancient Greece, where every city or town community claimed the
right of independent sovereign action. The idea of two or more town communities
sinking their individual independence, and forming the larger aggregate unity which we
understand by a state, seems to have been intolerable to the Greek mind.

AUTOPLASTY, in surgery, the operation of renewing a portion of the body that
has been torn away, by reinforcement from other parts; thus, a nose may be built up by
strips cut from the arm or elsewhere. The art appears to be very old, and was practiced
in India ages ago. Probably it arose from the desire to conceal the fact of infamous
punishment which very often consisted in cutting off the nose or ears. If immediately
rejoined the parts would grow together, and to prevent this the portions cut off were
destroyed. But it was reasoned that if the parts cut off would grow together, any live-
flesh would do so. It was possible, therefore, to recruit a nose by a strip'from the fore,-
head or elsewhere. C'elsus speaks of A. with reference to the nose and lips, and in the
15th c. it was practiced by (Jalabriau surgeons. In our days various improvements have
been made, and now almost any injured part of the body's surface maybe restored, often
almost perfectly, by this art. There are several methods: one is to loosen the skin near
the injured part and turn it down over the wound: another is to take the skin from the
fleshy part of the limbs; and a third is to detach the skin for some distance on all sides
and ireutlv draw it over the place to be mended. The last method is considered much
the best. '

AU TOTYPE, one of the names given to a peculiar kind of photographic print. Gela-
tine, to which bichromate of potash has been added, has the property of being, like
E'iper, treated with certain salts of silver, sensitive to light, but in a different way.
ight renders the bichromated gelatine insoluble, so that by the use of an ordinary
graphic negative, we can produce a picture on the gelatine by exposure to light, as iu
the ordinary photographic printing process (see PHOTOGRAPHY). The picture so obtained
is developed by removing with hot water those portions of the gelatine which have not
been acted upon. Two groups of processes are founded on this property of bichromated
gelatine. In the one, the gelatine is used for every copy of the picture: while in the
other, it is only used to produce one picture, which is then made by various devices to
serve as a printing matrix for throwing off. by mechanical means, many impressions.
What is called carbon-printing comes into the first group, and an autotype is one kind
of a carbon print. It is produced by simply mixing carbon or other pigment with bichro-
mated gelatine, coating a sheet of paper with the mixture, and then exposing it to
light under a negative as above described. When no pigment is used, the picture is
merely in relief and depression, but the addition of carbon gives it ordinary light and
shade, so as to resemble a print in ink. There are, however, some niceties in the manip-
ulation, which we have not room to detail.

Autumn. ',-)

Avalanches.

In those processes where the gelatine picture serves only as a matrix, electrotypes,
impressions in soft metal, or other kind of reverses, are made, from which impressions
can be taken mechanically, in ;tuy kind of piloting ink. Photo-gal vanography and the
Woodburytype belong to this group.

AUTUMN, astronomically, the third season of the year; in the northern hemisphere
covering the period from the sun's crossing the equinoctial, at the autumnal equinox,
Sept. 22. till it is on the tropic of Capricorn, at the winter solstice, Dec. 22. Popularly,
the- A. in America is the three months of Sept., Oct., and Nov.; and in England Aug.,
Sept., and October. The American autumn is often considered the most delightful
part of the year. S. of the equator the A. extends from the vernal equinox, Mar. 20,
to the summer solstice, June 2U.

ATJTUN (Bibnicte, Augustodunum), a t. in France, department of the Saone-et-
Loire, in the Burgundian district of Autunois. Pop. '7G, 11,338. It is situated on
the river Arroux, is the seat of a bishop, and has a fine cathedral. Cloth, carpets,
leather, stockings, and paper are manufactured in the place. The ancient Bibractc was
the chief city of the ^Edui, and had a much-frequented Druid school; and at a later
period, under the Itomans, when it got the name of Augustodunum, it was no less
famous for its school of rhetoric. A. wus pillaged by the Saracens in 725, and nearly
destroyed by the Normans in 888. There still exist at A. many ruins of Roman tem-
ples, gates, triumphal arches, and other antiquities. At the council of A. (1094), king
Philip I. was excommunicated for divorcing his queen, Bertha.

AITVERGNE, a southern central district of France, was l>efore the revolution a sep-
arate province, composing almost exclusive!}' the modern departments of Cantal and
Puy-de-Dome. Between the Allier and the upper course of the Dordogne and the Lot,
A. rises into a highland region, having Bourbonnais, Limousin, and Kouergue, as ter-
races of descent into the western plains, while on the e. it joins the Cevenues and the
southern highlands. Not only do the cone and dome-like shapes of the summits betray
a volcanic formation, but also the great masses of basalt and trachyte that break through
the crust of granite and gneiss, render it probable that this was a chief focus of plutonic
action. Among the summits that have apparently been at one time volcanoes, the most
remarkable are Cantal (6093), Mont-d'Or (6l88),*Puy-de-D6me (480U). and Pariou; the
latter, adjoining Puy-de-Dome, is basin-shaped on the top, and one of the finest speci-
mens of an ancient and extinct volcano; a;l arc now covered with verdure. A. falls
naturally into two divisions upper A., to the s., and lower A., to the n. ; in which last
the valley of Limagne, on the left bank of the Allier, is distinguished for extraordinary
fertility. The climate is colder in the mountainous districts than the southern position,
with a less elevation, would lead us to expect, and is remarkable for furious winds and
violent thunder-storms; but in the deep valleys the heat of summer is often oppressive.
The lava-covered plateaus are desert, but the pulverized volcanic earths that cover the
slopes and valleys form a rich and fruitful soil, as is shown by the crops of grain, garden
produce, fine fruits, wine, abundance of chestnuts in the" s., and of walnuts in the
n., as well as by extensive thriving forests, along with flax and hemp fields and
meadow-lands, in the poorer districts. Agriculture is in a rather neglected condition;
but the breeding of catile, especially of mules, is well managed. A. produces iron, lead,
copper, antimony, and coal, and is rich in mineral springs.

The Auvergnese are a highland people, rude in their "manners, poor, ignorant, at the
same time honest and kind, though not free from the propensity to revenge. They live
by cattle keeping and agriculture, and by going to Paris as laborers. Domestic manu-
factures, therefore, remain confined to weaving, tanning, and paper-making. A. lias,
however, produced distinguished men. It was the native place of statesmen and war-
riors of the 15th and 16th centuries; and also of the Arnauld (q.v.) family, so distin-
guished in the history of Port Royal and of Jansenism. In more recent times, Lafayette
and Polignac may be named. Chief towns, Clermont and Aurillac (q.v.). The country
derived its name from the Averni, who long defended their fastnesses against Cstsar,
as later against the Goths, Burgundians, and Franks, with whom they at last coalesced.

AUXERRE (anc. Antiwiodorum), chief t. of the dep. of Youne, France, stands on the
Yonne, 90 m. s.e. of Paris. It is situated on the slope of a hill, in a rich and beautiful
district abounding in vineyards. The city is mostly ill built; the streets are narrow,
crooked, and dirty; but its aspect from a distance is very imposing, the most prominent
feature being the cathedral church of St. Stephen, a grand and beautiful edifice which
date-; partly from the 18th century. The chapter of ifL wu once one of the richest in
Franco. The churches of St. Germain and of St. Pierre (16th c.) are fine and interesting
buildings. There is a curious old clock-tower over a gate-house, with an ugly skeleton
spire of iron bars. The ancient walls of the city have been converted into boulevards.
A. was a flourishing town before the Roman invasion of Gaul. It successfully resisted
the Huns under Attila. who only ravaged it< suburbs. Clovis took it from the Romans.
After his death, it became part of the kingdom of Burgundy. The English took it in
1 :!5!), but it was retaken by Du Guesclin. Charles VII. gave it up to the duke of
Burgundy. It was finally united to the kingdom of France by Louis XT. It has a
communal college, a museum of antiquities, and a botanic garden. The principal man-
ufactures are of strings for musical instruments, woolen cloths, hosiery, earthenware,

KO Autumn.

Avalanche*.

and leather. The Yonne becomes navigable here, and large quantities of Burgundy
wines are sent down it to Paris; there is also a considerable export trade in timber and
ia charcoal. Pop. '76, 15,656.

ATIXILIAEY SCREW. See SCREW-PROPELLER,
AUXILIARY VERBS. See VERBS, CONJUGATION.

AUXONNE, a t. in France on the Saone, 17 m. s.e. of Dijon; pop. 5911. It is forti-
fied, and has an arsenal and barracks, and manufactories of woolen and nails.

AUZOUT, ADKTEN, d. Rome, about 1693; a French astronomer. He and Picard
applied the mural quadrant to the telescope, and A. made and applied a movable wire
micrometer, by means of which he measured the daily variations in the moon's diam-
eter, which Kepler had explained. A. was also an optician and a manufacturer of
telescopes. He was one of the original members of the academy of science, founded in
1666.

AUZOUX, THEODORE Louis, b. France, 1797; an anatomist and physician. He was
known as the inventor of the method of making permanent models of anatomical prep-
arations in papifr inachie, the special advantages of which are: lightness and strength
of material; enlargement of minute parts; colors after nature; and the ease with
which models may be dissected and put together in the smallest particulars. In 1825,
he completed his invention and established a manufactory at St. Aubin. He has
received many prizes up to the cross of the legion of honor. Some years ago he lec-
tured, using his own models in illustration. He is the author of several works on surgi-
cal and medical themes.

AVA, a ruined city of Burmah, of which it has repeatedly been the capital, the honor
having been transferred again and again between it and Monchobo, Sagaing, Amara-
pura, and Mandalay, the present capital. It stands in lat. 21 51' n., long. 95 58' e., on
the bank of the Irawaddy, here about 4000 ft. broad. The river at this" point receives
two ailluenfs, and these being joined by a canal, the city is rendered circumnavigable.
The name is a Hindu and Malay corruption of Ae.sgwa or Aaen-ua, meaning fish-pond,
given it from being built where there were formerly fish-ponds, of which some still
remain; but in official documents it is designated as Katnapura, i.e., city of pearls.
The city, which was 8 or 10 m. in circumference, was surrounded by walls and ditches.
A. is now almost a desert, having been reduced to niins by an carth'quake in 1839. On
the opposite bank stands Sagaing, which has twice been the seat of government. The
united pop. of the three cities of A., Sagaiug, and Amarapura was at one time esti-
mated at 400,000.

A VA, AUVA, YAVA, or KAVA, Macropiper mctJiysticum, a plant of the natural order
piperaaw (q.v.), possessing narcotic properties. Until recently, it was ranked in the
genus PIJKT (pepper). It tt a shrubby plant, with heart-shaped, acuminate leaves, and
very short, solitary, axillary spikes of flowers. It is a native of many of the South-sea
islands where the inhabitants intoxicate themselves with a fermented liquor prepared
from its root or (more accurately) rhizome. The rhizome is thick, woody, rugged, and
aromatic. A tincture of it is useful in chronic rheumatisms. The intoxicating liquor
is prepared by macerating it in water. The savage Tahitians were accustomed to pre-
pare it in a very odious manner; much as the Indians of the Andes prepare chica or
mai/e beer chewing the root, depositing it in a bowl, straining through cocoa-nut
husk, and mixing with water or cocoa nut milk, after which fermentation speedily
ensues. The taste is unpleasant to those unaccustomed to it, and has been likened to
that of rhubarb and magnesia. The intoxication is not like that produced by ardent
spirits, but rather a stupefaction like that caused by opium. It is succeeded by a
copious perspiration. The habitual use of A. causes a whitish scurf on the skin, which,
among the heathen Tahitians. was reckoned a badge of nobility, the common people
not having the means of indulgence requisite to produce it. The leaf of the A. plant is
in some places used with the betel-nut, instead of that of the betel-pepper.

AVADU'TAS, a sect of self-torturing fanatics among the Hindus, who put their
bodies to such extremes of pain as to produce deformity. Begging is their means of
subsistence.

AVALANCHES arc masses of snow or ice that slide or roll down the declivities of
high mountains, and often occasion great devastation. They have various names,
according to their nature. "Drift or powder avalanches (xtnnb hirinrn) consist of snow,
which, loose and dry from strong frost, once set in motion by the wind, accumulates in
its descent, and conies suddenly into the valley in an overwhelming dust-cloud. A. of
this kind occur chiefly in winter, and are dangerous on account of their suddenness,
suffocating men and animals, and overturning houses by the compression of the air
which they cause. Another kind of A. resembles a land-slip. When the snow begins
to melt in spring, the soil beneath becomes loose and slippery; and the snow slides down
the declivity by its own weight, carrying with it soil, trees, and rocks. The greatest
danger is where elevated tracts of moderate declivity are separated from the valleys by
precipitous walls of rock; the softened snow of spring beginning to roll or slide on these
slopes, is hurled over the precipices with fearful force into the valleys. The very wind

Avallon.
Avella.

caused prostrates forests and liouses. Ice A. are those that are seen and heard in sum-
me.- thundering down the steeps, e.g.. of the Jungfrau. They consist of masses of ice
that detach themselves from the glaciers in the upper regions. They are most common
! n July, Aug., and Sept.

AVALLON (ano. Aballo), a t. of the dep. of Yonnc, France, 26 m. s.e. from Auxcrre,
on a steep hill of red granite, nearly surrounded by the Cousin, -which here flows through
a mvine. Around the town runs :i broad terrace-walk, shaded with lime-trees, about 500
ft. above the bed of the river. The surrounding country is fertile, yielding much vine
and grain, and abounding also in excellent pastures, on which great numbers of cattle
and sheep are fed. The town is generally well built, and has broad and clean streets. The
church is ancient, and lias a curious Romanesque portal. Manufactures of various kinds
an; actively carried on, particularly of woolens and paper; and there are distilleries,
tanneries, glassworks, etc. There is also a considerable trade in the produce of the
neighborhood. A. is a very ancient town, of Celtic origin. It \\ as sacked by the; Saracens
in 731 A.D., and by the iN'ormans in 84o; taken by Charles VII. in 1433, retaken by
Philip the good, duke of Burgundv, in 1455, and pillaged by the troops of the league
in 1593. Pop. '76, 5337.

AVA'LOS, FERDIXANDO FRANCESCO r>', 1490-1529; Marquis of Leseara, and one of
Charles V.'s Italian officers. When a mere boy he married Vittoria Colonna, to whom
he was affianced when she was but four years old. At the battle of Ravenna he was
wounded and made prisoner, but was soon ransomed, and gained distinction at the
tight at Vicenza, 1513; at Milan, which he took from France in 1621; at Como; and in
several other engagements, including the plundering of Genoa. He won the highest
distinction in the great victory for Francis I. at Pavia, 1525, and was made generalis-
simo. But he ruined his fame by joining the conspiracy to drive the Germans and
Spaniards from Italy, and then betraying the plot to the emperor. His reward was to
have been the crown of Naples, but his wife induced him to decline it.

AVAJT TUEINE, a variety of quartz, remarkable for the brilliancy with which it
reflects light, which is supposed to result from small particles of mica inclosed in it. It
is of a yellow, red, or brown color. It is used in jewelry, but is not so much valued as
amethyst or Cairngorm stone. It is found in India, Spain, and Scotland.

AVAEI, a tribe of eastern origin, made their appearance 100 years later than the
Bulgarians, in the countries about the Don, the Caspian sea, and the Volga. One part of
them remained at tne Caucasus, another part pressed forward (about 555 A.D.) to the
Danube, and settled in Dacia. Here they served in Justinian's army, and assisted the
Lombards to overturn the kingdom of the Oepidffi; and, about the end of the 6th c.,
under the mighty Khan Bajan, they conquered Pannonia. Later they made themselves
masters pfDajmatla; made devastating incursions into Germany, as far as'fhuringia;
and into Italy, whero they warred with the Franks and Lombards, and extended their
dominion over the slaves living on, and northwards from, the Danube, as well as over
the Bulgarians as far as the Black sea. These nations at last rose against them, and, in
640 A.D., drove them out of Dalmatia. Confined to Pannonia, they were subdued by
Charlemagne, and well-nigh extirpated by the .Moravians, so that, after 827, they di-ap-
pear from history. They usually surrounded their settlements with fortifications of
stakes driven into the ground, and earth, of which traces, under the name of Avarian
rings, are yet found in the countries formerly occupied by them. The results of the
most recent criticism show that, in all probability, the A. belonged to the same great
Turanian stock as the Huns, and that their original residence was the laud lying c. of
the Tobol, in Siberia.

AVAST, one of the peculiar terms employed on shipboard. It is a command to stop
or cease in any operation going forward such as, "avast heaving."

AVATAR' primarily signifies, in Sanscrit, a descent, out is specially applied to the
descent of a Hindu deity upon the earth in a manifest shape, cither for beneficent of for
retributive ends. It is thus almost synonymous in its 6 jgaifi cation,, with the Christian
term im;irniilin. The word is sometimes rhetorically employed in English literature.
The avatars of Vishnu (q.v.) are the most famous in Hindu mythology.

AVAT CHA, a mountain and bay of Kamtcliatka. The bay is on tliee. coast, being l>\
far the best harbor of the whole peninsula, and containing the capital city of Petropau
lowsk (q.v.). The mountain, 9055 ft. in height, is about 20 m. to the n..and not far
lYom UK- sea, in lat. 52 15' n., and long. 158 50' e. It is a volcano with two craters
one at '.he summit, and the other rather more than half-way up, on the seaward side.

AVEBUEY, A'nuuy, or A'muv, a small village uf Wiltshire, situated in n. lat. 51 ' 25,
and w. long. 1 50 , 25 in. n. of Salisbury, and (5 w. by n. of Marlborough. It is a place
of no importance in itself, having a pop. of 769; but it is remarkable as the site of the
largest so called Druidical temple in Kurope in fact, occupying the most of the sacred
inclosure itself and as having in its neighborhood several remarkable barrows and
c.rotniechs of remote antiquity.

What is called the temple occupies a flat area of ground on the s. of the Kennet, a
diminutive tributary of the Thames. It consists, or rather consisted, of a hundred large

K,X Avallon.

Avella.

blocks of stone, placed on end in a circular form, around a level area of about 470 yards
in diameter, bounded by a deep diteh and a high embankment forming the inclosure.
There are also the remains of two small circles of stones within the inclosure, supposed
to be inner temples. Of these, one consisted of two concentric circles of 43 upright
stones, having a single stone near the center; the other, a similar double circle of 45
Atones, to the n.w. of the former, with three large and high blocks in the center. The
stones that remain of this ancient work are not of uniform size; they measure from 5 to
"20 ft. in height above the ground, and from 3 to 12 in breadth and thickness.

The embankment, which is broken down in several places, had originally two entrances
to the temple, eastward and westward, from which issue two long walks, bending round
to the southward, each furnished with a range of blocks on either side similar to those
of the temple it. self. These avenues are each upwards of a mile in length, the width
varying from 50 to Co feet. .That which issues to the e., or rather s.c., after turning south-
ward, bends near its extremity to the s.c. again, and closes on a knoll called Overtoil hill
in two concentric oval ranges of blocks. That which issues to the w. also bends to the
s., and then to s.w., ending in a point with a single block.

Of the surrounding antiquities, that which appears most closely connected with the
temple is a large barrow, or lofty conical mound, called Silbury hill, lying clue s. of it,
at a distance of three quarters of a mile. It is situated nearly midway between the two
avenues, in the line of the ancient Roman road between London and Bath. Close to the
base, it measures 2027 ft. in circumference; the sloping height is 316 ft. ; the perpendicu-
lar height, 170 ft. ; the diameter of the level area at the top, 120 ft. ; the space covered
by the whole work, over 5 acres. What proves the structure to have been more ancient,
than the time of the Romans, if such proof were necessary, is that the Roman road, as it
comes from the w., is straight for several miles till it reaches Silbury, when it bends round
it to the s., and again proceeds in a direct line to Marlborough.

About a mile n. of A. there are remains of a large cromlech, the stones of which have
been overturned; and about 3 m. e. there is another, which has two upright blocks stand-
ing apart, with a larger one surmounting them. In the neighborhood, all round the
Marlborough downs, there are remains ot earthworks and upright stones, and the sites
of other antiquities now nearly obliterated.

Very little was known of A. temple and the antiquities in its vicinity till the year
1 MO, when Dr. Stukeley, a somewhat fanciful antiquary, published his work, Sttht^kt mjc-
nmf Ah'try, Tiro T>'iti]tltx U(xti>rcd to the British Druids; although Aubrey, an ardenf
student of antiquarian lore, had written an account of them in 1663, by command of
<'harles II., the manuscript of which still exists. None of the earlier topographers or
antiquaries appear to have left any description of them. When Sir Richard Iloare, in
collecting materials for his Ancient Wiltshire, made his examination of them in 1812, 72
years after the appearance of Stukeley's work, and 164 after the first survey by Aubrey,
a great number of the stones had disappeared, and in many places it was difficult to
Iran: out even the plan of the works. In 1849, in order to satisfy the curiosity of the
lovers of antiquity as to the nature and intention of the great barrow, Silbury hill, a
tunnel was cut to its center, but nothing was discovered to throw light on the subject.
Some modern areha-ologists altogel her reject the conclusions of Stukeley and his follow-
ers, and call for proof of any connection between the Druids and the stone circles which
it has been the fashion for the last century to call Druidical.

AVE IRQ, a maritime t. of Portugal, in the province of Beira, between Oporto and
C'oimbra, situated in an unhealthy locality at the mouth of the Vouga, which forms a
wide but shallow harbor, is the see of a bishop, has 5000 inhabitants, and trades in oil,
wine, oysters, sardines and other fish, oranges, and sea salt.

AVE'IEO (anc. An-fium}, a city of Portugal, in the province of Beira, 31 m. n.w. from
Ooimbra. It is situated on the Ria d'Aveiro, a salt lake or lagoon, extending five leagues
to the n., and separated from the sea by a narrow bar of sand. Into this lake the Vouga,
the Antua, and some smaller rivers flow. During a year of great drought, the sand-bar
closed up the seaward opening, a vast mass of sand quickly accumulated, and the low-
grounds were inundated, the water of the rivers escaping only by filtering through the
sand. In summer, the lake thus made is partially dried, and marshes are formed, the
effluvia from which have rendered the city very unhealthy, so that its pop. has fallen
from 14,000 to 5000, its present number. In 1808. the government opened a new
passage through the sand-bar, and executed other works which dried part of the inun-
dated grounds, and improved the sanitary conditions of the city, which, however, are
far from being good. A. is a bishop's see* but its cathedral is " a squalid and tawdry
room, up one pair of stairs." It is a place of considerable activity; it has manufactures
of earthenware, but the chief article of trade is salt, which is made in the marshes in
summer. Other important articles of trade are fish, wine. oil. and oranges. The anchovy,
sardine, herring, and oyster fisheries are actively prosecuted. The city has a deserted
appearance. Its streets are narrow and dark, and seamed with filthy canals of salt-
water.

AVEL'LA (ane. AhfUa}. a t. of central Italy, in the province of Avellino, 20 m. e.n.e.
from Naph-s. It is delightfully situated in a hilly district, and commands a very exten-
sive view. A ruined castle marks the site of the ancient city, which was founded by one

Avi-rrhoes.

of t;ic Greek colonies from Chalcis, and was celebrated in Roman times for its appes
and pomegranates. Virgil speaks of it as malifera Abella. Pop. of commune, 5228.

AVELLANEDA, GKRTRUDIS GOMKX, DK, 1816-64; poet and novelist; the dauglm :i
of a Spanish naval officer. In 1840, she produced, in Madrid, a successful drama
IsCoiilflti, and in 1845 was awarded a laurel crown for a poem praising the queen's-
clemency. Two vols. of lyrics, 8 vols. of prose, and 16 dramas are of her production.

AVTLLINO (anciently, Alwttinvm), chief t. of the province of the same name in I hi
8. of Italy. It is situated at the foot of monte Vergine, on which is the iamous monas
ten* founded bv S. Guerliclmo da Vercelli, on the ruins of a temple of Oybele. in 1119
Pop. 20.000. A", suffered greatly from earthquakes in 1694, 1731, and 1805. It has man
ufartures of woolens, paper, macaroni, and considerable trade in corn and ha/el-nuts.
The nnccs AwUance were famous even in Pliny's time. Between A. and Benevento is
the Val deGargano. where the Samnites defeated the Romans in 438 A.U.C. Pop. of
province, '71, 375,691.

AVELLI'XO, a province in s. Italy, 1409 sq.m. ; pop. '71, 375,691. It is a moun-
tainous region, but with fertile sc'l, yielding good harvests. It is watered by the Galore
aud Of an to rivers. Chief t., Avellino.

AVE MABI'A, also AN-GEL'ICA SALUTA'TIO, or the angelic salutation, are names given
by the Roman Catholics to a very common form of address to the Virgin Mary. Ace
Maria are the first two words of the prayer, in Latin, which is taken from the angel
Gabriel's salutation (Luke i. 28): "Hail, Mary, highly favored, the Lord is with thee,
blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb." In this form,
according to an ordinance of Gregory I., the invocation was at first said by the priests
during mass, on the fourth Sunday after Advent. With the extended worship of the
Virgin since the llth c., the A. M. appears as a lay-prayer of nearly equal use with the.
Paternoster, and was sanctioned as such at the end of the 12th century. Accordingly.
not only did Urban IV. (1261)add the concluding words, Jcxnx Cftnxtvx. Atnfn. but since
the first half of the 16th c., the prayer begun to receive, more and more commonly, as an
addition to the old formula, what constitutes the conclusion of the modem form Holy
Mary, mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at the hour of our death, Amen " An
edict of John XXII. (1826) ordains that every Catholic shall, morning, noon, and even-
ing, at the warning of the bells, repeat three jives. This ringing of bens as a summons
to morning, midday, and evening prayers, is retained in some Protestant countries, and
is still called the A. M., or Angelus Domini. The aves are reckoned by the small
beads of the rosary, which are hence called Avc Marias, while the large heads are
devoted to the Paternoster. 150 Ave Marias form after the 150 Psalms a Psaltvriuni
Maria, aud are thought to possess high propitiatory power.

AVEMPACE (Ann BEKU MOHAMMED IKN JAHYA), probably b. in Saragossa near the
close of the llth c., d. at Fez, 1138; the earliest and one of the most distinguished Arab
philosophers in Spain. He was a physician, mathematician, astronomer, and poet,
though now known only from his metaphysical speculations. The most important of
his works, and one noticed by Averrhoes, \s lier/intf, or t'undiiH of tltc Military, which
the author set forth as a system of rules by which man may rise from the life of the
senses to the perception of pure intellectual principles, aud may participate in the divine
thought which sustains the world.

AVE NA. See OAT.

AVEXBRUG GER. See AUKXBKUG'OER.

AVENGER OF BLOOD. See BLOOD, AVENGER of.

A'VENS. See GEUM.

AVENTI'NUS, JOHANNES THUBMAYR, a scholar nnd historian, b at Abensberg.
Bavaria, where his father was a publican, in 1476. Having studied at Ingolstadt, he
went to Paris, where he took the degree of M.A. He afterwards taught Greek and
mathematics at Cracow, and poetry and eloquence at Vienna In 1512, the duke of
Bavaria called him to Munich, and 'intrusted him with the education of his sons. Here
A. wrote his esteemed HtM/tn-i/of Jhirnri<(- (Ann ales Boiorum), a work which occupied
him sixteen years. This work was not published until twenty years after his death,
which took place in 1534, and then only with large portions, more true than pleasant.
about the Romish church, excised. These, however, were all restored in Cisner's edition
of 1580. A. wrote several other learned works.

AVEN'TURINE, the name of certain specimens of feldspar and quart/, having the
property of reflecting or refracting light in various colors from points inside the stone
In some eases the effect is produced by the presence of mica in small scales. A. is
imitated by the Venetian glass makers, who outdo the original in beautiful effects. The
name siiriiilies "accident." and the discovery is said to have come from the dropping ol
brass filings into melted glass.

AVENZO'A 1{ (Ar.r Mi KWAN Aimu.n AI.KC TUN ZOHK), 107:2-1162; a Spanish Arabian
physician, pupil of his father. Hi- made earnest efforts to reduce medicine to the plane
of experimental science. Some of his works have been published, aud one is spoken ot
by Averrhoes.

prhr Avellaneda.

> I AYerrhoes.

AVERAGE. If any number of unequal quantities are given, another quantity may
be found of a mean or intermediate magnitude, some of the given quantities being
greater, and others less, than the one found, which is called the average. The exact
relation is this: that the sum of the excesses of the greater above the A. is equal to the
sum of the defects of the less below it. If there are, say, 7 \essels unequally tilled with
sand, and if we take liandfuls from the greater, and add these to the less, until the sand
is equally distributed, then any one of the equalized measures of sand is the A. of the 7
unequal measures. If the qua'ntites of sand in the several vessels are stated in numbers,
as 5, 10, 12, 8, 11, 14, 3 oz., the A. is found by adding together the numbers, and
dividing by how many there are of them viz., 7. The sum being 03, this, divided by
7, irives 9 oz. as the A. The system of averaging is a very important and time-saving
one. By averages, the farmer calculates the value of his crops; the grazier, the value of
his cattle; and the forester, the value of his trees. Reflection, however, requires to be
exercised in striking averages; otherwise, serious errors may be committed. If a farmer,
for instance, has three lots of cattle, the first of which he averages at 25 a head, the
second at, 15, and third at 9, it might be thought that the A. of the whole sto- k made
up of the three lots would be got by taking the mean of '25, 1.1, and 9 viz.,

25 I 15 I 9

^- = lGi. But this would be correct only if there were an equal number of
o

cattle in each of the lots. To get the real A. in case of the lots being unequal, he must
multiply the A. of each lot by the number of cuttle in it, add the three products
together, anil divide by the whole number of cattle in all three lota taken together.
If \ve suppose 9 head in the first lot, 20 in the second, and 15 in the third, tlie A- is

9+20-1-13

AVERAGE (in marit. law). A rule was established by the Rhodian law (q.v.), and
has prevailed in every maritime nation, that where a loss lias been sustained, or expense
incurred, for the general safety of the ship and cargo, a contribution should be made, in
proportion to their respective interests, by the owners of the ship, freight, and goods on
board; or, in modern times, by the insurers of these. To this contribution the name of
general A. is given. The apparel, jewels, and other personal property of the passengers,
not carried tor purposes of tratlic, and the seamen's wages and provisions, are not liable
for any share in this contribution. Goods thrown overboard are now estimated at the
price they would have yielded at the port of delivery at the time, freight, duties, etc.,
being deducted. See JETTISON. Particular A., again, is the loss of an anchor, the
starting of a plank, the leaking of a cask, the loss of goods washed from the deck, or
the like, where the common safely was not in question, and where there is, consequently,
no contribution. To losses of this description, the term A., though generally, is incor-
rectly applied. Pt'tf.// itreni : /< * are the duties of anchorage, pilotage, etc. If these occur
in the ordinary course of the voyage, they are not loss, but simply part of the expense
necessarily incurred. But if they'have been incurred in extraordinary circumstances,
and for the purpose of avoiding impending danger, they are a loss which is included in
the general A., and covered by the contribution. A. bond is a deed which parties liable
to a general A. are in the habit of executing, by which they empower an arbiter to
value the property lost, and fix the proportion which shall bo borne by each proprietor.

AVERDTJPOIS. See AVOIRDUPOIS.

AVERELL, WILLIAM W.. b. X. Y., 1830; a graduate of West Point; served on
the frontier and in the war against the rebellion, rising from lieut. of mounted riflemen
to maj.gen. He resigned in 18G5, and in the next year was appointed consul-general
to the dominion of Canada.

AVERNUS, in Gr. Aornm, or "without birds," called now Lacro d'Avenio, Ls a small,
nearly circular lake in Campania, Italy, situated between Cum;?, Puteoli, and Baise.
It is about a mile and a half in circumference, and occupies the crater of an extinct
volcano. It is in some places as deep as 180 ft., and is almost completely shut in by
steep and wooded heights. The sulphureous and mephitic vapors arising from the lake
were believed ill ancient times to kill the birds that flew over it: hence, according to
some, its Greek appellation. Owinir to its gloomy and awful aspect, it Iwrame the
center of almost all the fables of the ancients respecting the world of shades. Here
was located Homer's Xekyia. or entrance to the under-world; here the Cimmerians are
said to have dwelt a people who lived in deep caverns, without ever coming info the
light ol day, explored metals, and imparted Stygian oracles; here also were placed the
grove of Hecate and the grotto of the Cumean Sibyl. Agrippa caused the dense woods
to be thinned, by which the place lost much of its wildness; and by his orders Coeeeius
constructed the famous tunnel through the mountain to Cuma 1 . a work of comparative
eonsiderin'jr that the hills roundabout are composed of volcanic tufa. The lake
was also connected in ancient times with the gulf of Baia3.

AVERRHO A. See CARAMROLA.

AVERRHOES , properly. Ibn Ttoshd, or more fully. Abul-Walid Mohnmmed-Ibn,
Ahmed-Ibu, Mohammed-Ibn-Roshd, the most famous of the Arabian philosophers, was

A versa. ?jQ

Avignon.

-1). at Cordova, in Spain, in 1149. His father, -who was chief judge and mufti, instructed
him in Mohammedan jurisprudence. In theology and philosophy, he had Thophail for
his teacher; and iu medicine, Ihn Zohr, the elder. His talents and acquirements made
him be appointed successor to his father, and afterwards chief judge in the province of
Mauritania. Being accused, out of envy, of a departure from the orthodox doctrines of
Mohammedanism, lie was dismissed from his office, and condemned by the ecclesiastical
tribunal of Morocco to recant his heretical opinions, and do penance. After this, he
returned to his native place, and lived in great poverty until the caliph Almansor rein-
stated him in his offices, on which he went back to Morocco, where he died in 1198 or
120G. A. regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers. He translated and
illustrated Aristotle's writings with great penetration ; but the influence of the Alexandrine
view laid down in the commentaries of Ammouius, Themistius, and others, is easily
seen iii his works, as in those of most of the Arabian philosophers. In opposition to the
Arabian orthodox school, especially against Algazali, A. stood fonh on the side of reason
us the defender of philosophy. The Arabians called him, by way of eminence, the
expositor (of Aristotle). Most of his writings are known to us only through Latin
translations (Yen., 1489). The Arabic text of A.'s philosophical works was published at
Munich in 18."j9 by M. J. Milller, whose German translation of the same appeared in
18T5. His commentaries on Aristotle nppeared in an addition of that philosopher's
works (11 vols.. Yen., 1560). He also wrote a sort of medical system, which, under the
name of CoUiyet, was translated into Latin, and repeatedly printed. The philosophy of
A. attained to importance- in the Christian church as early as the 13th c , although his
pantheistic doctrine of the unity of the active principle in the universe was often repudi-
ated as an error, and astrology was characterized as Averrhoisin. See Kenan's Averroiis
et V Averroisme.

AVER SA, a t. of southern Italy, in the province of Caserta, is situated between
Naples and Capua, 9 m. s. of the hitter, in a beautiful district rich in oranges and wine.
It is well built, with 20,000 inhabitants; lias a cathedral, and a number of monasteries,
in one of which Andrew of Hungary, the Darnley of Neapolitan history, was murdered
with the connivance of his wife, the beautiful but guilty Joanna, queen of Naples; an
excellent asylum for the insane, established by Murat; and a foundling hospital. A. was
built in 1029 by the Normans on a territory ceded to them by duke Sergius of Naples,
to be held in lief. About 2 m. from A. are still to be seen a few ruins of the Osean city
of Atella, famous as the birthplace of the satirical farces so popular on the Roman stage.

AVERT, WAITSTILI,, 1730-1821 ; b. Conn. ; a patriot of the American revolution.
He was one of the signers of the Mecklenburg declaration, a member of the Hills-
borough congress, of the North Carolina congress, and first attorney -general of the state.
During the war he was in active service as col. of militia.

A'VES. See BIKDS.

AVEYRON, a river and department in the s. of France. The river rises near Severae-
le-Chateau; flows, for the most part, in a westerly direction through the department of
the same name; and, after a course of 90 m., falls into the Tarn a feeder of the
Garonne below Montauban. It touches in its course the towns of Rhodez, Villefranche,
and Negrepelisse. The department of A. has an area of 3370 sq.m., and is one of the
most mountainous parts of France. Situated between the highlands of Auvergne and
the Cevennes, it slopes like a terrace s.w. to the Garonne, to the basin of which the
department belongs. The principal rivers flow through the department from e. to w.,
and between these, several ramified offsets from the chain of the Cevennes traverse the
country. The climate is healthy, but cold and raw, especially in the north and east.
North of the Lot, only rye and oats are grown; in the rest of the valleys, other kinds of
grain also thrive, as well as fruit, chestnuts, potatoes, and truffles. A third part of the
land is unfit for cultivation, but affords excellent pasture for the numerous herds of
cattle, goats, and sheep, which, along with the breeding of swine, form the principal
resources of the mountaineers. 18,000 cwt. of cheese is sold yearly under the name of
Roquefort cheese. The mineral wealth of the department is considerable. Coal, iron,
lead, zinc, copper, vitriol, alum, and antimony are found in abundance, the mining,
preparing, and sale of which form a principal means of support to ihe dS?f>) 413.S26
inhabitants. Besides these, the principal employments are paper-making, cotton-
spinning, tanning, the manufacture of woolen cloth and carpets, etc. The seat of the
departmental courts is Rhode/., which is also a bishop's sec.

AVEZAC, AtrarsTE GKNEVFEVE VALENTIN r>', 1777-1851. Tie was a native of
Hayti. a lawyer, and practiced with success in New Orleans. He had also practiced
medicine. After service in the war of 1812 he settled in New York. President Jackson
made him minister at the Hague in 1881, and he again filled the office in 18-15-49.

AVRZZA'NA, JOSKIMI, b. Italy, 1797, d. 1879. Tic fought under Napoleon. 1813-14;
served in the Sardinian army in 1821, in which year he was sentenced to death and
hanged in effigy for taking part in a students' insurrection in Turin. Tic; fled to Spain,
took part in a revolution, was captured, and escaped being shot only by the intervention
of an English consul. Next he appeared in Mexico, where IK- fought the Spaniards and
won the rank of gen., and was for a time commander-in-chief of the troops of the

V, Aversa.

Avignon.

republic. In 1834, he came to New York, married an Irish lady, and engaged in mer-
cantile business. On the outbreak of the revolution of 1848, he returned to Italy, and
was in command of the national guards of Genoa. After an unsuccessful struggle he
went to Rome, then under republican government, and was made minister of war and
commander-iu-chk-f of the army. Being unsuccessful, he tied in disguise with Garibaldi
to New York. In I860, he went back and joined his old chief in the campaigns which
resulted in freeing Italy from her petty tyrants. He was elected many times to the
Italian parliament, and, when he died, was" chief of the "Italia Irredenta" society, lie
was at one time U. S. consul at Genoa,

AVEZZANO, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Aquila, 22 m. s. from Aquila. It
is situated in a beautiful and fertile plain, covered with almond trees and vineyards,
about a mile from lake Fucino. It has a large square, in which is a palace of the
Colonna family. The town belongs to the Barberim family, whose baronial castle is a
conspicuous object from the shores of the lake. The castle and some of the churches
contain numerous ancient marbles with inscriptions recovered from the lake. The
present town is about 2 m. distant from the site of Alba, the city of the Marsi, calibrated
in the history of the Roman republic, which occupied the crest of a hill; a small village
on the site still retains the name of Alba. Pop. 5200.

A'VIARY, a place for keeping birds. The arrangements of an A. depend upon the
habits of its inmates, the climate suited to them, and other circumstances. A bird-cage
is a domestic aviary. Aviaries on the largest scale are to be seen in zoological gardens.

AYICEBROX , or SALOMON BEN GABIROL, about 1045-70; a Jewish writer on
philosophy and metaphysics, of Saragossa, Spain. Jews knew him only from his poems,
but Christian schoolmen of the century following his time were much influenced by
his works, iu a Latin translation called Fa/us Vita, or Sapuntia:, wherein A. seta forth hia
idea of the objects of metaphysics.

AVICEN NA, properly, Ibn Sina, or, more fully, Abu Ali Al-IIossein Ibn Abdallah
Ibn Sina, a famous Arabian philosopher and physician, whose authority for many
centuries passed for indisputable, was b. 98U, at Charmatain, a village near Bokhara,
where he received a very learned education. He studied with special fondness mathe-
matics, astronomy, philosophy, and medicine. lie was physician to several of the
Samanide and Dilemite sovereigns, and also for some time vizier in Hamadan, but
afterwards retired to Ispahan, and died during a journey of the Emir Ala-ed Datila to
Ilainadan in 10:57. He left a multitude of writings, amo'ng which his system of medi-
cine, Kanun fi 'l-Tibb, acquired the greatest reputation. It is distinguished less by
originality than by an intelligible arrangement and judicious selection from the writing's
of the Greek physicians, at a time when the knowledge of Greek was not widely .'-pread
A. himself knew the Greek writers only through Arabic translations. The Arabic text
of the Kartitn, and of several of his philosophical writings, among which those on
metaphysics especially attracted the attention of the schoolmen, appeared at Rome,
1593, in 2 vols. The Kamin was translated into Latin by Gerardus Cremonensis. and
repeatedly printed \Ycn., 1595, 2 vols.). His philosophical writings have also appeared
several times in Latin translations (Yen., 1490, 1523, 1504).

AVICEN NIA, a genus of plants of the natural order arirenne(rormi/o]marc(p. an order
very nearly allied to verbenarf.* (q.v.), and almost exclusively confined to the southern
hemisphere. The genus A. consists of trees or large shrubs resembling mangroves, and.
like them, growing in salt-swamps. Their creeping roots often curving for the space
of 6 ft. above the mud before they stick into it, and the naked asparagus-like suckers
which they throw up. have a singular appearance. A. tomenlosa, the white mangrove of
Brazil, has cordate ovate leaves, downy beneath. Its bark is much used for ianning.
A green resinous substance exuding from A. rettinffera is eaten by the New Zealanders.
The genus is named in honor of the Arabian physician Avicenna,

AVIC'TTLA. Sec PEARL OYSTER.

AVIGLIA NO, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Potenza, 10 m. n.w from Potenza,
on one of the head-waters of the Sele, near the bifurcation of the Apennines. It
stands on the brow of a hill, part of which gave way, after long-continued rams in
1824. carrying with it a portion of the town. A. has an elegant collegiate church. The
pastures of the neighborhood are celebrated for their large and fine oxen. Pop. '71,
11,336.

AVIGNON (Arenffi Carnn/n>\ a city of Provence, in the s. of France, capital of the
department of Vaucluse. is situated on the left bank of the Rhone, which is here crossed
In a long bridge. The pop. is (1876) 33.189; the streets are narrow and crooked.
There is a multitude of churches and reliirious establishments, among which the cathe-
dral on the Rocher des Dons and the church of the Franciscans, as well as the old papal
palace and the tower Glaciere. are distinguished. Thodominican convent now serves ;u
a cannon-foundry. The city is the see of an archbishop, has a museum and picture-
gallery, and several other valuable institutions. The university, founded in 1303, was
abolished in 1794. A. has manufactures of silk, silk-dyeing. 'tannimr, iron founding,
etc.. and is famous for its garden produce, its fruit, wine, honey, etc. The country
about A. is delightful, and extremely fruitful in corn, wine, olives, oranges, and lemons.

A vlla. (\()

Avoirdupois.

In A., Petrarch spent several years; it was here he saw Laura, whoso monument is to
be found in the Franciscan church. Yaw-lust.', which he has immortalized, lies about 3
leagues from Avignon. A. was the capital of the ancient Cavares, and preumts many
re-mains of the times of. the Romans. In the middle ages, it formed, with the surrounding
district, a co., which the popes, who had already received the co. of Yenaissin as
a gift from king Philip III., bought in 1348 from Joanna, queen of Naples and countess
of Provence. The pope governed both counties through a vice-legate, and continued in
the possession of them till 1790, when, after several stormy and bloody scenes, the city
with iis district was united with France. At the peace of Tolentino. 17D7, the pope
formally resigned A. and Yenaissin. A. is celebrated in ecclesiastical history as being,
for a time, the residence of the popes. By order of Philip IV., of France, pope Clement
V. and six of his successors from 1309 to 1377, were obliged to reside there. It was
afterwards the residence of more than one anti-pope. Two ecclesiastfcfcl councils were
also held at A. (1326 and 1337): the first took into consideration the relation of the clergy
to the laity; the other, the bad training of the clergy.

AVTLA, a t of Spain, capital of the province of A., in Old Castile, 53 m. n.w. of
Madrid; pop. 6000. The Spaniards declare that its original name was Abula, and please
themselves and amuse strangers with the belief tl.at it was built by Hercules 1660 B.C.
It is the birthplace of two highly remarkable persons the first was the learned Alfonso
Tostado de Madrigal, who d. in 1455. and whose doctrines (according to his biographer)
were so enlightened that they caused the blind to see, though, in the opinion of Don
Quixote, he was more voluminous than luminous: the second is "Our Seraphic- Mother,
the Holy Teresa. Spouse of Jesus," b. Mar. '28, 1515; she was made the lady-patroness of
Spain by Philip III., and shares the honors of worship with St. James. A. is the sec of a
bishop, with a beautiful cathedral, and was at one time one of the richest and most
flourishing cities of Spain. The university, which had been found d in 14tS2, and
enlarged in 1638, was abolished in 1807. It was at A. that the nobles of Old Castile
assembled in 1465 to depose king Henry IV., and raise his brother Alfonso to the throne
of Leon and Castile. At A., also, was held the meeting of the so-called Third Estate, or
of the Holy League, in 1520, under the leadership of Juan Padilla, to which nearly all
the cities of Castile sent representatives.

AVILA, a province in Spain; 2569 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 175,219. It is bounded n. by
Yalladolid, e. by Segovia, s. by Toledo, and w. by Salamanca. The n. part is level,
with marl soil not especially productive, and has a climate ranging from extreme heat
to extreme cold; agriculture is the chief occupation. Tims, part is a mass of rugged
ridges, with a few well-watered and fertile valleys; the winter is long and severe, but
the climate is healthful; cattle-raising is the main business. Five small rivers intersect
the province. There are minerals in the mountains, but no mines are worked. Quarries
of marble and jasper yield some profit. Merino wool has been the principal product;
but all industries are repressed by feudal rights and laws of entail and mortmain. Game
is plentiful, aud fish are abundant. Silk worms are cultivated; oil, olives, chestnuts,
and grapes grow naturally. There is very little trade or manufacturing industry.

AVILA Y ZUNIGA, DON Lnz DE; a Spanish general, diplomatist, and historian, b.
at Piacencia, in Estramadura, enjoyed the favor and confidence of Charles V., who
intrusted him with embassies to the popes Paul IY. and Pius 1Y., and made him grand
master of the order of Alcantara. lie accompanied the emperor on his expeditions to
Africa and against the princes of the league of Sehmalkald, and wrote an account of the
war which goes under that name, partial, indeed, but able and spirited. The ('<>i/ii/>c/it-
arioa de la Uuerra de Ali'mnmm Jm-ha jw Carlos V. en 1546 y 1547, have been published
repeatedly (first Yen. 1548). and translated into several languages. AVIT,A, Gu, GONZA-
LEZ DE, b. at Avila, in Old Castile, in 1559, and d. in 1658. was a Jesuit and canon of
Salamanca; also royal historiographer for Castile and the Indies. He composed a great
number of historical works, of which the following may be mentioned as containing
manv valuable facts: Hixtoriu <l /./ \"t<!<< 11 H-1i<>* del Ry Don Ifcnrir/"i' III. <> (.'n
(Madr. 1638); Jlintorin de la Vitlu // ffechos iti'l Mummi 1). fi}'li/x> Iff. (in Mendo/a's
Monarqitiade Enpafki, 3 vols. Madr. 1770); Ifixtorin nfSn'unnnirti (Salam. 160(1): and the
Tuiirn E'-c'esiastico de la primitica lylesia de lax India* Ocfidtntalc* (2. vols. Madr. 16-19-
1656).

A VILE S (Anc. Flarfffnfirffi), a t. of Asturias. Spnin. in the province of Oviedo. and
19 m. n. by w. from Ovicdo. at the mouth of the chief branch of the Aviles. which is
here crossed by a bridge, and is navigable at high water for vessels of the largest si/.e up
to the town. It has several good squares, but the streets are irregular and aivaded.
There are copper-mines in the vicinity, and a considerable trade is carried on in cnp|>er
vessels manufactured from their produce, as well as in coal, which is obtained not fur
from the town. Manufactures of earthenware, glass, linen, etc., are also carried on. A.
is one of the cradles of the Spanish monarchy, and contains a number of curious old
buildings. The charter granted to the t. by Alonso VII. in 1135 is preserved among the
public records. Pop. 7400.

AVI'TUS, AT.rtMts Knwirs. d. 525; a poet and bishop of Vienna, who was canon-
ized as a saint because of his opposition to Arianism. lie left a poem on the creation

ftl Aviln.

Avoirdapoto.

and original sin, which has been thought to have some resemblance to Milton's Para-
dise Lout.

AVIZ, an order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho. the first king of
Portugal, in imitation of the order of Calatrava, aud having, like it, for its object the
subjection of the Moors. By the present usage, the king of Portugal, who is grandmaster
of all of them, wears decorations of the first three orders of Portugal those of Christ,
St. James, and Aviz united in one medal, divided into three equal spaces.

AVLO'NA, or VALONA; a seaport in Albania, the ancient Audon, in the pachalik of
Janina, oil the gulf of A.; pop. GOUO. Trade is in the hands of the Christian portion of
the people. The Turks manufacture arms and woolen goods.

AVO CA or OA'OCA (Celt, meeting of the waters), a small river in the s.e. of Wicklow
CO., formed by the union of two streams, rising in the hi'.ls of the center of the county.
The A. runs through a very picturesque vale only a quarter of a mile broad, with wooded
banks 300 to 500 ft. high, and after a course of 9 m., reaches the sea at Arklow. A. vale
is celebrated in Moore's Irtish Melxlic*.

AVOCA'DO PEAR, or ALLIGATOR PEAK (Fersi'a gratixsima), a fruit tree of the natural
order Lauracm (r\.\ .), a native of the warm regions of America. It attains the height of
80 to 70 ft., and is a slender tree with a dome-like top. The leaves resemble those of
the laurel. The flowers small, and are produced towards the extremities of the branches.
The fruit is a drupe, but in size and shape resembles a large pear; is usually of a brown
color, and has a soft green or yellowish pulp, not very sweet, hut of a delicate flavor,
which dissolves like butter on the tougue, and is believed to consist principally of a fixed
oil. It is called vcgctatde butter in some of the French colonies. It is much esteemed
in the "\Ycst Indies, and often eou-'n with sugar and lime-juice or wine, or with spices.

AVOCET, or AVOSET (Uccurrirontra), a genus of birds, which, although having the
feet webbed nearly to the end of the toes, is usually ranked among the Cfraflte or G/uK<i-
tcrtx, upon account of the length of the legs, the half-naked tlngli*, the long, slender,
elastic bill, and the general agreement in habits with snipes. They are distinguished
from all other birds, except a few species of humming-bird, by the strong upward curv-
ature of the bill, which is much like a thin piece of elastic whalebone, and most probably
a delicate organ of touch, adapted for seeking food in mud, as their webbed feet are for
walking upon it, and their Jong legs for wading in the fens and marshes which they
frequent. They are birds of powerful wing. They are not much addicted to swim-
ming. They scoop through the mud with the bill, first to one side, and then to the
other, in quest of worms and other small animals; although Audubon has also observed
the American A. taking insects which were swimming on the surface of the water, and
expertly catching them in the air, running after them with partially expanded wings.
The common A. (U. awccthi), the body of which is about as large as that of a lapwing,
is sometimes, though very rarely, found in the fenny districts of England; it is also' a
native of the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, occurring even at the cape of Good
Hope. Other species are natives of North America, India, and New Holland. The
American A. (A*. Americana) has the bill less recurved than the common A.

AVOGADSO'S LAW. Sec ATOMIC TIIEOIIY.

AVOIDANCE, in English ecclesiastical law, the term by which the vacancy of a
benelice, or the fact of its being raid of an incumbent, is signified. A. is opposed to
pknarty, or fullness. See BERWICK.

AVOIRDUPOIS, or AVEKDUPOIS', is the name given to the system of weights and
measures applied in Great Britain and Ireland to all goods except the precious metals and
precious stones. The word is generally said to be derived from the French tiroir du pois,
to have weight; but the middle-age Latin word aceria or accra, used for goods in gen-
eral, or the middle-age Latin accrare, and French act re r, meaning to verify, seem to offer
more probable etymologies.

The grain is the foundation of the Avoirdupois system, as well as of the Troy. A
cubic inch of water weighs 252 '458 grains. Of the grains so determined, 7000 make,a
pound A., and 5760 a pound Troy. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The A. pound is
divided into 16 ounces, and the ounce into 16 drams. A dram, therefore, contains
27H grains, and an ounce 437* grains.

TABLE OP AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.

277. \ grains are 1 dram, 1 dr.

16 drams or drachms.

16 ounces

28 pounds

4 quarters 9.

20 hundred weight.

1 ounce, 1 oz.

1 pound, 1 Ib.

1 quarter, 1 qr.

l hundredweight, 1 cwt.
1 ton, 1 ton.

A cubic ft. of water weighs 997'14 oz. A., or nearly 1000 oz., which gives an easy
rule for determining the weisrht of a cubic ft. of any suhslance from its spccinv gravity.
A. is the weight used in the United States of North 'America, where, however, in many
places, the cwt. contains only 100 Ibs., and the ton, 2000 Ibs.

Avcil:u ,-)

Axel.

AVO'LA, a t. in Sicily, 13 m. s.w. of Syracuse; pop. 11,912. A. was ruined by an
earthquake in 1'693, but was soon rebuilt. It has a fishery and a sugar refinery; and
the neighborhood is still famous for honey, the ' honey of Hybla" so much praised by
ancient writers.

AVON, a word of British or Celtic orign, meaning "river" or "stream;" which seeme
allied to Aa (q.v.), the name of so many continental rivers. It is the name of several of
the smaller British rivers. Of these may be noticed: 1. The Upper or Warwickshire
A., which rises in northwest Northamptonshire, runs s.w. through Warwickshire and
Worcestershire, passing Rugby, Warwick, Stratford, and Kvesham, and joining the
Severn at Tewkesbury. It has a course of 100 in., and receives several tributaries. 2.
The lower, or Bristol, or west A., which rises in northwest Wiltshire, and runs 70 or 80
m. first s. in Wiltshire, and then w. and n.w. between Gloucestershire and Somerset-
shire. It traverses an oolitic basin, passing Bradford, Bath and Bristol, and empties
itself into the British channel. It is navigable for large vessels up to Bristol. It runs
generally between deep banks in a rich valley. A canal through the middle of Wiltshire
connects it with the Thames. 3. The Wiltshire and Hampshire, or east A., which rises
in trie middle of Wiltshire, and runs s. 70 m. through Wiltshire and Hampshire, passing
Amcsbury, Salisbury, and Ringwood, and entering the English channel at Christ church.
It is navigable up to Salisbury. It abounds in the small'delicate loach. In Wales two
rivers named A. one rising in Monmouthshire, the other in Glamorganshire fall into
Swansea Bay. In Scotland there are several of the same name, affluents of the Spey,
Annan, Clyde, and Forth.

A'VON SPRINGS, a resort for invalids, its mineral waters being valuable in cuta-
neous diseases and rheumatism. Avon is a village in New York, 19 in. s.s.w. of
Rochester, beautifully situated on a small plateau near the Genesee river.

AVOYELLES, a parish in Louisiana, on the Red river; SOOsq.m. ; pop. '70, 12,926
6175 colored. It is chiefly level and low, and subject to overflows from the river.
Corn, rice, cotton, and sugar are the leading products. Chief town, Marksville.

AVEANCHES (anc. Abrancai), a city of the dep. of Manche, France, near the left bank
of the Seez, 33 m. s.s.w. from St. Lo. It stands on the sides and summit of a high hill,
which extends in a long ridge, and the ascent of which is by zigzag roads on terraces.
This hill commands a very wide and beautiful view of a finely wooded and cultivated
district, with a winding river, which expands into a broad estuary, at the mouth of
which is the high islet peak of Mt. St. Michel. A. was formerly a bishop's see, and its
cathedral was one of the most magnificent in Normandy, but was pulled down in 1799
to prevent it from falling. A stone still preserved on the site of the cathedral is said to
be that on which Henry II. of England kneeled before the papal legates to receive abso-
lution for the murder of Becket. Before the Roman conquest of Gaul. A. was the
capital of the Abrincatui. It was a place of importance during the Roman period.
Charlemagne fortified it, but it was taken by the Normans in 86-~>. It was afterwards a
frequent object and scene of strife during the wars between the French and English. It
has manufactures of lace, tiles, and bricks, and a little trade in grain, butter, cattle, etr.
Pop. '76 77-14.

AWAJI, an island in the inland sea of Japan, between Shikolcu and the mainland,
celebrated for its crackle and yellow glazed pottery. In Japanese mythology, it was the
first created of all the islands.

AWARD, the decision of arbitrators or referees, or the document containing their
judgment. An A. must be consonant with and follow the submission, and nffcc only
the parties; it must be final, certain, specific, without palpable or apparent mi.-take, and
must be possible to be performed. The effect of an A. is a final judgment between the
parties in nil matters submitted. It transfers property as much as does the verdict of a
jury, and will estop the statute of limitations. An A. may be enforced by an action at
law or under a rule of court. Courts have no power to alter or amend an A., hut may
recommit to the referee in cases of uncertainly, mistake, etc.

AWATA. a village in the suburbs of Kioto, Japan, famous for its yellow faience.
A. pottery was invented in the 17th c., is decorated, and bv the Japanese is called
Tamairo Yaki (egg-ware). It is largely exported to the United States.

AWE, Locn, a lake in the center of Argyleshire, extending in a direction n.e. and
s.w. about 24 m., with an average breadth of from half a m. to2^ miles. It rarely
freezes, and its surface is 108ft. above the sea. The country around consists of mica
slate. The scenery is most striking at the n.e. end of the lake, where the water is studded
with numerous wooded islets, overshadowed by towering and rugged mountains, promi-
nent among which rises the dark and rocky ridge of Ben Cruachan. 3669 ft. high and 14
m. in circuit. Of the islands, the most noted is Fraoch^ilean, containing the remains of
a castle granted to Gilbert M'Naugh ton in 1267 by Alexander III. On a peninsula, in
the u. end of the lake, stands Kilchurn casle (Caesteal Chaoil -chuirn), once a fortress of
great strenirth, built about 1440 by Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy. and garrisoned, as
late as 1745, by the king's troops. The waters of the lake are carried off at its n.w. end
by the river Awe, which, after a course of 7 m., enters the sea at Bunawc on loch Etive
The magnificent "Pass of Awe," through which the road runs beneath the shoulder

A Q A vola.

00 Axel.

of Ben Cruachan, was the scene of a conflict, in 1308, between Robert the Bruce and the
M'Dougalls of Lorn, in which that clan was all but exterminated. At the n.e. end of the
loch, it receives the waters of the Orchy and Strae, flowing through glens of their own
names. Loch A. contains fine fish, especially trout, salmo fervx, and salmon; and the
small villages of Claddich and Port Sonachan, on the e. side of the loch, due n. of
Inveraray, are the general resort of anglers.

A-WEATHEE is a term denoting the position of the helm when jammed close to the
weather-side of a ship; it is the reverse of a-lee.

A- WEIGH, as applied to the position of an anchor, when just loosened from the ground
and hanging vertically in the water, is nearly equivalent to a-trip.

AWN (/Imto), in the flowers of grasses, a solitary pointed bristle, growing either from
a glume or a palea. The flowers of some grasses are entirely aimless; in many, the glumes
alone are turned (or aristafe), or only one of them ; in others, the glumes are awnless,
and the pale:e, or one palea, awned. The awn is often terminal, and appears as a pro-
longation of the midrib of the glume or palea; from which, however, it sometimes sep-
arates below tli" point, and is then said to be on the back of it, or ilorxnl ; sometimes ii
is jointed ;it the ba-^e. and finally separates at the joint, sometimes it is knee-bent or genicu-
late; sometimes it is twisted, and liable to twist and untwist hygro metrically; sometimes
it is rough, or even serrate, at the edges, as in barley; sometimes it is feathery, as in
feather-grass (utipa), which also is remarkable for the great length of its awn. The
characters of irenera and species are ofien derived from it, but it is not always
invariable, even in the same species, and the cultivated varieties of wheat and oats differ
much in being more or less bearded. There appears to be a tendency to the diminution
or disappearance of the awn through cultivation.

AW YAW, AGA-OJO, or OYO, a city in central Africa, the capital of Yoruba; est. pop.
70,000.

AX, or DAX (anc. Aqwr, Augusta), a noted watering place in France, at the foot of the
Pyrenees, 2000 ft. above the sea, on the Odour river, 32 m. by rail n.e. of Bayonne. It
is a village of about 2000 inhabitants. There are more than 50 springs varying in tem-
perature from 100 ' to 200'. One of the springs is famous for curing leprosy.

AXAYCA'TL. Emperor of Mexico, the father of the second Montezuma. About
1467 he led his A/tecs to the conquest of Tehuantepec, and afterwards defeated a
rebellion that threatened his capital, the city of Mexico. He died suddenly, about 1477.
Half a century litter the soldiers of Cortes occupied A.'s palace, and discovered an
immense treasure of gold and silver in ore and bars, with jewels, and many curious
articles of manufacture.

AXE, the name of two small rivers in the s.w. of England. One rises in the Mendip
hills, n. of Somerset, runs first s.w. and then n.e., through a carboniferous limestone,
trias, and diluvial basin, past Wells and Axbridge, into the Bristol channel. The other
rises in west Dorset, and flows 21 m. s. and s.w., through east Devonshire, in an oolitic
and trias basin, past Axminster into the English channel. A. is only another form of
Exe. See AA.

AXE, one of the oldest tools used by man; formed in the early ages of stone, bronze,
copper, and iron. At present an A. is mainlj' of wrought iron, with a cutting edge of
fine steel. The butt or main part, is made of good rolled iron, cut into suitable lengths,
hollowed at the middle so that when the ends are brought together the hollow will
form the eye for the handle. Between the ends is welded in a cutting piece of steel,
projecting an inch or more bc3'ond the iron, and thinned down nearly to an edge.
Having been properly tempered and grcnnd, and fitted with a wooden helve, the axe is
ready for use. Forms and weights vary according to the use to which the tool is to be
put. For very hard timber the cutting <dge is narrow, and the whole instrument heavy;
for carpenter work on soft timber, the edge is of 8 to 12 in., as in the broad-axe. Com-
mon forest axes weigh from 3 to 7 Ibs. Besides these forms, there are the adze, a tool
used for chipping, or rough planing by carpenters, and the pickaxe (which is not an
axe in any sense) for digging in hard gvound. American axes have a high reputation in
Europe, and have to some extent supplanted the English article in the markets of that
country.

AXEL, or AB'SALON, Archbishop of Lund, in Denmark, "and also minister and general
of king Waidemar I., was b. in 1128, and d. 1201. He was descended of a distinguished
family, and, in his youth, studied at Paris. A. distinguished himself as well by wisdom
and uprightness in peaee, as by valor and address in war. The Wendish pirates were
not only driven from the coasts of Denmark, but attacked in their own settlements, and
subdued. lie defeated the Pomeranian prince, Bogislav, and made him dependent on
Denmark In the wise legislation of Waidemar and of his son, he took a great part.
He favored and promoted learning and art, and to his encouragement we owe the first
connected history of Denmark by Saxo Grammaticus. By building a fortified castle for
defense against the pirates, he laid the foundation of the future great city of Copenhagen,
which was then an insignificant village, inhabited only by fishermen. Owing to thin
origin, Copenhagen has sometimes got the name of A'xelstadt. A. lies buried in the

Axe*tone. OA

Axum.

Church of Soroc, where he had founded a monastery. The relics found -when his grave
was opened in 1827, the chief of which were a bishop's staff and ring, are described in
the latest complete biography of A. by Estrup, translate;! into German by I\Iohnike in
Illgeu'.s Zt'iMirlftfur-JIustorisclic Tkeo!ogic(2 vols. Leip. 1832).

AXESTONE, a mineral generally regarded as a variety of nephrite (q.v.). It is of a
greenish color, is more or less translucent, hard, tough, and not easily broken. It occurs
in primitive rocks, always massive, and is found in Saxony, in Greenland, and in New
Zealand and other islands of the southern Pacific. It derives its name from 1 lie use to
which it is put by the natives of these islands for making their hatchets. They also
make ear-drops (,!' it.

AX HOLME ISLE (A. Sax. holme, a river-isle), a low level tract in the n. of Notting-
hamshire, surrounded by rivers the Trent on thee. ; Don, n. andw. ; Tome and Idle, on
the w.; and Vicardyke, between the Trent and Idle on the south. This district, 18 m,
from n. to s., and five on an average e. and w., was anciently a forest, but afterwards
became a marsh. The marsh was drained into the Trent in 1034 by Yermuydcn, a
Dutchman, after five years' labor, and at the cost of 56,000. The reclaimed land
became very fertile under Dutch and French Protestant settlers, and after much litiga-
tion, it was, in 1091, divided, the original inhabitants receiving 10,533 acres, and the
settlers 2803. On the land are raised abundant crops of wheat, oats, rye, pease, beans,
clover, flax, rape, licinp, potatoes, and onions. Peat and turf fuel abound, and valuable
gypsum beds occur. The water is brackish, too hard for washing, and curdles milk
when boiled with it. A. I. includes seven parishes. There are two small towns,
Crowle and Epworth.

AXIL, Axilla, in botany, the angle between the npper side of a leaf and the stem or
branch from which it grows. Buds usually grow in tlie axils of leaves, although they
are not always actually developed ; but a bud may be made to appear in such a situation,
and to form a new shoot or branch, by artificial means, which direct the strength of the
plant more particularly to that quarter, as cutting over the main stem, wounding it
above the place where the new branch is desired, etc. Flowers or flower-stalks
(pedunde) growing from the axils of leaves are called axillary.

AXIM', a t. on the Guinea coast, Africa, 73 m. w. of Cape Coast Castle. In 1042, it
was taken from the Portuguese by the Dutch, who, in 1872, ceded it with the whole of
their possessions in Guinea to the English.

AX'INITE, a mineral containing oxide of iron, lime, alumina, and silica, occurring
in flat, sharp crystals, edged like an axe.

AXINOMANCY (Gr. axine, an axe, and manteia, divination), a mode of divination
much practiced by the ancient Greeks, particularly with the view of discovering the
perpetrators of great crimes. An axe was poised upon a stake, and was supposed to
move so as to indicate the guilty person ; or the names of suspected persons being
pronounced, the motion of the axe at a particular name was accepted as a sign of guilt.
Another method of A. was by watching the movements of an agate placed upon a red-hot
axe. This is only one of a multitude of analogous modes of divination practiced in all
ages and among all nations. See DIVINATION, and DIVINING-KOD.

AXIOM, a Greek word meaning a demand or assumption, is commonly used to signify
a general proposition, which the understanding recognizes as true, as soon as the import
of the words conveying it is apprehended. Such a proposition is therefore known
directly, and docs not need to be deduced from any other. Of this kind, for example,
are all propositions whose predicate is a property essential to our notion of the subject.
Every rational science requires such fundamental propositions, from which all the
truths composing it are derived; the whole of geometry, for instance, rests on, compara-
tively, a very few axioms. Whether there is, for the whole of human knowledge, any
single, absolutely first A., from which all else that is known may be deduced, is a ques-
tion that has given rise to much disputation: but the fact, that human knowledge may
have various starting-points, answers it in the negative. Mathematicians use the word
A. to denote those propositions which they must assume as known from some other
source than deductive reasoning, and employ in proving all the other truths of the
science. The rigor of method requires that no more be assumed than are absolutely
necessary. Every self-evident proposition, therefore, is not an A. in this sense, though.
of course, it is desirable that every A. be self-evident; thus, Euclid rests the whole of
geometry on 15 assumptions, but he proves propositions that are at. least as self-evident
as some that he takes for granted. That "any two sides of a triangle are greater than
the third," is as self-evident as that "all right angles are equal to one another," and
much more so than his assumption about parallels, which, it has been remarked, is
neither self-evident nor even easily made evident. See P\i; AI.I.I.I.S. Kin-lid's assump-
tions are divided into 3 "postulates' <>r demands, mid 12 "common notions" the
term A. is of later introduction. The distinction between axioms and postulates is
usually slated in this way: an A. is "a theorem granted without demonstration;" a
postulate is "a problem granted without construction" as, to draw a straight line
between two given points.

K Axestone.

Axum.

AXIS, in geometry. The A. of a curved line is formed by a right line dividing the
curve into two symmetrical parts, so that the part on one side exactly corresponds with
that on the other; as in the parabola, the ellipse, and the hyperbola. The A. of any
geometrical solid is the right line which passes through the center of all the correspond-
ing parallel sections of it; in this sense, we speak of the A. of a cylinder, a globe, or a
spheroid. By the A. of rotation, we understand the right line around which a body
revolves. In physical science, the A. of a lens is the right line passing through it in
such a manner as to be perpendicular to both sides of it; and the A. of a telescope is a
right line which passes through the centers of all the glasses in the tube. The A. of the
eye is the right line passing through the centres of the pupil and the crystalline lens.

AXIS, in botany, a term applied to the central part both above and below ground,
around which the whole plant is regarded as arranged. The stem is called the attending
A.; the root, the descending axi#. The opposite tendencies of growth appear as soon as
a seed begins to germinate, in the radicle and plumule; the former of which is the
descending A., and the latter the ascending A. : the former descending deeper into the
soil, the latter ascending towards the air and light. That part of the stem around which
the flowers arc arranged is called ike foral A. , and, in describing some kinds of inflores-
cence, the terms primary floral A., secondary floral A., etc., are occasionally employed.

AXIS, Ccrnis axis, a species of deer, abundant on the banks of the Ganges, but
found throughout India and in many islands of the eastern Archipelago. Itwas'known
to the ancients by the name axis. One of its Indian names is chittra, and by British
sportsmen in India it is generally called the spotted hog-deer. By some naturalists, it
has been made the type of a genus of cerridte, called axis. The A. has a great resem-
blance in size and coloring to the European fallow-deer; it is generally of a rich fawn
color, beautifully spotted with Avhite, nearly black along the back, the under parts snow-
white. The horns, however, differ very much from those of the falloAv-decr, being
slender, sharp-pointed, little branched, and not at all palmated. The female has no
horns. The A. frequents thick jungles in the vicinity of water, and feeds during the
night. It is commonly found in herds of 15 or 20, of which 3 or 4 are males. Its sense
of smell is remarkably acute, and it is generally very shy and timid, so that sportsmen
find it difficult to get within shot. The males, however, sometimes exhibit great courage
in defense of the young. It is very easily domesticated, is very gentle in its manners,
has been frequently imported into Europe, and breeds freely in the parks in which it is
kept at a few noblemen's and gentlemen's seats in Britain and France.

AXLE, the bar of metal or wood, connecting the wheels and supporting the body of
a wheeled vehicle. In railway carriages the A. is fastened to and revolves with the
wheels.

AX MINSTEB, a small t. in e. Devonshire, on the side of a little hill on the left bank
of the Axe. Pop. in '71, 2861. A. was once famous for the manufacture of Turkey and
Persian carpets, which were little inferior to those imported. Two celebrated geologists
have been connected with A.: Dr. Bucklaud was born here, and Dr. Conybeare was
lord of the manor, and vicar.

AX MOUTH, a village at the mouth of the Axe, e. Devonshire. A mile e. of A.
occurred, in 1839, a landslip; an area of 200 ft. wide, for three quarters of a mile paral-
lel to the shore, having sunk 250 ft. below the sea, with a great noise. The chasm thus
formed became a lagoon, while the neighboring sea-bed rose 40 feet. Rather more than a
mile further e., occurred another but muffler landslip in 1840. The district around
consists of greensaud strata.

AXOLOTL, pronounced acJio'lall (r,yrinvs, or axolotes ednlis), a remarkable animal.
found in great abundance in some of the Mexican lakes, and particularly in the lake of
Mexico itself. It is a iuunu-hiau (q.v.) reptile of the family of the frotetekf or perenni-
/</<'//</, /'.'A batrao/uanp, in which the gills remain during life, and the lungs are never
sufficiently developed to maintain respiration by themselves. It is in general form very
like a tish; has a large and broad head; and tapers into a long compressed tail, which
has a thin membranous fin both on its upper and its lower side. It has four legs, with
toes not webbed; and on each side of the neck the gills form three long branched or
feathered processes, which give it a very remarkable appearance. It is brown, and mot-
tled with small black spots. When full grown, it averages 8 or 9 in. in length, though
sometimes measuring 16 inches. It is esteemed a great delicacy in Mexico, and is there
constantly brought to the market.

AXTJM, once the capital of the Ethiopian kingdom of the same name, is situated in
the modern Abyssinian province of Tigre, of which it is capital. Lat. 40 7' n. ; long.
39 2? e. It now lies mainly in ruins, among which stands the principal church of
Abyssinia, built in 1657. Pop. 2000. The former greatness of the city is testified by
yet remaining structures cut in granite, some of which have inscriptions. From these
it appears that the Axumite cmpip' \temled over Abyssinia, and even over Yemen and
Saba in Arabia, and possessed the < < mmand of the Red sea. It acquired political impor-
tance from the circumstance, that it formed on the s. a boundary to the world-embrac-
ing pov.-cr of Home, as well as to that of Parthia. which then extended as far as Arabia.
The By /.an tine emperors even paid an annual tribute to the sovereigns of Axum. This
U. K. II. 5

Avacncho. (*(*

Aymar.

! v was also the furthest point southward that Grecian civilization reached ; through
ilium of Egypt, Greek philosophy spread into A., and the Greek language became
\'w lantruage of the court and of the priests. Under king Aizanes. who, in a still
i ":i:ii!'.inii- inscription, appears as a heathen, Christianity \vas introduced into the coun-
i:-y from Egypt by the two apostles Frumentius and Jfedesius, who were followed by
priests from the same quarter. The new doctrine soon spread over the whole
country; Frumentius was made the first bishop of A., and Frcmoiw was built in honor
of him. The stone churches, many of them very imposing, yet scattered over the whole
of Abyssinia, owe their architecture to Egyptian priests, and arose at that period, as
well as the most celebrated Abyssinian convents and hermitages. The Axumile empire
carried on, through Adule, an active commerce with Arabia and India; it formed the
outermost bulwark of Christianity; and, as such, particularly from about the (5th c., it
interfered in behalf of the Christians in Arabia, and became the natural enemy of Moham-
medanism. The contests in which it soon became involved with that power caused its
fall, as the kings gradually lost their possessions in Arabia, and the whole coast on the
Red sea and gulf of Aden. The outlets lor commerce were thus cut olf, and the empire
was at the same time so weakened by constant wars, that internal disorders brought oil
its complete dissolution.

AYACU'CHO, a department of s. Peru, on the e. side of the Andes, 24,213 sq.rn. ;
pop. 147,909. It has a rough surface and variable climate; little is done in mining; cat-
tle and honey-raising and agriculture are the principal employments. The battle of
Dec. 9, 1824, 'fought in this department, secured the independence of the Spanish South
American colonies. The Spaniards, in largely superior force under Laserna, were effec-
tively beaten and their leader captured by the colonists under gen. Sucre, the result being
the capitulation of the Spaniards in Peru and the surrender of all their posts.

AYACU'CHO, a t. in a department of the same name in s. Peru. Here, on the 9th
Dec., 1834, the combined forces of Peru and Colombia the latter then comprising Ecua-
dor, New Granada, and Venezuela totally defeated the last Spanish army that was ever
keen on the new continent.

AYA'LA, PEUO LOPEZ DE, called El Viejo, to distinguish him from his son of the
same name, was b. at Murcia in 1333, of one of the first families of the CasUlian nobil-
ity. He stood high in the regard of several kings of Castile, and filled the first unices of
the state, latterly, that of high-chancellor and high-chamberlain of Castile. At the
battle of Najera, in 1367, he was taken prisoner by the English, then in league with Peter
the cruel, and confined for some time in an English dungeon; and again in loSo, by the
Portuguese, at the battle of Aljubarota. He d. at Calahorra, in 1407. A. lias acquired
a name, not only as a statesman, but as a writer, especially as a historian and poet. His
best known work is his Oronic-as de lo Itcyes de Camilla D. Pedro, D. Knri<i>n I !., I). ,1 un,i
1., D. Enrique III. (2 vols. Madr. 1779-80 the older editions of 1495 and 1591 are imper-
fect). He was the first .among the Spaniards to give up the usual simple narrative of
events in the order of time, and to seek to give a more rational representation of them
according to the rules of historic art. It is only in recent times that the poetical works
of A- have been discovered , the most remarkable of which is the Lihro <>' I\im<i<li> <lc,
Palacio. This "Book in Rhyme on Court-life," as its singular title may lie translated,
was begun during the poet's first captivity in England, and is composed in the old
national form of rhyming Alexandrine stanzas of four lines; the contents are satirical
and didactic. A. appears also in his poetical works as a representative of that transition
epoch of Spanish national literature, when it was passing from a popular original litera-
ture to one of a more artificial imitative character.

AYAMON'TE, a t. of Andalusia, Spain, on the left bank of the Guadiana, and near its
mouth, where it forms the boundary between Spain and Portugal. It stands on an
acclivity. The upper part of the town consists of narrow and irregular streets; those
of the lower part are regular and wide. There are three public squares. The principal
occupation of the inhabitants is fishing. Boat-building and lace-making were once very
extensively carried on, but both have greatly declined. Pop. 8000.

AYE-AYE, Clteiromyn Ufadagatcariensis, a Quadruped about the size of a hare, a
native of Madagascar, which was at first placed by naturalists among squirrels, and was
ranked by Cuvier along with them in the order of rodents (mdenliii}, although Soimerat,
who discovered it, pointed out its affinity also to the makis or lemurs, to which family
it is now pretty generally referred. The principal reason for placing the A. among the
Rodent*, has been found in the conformation of its teeth; but the other characters of the
animal agree generally with those of the lemurs, and its habits resemble theirs. The A.
has large, broad ears, large round eyes, long brownish umy hair, and a large bushy tail,
which it does not carry over its back as squirrels do. It is very active din-ing the niulit.
but sleeps during the day. In confinement, it will subsist on boiled rice and fruits. It
seems to be able to make as good use of its front teeth for gnawing as any of the rodents
(irnawers). Mr. Ellis mentions one which ate its way through a barrel, and made its
escape. lie thinks it probable that there arc more species than one.

AYE8HAH, the favorite wife of Mohammed. Mas b. at Medina in 010 or 611 A. D.
Sh" was ordy nine years of age when she married the prophet. Her father's name was

oft Ayacncho.

A \ mar.

Abdullah, but he was surnamed Abu-Bekr, " father of the virgin," in consequence, it
is said, of his daughter being the only one of Mohammed's wives who was a virgin.
Although A. bore no children to Mohammed, she was so tenderly beloved by him, that
he was wont to say that she would be the first of his wives to whom the gates of Para-
dise would be opened. It is stated by Mohammedan historians, that to the charms of
her beauty she added a knowledge of mathematics, rhetoric, and music. But this state-
ment i.s improbable. She was accused of adultery, but Mohammed having produced a
revelation from heaven to the effect that she was innocent, punished her accusers, and
made it an article of faith for all time, that whoever should not believe in her purity
should endure the pains of hell forever. In his last illness, Mohammed, by his request,
was carried to her house, and expired in her arms. After the prophet's death, A. took
an active part in the plot which deprived kalif Othmau of his power and life, and headed
a force to resist the accession of Ali. After some partial success, however, the troops
under her were effectually defeated by Ali, and she was taken prisoner. Ali spared her
life, and allowed her to reside in any town in Arabia she chose, provided she did not inter-
fere with state affairs. She d. at Medina (677 A.D.). In spite of her political adver.-i-
ties, A. was highly venerated by all true Mussulmans, and named the prophetess, and
the mother of bclierers. She was consulted on divers points of the Koran, and her inter-
pretations were held to be binding. They have been collected in the Sunna (q.v.).

AYLES'BURY, a t. in the center of Buckinghamshire, on a rivulet which flows into
the Thame, an east branch of the Thames. The pop. of the electoral district in 1871 was
28,760; that of the town proper about 6000. A., with its hundreds, returns two mem-
bers to parliament. It is chiefly an agricultural town. Many fat ducks are reared in
the neighborhood to supply the London markets at an early period of the season, when
they fetch very high prices. A. is a very ancient town, having been taken from the
Britons by the "Saxons in 571.

AYLES FORD, a village near the center of Kent, on the right bank of the Medway, 3
m. n.e. of Maidstone. Remarkable ancient remains occur here. On a hill-slope 1| m.
to the n.e., there still stands a celebrated ancient dolmen, or burying-place, called Kits
Coity House a small truncated pyramidal chamber, open in front, and formed of four
large rude Kentish rag blocks, three of which are uprights, with a slight slope inwards,
ami the fourth laid on them. Of I he side-stones, one is 7 by 74- ft., 2 ft. thick, and 8J-
tons in weight; the second is 8 by 8 ft., weighing 8 tons; and the third is smaller and
more irregular in form. The capstone is 12 by 9^ ft., 2| ft. thick, and weighs 104 tons.
This dolmen seems to have been the center of a group of ancient monuments connected
by a long stone avenue with another grovip, 7 m. to the s.e. In this district also occur,
on the brow of the chalk-hills on both sides of the Medway, large circular sepulchral
pits opening at bottom into one or more chambers. Some of these pits are coven- 1
with flat stones, and filled with flints. At A. the Britons defeated the Saxons in 45-'),
and drove them from the island; but early in the 7th c. the Saxons were victorious here.

AYLMER, a village in Ottawa co., province of Quebec, Canada, on lake DeschSnes,
at the foot of steam navigation for the upper Ottawa. Pop. about 1700.

AYLMER, a lake about 50 by 30 m., in British America, 80 m. n. of Great Slave
lake.

AYLMER, or ELMER, JOHN, 1521-94; an English theologian, a graduate of Oxford
and tutor to lady Jane Grey. Mary's accession compelled him to abandon the country.
and he went to Switzerland, where he wrote a reply to John Knox's argument again>t
female sovereigns, in which A. highly flattered Elizabeth. He returned after E.'s
accession, and was made archdeacon of Lincoln, and one of the synod that settled the
doctrines and discipline of the church. As bishop of London, 1576, he went so far in
retaliating for Roman Catholic intolerance as to be rebuked by the privy council.

AY'LOFFE, Sir JosK.ru. an English antiquary of celebrity, b. about 1708 in the parish
of Framfield. Sussex. In 1731 he was elected a fellow of the royal society, and in the
following year, a fellow of the society of antiquaries. He was one of the first council of
this society, after it received its charter of incorporation in 1751; and he was made vice-
pn sident some years after. When the new state-paper office was established in 1763,
he was made one of the commissioners for the preservation of the state papers. In 1772,
he published a valuable work on the national records, lie also wrote several useful
papers for the publications of the society of antiquaries; and projected, and was engaged
in the execution of the work, afterwards continued by Gough, and known as Gough's
S, iinii-firnl .MIIHHIIH /</*, at the time of his death in 1781.

AYMAR, JAQUES, a celebrated French professor of the art of divination. A. was
the son of a peasant of Dauphine, and was b. at St. Veran in Sept., 1662. He \\as
brought up as a mason, but he forsook that trade for the divining-rod, which he u-ed
at first to point, out springs, hidden treasures, etc. In 1692, a nvurner and robbery was
committed at Lyon, and A. and his rod were called into requisition to detect the crimi-
nals. In some way or other, he succeeded in discovering one of the guilty parties. A.'s
fame having been spread by this incident, he was called to Paris to exhibit his art
lie fore the prince de Coude; but, unfortunately for his reputation, his power of diviua-

A \ ma IMS f*O

Ayscue.

tion utterly failed him; and being forced to confess himself an impostor, he was sent
back in disgrace to his original obscurity.

AYMARAS, the name of an aboriginal people of South America, now chiefly in
Bolivia, numbering about 200,000. They claim a very ancient origin from a people who
came from the north and made the head of their government on the sacred island in
lake Titicaca, and they also claim that they furnished the Quichian or Inca people with
their religious ceremonies and knowledge of arts. It appears that the A. tilled the
earth, built large and even splendid edifices, were familiar with painting and sculp-
ture, and probably knew something of astronomy. They venerated the dead, putting
them in a sitting position in large stone tombs that would hold a dozen, ranged so as to
face each other, their feet meeting in the center of a circle. Some tombs were of brick;
some of several stories with a body iu each story; and all had openings facing the east,
as the A. were sun worshipers. The present sun they called the fifth of a series, all of
which had risen from the sacred lake. The Peruvian Incas gradually subdued the A.
and took possession of their country. The existing A. are Roman Catholics. They are
of ordinary Indian complexion, but of intelligent though melancholy expression. Agri-
culture is their chief reliance.

AYMON, the surname of four brothers, called respectively Alard, Richard, Guiscard,
and Renaud, sons of Aymon or Haimon, count of Dordogne, who figure among the
most illustrious heroes of the chivalric poetry of the middle ages; but their historic
existence must be considered problematical, as the deeds attributed to them possess in
so large a measure a miraculous character. What basis of fact may underlie the fanci-
ful accretions of mythology, it is now impossible to determine. Their career belongs to
the cycle of marvels, of which Charlemagne is the central point, and their adventures
furnished rich material to the romantic narratives of Italy in the 15th and 16th c., and,
in fact, were the exclusive subject of some of these. A novel, entitled Let Qnntr/ I-'ilx
Aymon, by Huon de Villeneuve, a French poet of the age of Philippe Auguste, details
very minutely their exploits. Finally, Ariosto conferred a poetical immortality on the
family by the publication of his Roland, in which Renaud, the bravest of the four
brothers, plays continually the most distinguished part. The traditions concerning them
are not uniform or consistent. Some have a Proven9al origin; but the author or authors
of the popular German book which Tieck has edited and published, entitled The Beauti-
ful and Entertaining History of the Four Brothers Aymon, and of their Horse Bayard, irith
tlie Deeds and Heroic Feats that they Accomplished against the Pagans, in the Time of Char-
lemagne, seem to have drawn from a different source. The most probable hypothesis,
therefore, is, that the varieties in these poetic legends are due to the fancy and national
predilections of the particular authors, and that there originally existed a single tradi-
tion, out of which the whole sprang.

AYO'EA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Valencia, and 50 m. s.w. from Valencia, on
the upper part of a river of the same name, and situated in an extensive hollow at the
base of a limestone mountain. It has four squares and wide streets. On the summit of
the hill are the remains of an old castle, close to which the town once stood. The inhabi-
tants are chiefly employed in husbandry and oil-making. Pop. 5412.

AYE, the co. t. of Ayrshire, is situated on the left bank of the river Ayr, about the
middle of the coast of Ayrshire, 40 m. s.s.w. of Glasgow by rail. It lies in a coal dis-
trict. A. is a clean and handsome town, and its principal streets are well built. To the
south, between the town and the race-course, numerous elegant villas have recently
sprung up. The spire of the assembly-rooms is 217ft., and the Wallace tower, 113 ft.
high. Three bridges span the river and connect the town with Newton-upon-Ayr the
"mild brig" and the " new brig" (taken down in 1877, and rebuilt) of Burns, together
with a railway bridge. Part of the tower of the old church of St. John, built in the 12th
c., and turned into a fort by Cromwell, is still standing. A. harbor is formed by the
estuary of the river, and is protected by piers and a breakwater. A large wet dock has
recently been built. The coasting trade is considerable. The chief export is coal.
180,000 to 200,000 tons yearly being exported from the Ayr collieries. A considerable

Quantity. of grain and timber is imported. At one time, much wine was imported from
'rancc. At an early date, A. was a commercial and military place of some importance.
William the lion made it a royal burgh about 1202. During the Scottish wars of inde-
pendence, it formed a regular center of military operations, and, while in po-'^i<m of
an English garrison, it was the scene (according to ]>liinl Jf>>rri/) of Wallace's first
its. The principal objects of interest near A. are connected with the memory of
Robert Burns. See ALLOW AY KIUK. Pop. in 1871, municipal burgh, 7987; of the par
lianientary burgh, including Newton-upon Ayr, 17,954. A, unites with CampbeltOD.
Irvine, Ittverary, and Oban, in sending a member to parliament. Parliamentary con-
stituency (1875-1876), 2426; annual value of real property, 65,150.

AY'BER, JACOB, next to Hans Sachs the most prolific and important German
dramatic writer of the Kith century. His history is involved in obscurity; but it is
known that he was a citizen of Nttrnberg in 1594, nnd a procurator in the eouris of a\\ .
It -.vas not till after his death, in 1605, that a collection of his pieces was published, con-

f>Q Aymaras.

^*7 Ayscue.

eisting of 66 tragedies, comedies, and carnival plays (Nftrnb. 1618). A. has the same
garrulous breadth of dialogue as Hans Sachs, but is inferior to him in wit and humor.

AYRES, ROMEYN B., b. N. Y., 1825; a graduate of West Point; served in the Mexi-
can and civil wars; for good conduct in the Richmond campaign made brevet maj.
gen. of the U. S. army and of volunteers.

AYESHIKE, an extensive maritime co. in the s.w. of Scotland, bounded, n., by Ren-
frewshire; w , by the firth of Clyde and the North channel; s., by "Wigton and Kirk-
cudbright; e. and n.e., by Dumfries and Lanark. Its greatest length is 78 m. ; its
greatest breadth, 26 average 144-; area, 1149 sq.m., or 735,262 statute acres. It is the
seventh in size of the Scottish counties. The general aspect of the coiinty is undulating
and hilly, the land attaining no great elevation, except a small portion in the n., and
some considerable tracts in the s. and s.e., which are mountainous. None of the eminen-
ces exceed 2000 feet. A. contains a great number of lakes and small streams, the hater
rising near the inland boundary of the county. The chief rivers only 20 to 35 m. long
are the Ayr, with its tributary the Lugar, and the Doon, which flow across the center
of the county; the Garnock and Irvine in the n. ; and the Girvan and Stinchar in the
south. A. to the s. of Girvan consists of lower Silurian rocks, and to the n. of that river,
of patches of Devonian, carboniferous, and trap rocks. It is rich in valuable minerals
especially coal, ironstone, limestone, and freestone. The other minerals have been long
wrought, but it is only of late years that the working of ironstone has been established
and is now carried on on a large scale in the n. of the county. On the banks of the
Ayr is found an excellent species of whetstone, called water-ol-Ayr stone. The climate
of A. is mild and healthy, but moist. The soil along the coast is light and sandy, inter-
spersed with deep loam; the most fertile districts are in the center of the county, where
clay predominates. On the e. side are extensive mosses and moorlands. The three
ancient divisions of the county are Carrick, s. of the Doon, mostly wild and hilly;
Kyle, between the Doon and the Irvine, containing much rich level laud, but towards
the coast the soil is light, and, though well cultivated, is less productive; and Cunning-
ham, comprising all the country u. of the Irvine, mostly fertile. The characteristics of
these districts are rudely indicated in the old country rhyme:

Kyle for a man ;
Carrick for a coo;

Cunningham for butter and cheese;
t And Galloway for woo.

Agriculture in A. till about 1800, was very backward ; but since then, especially of
late, extraordinary progress has been made in furrow draining, improved rotation, and
road-making; while the condition of the peasants has been much improved. In 1878,
314,191 acres were under crops and grass, held by 3569 persons, the farms being generally
small. Dairy-husbandry is carried to high perfection in Ayrshire, the breed of milch
cows, of which it rears a greater number than any other Scotch county, being noted us
the finest in the kingdom for the quantity and quality of their milk. The Dunlop
cheese, so called from the parish of that name, is almost as celebrated as Stilton, but is
now almost superseded by that made on the Cheddar process. The breed of horses is
also excellent. Manufactures, especially woolen and cotton, are carried on to an
important extent. At Catrine there are extensive cotton-works; at Kilmarnock, dye-
works, iron-foundries, etc. ; and at Cumnock, a large pottery. Of the minor manufac-
tures, the most characteristic is that of ornamental woodwork, often bearing tartan
designs, which is extensively carried on at Mauchline. Great iron-works exist at
Muirkirk, Hurlford, Kilwinning, Ardeer, Dairy, and Dalmellington. Maybole inanu-
tures shoes and agricultural implements. There are valuable fisheries on some parts of
the coast. Troon, Ardrossan, Ayr, and Irvine are thriving ports. Pop. '71, 200,809;
inhabited houses, 26.798: and the number of children, from five to thirteen, receiving
education, 30,576. A. county returns two members to parliament The chief town-;,
besides Ayr, are Kilmarnock, Girvan, Maybole, Dahy, Kilwinning. Beith, Irvine, Stewar-
ton, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Troon, Mauchline. Galston, Newmilns, Kilbirnie, andLarns. ( 'f
antiquities, the most interesting are the ruins of Crossraguel Abbey, near Kirkoswald,
and of the castles of Turn berry, the family seat of Robert the Bruce, Dunure, Loch
Doon, Dean, Auchinleck, Dundonald, etc. ; also the ruins of Alloway Kirk.

A. was inhabited, in the time of Agricola, by the Damnii. with whom were afterwards
mixed the Scots from the opposite coast of Kmtyre. In the 8th c., the Northumbrian
Saxons seized the territory; and afterwards came the Normans, whose traces still e\i>r
in local names. During the religious persecutions of the Stuarts, A. was a stronghold of
the < 'nvenaiiters.

AYSCUE, Sir GEOKGE, 1616-76: an English naval commander. He was knighted
by Ciiarles I., and in the civil war took the side of tin- parliament, commanding in th<-
waters around Ireland. In 1651, he reduced Barlmdoes and Virginia to subjection, and
the next year assisted Blake in the struggle with I)e Ruytcr a. id Van Tromp. Four
years later he had command of a squadron in the "four days" battle, in which the
Rni/nl I'n'nct . his flair ship, stranded and was surrendered to the Dutch, who kept
him a prisoner for many years.

Ayton. l7()

Azalea.

AYTON, Sir ROBERT, a Scottish poet and favorite courtier in the reign of James VI.
He \vasa younger sou of Andrew Aytou of Kinaldie, Fifeshirc, where he was born in 1570.
He was enrolled as a student in St. Leonard's college, St. Andrews, in 15S-1, and took his
degree of M.A. in 1588. For purposes of study, lie next visited France, fror.i whence
tie addressed', in 1G03, an elegant panegyric, in Latin verse, to king James, on his acces-
siun to the throne of England. This poem appears to have been the making of A.'s
f ill une, for we find him afterwards appointed, successively, one of the gentlemen of the
bedchamber, private secretary to the queen, and master of requests. Subsequently, he held
the appointment of secretary to the queen of Charles I. King James employed him to con-
vey copies of one of his works, conjectured to be his Apology fo r the Oath of Alb'jinitfi \ to
the German courts. A. was on terms of familiarity with all the moot eminent men of
his time poets, wits, and philosophers alike among others, llobbcs and Ben Jonson. lie
v.-as himself a poet of considerable merit; but, unfortunately, a large number of his
effusions being complimentary verses to his friends, are characterized by conceit and
extravagant flattery. He was one of the lirst Scotsmen who wrote in English with any
degree of elegance and purity. His verses on general topics " are conceived in a reiiued
and tender strain of fancy, that reminds us more of the fairy strains of Ilerrick than
anything else." Burns had a great admiration of some of A.'s pieces, two or three of
which he paraphrased. A. is also said to have written verses in Greek and French, as
well as in English and Latin. Several of his Latin poems are preserved in the work
called DdicidK Po&tarum tScotvr-um, printed at Amsterdam in 1637. A. died in Whitehall
palace, Mar., 1638.

AY'TOUN, WILLIAM EDMONDSTOTJNE, was a native of Edinburgh, having been b.
there in 1813. He received his education at the metropolitan university, and was called
to the Scottish bar in 1840. In 1845, he was appointed regius professor of rhetoric and
belles-letters in the university of Edinburgh; and after the formation of the Derby
administration, in 1852, he was promoted to the shrievalty of Orkney and Shetland
He married a daughter of prof. Wilson. During many years, prof. Aytoun devoted
himself to literary work. The earliest work of his with which we are acquainted is
entitled The Life and Times of Richard I., published in 1840 a subject well treated, and
singularly in consonance with his chivalrous and romance-loving nature. Despite his
minstrel tendencies, he is a master of caricature and parody ; and many of the most suc-
cessful of the Bon Gaultier Ballads are understood to be from his pen. In 1849, he
published the Lays of the Scottish Caraliers and other Poems, which established his repu-
tation as a poet of the school of Sir Walter Scott, and which has run through many
editions. Among his subsequent writings are ffinnilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy, pub-
lished in 1854; and Bothwett, a narrative poem of considerable length, in the measure
and manner of Sir Walter Scott, which was, after its first publication in 1856, to a large
extent recast and improved. His edition of the Scottish Ballads, in 2 vols. , appeared in
1858. In the ensuing year, he issued, in con junction with his friend, Mr. Theodore Martin,
translations of various minor poems of Goethe, in one volume. He was for main- years
one of the most frequent and brilliant contributors to Blackwood's Magazine. Prof,
A. was successful in quite opposite departments of literature he was distinguished at
once as a poet and humorist. His poems exhibit a ballad-like simplicity, and a fiery
flow of narration the special merits of the poetical school in which he graduated ; while
his tales the best known and appreciated of which are The Glcniitn1clikin liniiirni/, and
llm- I became a Yeoman possess a certain robust humor and farcical abandonment, and
are related to the writings of the great masters of humor much in the degree that the
"screaming farce" is related to genteel comedy. His poetical powers appear in r their
greatest perfection in the Lays of the Scottish Carnlurx; the special merits of his humor
are best exhibited in Hoir 1 became a Yeoman. As a critic, he took up the knout of the
dreaded Christopher North of the Koch-*, which he wielded with considerable dex-
terity and force. Prof. A. died at Edinburgh, Aug. 4, 1865. His life has been
written by Theodore Martin (Lond. 1867).

AYUNTAMIENTO is the name given in Spain to the councils or governing bodies of
towns. Sprung from the institutions of the Romans, and firmly established during the
long struggles witli the Moors, the ayuntamientos acquired great influence and politin-1
power, the more so that the nobility were not excluded from them. Although this
importance was impaired through the insurrection of Juan de Padilla in liVJl; and at a
later period, under the Bourbon*, the last Shadow of municipal freedom was lost ; (he
remembrance of it continued to be cherished by th<: people. Accordingly, the cortes.of
Cadi/, in 1812, took up the leading features of the former system, adapting them, by
more democratic modifications, to the requirements of the time. On the return of Fer-
dinand VII , the ayunlamientos were abolished; they were again restored by the cortes,
in 1823; and after the invasion by France, once more set aside. During the civil war,
tUQ proposals were made regarding tno ayuntamientos: but at hist the arrangements
of 1812 were confirmed by the constitution of 1837. According to that statute, the A.,
with the alcalde as president, is appointed by the free choice of the people, and is entitled
in exercise the highest functions within the circle of its jurisdiction. The government
can provisionally annul its acts, but must afterwards procure the ratification of the
cortes, by which alone an A. can be dissolved. The ayuntamientos are empowered to

nAyton.
Azalea.

make up the lists of electors and jurors, to organize the national guards, to command
the police within their own bounds, to direct the apportionment and raising of taxes,
and to manage the funds of the commune. In 1840, a bill was brought into the cortes,
formed on the model of the French law, proposing to deprive the ayuntamicntos of all
political power, and restrict their functions to purely municipal matters, and also to
limit the franchise to the most highly taxed. But the insurrection which this step
excited, and which ended in the expulsion of the queen, Maria Christina, prevented the
project from being carried out. At last, in 1844, a law, similar to that proposed in 1840,
was, through the intriguing of Christina, supported by French influence, adopted by
the cortes, then composed of moderados; and this law, with little alteration, continues
in force to the present day.

AZAD'IRINE, a bitter extract sometimes used in place of quinine. It is got from
the bark of an East Indian tree known in America as the "Pride of China "

AZAIS; PIEKRE HYACINTHS, 176G-1845; a French author and philosopher. He
was a teacher in the college at Tarbes, but not liking the duties he became secretary to
the bishop of Oleron; he soon gave up the place, and supported himself by playing the
organ in a church. When the revolution of 1792 broke out, A. was one of' its wannest
advocates, but the horrors perpetrated made him a vehement opponent, and a pamphlet
severely condemning the movement made immediate flight nceessarv. He returned to
Paris in 1806, and in 1809 published his DI.X ('//</>* imatiom dan* hx lltxfinitx lltitnuin<A,
an optimist's T* iew that good and evil are about fairly balanced, and that it is the duty
of good citizens to submit to a h'xed government. The idea naturally pleased Napoleon,
who made A. professor at St. Cyr. At a later period he was in the public libraries at
Avignon and Nancy. His Bonapartism kept him out of place for some years al'ter the
restoration, but he finally got a pension which placed him beyond the reach of want.
According to A., all existence, whose cause is God, is the product of two factors, matter
and force. Matter consists of primitive atoms. Force is expansive and subject to the
law of equilibrium. All the phenomena of the universe are successive stages of the
development of this one force acting on the primitive atoms; and this is traced in three
orders of facts: 1, the physical; 2, the psychological; and, 3, the intellectual, moral, and
political. In the physical, development can be traced from the simplest mechanical
motion up through the more complex forces of light, heat, and electricity to the power
of magnetic attraction, by means of which the second great order of facts is produced
out of the- first; for magnetic force acting on elastic bodies creates the primitive living
globule, which is shaped like a tube open at both ends. From this tirst vital element a
gradual ascent can be traced, culminating in man, who differs from other animals in
the possession of intellect, or consciousness of the ideas which external things impress
upon him. The immaterial in man, or his soul, is the expansive force inherent in him.
Moral and political phenomena are the results of two primitive instincts, progressive
and self-conservative, corresponding to the forces of expansion and represssion. From
the reciprocal relations of these instincts may be deduced the necessary conditions of
political and social life. The ultimate goal of life is the fulfillment of the law of equi-
librium, the establishment of universal harmony. "When that is accomplished, the des-
tiny of man will have been achieved, and he will vanish from the earth, and that event
may be looked for in 7000 years. For establishing complete universal equilibrium, 5000
years more will be requisite, at which period the present system of things will end.

AZA LEA, a genus of plants belonging to the natural* order Ericcce, and distinguished
from rhododendron (q.v.) chiefly by the flowers having five stamens instead of ten.
Most of the species of A. also differ from the rhododendrons in having thin deciduous
leaves. Some botanists unite the genus A. to rhodotloulmn. One of the species best
deserving of notice is A. pontieii, a shrub from 3 to 5 ft. high, a native of the
countries around the Black sea, with large obovatc 01 oblongolanceolate shining leaves
and umbellate yellow flowers, which are externally covered with glutinous hairy glands,
and are very fragrant. It may be regarded as, like many of the other mm? (heaths,
etc.), a Kiti-inl plant: and its golden flowers give great brilliancy to the landscape in many
parts of the Crimea, the s.e. of Poland, the Caucasus, etc. It covers many mountain
slopes, but does not ascend to great elevations, giving place to the more alpine ///'/
ilt /iilniii- iHiittifiiit. It is common in gardens and shrubberies in Britain, and varies
with orange, red, and almost white flowers. The whole plant is narcotic and poisonous,
and the honey collected by bees from its flowers, which verv much abound in honey, is
said to cause "stupefaction" and delirium, as happened to Xenophon's soldiers in their
famous retreat in Asia. North America abounds in azaleas as well as in rhododendrons,
and some of the species have been long cultivated in Britain, particularly J. ?/"<
and -1. r/'xr-w!, which, with .1. pontica, have become the parents of many hybrids.
Both have nearly white flowers, very beautiful, and of delicious fragrance. A. I
has the flowers covered with glutinous hairs like A. ]>nli<'<t ; but the flowers of A. until-
Jinni are nearly destitute of them. Both species abound from Canada to the southern
parts of the United States. They are taller shrubs than A. /i<>nfi<;/. Upon account of
its sweet smell, .1. rnnlijltirn is called in America the upright honeysuckle. A. <-n!tn-
tliilin-,,1, a native of the southern parts of the United States, is described as frequently
clothing the mountains with a robe of living scarlet. India and China produce several

Azava. ~.j

Azincourt. '

species of A., of which one of the finest is A. Indim, well known in Britain as a green-
housc shrub. Its flowers exhibit great brilliancy of colors. Many hybrids exist between
the more hardy species and this. Another extremely beautiful species is A. ledifolia, an
evergreen, which has been introduced into Britain from China.

A diminutive, procumbent, evergreen shrub, a native of alpine regions in Europe
and North America, plentiful on high mountains in Scotland, was long known as A.
jimcumben^, but is now called Loisdeuria procumbens. The flowers arc small and rose-
colored. The whole appearance of the plant widely differs from that of the genus of
Azalea.

AZARA, DON FELIX DE, 1746-1811; a Spanish general; wounded in a fight with the
pirates of Algiers in 1755. Six years afterwards he was one of the commissioners to
settle the boundaries between the Spanish and Portuguese settlements in South America.
He was there for twenty years, and developed a strong taste for natural history, pub-
lishing an important work on the QuadrujKils of Paraguay in Paris in 1801. His chief
work, issued in 1809, is the story of the discovery and conquest of Paraguay and the
river La Plata.

AZARI'AII, a frequent name among the Hebrews, signifying "helped by Jehovah."
Eleazer has the same meaning. A number of A.'s are mentioned in the scripture, the
most important being the prophet who met Asa on his return from a victory over the
Cushitcs, and warned the king to suppress the worship of idols; 2, a son of Jehoida,
who made special effort to restore the worship of the temple and put down Athaliah's
usurpation; 3, a high priest who assisted Hezekiah in purifying the service- of the
temple; 4, called in Chaldaic " Abednego," one of the three cast into the liery furnace.

AZAZEL, the word inscribed upon the lots cast by the high priest of the ancient
Hebrews on the day of atonement, to determine which of the goats selected for a sin-
offering should be the scape-goat, and which one should be sacrificed. Critics are unable
to decide upon the meaning of the word.

AZE GLIO, MAS'SIMO Marquis d', famous as an artist, a publicist, a romance-writer,
and a statesman, was the descendant of an ancient and noble family of Piedmont, lie
was b. in 1798 at Turin, where his father held a high military position. In his
fifteenth year. A. followed his father to Rome, where he had been appointed ambas-
sador, and there contracted a love for the fine arts: but his study of music and painting
was cut short by his father procuring him an appointment in a Pieclmontcse cavalry
regiment. Here A. devoted his leisure with such intensity to scientific purMiits, that he
brought on an illness which forced him to quit the service. A journey to Rome, from
which he returned to Turin in 1820, restored his health, but deepened his passion for
painting. After some difficulty, he got his father's permission to devote himself entirely
to this art. A year had hardly elapsed ere A. had made himself a name in Rome as an
artist. In landscape-painting he soon attained complete artistic skill. After a residence
of eight years at Rome, during which he had pursued the study of history along with
painting, he returned to Turin. On the death of his father in 1830, he went to Milan,
where painting was then flourishing. In Milan he made the friendship of Alexander
Manzoni, whose daughter he married. A. now began to make himself favorably known
also in literature, his novels, Ettore Fieramosco (1833) and Niccoki di Lapi (1841), having
done much to fan the national spirit of the Italians. The political affairs of Italy soon
occupied him exclusively; he traversed the provinces, cities, and villages, seeking to
stir up the spirit of patriotism, and to conciliate the unhappy party divi>ions, and was
everywhere received with rejoicing and acclamation. A. never belonged to a secret
political society, but opposed conspiracies as mischievous, and exhorted the impatient
to moderation. While in Florence, he wrote his famous piece, Degli nHimi Oati <H
Bomagna, in which he lashed the miserable papal government, denounced the vain
attempts at insurrection, and proved to the Italian princes the necessity of a national
policy. After the election of Pius IX. as pope, A. returned to Rome, and to his influ-
ence were ascribed the reforms with which Pius began his government. He was
intensely active at this time, and wrote much on public questions. (An edition of his
political writings, collected in one volume, appeared at Turin 1851.) AVhen diaries
Albert, after the rising of Lombardy, crossed the Ticino, A. left Rome witli the papal
troops destined to support the Italian contest. In the battle of Vicenza. where he com-
manded a legion, he was severely wounded in the leg while fighting at the head of his
troops. Scarcely was he recovered, when with his pen he courageou.-ly opposed the
republican party, now intoxicated with victory. On the opening of the Bardmian par-
liament, he was chosen a member of the cliaml>er of deputies. After the unfortunate
event of the battle of Novara, the young king, Victor Emanuel II., appointed him
(1849) president of the cabinet, an office which he undertook solely out of love to his
kintr and country. His influence in this high position was most beneficial At the close
of the war in 1859, A. was appointed pr<> t, ,/> /><!/<', general and commissioner extraordinary.
purely military, for the Roman states. On his retirement, he issued a proclamation to
the people, which greatly tended to strengthen their resolution by its noble yet temperate
advice. He died on the 15th of Jan., 1*66. Since his deatfe, fbtf&oJ <'<>i-r<xi>i>ii<l< are,
and other writings from his pen, have been given to the world; and his Autrtwyraphy
has been published by his daughter.

>T q Azara.

Aziiicourt.

AZEEEIJAN , or ADERBAIJAN', the ancient Media, Alropatene, is the most northerly
province of Persia. It is situated between lat. 36 and 40" n., long. 44 and 48 40' e. ;
bounded on the s. by Persian Kurdistan and Irak, e. by Ghilan, n.e. and n. by the
Russian territory, and w. by Turkish Kurdistan. It has an area of about 30,000 sq.m.,
and a pop. of 2,000,000. The surface of A. is very mountainous, many of the ranges
rising from 7000 to 9000 ft. in height. The peak of Savalan (an extinct volcano) reaches
an elevation of 18,000 ft. Alt. Ararat rises on the n.w. border. The chief rivers of A.
are Aras or Araaces, the Kara Su, and the Kizil-Uzen. The salt lake Urumiyah or Urum-
ieych (q.v.), the largest in Persia, is situated on the western border of the province.
The climate of A. is not unhealthy, but it is subject to the extremes of heat and cold.
The transition from cold to heat is very rapid. In the mountainous districts, the hail-
storms are occasionally so violent as to kill cattle. The principal products of A. are
rice, barley, wheat, maize, flax, hemp, cotton, tobacco, honey, and saffron; camels,
horses, cattle, and sheep are also reared; velvet, silks, stuff, carpets, woolens, and
leather are the most important articles of manufacture, and a little is done in hardware.
Lead, iron, copper, sulphur, saltpetre, and salt are found in the province. The capital
of A. is Tabriz, with a pop. of about 120,000. It has suffered greatly from earthquakes.
The other towns of note are Urumiyah, on the lake of that name; Maragha, famous as
the place where Nasir Eddin, the astronomer, fixed his observatory; Aliaua, Khoi, Selmas,
and Ardebil.

AZEVE'DO COUTIN'IIO, JOZE JOAQUIM(DA CTNIIA), 1742-1821; the last inquisitor
general of Portugal. He was bishop of Pernambuco in 1794, and became noted in 1798
for publishing in London an argument against the suppression of the slave trade. He
was appointed inquisitor general In 1818. He is the author of a narrative of the conquest
of Rio Janeiro in 1711 by Duguay-Trouin.

AZEVE'DO YZUNIGA, GASPARD T>E, d. 1606; Count of Alonterey and viceroy of
Mexico and Peru. He fitted out an expedition under Pedro Fernandez de Quiro to search
for the supposed great continent in the s. polar ocean. Some small islands were found,
but not the continent.

AZIMABA D, or TIROWLI, a t. of Sirhind, India, in 29 48' n. lat., and 77 e. long., on
the route from Kurnal to Lodiana, 9 in. n.w. from Kurnal. Its site is slightly ele-
vated above the neighboring plain, which is inundated in the rainy season. It is sur-
rounded by a high brick wall, pierced with loopholes for musketry, and having bas-
tions surmounted with a lower. A large caravansery is inclosed with a lofty embattled
wall having a tower at each corner, and surrounded by a deep ditch, capable of being
tilled with water.

AZIMGHTJE', or AZIM'S FORT, a name primarily applied to a t. in India, and thence
extended to its district, forming one of the n.w. provinces. 1. The t. is in lat. 26 n.,
and long. 83" 14' e. From Calcutta, it is 448 m. to the n.w. ; from Benares, 81 to the n. ;
from Allahabad, 109 to the u. e. ; and from Lucknow, 171 to the s.e. It is situated on
the north-eastern Tons, a considerable offset of the Goura, which is here crossed by a
bridge of boats, and which is navigable downwards a distance of 40 m., to its confluence
with the Surjoo. The t. contained, in '71, about 14,000 inhabitants, besides the troops
in garrison. During the mutiny in 1857, A. was so far, a creditable exception to the
general rule of ruthless cruelty among the insurgents. The sepoys did indeed mutiny,
actuated, apparently, by a wish to appropriate a passing treasure of 7 lacs of rupees, or
70,000 sterling. But having formed a square; round tlieir officers, and sworn to protect
them, they brought carriages for them and their families, anel escorted the whole 10 m.
towards Gha/.eepore. 2. The district stretches in n. lat. between 25 36' and 26 24', and
in e. long, between 82 45' and 84 12'. Its area is stated to be 2550 sq.m. ; and its pop.,
'71, to be 1,531,410. This gives the average of (500 persons to the sq. mile. This excep-
tionally high average is the more remarkable from the circumstance that there are few,
if any, populous t. in the district besides the capital. The district is low and remarkably
level. The soil is fertile, excepting that a few tracts are irreclaimably barren, from being
impregnated with soda, nitre, and other saline substances. Magnificent crops of rice,
sugar-Vane, and indigo are produced. The principal manufactures are those of silk and
cotton, the value of which amounts to more than 100,000 a year.

AZIMUTH. The A. of a heavenly body is the angle measured along the horizon
between the n. or s. point, and the point where a circle, passing through the zenith and
the body, cuts the horizon. The word comes from the Arabic, and is said to be derived
from a word signifying a quarter of the heavens. It is usual to measure the A. west-
ward from the point most remote from the elevated pole, beginning at J , and returning
to it at 360. Thus, in northern latitudes, where the n. pole is elevated, the A. is
measured from the s. point, so that the e. point, for instance, has an A. of 270 . See
AKMH/LARY SPHERE. A. circles are those which extend from zenith to nadir, cutting
the horizon at right angles, or those in which all the points have the same azimuth.

A'ZINCOURT, or AGINCOURT, a village in the department of Pas-de-Calais. France,
celebrated for a bloody battle between the English and French, Oct. 25, 1415. The
internal distractions of 'France under the imbecile Charles VI. (q.v.) had encouraged
England to attempt to make good her ancient claim on France. Henry V. of England

Azo. tjt

Azpeitia.

had landed at Harfleur, had taken that fortress, and wished to march through Picardie to
Calais, in order to get into winter-quarters. The dauphin advanced against him with a
powerful force. A great number of the nobility accompanied him; and so great was
their confidence, tha.t the offered aid of the duke of Burgundy and of the city of Paris
was rejected. Henry hastened to the Somme, but wus followed by the French, who
opposed his passage; he at last managed to cross with his army at St. Quentin. Greatly
weakened in numbers, and suffering extremely from want of provisions, Henry ottered
to purchase peace by reparation of injuries. But the French would not hear of a treaty;
as they entertained the hope of completely annihilating the English army. They had,
in fact, intercepted the English march to Calais, by getting possession or the high road
behind the little river Ternoise, near the villages of A. and Framecourt. The invading
army, therefore, still (according to French accounts) 14,000 strong, of whom 2000 were
men-at-arms though no English writer makes it more than 10,000 prepared for an
engagement by posting themselves between two woods, in a single line of battle, with
the archers on the wings. The French, to the number of 50,000, under the command of
the constable D' Albert, were drawn up in two lines, the men-at-arms, of whom only
2000 were mounted, being in the first. The English were the first to begin the onset.
The French cavalry rushed forward to meet them, but were received with such a storm
of arrows that they took to flight, threw themselves upon the first line and put it in
disorder. On this, the light-armed English archers took to their billhooks and hatchets,
broke into the ranks of the men-at-arms that fought on foot, whose heavy armor and
close array rendered them almost incapable of resistance, and made the greatest havoc
among them. This being followed by a charge of the English horsemen, the first line
took to flight, the second was unable to arrest the victors, and the whole French army
was soon completely dispersed. The victory was decided. For a moment, Henry
believed that the rallying masses were going to renew the fight; and hearing also that a
troop of armed peasants were plundering his baggage, he gave orders to slay all the
prisoners taken. The order was already executed when he discovered the groundlessness
of his alarm. As many as 10,000 Frenchmen w y ere slain, among whom were the constable
and six dukes and princes, the duke of Brabant, the count of Nevers, the duke of Alen-
9on, the duke of Bar and his two brothers. Five princes, among them the dukes of
Orleans and Bourbon, were taken prisoners. The English lost 1600 killed, including
the duke of York, the king's great-uncle, whom the duke of Alencon slew. Aleu9on
had even struck the crown from king Henry's head, when he was surrounded by all
present, and fell with many wounds. Henry, however, was too weak to pursue hia
advantage, and therefore continued his march to Calais, where he embarked for
England.

AZO, PROFESSOR, a distinguished rjrofessor.of civil law in the university of Bologna,
in the early part of the 13th century. A. was one of the most eminent of the glossists,
or commentators, of his time, and Savigny calls his works the mort important of that
school which have come down to us. The name is sometimes given to Azzo, or Ax./o-
lenus; also Azo Soldanus, from the surname of his father.

AZO'IC AGE, that period of geological time preceding the appearance of vegetable
or animal life on earth. Constantly occurring discoveries render it impossible to fix a
limit for the close of the age.

AZORES , a cluster of islands in the Atlantic, 800 m. due w of the southern half of
Portugal, ranging in n. lat. between 36 55' and 39 44', and in w. long, between 25 10'
and 31 16'. In the first half of the 15 c., the A. were discovered by the Portuguese, or
rather, it has been said, appropriated by them, after having been revealed to them by a
Flemish navigator, Joshua Vanderberg, of Bruges. They were at that time uninhabited
a fact which, so far as it goes, seems adverse to any notion that America could have
been colonized from Europe in this direction. That the A. were visited by the ( 'avtlui-
genians is proved by Phoenician coins found on Corvo. As early as I486, they an;
marked on a map of the world by the Venetian Andrea Bianco. The Portuguese colo-
nists called the whole group A., from acw or azor, a hawk; and they named the two
individual islands Corvo and St. Jorgo, from Corvos Marinos and'St, Jorsi, which,
according to the maps of the 14th c., had been previously seen in the western ocean. In
1466, Alfonso V. made a life-grant of the island of Fayal to his aunt, the dud
Burgundy, and from this circumstance many settlers migrated thither from Flanders.
Without reckoning mere rocks, the islands are nine in number. Taken from e. to w.,
they are as follows: St. Mary, St. Michael, Terceira, Graciosa, St. Jorgo, Pico, Fayal,
Flores. and Corvo. The area of the group is estimated at 980 sq.m. ; while its pop. is
'72, 260,072; yielding an average of 265 to a so. mile. In the order of pop. and impor-
tance, the islands stand thus: St. Michael, Terceira, Pico, Fayal, St. Jorgo. Flores,
Graeiosa, St. Mary, and Corvo. Their capital is Angra, in Terceira; but Pouta Delgada
and liiheira Grande, both in St. Michael, are larger towns.

As mav be presumed from the density of the population, the soil is fertile, and the
climate healthy. The islands are also well watered. The exports are oranges, wine,
brandy, grain,' pulse, pork, beef, cheese, and coarse linens; and the imports are woolens,
cottons, hardware, iron, glass, cordage, pitch, tar, staves, timber, oil, fish, nun, eoil'ee,
sugar, salt, and tea. Perhaps the greatest want of the group is a good harbor.

^p: Azo.

Azpeitla.

The A. arc of volcanic origin a fact from which may probably be inferred their iden-
tity with the isles of Brazil or of Fire in the maps above mentioned, of the 14th century.
Though most of the volcanoes themselves appear to be extinct, yet the islands contain
hot springs, and are subject to violent earthquakes. The coasts are generally steep and
rugged, while the interior parts abound in ravines and mountains. The mountains
range from 1869 ft. to 7613 the latter being the height of the lava-covered peak which
gives name to Pico.

AZOTE' (Gr. a, deprivcr of, and soc, life) is the name given by French chemists to
nitrogen (q.v.).

AZOTII, the panacea of Paracelsus, regarded by his followers as "the tincture of
life."

AZ OTIZED BODIES are those substances which contain azote or nitrogen as one of
their constituents, and which form part of the living structure of a plant or animal, or
are produced during its natural decay. The principal members of the group are ulbn-
'///< //, present iii white of eggs, and the juices of plants and animals; ybiJnilim , or ci\//*'<tl-
l : n, , a variety of albumen found in the lens of the eye; vi1c1lim : , another variety of albu-
men, composing the greater bulk of the yolk of the egg; j>r<i!bi<ntcii, a third variety of
albumen found in the animal system during certain diseases ;j\bri>ie, which occurs largely
in the seeds of cereals and in animal muscle; caseine(OT cheese matter), present in all
milk; /<//'///', a variety of caseiue found in pease, beans, and leguminous seeds in
general; f/<Intiue, which is present in the skin, bones, and other parts of animals; choii-
driiu'. a variety of gelatine obtainable from the cornea of the eye and the permanent
cartilages; /x<V//^xx. another variety of gelatine manufactured from the inner membrane
of the floating bladder of sturgeons and other fishes; glue and xizi', which are secondary
forms of gelatine; urea, uric acid, and Mppuric acid, which are present in the urine of
the higher animals; krn/ti/nM\d kmitiniiw, occurring in the juice of flesh; several forms
of in-' 'it, i r;/ nilfuli, which are found as stones in the bladder; and the very large and
important class of alktihthl*, including strychnine, morphine, quinine, etc. The princi-
pal members of the series of A. B. will be considered under their special headings; and
the use of several of them as articles of diet will come into notice under FOOD.

AZO TUS, the A#Mod of the Old Testament (now Esdud), a village on the Mediterra-
nean, 21 m. s. of Jaffa. Lat. 31" 45' n., long. 34 37' e. It was formerly one of the
chief cities of the Philistines, strongly fortified, and the scene of numerous contests
between that race and the Jews. Into this city the ark of the covenant was brought by
the Philistines, and placed in the temple of their god Dagou, whose image fell in pieces
before it. In the 8th c. B.C., the town fell into the hands of the Assyrians; and in the fol-
lowing century was captured by the Egyptians, after a 29 years' blockade and siege. In
the wars between Alexander Balas and Demetrius, A. was destroyed by fire. It was
afterwards rebuilt by the Romans, but never regained its early importance. It has now
a pop. of about 300, and the sea is gradually receding from its harbor.

AZOV, or A'sow, a fortress and port t. in the s. of Russia, situated on the Don, about
20 m. from its mouth. The sand and mud deposited by the river have choked up the
port, so that its trade and shipping have dwindled -Away, and the inhabitants now depend
mostly on fishing. Pop. '67, 14,017. A. was anciently a Greek colony, under the name
of TanaYs, and carried on extensive commerce with the northern peoples. In number of
inhabitants and in wealth it often rivaled Panticapai-um (now Kertch). In the 13th c. it
was taken possession of by the Genoese, who called it Tana. They were driven out of
it by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1392. In 1471, it was taken by the T*urks, and since then
has borne the name of A., the Turks calling the town ana the neighboring sea Asak.
After an obstinate struggle, at which Peter the great, then beginning his career, was
present, it was captured by the Russians about the end of the l7th century. It more
than once fell again under the dominion of the Turks, but at last, in 1774, remained in
the undisturbed possession of Russia. It was bombarded and destroyed by an allied Eng-
lish and French squadron in 1855.

AZOV, SKA OF. named after the town, is a large gulf of the Black sea. formed by the
peninsula of Crimea, or rather an inland lake connected with the Black sen by the long
narrow strait of KalTa. The Siwash or Putrid sea is the western portion of the sea of A.
cutoff by the long narrow slip of low sandy land called the tongue of Arabat. The
entrance to the Putrid sea is by the narrow strait of Genitsehi at the n. of the Tongue.
Tiie Putrid sea is little but a succession of swamps. The ancient name <>r the sea of A.
was I 'a! us Ma-otis. It gets the name of Balik-Denghis, or Fish-sea, from the Turks and
Tartars, from its abundance of fish. The water is almost fresh. The whole sea i.s shal-
low, and occupies an area of about 14,000 sq. miles. During the Crimean war. an expe-
dition, having on board 16,500 English, French, and Turks, was sent to this sea in -May,
1855. which devastated the ports, and cut off supplies intended for Seba-topol.

AZPE ITIA. a fortified t. in Spain on the I'rola, 15 m. s.w. of San Sebasiian: pop.
5800. During the Carlist movements in 1870-74. A. was the scat of the court for the
management of the war; and the famous monastery of San Ignacio dedicated to
Loyola, was used for military purposes. The birthplace of Ignatius Loyola was near
the town.

Azrael. h"f\

Baal. < B

AZRAEL, in Jewish and Mohammedan belief, the angel who attends the dying, and
separates the soul from the body.

AZTEC CHILDREN. In the year 1833, there were brought over to this country from
America two diminutive children, a boy and a girl, said to be aged respectively "IT and
11, and who were represented as descendants of the ancient Aztecs. The height of each
was under 3 feet. Their figure was slender and not ill proportioned; that which was
chiefly remarkable being their features. While the forehead and chin receded, the nose
was so singularly prominent as to suggest the idea of the face of a bird. Vet, with
dark lively eyes, "an olive complexion, and glossy long black hair, and a great fund of
good-nature, they were far from uupleasiug. They spoke no intelligible language, but
understood a few words of English, and seemed to have a taste for music. Shown to
the public as curiosities, they were usually exhibited on a large table, on which they ran
about amusing themselves. Their exhibitor told a very incredible story of how they
had been obtained from the ancient city of Iximaga, where they were reverenced as
gods. A certain senor Velasquez, accompanied by a Canadian and an American, pene-
trated into this ancient city of Central America, where they made the acquaintance of
one of the guardian priests of these undersized deities, who was so charmed with the
accounts of the outer world, that he resolved to steal the gods of his people, and escape
with the strangers. One after the other the Canadian, the American, and the priest-
were overtaken by disaster, and Velasquez alone was left to tell the wondrous talc, with
no attestation but such as the children themselves furnished. Prof. Owen considered
them mere dwarfs, and other authorities held a similar opinion. Belonging probably to
some Indian tribe, they were doubtless monstrosities; and this becoming apparent, inter-
est in them ceased.

AZTECS. The name of the dominant tribe in Mexico at the time of the arrival of the
Spaniards. See MEXICO, AKTKJCITIES OF.

AZU A, a t. of the island of San Domingo, not far from the s. coast, on the Bia, and
near its mouth, 60 in. w. from St. Domingo. Pop. 6000.

AZUA'GA, a t. of Estremadura, Spain, in the province of Badajos, 20 m. e. from
Llerena. It is situated in an elevated district, drained by the head-waters of the Mata-
chel, a branch of the Guadiana; the surrounding country produces much grain, is partly
covered with extensive oak forests, and contains large tracts of heath, bright in summer
with the blossoms of different species of cistus. Pop. 6400.

AZTJ'NI, DOMENICO ALBERTO, a distinguished jurist, b. at Sassari, in tlr 1 island of
Sardinia, Aug. 3, 1749. He early applied himself to the study of law, devoting himself
particnlarly to the maritime relationships of nations. He became judge of tin tribunal
of commerce at Nizza or "Nice; and in 1795, after that city had been taken by the French,
he published a work in which he endeavored to reduce maritime laws to fixed principles,
and which, being recast, was published at Paris in 1805 under the title of Droit Huri-
time de V Europe. The work was sufficiently anti-British in tone to secure its author the
favorable consideration of Napoleon's ministry, by whom lie was appointed one of the
commissioners for compiling the new commercial code, the maritime portion being allot-
ted to him. Genoa having been annexed to France, A., in 1807, was appointed presi-
dent of the court of appeal there, where he remained until the fall of Napoleon. Among
other things, A. published an Esaai sur THistoire G<'!/r<i]>/ti(///e 7VMV///// it JA//W, <t>* It,
Sardaigne, and a Dictionary of Mercantile Jvri*ji/-u(/< nr? t and some controversial bro-
chures. For some time after he had withdrawn from Genoa, he resided at Nice, and
afterwards in his native island, where he was appointed, by king Charles Felix, judge
of the consulate of Cagliari, and librarian to the university of that city. He died in Jan.,
1827.

AZURE, a French word technically used in heraldry to signify blue. In engraving
arms, it is always represented by horizontal lines.

AZ'TJRINE, Ltnri*rit* cwrnleux, a fish of the same genus with the roach, chub, etc.,
and most nearly resembling the red-eye (q.v.) or rudd (L. f,rythrop7it/ili// >!*). from
which, however, it is readily distinguished by the slate-blue color of the back, and the
whiteness of the abdomen and fins. It is a fresh-water fish, and was first described by
Yarrcll from specimens received from Lancashire, where it is called the blue roach,
but it is also an inhabitant of some of the lakes of Switzerland.

AZURITE, a name which has been given to the mineral more commonly called
lazulite (q.v.), and to which, along with lapis lazuli (q.v.) or azure-stone, mineral tur-
quoise (see TURQUOISE), etc., the generic name, azure */>nr, is sometimes given. The
name A. is also given by mineralogists to an ore of copper, generally known as blue
copper (see COPPER), nearly allied to malachite (q.v.), and remarkable for its beautiful
azure color.

AZ'YMITES, the name given by the eastern to the western church, arising from a
difference about the use. in the Lord's supper, of leavened or unleavened bread. The
western, or Latin branch, insisted that unleavened bread might be used, and the Greek
church stinniati/cd the Latins as "azymitcs," from the Greek a, "not," and zume,
" leaven." The Latins retorted with " pro-zymites," but the terms, intended for reproach,
soon pas-e<l, with the whole discussion, into history as useless additions to polemical
nomenclature.

h tr AzraeL

< I Baal.

BTHE second letter in the Hebrew or Phoenician alphabet, and in all alphabets
derived from it, belongs to the order of labials, and is of the kind called medial or
tlar. See LETTERS, ALPHABET. Its name in Hebrew is btth, signifying "house,"
probably localise it? original hieroglyphic or picture form was an outline of a house or
tent. In the corresponding words of >ister-languages, we find b very generally replaced
by some one of the other labial letters [p, f(plt\ r\; these substitutions, however, take
place not by chance or caprice, but according to ascertained laws. See PHILOLOGY,
COMPARATIVE, and GRIMM'S LAW. The following are some examples of the inter-
change of b with other letters: Corresponding to Eng. bear are Sansc. bhri, Lat./mr,
Gr. plu-nin: Eng. be, Sansc. bhu, Lat. Jio and/w, Gr. phuo: Eng. bore, Lat. forarc: Eng.
of and off, Gr. apo, Lat. ab: Eng. irife, plural wires, Ger. veib, Old H. Ger. trip: Eng.
web, 'f"' ;. trift: Gr. ? i-iwpos, Eng. 'bishop, Fr. ettque. In several Latin words, b arose
out of u (pronounced like r or w). Thus, the original form of belhim, war, was dvelhim
or dcettum: of bonus, diwi*: and the d being dropped (as we drop the sound of k in
the c became hardened into b. Similarly, bit, twice, is for duis. A remarkable
interchange sometimes takes place between b and m, as in Sausc. mri, to die; Lat.
mart-, death; and Gr. brtrton, mortal.

The Greeks pronounced their b (ft) like a v, for they spelled VirtfiU-t/f, e.g., Birfjilios;
and this continues to be the case in modern Greek. In Latin, during the classical ages
at least, the letter was pronounced as it is in English, French, etc. But in the time of
the later emperors (beginning with the 3d c. of our era), b was softened down, in the
popular language at lea>t. to a slovenly sound like T; for in inscriptions of this period,
such spellings as Mf*a for ctrba, rnirarili for mirabUi, are quite common. The distinc-
tion between the two sounds being once lost sight of, the letter b was frequently substi-
tuted for r as berba for rtrim. /' '.< for rims. This softening of b into r in the middle-
age Latin, has left traces in the modern Italian and French; as Lat. ftabov, Ital. tirere,
Fr. >> <>//; Lat. (<i'i!<(, Ital. tucola. A Spaniard, on the contrary, has a tendency to use
b instead of r; thus he pronounces rirere like bibcrc., and Joria as if written .Juln#.

B, in music, is the seventh degree of the diatonic scale of C', and the twelfth degree
of the diatonic-chromatic scale. In harmony, it is called the major seventh. Accord-
ine to the tempered system of tuning, the ratio of B, to the fundamental note C, is -fg.
In the ancient diatonic scale, B was never used as a key-note, as its fifth, F, was imper-
fect. In the German notation. B is called H, while B flat is called simply B. B flat is
half a tone lower that B, and in harmony is called the flat seventh. As a harmonic
arising from C, B flat, as produced by nature, is considerably flatter than in the tem-
pered system of tuning.

BAADER, FRANZ XAVER vox, 1765-1841; a German theologian. He was the third
son of the court physician, and his elder brothers were distinguished, Clemens as an au-
thor, and Joseph as'au engineer. Franz graduated at the university of Ingolstiidt in 1782;
assiMed his father in medicine, but disliked the profession; studied engineering in the
mining districts, and lived four years in England, where he became acquainted with ration-
alistic philosophy, which he thought little Tess than satanic. The religious speculations of
Eckhait. St. Martin, and especially Bohme, were more to his mind. He held intimate
friendship with Jacobi, and learned something of Schelling. Though deeply interested
in philosophy, he kept to his engineering practice, became superintendent of mines, and
was ennobled for valuable sen-ices. His first published work was Ftrnu nta C<-;//iHiom'it.
in which he combated modern philosophy, and recommended that of Bohme. In 1826,
he was appointed professor of philosophy and speculative theology in the new univer-
sity of Munich. Some of his lectures, while occupying that chair, have been published.
In 1838, he opposed the interference in civil matters of the Roman Catholic church, to
which he belonged, for which opposition he was interdicted from lecturing on the
philosophy of religion durinsr the last three years of his life. He also favored a recon-
struction of the church a church without a pope. B. is considered to have been the
greatest speculative Roman Catholic theologian of modern times, and his influence has
gone beyond the bounds of his own church.

BA'AL, a Hebrew word signifying lord, owner, or mfixter, and applied as a general
title of honor to mauv different gods." In Hosea ii. 16, it is mentioned as a name which
had been -_ r iven to Jehovah himself: but when used with the definite article, it specially
de-Lniated the principal male deify of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, as Baaltis or
Astarte was the principal female deity. In connection with Babylon and Assyria, the
same deity is spoken of under the name of Bel or Belus. Originally, B. was the god of
the sun. the ruler and vivifier of nature, and Astarte the goddess of the moon. In the
later star-worship of the western Asiatic nations, P,. was the name of Jupiter, the planet
of fa- -une suppose, of Saturn. The proper Phoenician name of B.. however,

wa> Mfikart. Melkrat, or Melchrat which is usually supposed to mean "king of the
city" i.e., Tyre; but others consider it a contraction of two words signifying "king

Baalbek. ro

Babel.

of the earth;" while the learned Selden is of opinion that it is equivalent to "strong
king." B. was perhaps the same god as tlie Phoenician Moloch. The Greeks con-
founded B. or Melkart with their own Hercules; and, for the purpose of distinction,
termed him the Tyrian Hercules. From the earliest foundation of Tyre, he seems V) have
been the tutelar god of that city, and his worship apparently extended thence until it
was prevalent in all the towns of the Phoenician confederation, and was established in
their remotest colonies, such as Malta, Carthage, and Cadiz. It also overspread the
neighboring countries of Assyria and Egypt. Each country or locality had its B. or
chief god. According to Scripture, the temples of this idol (at least in Phoenicia and
a) were built on the tops of hills, or still more frequently in solemn groves, and
sometimes altars were erected to him on the roofs of houses. His priests were
numerous. Incense was the most frequent offering presented to him, but we also read
of sacrifices of bullocks, and even of children In 1 Kings, chap, xviii., we read that the
priests of B. danced about the altar during the sacrifice, and barbarously cut and man-
gled themselves, if their god did not speedily answer their prayers.

The word B. enters into the composition 'of many Hebrew, Chaldee, Phoenician, and
Carthaginian names, such as Jezebel, Hasdrubal ("Help of Baal"), Hannibal ("Grace
of Baal "), Ethbaal (" With Baal "), Baal-bee (" City of Baal "). The word is also fre-
quently' found in conjunction with some epithet, and in such cases appears to have
denoted a different deity, though it is not impossible that it may have been the same
person regarded in another aspect, and as exercising merely a different function. Thus,
we have Baal-Berith, "the Covenant Lord," who was specially worshiped by the people
of Shechem; Baal-Peor, the Priapus of the Moabites and Midianites; and Beelzebub,
or Baalzebub (the Fly-god), the idol of the Philistines at Ekron, where he had a
temple. The Celtic deity Beal is usually identified with Baal. See BELTEIN.

BAAL BEK, the name of a ruined city in the ancient Coele-Syria, signifies the "city of
Baal," the sun-god, and was by the Greeks, during the Seleucide dynasty, converted into
Heliopolis. Lat. 34 1'30" n., long. 36 11' e. It is situated in the plain of Buka'a, "at
the northern extremity of a low range of bleak hills, about 1 m. from the base of Anti-
lelmnon," in a well-watered and delightful locality, rather more than 40 m. n.w. of
Damascus. It was once the most magnificent of Syrian cities, full of palaces, fountains,
and beautiful monuments. It is now only famous for the splendor of its ruins, of which
three deserve special notice. The most imposing is that of the great temple of the Sun,
which was a rectangular building, 290 ft. by 160, having its roof supported by a peristyle
of 54 Corinthian columns, "19 at each side, and 10 at each end." Of these. (5 are yet
standing. The circumference of these columns is about 22 ft,, and the length < if the shaft
58; with pedestal, capital, and entablature, they measure about 89 ft. in height. The
approach to this temple was through two spacious courts, surrounded on all sides with
porticoesand other buildings. Except the columns mentioned, little of thegreat temple,
or of the buildings in front of it, is left standing, but the ground is covered with their
ruins. The vast size of the stones used in the substructions is remarkable, some of them
being 60 ft. long and 12 thick. South from the great temple is a smaller one, known as
the temple of Jupiter. It is similar in form, having its peristyle and the walls of its
cella still mostly standing. Its dimensions are 227 ft. in length, by 117 ft. in breadth,
being thus larger than the Parthenon at Athens. Both temples, as well as the summnd-
ing structures, are built of limestone, in a richly decorated somewhat fantastic Corinthian
style. Besides these, there stands at the distance of 300 yards from the others a circular
building, supported on six granite columns; style, mixed Ionic and Corinthian. It was
once used as a Christian church.

The early history of B. is involved in darkness; but it is certain that, from the most
distant times, it had been a chief seat of sun-worship, as its name implies. Julius <
made it a Roman colony, and under Augustus it was occupied by a Roman garrison. B.
had an oracle held in such high esteem that, in the 2d c. A.D., it was consulted by the
emperor Trajan prior to his entrance on his second Parthian campaign. To test, the
prescience of the oracle, Trajan sent to it a blank piece of paper, which was returned to
him blank. This gave him a high opinion of its powers, and he consulted it in all scrions-
ne-c-. a second time. The response was some dead twigs from a vine, wrapped up in
cloth. Trajan's decease some two years afterwards, and the transmission of his bones in
Rome, was deemed a sufficient interpretation of the symbolical utterance, and continued
the celebrity of the oracle. Antoninus Pius (138-161 A.D. ) built the great temple, which
the legend current among the modern Inhabitants counts a work of Solomon. This
temple is said to have contained a golden statue of Apollo, or of Zeus, which on certain
annual festivals the chief citizens of Heliopolis bore about on their shoulders. \Vheii
Christianity, under Constantine, became the dominant religion, the temple became a
Christian church. In the wars that followed the taking of the city by th< Arabs, who
sacked it in 748 A.D., the temple was turned into a fortress, the battlements of which are
yet visible. The city was completely pillaged by Timur Key. or Beg. in 1400 A.D. Both
city and temple continued to fall more and moit into decay under the misery and misrule
to which Syria has been subject ever since. Many of the" magnificent pillars were over-
turned by the pashas of Damascus merely for the sake of the iron with which the stones
were bound together. What the Arabs, 'Tatars, and Turks had spared, was destroyed by
a terrible earthquake in 1759. B. is now an insignificant village, with a pop. of some

JTQ Baalbek.

* Babel.

few hundreds. See Wood and Dawkins's Ruins of BaaJbccQ.157); Cassas, Voyage Pitto-
rr*que de la Syrie (1799); Murray's Handbook for Travelers in Syria and Palestine;
Baedeker's Syria and Pauxtine (1873).

BA'BA, a Turkish word signifv'mg father, originatiug, like our word papa, in the first
efforts of children to speak. In Persia arid Turkey, it is prefixed as a title of honor to
the names of ecclesiastics of distinction, especially of such as devote themselves to an
ascetic life; it is often affixed in courtesy, also, to the names of other persons, as Ali-
Baba.

BA BA, CAPE, a bold rocky headland near the western extremity of Anatolia the
Lectum of the Greeks in la't. 39 29' n., long. 26 4' e., about 12 m. from the northern
extremity of Mitylene, the ancient Lesbos. On a shelving point of the cape stands the
town of Baba, with a pop. of about 4000, who do some trade in cutlery of a superior
quality. The once large and prosperous, but now utterly ruined city of Assos, men-
tioned by St. Paul, is in the vicinity.

BABATAG', or BA'BA DAG, a city with 10,000 inhabitants, in the sandjak of Silistria,
in the north-eastern part of European Turkey. It is situated in a marshy district; has a
high school and five mosques, of which that built by Bajazet I. is the finest. It was
Bajazet that founded the city, which he peopled with Tartars, and named after a saint,
win 'sc monument, on a hill near by, is resorted to as a place of pilgrimage. Through the
port of Kara-Kerman, lying a short way to the s., the inhabitants of B. carr}" on a con-
siderable commerce with the Black sea.

BAB BAGE, CHARLES, b. in 1790, entered early at Trinity college, Cambridge, where
he took his degree of B.A. in 1814. In 1828, he was elected professor of mathematics in
his own university, an office which he filled for 11 years. B. united, in the most happy
combination, powers of invention and observation with thorough scientific culture.
Among his writings, we notice first his extremely correct and well-arranged Tables of
I/xjurithms (Loud. 1834). lie was the first to make the method of constructing such
tables the object of earnest study. The difficulty of securing accuracy in getting up
tables on a large scale, led him to the idea of committing the execution of the work to a
machine. Being commissioned by the government to superintend the construction, of
such a machine, before beginning the work, he visited a great many manufactories and
machine establishments, both in Britain and on the continent, in order to become
acquainted with all the resources of mechanical art, and thus be in a position to make a
combined use of them in his great undertaking. This survey" afforded him the neces-
sary information for his able work, On the Economy of Manufactures at"/ M.n-hinery
(Lond. 1832) a book which has run through several editions, and been translated into
several languages in which all mechanical processes arc classified from the most scien-
tific point of view, and the most interesting examples of the more important kinds of
manufacture are described. Besides his Comparative Vnir of the Different Life-asxvnmct
fcirUticx, his JJ/rf'tnntiul and I)ih;/ral Cvlcuhi*, his Decline of Science (1830), A yinth
Br>dijr<it,>r T/'nttixe, and Tlu E.i-]ixition f 1831 (1851), B. contributed a number of very
ineresting papers to the Transactions of the royal societies of London and Edinburgh.
With regard to B.'s calculating machine, which, from some cause not well explained,
was never completed, see CALC TL.VTING MACHINE. He died Oct. 18, 1871.

BABBITT METAL, an alloy containing 4 parts of copper, 24 of best Banca tin, and
8 of antimony. To the melted copper half the tin and the antimony are added gradually,
followed by the rest of the tin. The product is a soft metal, much used for reducing
friction of axles in heavy machinery, the journals being so made that the babbitting may
be readily renewed when worn. It was invented by Isa^c Babbitt, 1799-1862. a gold-
smith of Taunton, Mass. Congress rewarded him with a gold medal and s20,000.

BABCOCK. RUFVS. P.P.. 1). Conn.. 1798: a graduate of Brown university; Baptist
minister, ordained in 1823. and established at Pou<rhkeepsie, X. Y.. and afterwards at
Salem. Ma>s. : in 1833, he was president of AVaterville college; in 1836, pastor in Phila-
delphia: again in Poughkeepsie in 1S39. and lastly in Paterson. X. .1. He has been
secretary of the Pennsylvania colonization society, of the American Sunday-school union,
and of the American and foreign Bib1<- society; editorof the Eatptiet Memorial, and author
of History <>f Wattrcilh' (V//^//<. Tali* of Trut h fur the Young, Tin' Emigrant Jfotht-r, etc.

BA BEL, TOWER OF. For an account of this building, and the confusion of tongues
which it brought about, see the llth chapter of Genesis. The distinction of being a
remnant of thetowerofB. has been claimed for three different masses: 1st. for Ximnid's
tower at Akkerkuf: 2d. the Mujellibo, 930 yards e. of the Euphrates, and 5 m. above
the modern town of Hillah; 3d. the Birs Xim'rud, to the w. of that river, and about 6 m.
to the s.w. of Hillah the whole situated in Babylonia (q.v.). The last of these has the
majority of opinions in its favor. Every one, it is said, who has seen the Birs Ximrud,
feels at once that, of the ruined mounds in this region, there is not one which so nearly
corresponds with his previous notions of the tower of Babel. According to Mr. Rich.
it is of an oblong form, the total circumference being 762 yards. At the eastern side it is
cloven by a deep furrow, and is not more than 30 or 60 ft. high; bat on the western
side it rises in a conical figure to the elevation of 198 ft. ; and on its summit is a soli ,1

Bal>-el-maiideb. QA

Baboo.

pile of brick 37 ft. high by 28 in breadth, diminishing in thickness to the top. which is
broken and irregular, and rent by a large fissure extending through a third of its height.
It is perforated by .small square holes, disposed in rhomboids. The lire-burnt bricks of
which it is Imiit hare inscriptions on them, and so excellent is the cement, which appears
to he lime-mortar, that it is nearly impossible to extract a brick whole. The other parts
of the summit of this hill are occupied by immense fragments of brickwork, of no deter-
minate figure, tumbled together, and converted into solid vitrified masses, as if they had
undergone the action of the fiercest fire, or had been blown up with gunpowder, the
layers of brick being perfectly discernible. These ruins stand on a prodigious mound,
the whole of which is itself in ruins, channeled by the weather, and strewed with frag-
ments of black stone, sandstone, and marble. Sir R. K. Porter has shown that the
intense vitrifying heat to which the summit has been evidently subjected, must have been
the result of lire operating from above, and was probably produced by lightning. This
is a curious circumstance, taken in connection with the ancient tradition that the tower
of B. was rent and overthrown by fire from heaven. Porter thinks that the works of the
Babylonish kings, especiall}' the stupendous temple of Bclus, which was erected on the
site of the old tower, concealed for a while the marks of the original devastation; and
that now the destructions of time and of man have reduced it to nearly the same con-
dition in which it appeared after the confusion. Mr. George Smith discovered the legend
of the building of B. among the Assyrian tablets in the British museum, and gave an
account of it in his Chaldean Account of Genesis (1875).

BAB-EL-MAN DEB (i.e. "the Gate of Tears") is the name of the strait between Arabia
and the continent of Africa, by which the Red sea is connected with the gulf of Aden
and the Indian ocean, so called from the danger arising to small vessels from strong
currents. The Arabian peninsula here throws out a cape, bearing the same name as the
strait, rising to the height of 865 ft. About 20 m. distant from this cape stands the wall-
like coast of Africa, rising in Ras Sejan to the height of 380 ft. Within the straits, bt:t
nearer to Arabia, lies the bare rocky island of Perim (q. v.), now occupied by the English
as a fort; the strait on the e. side of this island is called the little strait, and that on the
w. the great strait. The depth of the former varies from 8 to 12 fathoms; that of the
latter reaches 185 fathoms. The first is usually chosen by vessels on account of its afford-
ing good anchorage. Close to the African coast lie eight small islands, called the Eight
Brothers.

B A BER, or BA'BUB (Zohir-Eddin Mohammed), the first of the Great Moguls in India,
a descendant of Timur, was b. in 1483. He was barely 12 years of age when he suc-
ceeded his father, Omar Sheikh Mirza, in the sovereignty of the countries lying between
Samarcand and the Indus. With a view to the conquest of India, although constantly
contending with revolts in his own dominions, he made himself master, by fraud and force,
of the provinces of Kashgar, Kundez, Kandahar, and Cabul. Having thus opened the way
to India, he made two or three rapid incursions into Hindustan; and finally taking
advantage of the feeble government of Ibrahim Lodi, about the end of 1525, he crossed the
Attock (the Cabul branch of the Indus), quickly defeated some bodies of troops that
opposed him in the Punjab; and at last, in April, 1526, on the plain of Panipat, not far
from Delhi, encountered and fought a decisive battle with his enemy, whose army was
far superior in numbers. The 100,000 men and 1000 elephants of sultan Ibrahim were
dispersed; Ibrahim himself fled; and B. made his entry into Delhi. In the following
month, Agra, the second city of the empire, surrendered. B.'s enjoyment of empire in
India was short; he died in 1530, having had to contend during the five years of his reign
with numerous conspiracies and revolts. To the talents of a general and statesman.
which he manifested in his conquests, his improvements of public roads, measuring of
lands, adjustment of taxation, postal arrangements, etc., B. united a taste for science
and art. He wrote, in the Tartar language, the history of his own life and conque-r>.
which was translated into Persian by Abdul Rachim, and, more recently, from the Per-
sian into English. B. was succeeded on the throne of Delhi by the eldest of his four
sons, Humayun, and was the founder of the B. or Great Mogul dynasty.

BABETJF, FRANQOIS NOEL, generally known by the name of " Caius Gracchus," which
he affixed to his political articles, was b.' in 1764 at'St. ()uent in. in the department of A isne.
France. On the breaking out of the revolution in 1789, he became a fanatical advocate
of the popular demands. During the reign of terror he took up a position of hostility
to Robespierre and the terrorists. In his journal, established at Paris, in July, 1794, and
termed The 2'ribune of the People, he preached the sovereignty of the masses, and
defended the absurdest consequences flowing from that political doc-trine. He was in
favor of a new distribution of the land, of the abolition of every political order, and the
e<|'i;'!ity of all individuals, wise and foolish. His violent language cau.-ed him to be
imprisoned. On his release, he attached himself to the members of the extreme Jaco-
bin party, which had just been overthrown. A secret conspiracy was formed, the aim
of which was the destruction of the directory, and the complete re-establishment of the
democratic constitution of 179;}, which had been suspended during the IYU :M of terror.
The plot was discovered through the treachery of one of the member*. J 5. and other
chiefs were seized, imprisoned, and ultimately brought to trial. B. defended himself
with the courage of a fanatic, and overwhelmed his judges with abuse. lie was of

C1 IJiib-cl-mandeb.

Baboo.

course condemned to death, and was guillotined on the following day, May 24, 1797. B.
was a weak-headed enthusiast, without talent or culture; hut abler men in the conspiracy
made use of his furiously resolute character to secure the ends they had in vic\v.

BABIKTGTON, AXTONY, an English gentleman of the county of Derby, head of a con-
spiracy in favor of Mary Stuart of Scotland. The rivalry between queen Mary and
queen* Elizabeth of England was at the same time a contest between Catholicism and
Protestantism. Accordingly, the various plots for rescuing Mary from the power of her
enemy were of the same character, and have been misrepresented and judged of accord-
ing to the ecclesiastical prejudices of each historian, B., young, rich, a zealous Catho-
lic, and on that account already an enthusiastic admirer of the unfortunate .Mary, was
induced, through the agents of a determined conspirator, Morgan, who had been arrested
in France at the instance of the English court, to put himself at the head of a plot that
had for its object the murder of queen Elizabeth, and the rescue of Mary. The execu-
tion of the murder was undertaken by one Savage, in which he was to be assisted by a
number of the Catholic nobility, as circumstances might require. The day of action
was lixed for the 24th of Aug., 1586. B. reserved the deliverance of Mary for his own
share, entered into correspondence with her, and received letters purporting to be from
her in return, approving of the assassination of Elizabeth. The secretary, \Valsinghatn,
not only had all the threads of the plot in his hand, but contributed, through his emissa-
ries, to spur on the conspirators to the execution of their plans. When the right moment
was come. B. and his accomplices were arrested, and condemned. B. made no denial,
acknowledged the letters to Mary to be his, and, Sep. 20, 1586, laid his head on the
block. Savage, Barn well, Bollard, Abington, Tichburne, and Tilnec, had a like fate.
Mary Stuart herself had, four months later, to ascend the bloody scaffold; and her con-
demYiation was justified chiefly on the ground of those letters received by Babington.
Mary, however, denied to the last moment that the letters were written by her hand, or
with her knowledge; and her friends constantly maintained that they were the work of
\Valsingham himself, in order that the unhappy queen might be got rid of with a show
of justice. The rest of Walsingham's conduct in this affair, as well as the way in which
he was in the habit of supporting Elizabeth's views in general, give at least a high degree
of probability to the accusation.

BABINGTON, CHURCHILL, b. England, 1821; professor of archaeology; has written
on botany, ornithology, numismatics, archaeology, etc., and edited the orations of Hyperi-
des from recently discovered manuscripts.

BABISM (from BAIU, or BABY); the appellation of a sect in Persia, founded by Seyd
Mohammed Ali, b. about 1824, who assumed the name of "Bab," i.e. "the gate." On
returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1843, Seyd appeared in his native city (Shiraz)
with a new commentary on the Koran, and soon became engaged in controversy with the
regular priests, who, exasperated by his free criticism of their conduct, obtained an order
forbidding him to teach in public and confining him to his house. Here he taught pri-
vately, increasing his pretensions, and declared that he was Nokteh, "the point;" not
merely the recipient of a new divine revelation, but the focus in which all preceding dis-
pensations would converge. He gained proselytes rapidly, among them a woman a
wonderful circumstance in any country of the east known as Gourred-Oul-Ayn (" Con-
solation of the Eyes,") because of her surpassing loveliness. The new religion made
rapid progress, and the efforts of the authorities to suppress it produced civil war.
Huvsier, one of Seyd's disciples, was taken, after defeating several expeditions sent
against him, and put to death in 1849; and the next year Balfouroushi, another leader,
was slain in battle. The Bab himself was imprisoned and executed, but his death did
not discourage his followers. They recognized Mirza Yahya, a youth of noble descent,
as his successor, who established himself in Bagdad, where he is now, or was not long
ago. living. An attempt in 1852 of some zealous Babis to assassinate the Shah led to a
terrible persecution, in which the beautiful "Consolation of the Eyes" perished. The
Bab doctrines are essentially a system of pantheism, with additions from gnostic and
other sources. All individual existence is regarded as emanating from the superior
deity, by whom it will ultimately be reabsorbed. Great importance is attached to the
number 7, as indicating the attributes supposed to be displayed in the act of creation;
and to the number 19, which mystically expresses the name of the Deity himself, and is,
moreover, the sum of the prophets among whom the latest incarnation of the divine
nature is conceived to be distributed in the present dispensation. The sacred college
cannot Income extinct until the final judgment, the death of any of its members being
immediately followed by a re-incarnation, as in the case of the grand lama. Moses.
Christ, and Mohammed are considered to be prophets, but merely precursors of the Bab.
The morals of the sect are good; polygamy and concubinage are forbidden; the veiling
of woman's face is omitted, and the equality of the sex is so far recognized that at le.tst
one of the 19 prophets must always l>e a female. Asceticism is discountenanced, men-
dicancy prohibited, and hospitality, chanty, generous living, and abstinence from intoxi-
cating liquors and drugs, are taught and practiced.

BA BOO, a title of respect equal to " Mr." in English, given in India to educated and
wealthy natives noted for liberal views, public spirit, and generosity.
U. K. II. 6

Baboon. Qrt

Babylon. Q *

BABOON, Cynocf])Jialus, a genus of the monkey family, or simfad(r (see MONKEY), and
distinguished from all the rest of that family by the very elongated muzzle, "which ter-
minates abruptly, and is pierced with nostrils at the end like that of a dog. The face
has, indeed, a general resemblance to the face of a dog. The dentition agrees with
that of the other apes or monkeys of the old world, to which the baboons arc entirely
confined, being only distinguished by the remarkable strength of the canine teeth'.
Baboons, like almost all the monkey family in the old world, have callosities upon the
buttocks; and, like the greater part of them, they have cheek-pouches. The tail of some
of the species is of considerable length, that of others is a mere tubercle, with an erect
tuft of hairs. The physiognomy of all baboons is repulsive, and indicates the fierceness
which strongly characterizes them, and in which they differ from monkeys in general :
some of the larger ones are dreaded by the inhabitants of the country in which they
are found; the danger to be apprehended from them being increased by the numbers
in which they usually herd together. Their fore and hind legs are so proportioned.
that they walk easily, and run swiftly on the ground; but, like all other quadruma-
nous animals, they climb trees and rocks with great agility. Their hair is long, forming
a sort of mane on the upper parts. All of them are very susceptible of cold, and they
seldom live long when removed from their native tropical countries. They feed chiefly
on fruits and roots: some of them inhabit barren and stony places where scorpions
abound, which they seize, adroitly deprive of the sting, and devour. They are very
cunning, mischievous, and revengeful; troops of them sometimes enter a plantation, not
merely to plunder, but apparently to amuse themselves by destroying whatever they
can find; they seem, however, always to have some appointed to keep watch, and they
make off with great rapidity on the first signal of alarm. AVhen plundering, they cram
their cheek-pouches before they begin to eat. These cheek-pouches are very capa-
cious: a B., kept in confinement, has been seen to put eight eggs into them at once, and
then to take out the eggs one by one, to break them at the end, and deliberately to
suck their contents. The larger baboons are sometimes hunted by dogs where they
have not trees to take refuge in; but a single dog, however powerful, cannot safely
attack them; a B. will seize a dog by the hind legs, and whirl him round and round
till he is stupefied. Baboons are not so easily domesticated as many kinds of monkey:
however, they are not quite incapable of it when taken young. " Happy Jerry, " a
mandrill or rib-nose B., which was long a great object of attraction at Exeter Change,
used to sit with great gravity in an arm-chair, awaiting orders, which he obeyed with
slowness and composure. He smoked tobacco, but did not seem much to relish it,
and was rather induced to do it by a bribe of gin and water, for which his fondness
was unquestionable.

As examples of baboons with tails of considerable length, may be mentioned the
chacma, or pig faced B., also called the ursine B. (U. porcariug), a native of s. Africa; and
the dog-faced B. (G. hamadryas), a native of Arabia, Persia, and the mountains of Abys-
sinia. The latter species, perhaps the only one known to the ancients, is often sculptured
on the ancient monuments of Egypt, and it is supposed to have been the species of
monkey to which divine honors were paid. Its body was frequently embalmed, and
B. mummies are still found. The chacma is one of the largest of the baboons, about
the size of an English mastiff, and very much stronger; it is common on the mountains
of Cape Colon}-, and in troops would be very formidable, but that they usually scam-
per out of the way, instead of attacking travelers, unless they are provoked, 'it is of
a dark-brown color, with long shaggy hair. The tail is rather more than half the
length of the body, and is terminated by a tuft of long "black hair.

The short-tailed, or almost tailless baboons, far exceed their longer-tailed congeners
in ugliness. Only two species are certainly known the mandrill or rib-nose B. (6 f . //'/
mon), and the drill (C. leucophaeuii), both natives of Guinea. The mandrill is the largest,
fiercest, and most powerful of the whole genus. The colors of its fur are very tine, of ;i
light olive brown above, and silvery gray beneath; but besides other things unpleasant
to the sight, its face is peculiarly hideous; the cheek-bones in .the adult males being
enormously swollen, so that the cheeks are protuberant to the size of a man's list upon
each side, and ribbed with blue, scarlet, and purple. In their native forests, man
drills generally live in large troops, and are said to put to flight every other wild beast.

BA'BFIUS, a Greek fabulist, who lived about the close of the Alexandrian age, or
the beginning of the succeeding Roman-sophistic period, made a considerable collection
of jEsopian fables (see ^Esop), which he turned into verse, in a natural and popular
style. Several versions and transformations of these were made during the middle ages,
and have come down to us under the name of ^Esop's Fables. Bentlcy, who, in his
Dissertatio de Babrio wts the first to recognize in these fables of ^Esop the original work
of B., endeavored to restore portions of the verses, and pointed out other fragment of
the genuine B. in other quarters. A few fables were added from manuscripts by Furia.
Korais, and Schneider, and all that was known at the time was collected by Knoche
(Halle, 1835). At last, in 1842, a Greek of the name of Minoides Minas, employed by
the French government to explore the convents of the east, discovered a manuscript
with 123 hitherto unknown fables of B., a copy of which he made and brought to Paris,
where they were published in 1844. The best edition is that by Lachmann (Berl. 1845).

CO Baboon.

Babylon.

BABUYA'KES ISLANDS, in the Pacific between the Loo Choo islands and For-
mosa; Calayan and Babuyan are the most important. They are fertile, and furnish a
large quantity of sulphur. Batan is the largest town. Pop. of the islands est. 8,000.

BAB YLON BABYLONIA. Babylonia was the name given in ancient times to the flat
country about the lower course of the Euphrates, called in modern times Irak-Arabi.
In the Old Testament, it is call Shinar, Babel, and also " land of the Chaldees;" and by
the later Greek and Roman writers, occasionally Chaldea. Its proper boundaries were:
on the n., towards Mesopotamia, the Euphrates and the Median Wall, which extended
from the junction of the Chabur with the Euphrates to the Tigris; on the e., towards
A--\ ria and Su>iana. the Tigris; on the s., the gulf of Persia; and on the w., the desert
of Arabia. During the wider extension of the Babylonian dominion, the name compre-
hended also Assyria and Mesopotamia. The country forms a perfect plain, which is a
continuation of "that of Assyria. The two rivers, Euphrates and Tigris, here approacli
each other most nearly, until their blended waters fall into the Persian gulf. The
country was once protected from flooding by numerous canals and embankments, and
several* artificial lakes, which are now mostly in ruin. The most important canal was
that now known as Nahr-el-Melik, which is undoubtedly the ancient royal canal that
joined the two great rivers. It was kept in repair by the Roman emperors, and was serv-
iceable as late as the 7th century. The soil, naturally fertile, was rendered more so by
the garden-like way in which it was cultivated, and yielded abundant crops, especially
of wheat, barley, and dates. The want of stone and wood was more severely felt than
in Assyria. The only building material was brick, for which the soil afforded abund-
ance of clay. The bricks were either dried in the sun or burnt, and were very durable,
resisting,' in the ruins, the effects of the weather to this day. Mineral bitumen, spring-
ing up everywhere in abundance, served as mortar. In this favored plain, the human
lace attained early a state of social and political organization, the oldest, indeed, that
antiquity gives us any account of.

Until recently, the early history of Babylonia was doubtful and dark. The only
sources were a few incidental notices in the Bible; some fragments derived at third hand
from the perished writings of Berosus, a Babylonian priest, who had translated the
annals of his country into Greek; and lastly, the notices of Greek writers, chiefly Herod
otus. But the whole is confused and contradictory, and history and mythology were
jumbled together.

But light is now breaking in upon the darkness. In recent years, multitudes of brick
tablets, stamped with cuneiform (see CUNEIFORM) characters, have been dug up from the
ruins of the great cities that once studded the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates; and in
these we find ourselves in possession of contemporaneous records of e\ents reaching
back 30 c. before the Christian era, and restoring a page of human history that was appa-
rently lost.

At the earliest period to which the records earn- us back, the population of the whole
valley of the Tigris and Euphrates consisted mainly of tribes of Turanian origin, their
language having remarkable affinities with those of the Ural-Altaic group of the
Turanian nations, e.g. the Finns, the Magyars, and Turks. Closely allied tribes ocou-
pied the whole region s.w. of the Caspian sea Media. Armenia, Elam, Susiana. In thai
region lies Ararat, the " Mountain of the World," and to that region the traditions of
those Turanians pointed as the cradle of their race. But the earliest records reveal the
exigence of a Semitic element in the population of the Euphrates valley, coming in
apparently from thesw. Arabia ami Egypt. The infiltration of this foreign element
went on increasing for centuries, until at last it got the upper hand, and the Babylo-
nians and Assyrians, when they became known to the historians of the west, were essen-
tially Semitic peoples. Their civilization, however, was merely a development of what
thev took up from the original inhabitants.

The dominant people in Babylonia in the earliest times were the Accad, or Acca-
dians. They had come originally from the mountains of Elam, to the e. of the
Tigris, and hence their name Accad, which means highlanders." They brought with
them the art of cuneiform writing, as well as other arts and sciences, especially astro
nomy. It is in the Turanian language of these Accadians that the cuneiform inscrip
tions'of Babylonia are written for many centuries. And when flic Semitic tongue had
become predominant, Accadian.now a dead language, was to the Assyrians what Latin
has been to the nations of modern Europe: Assyrian scholars translated the Accadian
literature into their own language, and their technical and sacred terms were borrowed
from it. Every day is bringing to light new proofs of the influence of these Accadians
upon the civilization of the Semitic nations, and through them upon that of Europe.
Greece, it is well known, derived its system of weights and measures from the Babylo
nian standards; but these have been proved to be of Accadian origin. The Greek minu
or mna, the fundamental unit of the Greek monetary system, is the maneh of Carchemish.
and nianffi is found to be not n Semitic but an Accadian word, showing the origin of the
system. The sexagesimal division of the circle: the signs of the zodiac: .a week of
seven days, named as we now name them, and the seventh a day of rest, are all Accadian.
Every large city had its public library. In the royal library of a Babylonian monarch.
Sargon (about 2000 B.C.), every tablet was numbered, so that' the reader had only to write

Babylon.

down (he number of the tablet he wanted, and it was handed to him by the librarian.
Among the multifarious subjects of this extensive literature there are hymns to the gods
strikingly like the Ik-brew psalms; and in a long mythological poem there is an episode
giving an account of the deluge almost identical with that of Genesis, only more detailed.
ASSYUIA. The Accad religion was originally a Shamanism (q.v.). similar to "what
still prevails among the Turanian tribes ot 'Siberia; but it gradually developed into a
huge system of polytheism, which was adopted and modified by the Semitic inhabitants.
The A'ccadians were great in magic, and the Greek mayo*, a magician, is derived from
an Accadian word equivalent to "reverend."

The city of Babylon was not the first seat of power. The earliest records yet dis-
covered are those of a monarch whose capital was Ur (now ilugheir). Art was already
far advanced, and the extent of the monarch's resources is seen in the ruins of the tem-
ple of the sun-god built by him; it is calculated that 30,000,000 bricks must have been
used in its construction. Centuries, apparently, after this, a fresh invasion from Elam
is recorded, to which the exact date can be assigned of 2280 B.C. Another Elamite
conqueror, named Cud ur-mabug, extended his sovereignty over Palestine, and it is in-
ferred that a sovereign of this dynasty is the Chedorlaomer of Genesis (the name in
Accad would be KufLuflag^meri, " worshiper of the god Lagamaru "). Some time after
this, the seat of power was finally fixed at Babylon, and the Semitic tongue now
began to supersede the Accadian.

The cities in the northern division of the country had been founded by colonists from
the 8., and were long ruled as dependencies of Babylonia. At length they grew into
the independent kingdom of Assyria; and in the 14th c. B.C. an Assyrian monarch cap-
tured Babylon. From that time the position of the southern state becomes more and
more subordinate to the northern, and finally sinks into a province. Babylonia, how-
ever, was not always a submissive vassal Under the leadership of Chaldean chiefs, it
made many struggles for independence. The Chaldeans are first heard of in the ninth
c. before Christ as a small Accadian tribe on the Persian gulf; but they became so
prominent in these struggles that they latterly gave their name to the whole prov-
ince of Babylonia, which came to be styled Chaldea. The name of one of those
Chaldean chiefs, Merodach-Baladan, occurs both in scripture and in the inscriptions.
From the former, we know that this king sent a message to Hezekiah, king of Judah.
ostensibly to inquire about his recovery, probably with a view to an alliance against
Assyria; and from the latter, that Merodach was expelled by Sargon, king of Assyria,
that he made a fresh attempt to recover his throne, and was finally dethroned by
Sennacherib. The complete subjection of B. to Assyria at this time (680 B.C.) is proved
also from the scripture account, which states that Esarhaddou, son of Sennacherib,
reigned in Babylon. About fifty years afterwards, Nabopolassar, governor of B. for
the Assyrian king, proved faithless to his trust, and entered into an alliance with the
Median king, Cyaxares, for the overthrow of the ruling state. See ASSYRIA. This under-
taking was successful, and B. now (625 B.C.) became, though it was but for a short
time, an independent and conquering power. The son of Nabopolassar, Nebuchad-
nezzar II., next defeated the Egyptian king, Necho, at Circesium (Karchemish), on the
Euphrates (604 B.C.), and thus annihilated the Egyptian dominion in Asia. He then
subdued Jehoiakim, king of Judah; and in consequence of repeated revolts, destroyed
Jerusalem, and put an end to the kingdom of Judah under Zedekiah (588 B.C.), carrying
the inhabitants captive to Babylon, The Phenicians submitted to him voluntarily,
with the exception of Tyre, which underwent an obstinate siege without yielding. After
a fortunate expedition against Egypt, Nebuchadnezzar turned his attention to the adorn-
ment of his capital; and the gre'ater part at least of those buildings usually ascribed
to a very early period, and especially to the mythical Semiramis, belong to him. After
^his death (562 B.C), the Neo-Baby Ionian empire fell to pieces as suddenly as it had
sprung up, and under Nabonedus(Nabunita, in the cuneiform inscriptions, and in Herod-
otus, Labynetos), who had entered into an alliance with Cro?sus of Lydia, against Per-
sia, it came under the dominion of Cyrus (529 B.C.). The Belshazzar of scripture is
thought to be the son of Labynetos, to whom was confided the defense of B., while
the elder prince held Borsippa. From this time B. appears on the Persian monu-
ments as a Persian satrapy, under the name of liabirus.

With the overthrow of the Persian monarchy, B. came under the short lived
dominion of Alexander the Great, who died in that city (323 B.C.). Seleucus I., to
whom it had l)een promised at the conference of Triparadisus, contested and won the
possession of it from Antigonus (312 B.C.). About 140 B.C., it was taken from the
Syrian mouarchs by the Parthians. It came into the hands of the Romans only
temporarily, first under Trajan (114 A.D.), under Septimius Severus (199 A.D.), and
auram, under Julian (363 A. p.). When, in 650. the successors of Mohammed put an
end to the new Persian monarchy of the Sassanides, the province of !>.. where Bag-
dad was built (762-766), became the seat of the califs till 1258. Since 1638, when
I lie Turks, for the second time, took it from the Persians, it has been under the
dominion of Turkey, divided into the pashalics of Bagdad and Basra.

ttic writers represent the civilization of the ancient Babylonians as of a

hiirh stamp. The government was despotic, of a kind to suit a crowded, luxurious.

'Tcminate population. Arts and commerce were highly flourishing the last was

Babylnn.

carried on by caravans with Bactria, Persia, and Media, perhaps as far as India, and by
shipping on" the Persian gulf with Arabia. 15. was famous for its dyes, its cloths, and
embroideries, especially for the manufacture of rich carpets with inwoven figures of
strange animals and arabesques, such as we yet see on the Nineveh sculptures. The
general prosperity was such, that B. and Assyria together were able to pay to Persia, in
the time of Darius Hystaspes, a yearly tribute of 1000 talents (upwards of 280,000) a
sum greater than that contributed by any other province.

The Babylonians were notorious for their effeminacy, luxury, and licentiousness.
Their religion was nearly allied to that of the Phenicians." The essential part of it was
the worship of the powers of nature, as they are manifested in the larger heavenly bodies
and in the fertility of the earth. At the head of their system of belief stood Baal (see
BAAL), reverenced through the whole of Mesopotamia and Canaan, who represented, in
a general way. the power of nature, without having any moral *iguilicance, and was
illy identified with the sun. Along with him stood, as feminine complement, the
goddess Baalt is, the receptive earth, with whose worship all manner of licentious rites
were associated. She makes her appearance principally as Melyta or Mylitta i.e.,
" the causer of generation." How nearly she is related to Ashtaroth (among the Greeks.
Astarte'i, whoi-e functions arc so similar, it is not easy to determine. Education and reli-
gion were in the hands of the caste of the Chaldees, who occupied themselves at the
same time with astronomy and astrology, and kept records, from the earliest times, of
their astronomical observations, associating with them the chronicles of their kings.
Their sc.ieiitilic acquirements must have been considerable. Engraved cylinders and
gems, and the remains of their pottery, testify to their progress in these departments
of art; and their architecture, according to the te.-timony of the ancients and the ruins
still remaining, deserves to be ranked high.

Apart from canals, bridges, embankments, and sluices, the interest on the subject of
Babylonian architecture is concentrated in the ruins of the capital, Babylon. The
accounts that we liud in the ancients of the origin, the great ne>s. and the structure of
the city, are exceedingly confused. The god Belus is named as its founder, and al.-o
queen Semiramis: how we are to understand the two statements is not explained.
Semiramis, according to the account of Diodorus, employed on it two millions of work
men, collected from all parts of her dominions. With the capital of the older kingdom,
the accounts of the ancients known to us have, for the most part, nothing to do; they
are all to be referred to the resuscitated and adorned residence of Nebuchadnezzar.
Herodotus gives a description of the city, apparently from his own observation. It
stot.d on both sides of the river, in the form of a square, the length of whose sides is
variously given; by Herodotus it is stated at 120 stadia, making the whole circumference
60 miles. It must be remembered, however, that the walls, like those of most oriental
towns, inclosed rather populous districts than cities, so that the whole mass of the popu-
lation might easily lind shelter within the space inclosed. It was surrounded by a wail
'Jin I cubits high, and 50 cubits thick, and furnished with 100 brazen gates the last num-
ber is raised by Diodorus to 250. The city was built with extreme regularity, with
broad straight streets crossing one another at right angles; and the two parts were con-
nected by a roofed bridge built of hewn stones, fastened together with iron clamps. Of
this bridge, not a trace has yet been discovered. The western part of the city is
undoubtedly the older, belonging to the early and properly Babylonish dynast)'. Here
stood, in the middle of the city, as it is described, the famous temple of Belus or Baal,
calied by the Arabs, Birs Nimrud. See BAI;EL. TOWER 01*. The next important
point on the W T . side is the mass of ruins called Mujellibe, which was probably the royal
citadel of the old Babylonian monarchy. On the e. side of the river stood the buildings
til the Xeo Babylonian period, among which the "Hanging Gardens" of Semiramis are
to be singled out as one of the wonders of the world. Of these gardens, Diodorus has
left us a detailed description. Their ruins may be recognized in the mound called
EI-Kasr. The city suffered greatly from the Persian conquest. When it revolted under
Darius I., and. ai'ter a siege of two years, was recaptured through the ingenuity of
Zopyrus. the outer walls were demolished. Xerxes plundered the temple of Belus.
which had been hitherto spared, and Herodotus found it empty. Although the Persian
kings made B. their residence, nothing was done for the restoration of the city; and
Alexander the great, who, on his entrance, in 331 B.C., had piomised the inhabitants to
rebuild the ruined temple, was unable even to clear away the rubbish, although he
employed 10.000 workmen for two months. After his death in the palace of Nebuchad
ne/.zar. and the foundation of Seleucia on the Tigris by Seleucus Nicator, B. went
rapidly to decay. This was partly owing to the new city's' being built of the materials of
the old. and partly to the want of durable materials for monumental buildings. Stones
of any si/.e had to be brought from the mountains of Armenia: their place was nio-ily
supplied by burned brick. As early as the time of Pau^anius, there was little to be seeii
but the ruins of the walls. The older Arabian geographers know, indeed, of a village.
Babil. but speak more of the great masses of ruins. Since the time of Delia Va'le. who
erroneously looked upon the ruin Mujellibe as the tower of Belus (in which he is fol-
lowed by Kennel), the site of B. has been the object of many travels and researches.
The greater number of the explorers, among whom Rich is the most distinguished, con-
sider the town of Hillah, with TOCO inhabitants, a> the representative of the ancle;. t

Babylonish. Qi\

liauchanalia.

Babylon. The great masses of ruins, from which we must not, with Rennel, exclude
the Birs Nimnid, embrace, indeed, an enormous extent, but agree perfectly with the
accounts of the ancients in being arranged in the form of a square. Some time ago,
Itawliuson transferred the site of B. to Differ; but before anything can be determined,
researches must be made on the spot, which could hardly fail to lead at the same time
to valuable results, like those of Botta and Layard in Assyria, and increase the collection
of cuneiform inscriptions, which are yet only fragmentary. See Kich's J/<- tuoirs on the
Ruins of Baby fan, and his Personal Nmrratiw of a Jounu'y t-o England by Butwralt, Bay-
dad, the Ruins of Baby fan; Rawlinsou's Fire Great Monarchies; Layard's 3~inei\h and
Babylon; Leuormant's Lang tie Primitive de la Chaldee; Transactions of the Society of
Biblical Archaeology ; Smith's Assyrian Discoveries; Sayce's Babylonia, in the JEncydopcadia
Britannica.

BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY, In the despotic policy of the east in ancient times, it
w r as a rule to remove the rich and leauing inhabitants of a conquered province to a
distant part of the empire, where they were separated by nationality, language, customs,
and religion from the great body of the population, and thus rendered politically harm-
less; while the people that remained behind were by this means deprived of influential
leaders. The inhabitants of Judea underwent oftener than once a deportation of this
kind, after they came into conflict with the powerful kingdom of Assyria. Thus, the
kingdom of Israel was put an end to under king Hosea (722 B.C.), by the Assyrian mon-
arch Shalmaueser, who, after taking the capital, Samaria, carried the principal inhabit-
ants into captivity in Assyria, and brought stranger tribes into the land of Israel in their
stead; these, with the Israelites that remained, formed afterwards the mixed nation of
the Samaritans. The most remarkable exile, however, befell the tribe of Judah under
Nebuchadnezzar. Zedekiah, king of Judah, warned in vain by the prophet Jeremiah,
allied himself with the king of Egypt against the sovereignty of Babylon. Nebuchad-
nezzar soon appeared with a powerful army before Jerusalem, which he took (588 is.c.).
King Zedekiah had his eyes put out, and he and the principal part of the inhabitants
were carried captive to Babylon. It is this captivity, the duration of which is usually
reckoned at 70 years, although, strictly speaking, it lasted only 56 years, that is called,
by way of distinction, "the Babylonish captivity. " The situation of the exiles was in
other respects tolerable. Most ot them settled down, and acquired property, and even
riches; many were called to court, and even raised to high offices in the state. They
were allowed to retain their organization by families, and lived bv themselves essentially
according to the Mosaic law. They had also their own chief, and were allowed the free
exercise of their religion. Nor did they want consolation and encouragement; for
Ezekiel raised among theiD his powerful prophetic voice, and the idea of the Messiah
became more clearly developed. When Cyrus overthrew the Babylonian empire i">:!S
u.c.), he allowed the Jews to return to their own country. Only the tribes of Judah,
Benjamin, and Levi availed themselves of this permission: the other ten tribes disap-
pear from history after the captivity. It is probable that they had become so mingled
with the Babylonians, a people of kindred origin, that they had ci ased to remember the
country of their race. Vain attempts have, in recent times, been made to discover the
ten lost tribes. Some learned men have sought for them in China and India, while
others have declared the Afghans to be their descendants, and even the North Ameri-
can Indians. A more probable conjecture, perhaps, is that they were the ancestors of
the Nestorians in the mountains of Kurdistan.

BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY (ante), the carrying into captivity of 200,000 people of
Jewish cities, about 713 B.C., by the officers of the king of Assyria. Before this, how-
ever, there was the "Assyrian captivity," the result of the invasion of the kingdom of
Israel bv three or more successive Assyrian kings. About 762 B.C., Pul imposed a tribute
upon Menahem. About 738 B.C., Tiglath-Pileser carried away in large part the trans-
Jordanic tribes and the inhabitants of Galilee. Shalmaneser made two invasions, and, in
720, after a siege of three years, took Samaria and carried many Israelites away as captives,
populating Samaria by Babylonians and other foreigners. It is supposed that Tiirlath-
I'ileser took the Israelites away to people his great city. His successor, Shalmaneser,
made Hoshea, the king of Israel, a tributary, and when the tribute was not paid he took
Samaria by way of punishment, and carried to Assyria the king and all the most desir-
able remaining population of the ten tribes. These were settled in distant cities, and
their places were supplied by colonies from Babylon and Susis. A.s captives, the people
were treated with no especial harshness. They were not bondmt'n. as one might suppose
from the term "captive;" but even in Babylon their elders retained the power of life
and death over their own people; and at a later period the Jews in the principal cities
were governed by an officer of their own nation, as was the case in Egypt under the
Ptolemies. The' Jews in Assyria themselves held slaves; the book of "Daniel" tells of
a Jew in high political station, and in "Esther" we find their power and consequence
in the Persian empire celebrated. Doubtless their lot was more comfortable than that
of other conquered nations among whom they dwelt. Much effort has been made to
discover the ultimate condition or fate of the fen tribes. Josephus in his day thought
Hiat they dwelt in large communities somewhere beyond the Kuphrates. Rabbi
tradition makes the same assertion, with many imaginative exemplifications. Christian

QY Babylonish.

Bacchanalia.

writers have traced them all over the world. Some find them among the Afghans; some
it'll of a Jewish colony at the foot of the Himalayas; the "Black Jews" of Malabar claim
an affinity or descent from them; they have been supposed to he fathers of the Tartars,
of the Nestorians, of the North American Indians, and by some recent scholars of the
Anglo-Saxons. The best that can be done, in the light of established history, is to trace
their footsteps in four directions. After the captivity, some returned and mixed with
ihe Jews; some assimilated with the Samaritans and became enemies of the Jews; many
remained in Syria, mixing there with other populations, and forming colonies through-
out the east; but most of them probably apostatized in Assyria, adopting the idolatry of
the nation around them, and were finally merged into the stronger and more numerous
people.

The second, or "Babylonian captivity," consists of two distinct deportations.
Nebuchadnezzar made several invasions of Judea, and finally destroyed Jerusalem and
the temple, and carried the people to Babylon. The first principal deportation was in
598 B.C., when Jehoiachim, and all the nobles, soldiers, and artificers were carried away;
the second great deportation followed the destruction of the temple and the capture of
Zedekiah, 588 B.C. Although the number of persons carried away is in several instances
set down, it is not probable that such numbers represent the whole deportation, for the
sum total on record can be but a mere fraction of the Jewish people. The captives
were treated not as slaves, but as colonists. There was nothing to hinder a Jew from
rising to the highest eminence in the state or holding the most confidential office near the
throne. They had no temple and offered no sacrifices; but the rite of circumcision was
observed, and their genealogical tallies were kept so that they were usually able to tell
who was the rightfut heir to the throne of David. The first great event in the restoration
of the Jew* was the decree of Cyrus, 536 B.C., under which 42.360, with 7537 slaves and
cattle and personal goods, left Babylon under Sheshbazzar. They laid the foundation of
the second temple 53 years after the destruction of the first. The work was stopped
almost immediately. But under Darius the Jews found favor, and under the guidance
of Ezra, Nehemiah, and others Jerusalem was to some extent restored, and exiled
families doubtless returned and occupied the country round about. Nevertheless, the
great mass of the Jewish people remained in the countries over which the}' had been
scattered. Before the captivity, many Jews had settled in Egypt; others in Sheba.
Among those who returned to Judea, about 30,000 are said to have been of the tribes of
Judah, Benjamin, and Levi. Recent students conclude that about six times as many
Jews preferred to remain in Assyria, where they kept up the national distinction, and
were known to their brethren as "the dispersion," that is, Jewish people residing beyond
the limits of Palestine. This dispersion was in three directions or countries: in Baby-
lonia, in Egypt, and in Syria. A still later and more perfect "captivity" was that
suffered by the people of Palestine under the Romans, when, after the massacre of untold
myriads of their people, the Jews were reduced to abject bondage Josephus says that
1 100,000 people were slain in the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, and 97,000 were captured
and distributed among the Roman provinces, butchered in amphitheaters, thrown to
wild beasts, or sold to slavery in Egypt. Doubt is cast by some writers on the numbers
given by Josephus. The last stand of the Jews for national existence was about 133
A.D., when the struggle resulted in the practical extirpation of the people from their
chosen land; and since that event the rebellion of Bar-chobab the descendants of
Abraham liuve been unable to present, anywhere on the earth, even the semblance of an
organized nation.

BABYROUSSA, *>is babyroussa, a species of hog (q.v.) inhabiting the forests of Java
and the Molucca islands, remarkable for the extraordinary tusks of the upper jaw, which
rise like horns through the bone and integument, are long, somewhat slender, and curved
backwards; their use being probably similar to that of horns. The animal is sometimes
called the horned hog. Its limbs are much more slender than those of the common
hog.

BACCHANA'LIA. or DIONYSIA, festivals in honor of Bacchus. Four were held at
Athens. One was in Dec., after the vintage was over, when a nude and indecent proces-
sion was had. slaves were given brief liberty, and general drunkenness prevailed. One
was in Jan., after the new wine had been pressed out, when the state bore the cost of a
public banquet, a procession, and a dramatic entertainment. In Feb. came the flower
festival, lasting three days; on the first the new wine was tasted, and candidates were
initiated into the mysteries of Bacchus; on the second there were public games: on the
third flowers were offered to Dionysius, presents were made between friends, and slaves
were free for the time. The fourth, or great festival, came in Mar., and attracted
strangers from all parts of the country. It was conducted by the chief archon, and paid
for by the state. It included the giving of a prize for the best drama, a banquet, a
procession, and theatrical performances. Like all others, this festival was a season of
riotous and drunken indulgence. Bacchus was represented, accompanied by women
frenzied with drink or excitement, carrying cymbals, dancing, and singing songs in
honor of the god: and with them were men disguised as wild beasts, fauns, and satyrs.
In Rome the excesses became so gross that the state forbade such celebrations trito-
Ki'ther.

BACCIIAX TES, women who took part in the secret Bacchic festivals; also males,
when they were admitted. Jn the old universities a student in his lirst \ear was a B.,
and was made to pay for the drinks of his elders, and otherwise abused. There was also
an order of B. whose members were idle or dissipated students, getting more of their
living 1 by begging and theft than by honest occupation. Modern ''hazing" maybe a
reminiscence" of the medieval Bacchantes.

BACCHIGLIO N, a river of northern Italy, having its source in the Alps, and its
outlet in the Adriatic. It passes through the town of Vicenza, where it is crossed by a tine
bridge of nine arches; flovs through the plain of Padua, and enters the Adriatic about
3 m". s. of Chioggia. Its whole course is about 90 m., and it is navigable by large
boats from Yicenza to the sea.

BACCHUS, the god of wine (called in Greek, Bakchos, Dionysos, and also, especially
in the mysteries, lakchos), was the son of Zeus and Seinele, the daughtor of Cadmus.
Before his birth, Seinele fell a victim to the insidious counsels of the jealous Here, who
induced her to petition Zeus to visit her in his proper form and maje.-ty i.e., attended
with thunder and lightning. The mother was of course consumed, but the six-months-
old B. was saved by beiugluclosed for some time in the thigh of Zeus. He was lirst
consigned to the care of Ino, the sister of Seinele, and her husband Athamas; but when
Ino and Athamas were driven mad by Here, Zeus caused him to be carried to Nys-i. in
Thrace, and given in charge to the nymphs. It was here that B. taught the cultivation
of the vine, and prepared intoxicating drink from the grapes. In order to impart his
discovery to mankind, or, as some say, because Here smote him with madness, lie
wandered through many countries attended by the nymphs, who were crowned with
ivy and vine-leaves, and bore in their hands tbetittTOM, a pole bound round with leaves
and fruit. This expedition, according to a later form of the myth, extended to Baetria
and Media, to Egypt and India, where B. is said to have erected pillars as the eastern
boundary of the world. Wherever he came in his wide progress, there is a Nysa to be
found. The worship of the god, which came originally from the east, and was intro-
duced into Greece by Melampus, was thus spread over nearly the whole of the then
known earth, and at the same time the myth of B. was variously modified among the
different peoples, so that it has become one of the most perplexed and ditlicult. B.was,
besides, the protector of fruit-trees, and of fruits in general. His worship being thus
extensively spread, and his festivals being held with music and song, lie naturally
received a great many surnames; for example, he was called Lemeos, from the -wine-vat
(lenos); Bromius, from shouting, (broiiios); Euips (in Latin, Evius), from the exclama-
tion Euoi, etc. The mythical march or expedition above spoken of, was suggested to
the fancy by the bacchanalian festivals, at which bacchantes roved about in feigned
madness, and made midnight processions to the mountains by torch-light. B. met \\ ith
much opposition on his expeditions, many refusing to acknowledge his divinity. Thus,
Lycurgus, king of the Edones, opposed him, and also Peuthcus of Thebes, who was on
that account torn to pieces by his own mother and her sisters. The daughters of
Mynias (q.v.), who refused to celebrate his festivals, were punished by him with mad-
ness and metamorphosis. As he was crossing to Naxos, the Tyrrhenian sailors wished
to carry him off to Italy, and, with this view, bound him; but the chains fell off. vines
and ivy entwined the ship, and held it fast in the middle of the sea. B. changed him-
self into a lion, and the sailors from terror leaped into the sea, where they were trans-
formed into dolphins. Those, on the contrary, who received him with hospitality and
reverence, were rewarded; such as Midas (q.v.). In general, the character of B. is
mild. In works of art, his type is that of a youth inclining to effeminacy. His peculiar
ornament is the fillet. The long blonde hair is bound up in a knot behind, ana only a
few locks fall down on both sides over the shoulders; the hair is surrounded by a twig
of vine or of ivy. His figure is neither stout nor slim. He is usually represented quite
naked; sometimes with a wide robe negligently thrown over, which either covers a part
of the shoulders and thighs, or, though more rarely, enwraps the greater part of the
body. Frequently, a deer-skin lianas across the breast: at times, he wears shoes, more
rarely, buskins. From this, the properly Grecian B., the bearded or Indian B. is com-
pletely distinct. This last appears in a more dignified, lofty, regal form; he is clad in
a tunic reaching to the feet, over which he wears a wide and splendid mantle. As a
warrior, lie wears a short tunic girded round the waist, with buskins on the feet: a
panther's skin serves him for a shield. In addition, he is to be seen at times with horns.
After the institution of the Eleusinian mysteries, the service of B. was conjoined with
these; accordingly, Pindar makes him the companion of Pemcter. As the followers of
Orpheus held him to be also Apollo, he is associated with the Delphic oracle.

The worship of B. consisted in noisy rites. Thelx's. in 15<rotia. held t<> be the birth-
place of the god. v.'as considered the chief seat ,,,' those riles in Greece. In Athens, the
worship of the Lena-an B. was the most ancient, and may be traced back to ante-historic
times. The chief offerings made to him were goats and oxen; the last. because he him-
self was conceived and represented under the form of an ox. The Bacehic festivals
deserving special notice are 1. The Attic Dionysia. of which the minor, or country
Dionysia, was celebrated in the country in the month Poseideon, at the time of the
grape-gathering. Among the characteristic amusements of the occasion were the

CO Bacchantes.

Bach.

Askolia, which consisted in smearing full wine-skins (axl-oi) with oil, on which the
young peasants attempted to leap with one foot, and by their frequent falls produced
merriment. There were also dramatic entertainments. This festival was probably
held at the approach of the wine-harvest, and that of the Haloa at its close. These wen-
followed, in the mouth Gamelion, by the festival of the Lena?a, which was peculiar to
the city of Athens. The festivities on the occasion, besides theatrical representations,
consisted in a great banquet, for which the state provided the meat, and in a procession
through the city, attended with the jesting and raillery usual at Bacchic ceremonies.
After the Lena-a came the Anthesteria, on the llth, 12th, and 13th of the month Anthes-
terion, when the new wine was first drunk. On the second day of this festival, tin-
chief solemnity consisted in a great public dinner, at which the guests, crowned with
flowers, and to the music of trumpets, entered into regular contests in drinking, and in a
private sacrifice for the prosperity of the state offered by the "king archon's" wife, who
was at the same time symbolically married to the god. On the third day, a s-acriflce
was oiTered to the Chthonian Hermes and to the souls of the dead. Last came the great
Dionysia, which was celebrated in the month Elaphebolion, and at which new comedies
and tragedies were represented. '2. The Triateric Dionysia, which were celebrated
every third year in the middle of winter. The performers were women and girls (called
in Gr. , Hit intii.t*; in Lat. , Baccfuv or Bacchunti'*). and the orgies were held at night, on
the mountains, with blazing torches and the wildest enthusiasm. This mystic solemnity
came from Thrace, and its institution is referred to Orpheus. When it was adopted ill
Greece, cannot be exactly determined. It is earliest met with in Bo?otia, particularly at
Thebes, where the Cithajron was the scene of celebration. An important place in con-
nection with it is also Parnassus, on the highest summit of which the women of Attica
and Delphi celebrated nocturnal orgies in honor of B. and Apollo. The Ma'nades or
Bacchantes were dad on the occasion in fawn-skins, swung about the "thyrsus," made
a great noise with clapping of hands, and danced wildly with streaming hair. In this
ecstatic solemnity, the god himself was represented by the victim sacred to him, the ox,
which the Ma-uades in their fury tore in pieces. In the most ancient times, even human
sacriiiccs were not uncommon. Descriptions of these wild and terrible rites are not
uufrequent in the poets, i). The Bacchanalia of later times, the foundation of which
was laid in Athens during the Peloponnesian war, by the introduction of foreign rites.
From Greece they were carried to Italy. As early as 496 B.C., the Greek worship of B.
was introduced at Rome along with that of Ceres; and Ceres, Liber, and Libera were
worshiped in a common temple. In honor of these deities, the Liberalia were cele-
brated on the 17th of Mar., and were of a yet simpler and ruder kind than the great
Dionysia of Athens. Afterwards, however, these rites degenerated, and came to be cele-
brat<d with a licentiousness that threatened the destruction of morality and of society
itsdt'. They were made the occasion of the most unnatural excesses. At first, only
women took part in these mysterious Bacchic rites, but latterly men also were admitted'.
When the evil had reached its greatest height, the government (186 B.C.) instituted an
inquiry into it, and rooted out the Bacchanalia with the greatest severity. This was the
occasion of the well-known ,S /<.///'-> ('i>n*i.il1i.nn de Bacchanalibits. Mention of them,
however, still occurs at a later period under the emperors. Wild, excessive revels are
still called Bacchanalia.

BAG CIO BELLA PORTA, better known by the name of FRA BARTOLOMF.O m SAN

MAIII-O. one of the most distinguished masters of the Florentine school of painting, was
b. ;,r Savignano. in Tuscany, in 1469. His first teacher was Cosimo Roselli; but he owed
his higher cultivation to the study of the works of Leonardo da Vinci. His subjects are
mostly religious, and by far the greater part of his pieces belong to the later years of his
life, 'lie was a warm adherent of that bold reformer of church and state. Savonarola
(q.v.), after whose tragical end he, 1500, took the habit of the cloister, and for a con-
siderable time renounced art. The visit of the young Raphael to Florence in 1504 seems
to have been instrumental in stimulating him to return to it. He imparted to Raphael
his knowledge of coloring, and acquired from him a more perfect knowledge of per-
spective. The two remained constant friends B., on one occasion, finishing certain of
Raphael's unfinished works. Raphael performing a like kindness for him at another
time. B. died at Florence. 1517. The greater number of his works are to be seen at
Florence, in the gallery of the Pitti palace.

BACH. Baron ALEXANDER, an Austrian statesman, was b. Jan. 4, 1813, at Loosdorf,
in lower Austria, where his father held a judicial office. The young B. received a care-
ful education. At the age of 24. he was promoted to the rank of "doctor of laws, and
Then entered the imperial service, in which he remained about 9 years. During this
j period also he traveled over the greater part of Europe and some of the countries of
Asia, lie was on terms of friendship with the members of the opposition of lower Aus-
tria, and belonged to that circle of young men who well understood the failings of the
old system, and the inevitability of a change in the organization of Austria. He took
an active part in founding the juridico-political reading club, and courageously defended
it against the police. On" the occurrence of the events of Mar.. 1848, B. took a distin-
guished place as a mediator. He formed part of the provisional committee of the com-

IJach. QA

r.aclic.

mons, and was also chosen in April, by the states of lower Austria, one of their repre-
sentatives in the central commission of the provincial states of Austria.

In this, the outset of his political career, B. already showed a leaning to those views
which he afterwards manifested as minister. He advocated the centralization of the
Austrian monarchy, -and declared himself against the independence of Hungary, as well
as against the entry of the German provinces of Austria into the German confederation.
But he also desired an extension of the basis of the states, and of their parliamentary
influence in the direction of public affairs. During the occurrences of the 15th of May,
1848, B. kept away from Vienna. When, after these occurrences, the old liberal oppo-
sition came to the helm, B. undertook the ministry of justice. He now entered with
talent and energy into the remodeling of the whole system of Austrian law. On the
other hand, the part he took in the assembly brought upon him the hatred of the "left,"
and of the democratic party generally. The opposition was particularly bitter on the
question of removing the burdens from peasant proprietors, on which B. maintained
the principle of compensation, and wished a part of that compensation to be made good
by those who had hitherto borne the burdens in question. His policy, also, with regard
to Hungarian affairs met with violent opposition from the "left." In the events of the
6th of Oct., 1848, B. would have fallen a victim to popular fury, like the war-minister
Latour, had he not found an opportunity of withdrawing from pursuit. On the forma-
tion of the Schwartzenberg-Stadion ministry, he again took the portfolio of justice, and
participated in the measures regarding Hungary and all the other important steps taken
by that ministry. On the withdrawal of Stadion in May, 1849, B. took his place at the
head of the ministry of the interior, from which he was sent, in 1859, as plenipotentiary
to Rome a mission which terminated in 1865. Among his most important labors as
minister of the interior are the constitutions for the different crown-lands, as well as the
organization of their political administration.

BACH, JOHANN CHRISTIAN, 1735-82; eleventh son of Johann Sebastian B., was chosen
one of the organists of Milan cathedral, but was occupied mainly in composition for
the voice. In 1763, he produced, in London, the opera of Oriont, which was successful.
Schubert says: " This man had it in his power to be whatever he would, and he may well
be compared to the Proteus of fable. Now he spouts water; now he breathes forth
flame. In the midst of the trivialities of his fashionable style, the giant spirit of his
father may be discovered."

BACH, JOHANN CHRISTOPH, 1643-1703; eldest son of Heinrich, and one of the best
organists and composers of his time. His compositions show " that he was truly a great
man, as rich in invention as he was strong in the power of musical expression of
emotion."

BACH, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH, 1732-95; tenth son of Johann Sebastian,
author of numerous compositions, ecclesiastical and secular. He was nearly all his life